RED HAT

CERTIFIED
ENGINEER
RED HAT ENTERPRISE LINUX
SYSTEM AND NETWORK
ADMINISTRATION
INDEX

 File System Hierarchy and Installation

 Basic commands, LS commands, Cat commands, Touch command
 VI editor & Find command, Wild card
 User and group administration
 Basic File Permission
 Creating new Partitions and disk management
 Swap partition, RAID
 Access control List (ACLs)
 Disk Quotas
 Backup and Recovery
 Links (hardlinks and softlinks)
 Advanced File permissions
 RPMS (RedHat Package Management Services)
 Introduction to Network
 BOOT process
 Network File system/service/server (NFS)
 File Transfer Protocl (FTP)
 SAMBA server
 Domain Naming Server/service (DNS)
 WEB Server (Apache Server), Virtual hosting, IP based and port based virtual hosting
 Troubleshooting—Recovering root password, Assigning Grub password, Recovering Grub
password, configuring printer, routing, modem. Network monitoring tools and Processes
 Mail Server
 DHCP Server
 Proxy Server
 NIS Server
 Logical Volume Mount (LVM)
 IP Tables and Net filters
  File system hierarchy

As in windows the partitions are know as logical drives, in Linux it is know as Mount points.

/ (root) is the top most mount point that connect all the other mount points (Minimum 2GB of space to be
allotted to root at the time of installation)

/home (user accounts)

/var (variables or log files)
/usr (user applications)
/root (working directory)
/sbin (system binaries – similar to system32 folder in windows)
/lib (libraries)
/dev
/etc
/boot

IDE1 is mentioned as /dev/hda (64 mount points can be created altogether)

IDE2 is mentioned as /dev/hdb (64 mount points can be created altogether)
SCSI1 is mentioned as /dev/sda (15 mount points can be created altogether)
SCSI2 is mentioned as /dev/sdb (15 mount points can be created altogether)

Installation:
Insert the Cd – boot from screen press ENTER to start installation in GUI (Graphical User Interface)
mode – select the language – Install the fresh copy of Red Hat Enterprise Linux ES – Manually partition
with Disk Druid – select new – mount point
/ (2000MB)
/boot (300MB)
/home (1000MB)
/var (2000MB)
/usr (3500MB)
swap from file system – size should be double of RAM
- network devices – edit – specify IP address – mark active on boot – hostname – gateway – No firewall –
Disable SELinux (Security Enhanced Linux) – Time zone – Root password (min 8 characters) – customize
software packages to be installed - Finish with the installation.

BASIC COMMANDS

To shift from GUI mode to Text mode you can enter

Ctrl + Alt + (F1 – F6) as virtual terminals and to return to GUI mode press Ctrl + Alt + F7

Default shell in Red hat is Bash (bourne again shell), others are C shell, Korn shell (maintains the history
of commands typed in the shell).

Prompts that appear in a shell are, for

Root account - # (Also knows as Superuser and as Administrator in Windows)
Normal account - $
To open a shell, go to Application – System tools – Terminal [or] right click on desktop and open
terminal.
ls commands
[root@comp1~]# pwd (print/present working directory)
[root@comp1~]# ls (options) (arguments) To show list of files and directories
[root@comp1~]# ls –l long listing of files and directories(in detail)
[root@comp1~]# ls –r reverse listing of files and directories
[root@comp1~]# ls –lr reverse listing of files and directories in detail
[root@comp1~]# man ls manual or help for the command
[root@comp1~]# ls –lR displays files & directories and sub-directories also
[root@comp1~]# ls –la listing of files & directories including hidden files
*** all hidden file name are starting with a dot ( . )
[root@comp1~]# ls –lh listing of file size in byes or KB (human readable format)
[root@comp1~]# ls –ld to display the properties of directories only
[root@comp1~]# ls –l i* to list filename starting with ‘ i ‘

Creating a file
By using three methods we can create files
Cat command, touch command, vi editor

cat commands
[root@comp1~]# cat (options) (arguments)
[root@comp1~]# cat > (filename) to create a file
[root@comp1~]# cat (filename) to view the content of the file
[root@comp1~]# cat >> (filename) to append or to ad more content to the file
[root@comp1~]# cat file1 file2 >> file3 to transfer the contents of file1 & file2 to file3
After typing the contents press Ctrl+D to save the file

touch commands
[root@comp1~]# touch (filename) To create a filename with zero length as well as to change the
time stamp of file or directory
[root@comp1~]# touch file1 file2 file3 to create multiple file at a time

Creating directories
[root@comp1~]# mkdir (directory name) To create a directory
[root@comp1~]# mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3 to create multiple directories at a time
[root@comp1~]# mkdir –p dir1/dir2/dir3 to create sub-directories with in a particular directory

Navigation of directories
[root@comp1~]# cd (path of the directory)
[root@comp1~]# cd .. to change the directory one level back
[root@comp1~]# cd ../.. to change the directory two level back
[root@comp1~]# cd - to change the directory to last working directory
[root@comp1~]# cd (or) cd ~ to change the directory to home directory
[root@comp1~]# cd / to go to root directory ( / )

Remove a file or directory

[root@comp1~]# rm (filename)
[root@comp1~]# rmdir (directory name)
[root@comp1~]# rm –rf (directory name) Forcibly delete a directory if it has files in it
*** if there are any files in a directory, you cannot delete the directory unless the files are deleted in it, for
this we use force remove option as shown above
Absolute path: Starting directory using ( / )
Eg:- cd /root/sam1/sam2/sam3

Relavant path: Starting directory without using ( / )

Eg:- cd sam1

[root@comp1~]# df –h To list all the disk file systems

[root@comp1~]# rm –i (filename) to confirm the file deleting
[root@comp1~]# whereis (command name) to see the directory place where it is saved

VI EDITOR

Editors are used for inserting or deleting text.

Windows – notepad
Dos - edit
Linux/Unix
-CLI - EX, ED, VI (Command Line Interface)
-GUI - Emacs, Gedit, Nedit, nano, pico (Graphical User Interface)

There are three modes of operation in vi editor

- command mode
- insert mode
- execute mode

[root@comp1~]# vi zoom50
It enters command mode, to type the data press ‘ i ’ and it comes to insert mode, after typing the data press
‘Esc’ to return to command mode, press shift + ; to go to execute mode and type :wq to save and exit
(write and quit), press ‘Esc’ again to return to command mode.

Insert mode

i – inserts the text at current cursor position

I – inserts the text at beginning of line
a – appends the text after current cursor position
A – appends the text at end of line
o – insert a line below the current cursor point
O – insert a line above the current cursor point
r – replace a single character at current cursor point

Execute mode
:q – quit
:q! – quit forcefully without saving
:w – save
:wq – save and quit
:wq! – save and quit forcefully
: x – save and quit
Shift + zz – save and quit
: sh – provides temporary shell
: set number – setting line numbers
: se nu – setting line numbers
: set nonumber – removing line numbers
: se nonu – removing line numbers
: 84 – press enter goes to line 84

Delete/copy/paste/undo in command mode

dd – deletes a line
2dd – deletes 2 lines
yy – copy a line
2yy – copies 2 lines
p – after deleting or copying, by pressing ‘p’ the deleted or copied content will be posted below the
position of cursor
P - after deleting or copying, by pressing ‘p’ the deleted or copied content will be posted above the
position of cursor
u – undo (can undo 1000 times)
dw – delete word
ctrl + r – redo
G – moves cursor to last line of the file
5G – moves cursor to 5th line of file
*** at execute mode type
:9,13 w > zoom70, this will copy content from line 9 to line 13 and put it in a new file zoom70
:2,6w >> zoom70, this will copy content from line 9 to line 13 and append in file zoom70

Wild characters
[root@comp1~]# ls *
[root@comp1~]# ls *.c
[root@comp1~]# ls *net*
[root@comp1~]# ls a?
[root@comp1~]# ls a???
list all the files
list all the files with extension .c
list all the files with word ‘net’
to match single character after a eg: a1, a2, aa, ac
to match 3 characters after a eg: a123, acid, akon

Copy a file or directory

[root@comp1~]# copy (source path) (destination path) to copy a file
[root@comp1~]# copy –r (source path) (destination path) to copy a directory

Moving/rename a file or directory

[root@comp1~]# mv (source path) (destination path) to move a file or directory
[root@comp1~]# mv (old name) (new name) to rename a file or directory

grep command (general regular expression for practical extraction)

maily used to fetch a word/string from a file
[root@comp1~]# ls –l | grep “zoom” to search file zoom
[root@comp1~]# grep zoom linux to search word zoom in file linux
[root@comp1~]# grep zoom linux redhat to search words zoom & linux in file redhat

Eg: grep root /etc/passwd

Find command
[root@comp1~]# find (search path) –name (filename) to search for a file
[root@comp1~]# find (search path) –links (no.of links)
[root@comp1~]# slocate (filename) to find files
Eg: find / -name passwd –print
find / -size +10000 –print
[root@comp1~]# gnome-search-tool & to find files using graphical tools

Redirection command
[root@comp1~]# (command) (filename)
Eg: ls –l > zoom90 the output of that particular command will be saved in file zoom90
ls
-l >> zoom90 the output of that particular command will be appended in file zoom90
[root@comp1~]# more (filename) to see the file content page by page
[root@comp1~]# ls –l | more to see the output of the command page by page

USER AND GROUP ADMINISTRATION

- Unix/Linux is multi-user & multi-tasking Operating System

- Red Hat Linux uses User Private Group (UPG)
- Scheme:
-user always gets created with primary group with the same name
-one primary group per user is must
-When a user is created in Linux
-home directory (/home/usermane)
-mail account (/var/spool/mail/username)
-unique UID & GID

Types of users
System users 0-499
Normal users 500-60,000

Database files
Root/etc/passwd
Root/etc/shadow
Root/etc/group

Database files of users

/etc/passwd
UI : x : 500 : 500 : prog : /home/u1: /bin/bash
UI : x : 500 : 500 : prog : /home/u1 : /bin/bash
User : mask password : UID : GID : user comment : home directory : shell

/etc/shadow
This file contains the encrypted user passwords assigned by the password binary file
Passwords are encrypt3d through DES (Data Encryption Standard) or MD5 (Message Digest Verl.5)
Algorithm
U1 : hjkadfhs8974uyh5jrt/ : 13536 : 0 : 99999 : 7 ::::
U1 : hjkadfhs8974uyh5jrt/ : 13536 : 0 : 99999 : 7 ::::
Usrnam : Encryptd passwd : days sinc 1970 : Min.days to chng passwd : Max days to chng passwd

/etc/group
This file contains group name and GID of the group names
U1 : x : 500 : Sachin, tom
U1 : x : 500 : Sachin, tom
groupname : mask password : GID : members of group

User creation
[root@comp1~]# useradd (options) (username)
Options:
-u – UID
-g – Primary group name/GID
-o – Over ride
-G – Secondary group
-c – comment
-d – Home directory
-s – Shell

[root@comp1~]# useradd sam

[root@comp1~]# passwd sam
Specify and confirm passwords
[root@comp1~]# usermod –c “Hacker” –d /var/sid sam
[root@comp1~]# groupadd sales
[root@comp1~]# groupadd purchase
[root@comp1~]# usermod –g sales sam
[root@comp1~]# usermod –G purchase sam
[root@comp1~]# id sam user for group identification of a user

User modification
[root@comp1~]# usermod (options) (username)
Options:
-l – change the login name
-L – lock the account
-U – unlock the account
Eg: [root@comp1~]# usermod –l sam sam123

Deleting a user
[root@comp1~]# userdel (options) (username)
Option:
-r – recursively (this options deletes all the files and directories created by user)

Group modification
[root@comp1~]# groupmod (options) (groupname)
Options:
-g – GID
-o – override
-n – to change the group name
Eg: [root@comp1~]# groupmod –g 1000 –n purchase sales

Group deletion
[root@comp1~]# groupdel (groupname)

Group setting
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd (options) (groupname)
Options:
-a – add a user
-d – delete a user from group
-M – adding multiple users to the group

[root@comp1~]# useradd sam

[root@comp1~]# groupadd software
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd –M sam,sid software
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd –d sam software
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd –a sam software

BASIC FILE PERMISSION

The unix/linux file has 8 attributes which are listed with ls – l

-rw-r—r-- 1 root root 1229 Jan 29 17:44 anakondala.cfg

- rw-r—r-- 1 root root 1229 Jan 29 17:44 anakondala.cfg
Type,access permission links owner group size modification time & date filename

Access permission : Type

- files
d directories
l links
p process files
s socket files
b block devices
a character

[root@comp1~]# useradd vijay

[root@comp1~]# su – vijay To switch from root account to normal user
[root@comp1~]$ cat > test1
[root@comp1~]$ ls –l rest1
[root@comp1~]$ chmod (access permission) (filename/directory) to change access permission
of a file
[root@comp1~]$ chmod 444 test1

File contains information, directory contains filenames.

[root@comp1~]$ mkdir zoom80

[root@comp1~]$ ls –ld zoom80
For files 666 is full permission and when creating a file default UMASK is 002, so permission becomes
664
For directories 777 is full permission and when creating a file default UMASK is 002, so permission
becomes 775

To enter into directory execute permission is must, or you cannot enter into it
Write permission is very important for directory as it restricts others to modify, delete the content

Permissions can be defined in two ways, the numerical way of changing file permission is called Absolute
permission.
[root@comp1~]$ chmod 664 zoom80
[root@comp1~]$ cd zoom80
[root@comp1~]$ chmod 775 zoom80
[root@comp1~]$ cd zoom90
[root@comp1~]$ vi test2
[root@comp1~]$ su (or) exit To switch back to the root account
[root@comp1~]# useradd ramu
[root@comp1~]# pwd
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# mkdir zoom100
[root@comp1~]# chown vijay zoom100 To change the owner of a file/directory
[root@comp1~]# chgrp (groupname) (file/dir) To change the group belonging of file/dir
[root@comp1~]# chgrp ramu zoom100
[root@comp1~]# groupadd linux
[root@comp1~]# useradd swati
[root@comp1~]# useradd swetha
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd –M swati,swetha linux
[root@comp1~]# chmod 775 linux
[root@comp1~]# su – swati
[root@comp1~]$ cd /linux
[root@comp1~]$ exit

Symbolic notification of Access Permissions

R – read u – user (owner) + - add
W – write g – group - - remove
X – execute o – other

[root@comp1~]# pwd
[root@comp1~]# cd /root
[root@comp1~]# cat > test10
[root@comp1~]# ls –l test10
[root@comp1~]# chmod u+x test10
[root@comp1~]# chmod u-x test10
[root@comp1~]# chmod ugo+x test10
[root@comp1~]# chmod ugo+rwx test10
[root@comp1~]# chmod u+x,g-r test10
 PARTITIONS
Partitioning:
Pre-installation tool
- Disk Druid
Post-installation tools
- Fdisk
- Parted
- Cfdisk
- Sfdisk

Naming conventions
Controller Master/Slave Linux Solaris
IDE-0 Primary Master hda c0d0
IDE-0 Primary Slave hdb c0d1
IDE-1 Secondary Master hdc c1d0
IDE-1 Secondary Slave hdd c1d1
SATA/SCSI-0 First hard-disk sda sda
SATA/SCSI-0 Second hard-disk sdb sdb
SATA/SCSI-1 Third hard-disk sdc sdc
SATA/SCSI-1 Fourth hard-disk sdd sdd
***There is no concept of Master/Slave in SATA/SCSI hard-disc, the boot-loader is automatically
identified from the hard-disc where the OS is actually installed, you can connect all the hard disc together
and you do not even need to mention the first boot priority in BIOS settings, but if you have more than
one OS in two different hard-disk, then they will be mentioned at the time of booting.

COMMANDS (for partitioning)

[root@comp1~]# fdisk -l /dev/hda to list all the devices
[root@comp1~]# fdisk /dev/hda creation of partition
After the above command, it enters into command mode
Command: m for the help
Command: n new partition
First cylinder? Press enter
Last cylinder? +2048M (mentions 2048MB)
Command: w to save the information to partition table
Command: p to display the partitions
Command: q to quit
[root@comp1~]# partprobe (partition probing)
This command when used, you do not need to reboot the system for formatting the new partition
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 (partition) To format partition in ext3 file system
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 /dev/hda12 format the system in ext3 file system
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext2 /dev/hda11 format the system in ext2 file system
This new partition cannot be accessed directly, therefore create a directory in the root, and then mount the
new partition on this directory
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /games
[root@comp1~]# mount (partition) (mount point) to mount the partition
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/hda12 /games mounting the partition
[root@comp1~]# df –h to list the partition
[root@comp1~]# df –hT to list the partition and the file system type
Linking of a partition/device to a logical name/directory is called Mounting
[root@comp1~]# cd /games
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /games (or) umount /dev/hda12 to unmount the partition
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /songs
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/hda12 /songs
[root@comp1~]# mount to see all the mounted partition with file system type

Ext2 file system Ext3 file system

No Journaling support Journaling support
Less speed More speed
Less secure More secure

Converting Ext3 to Ext2 file system

[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /dev/hda12
[root@comp1~]# tune2fs –O ^has_journal /dev/hda12
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/hda12 /songs
[root@comp1~]# df –hT

Converting Ext2 to Ext3 file system

[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /dev/hda12
[root@comp1~]# tune2fs –j /dev/hda12
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/hda12 /songs
[root@comp1~]# df-hT
[root@comp1~]# hwbrowser & to see free space left on hard disk
A box pops up – select hard disk & on right displays the free space

Formatting a partition will erase all the data on that partition and convert to the file system selected
Converting a partition will NOT erase the data on that partition and just convert the file system.

LABEL:
[root@comp1~]# e2label (options) (label_name) Assign label
[root@comp1~]# e2label (partition) view existing label
[root@comp1~]# mount –l see mounted partition with label
[root@comp1~]# e2label /dev/hda9 hrd
[root@comp1~]# e2label /dev/hda9
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /software
[root@comp1~]# mount –L hrd to mount the partition using label

SWAP :
Swap is a virtual memory.
A program under execution is called process or job
[root@comp1~]# fdisk (option) (partition)
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 (swap-partition)
[root@comp1~]# mkswap (partition) make swap partition
[root@comp1~]# swapon (partition) enable swap
[root@comp1~]# swap –s (partition) check the status of swap used
[root@comp1~]# swapoff (partition) disable the swap partition
Eg: if you are increasing ram from 512MB to 1GB then create a new 2GB swap and delete the old swap
partition

Mounting removal device

[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/fd0 /mnt for floppy drive
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/cdrom /mnt for cdrom
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/sda1 /mnt for pen drive
Pendrives are treated as SCSI disk, coz it is using USB bus and same implies to external hard disk
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/st0 /mnt for tape drive (SCSI)
[root@comp1~]# m ount /dev/ht0 /mnt for tape drive (IDE)
[root@comp1~]# hdbroswer & to see free space of hard disk
[root@comp1~]# df –h to see free space of partition
[root@comp1~]# df –sh to see the used space of partition
[root@comp1~]#blockdev –getbsz (partition) to know block size of a partition

RAID
Redundant Array of Independent Disk / Redundant Array of Inexpensive Devices
Array is a collection of similar objects/elements
BRSetup – Backup recover setup
Eg: IBM Blade Server will have built in RAID Controller
These raid controllers logically combine ‘n’ number of hard disk and treat them as a single hard disk and
this logical single hard disk is know as Metadisk

RAID’s available in Linux

RAID0 – Stripping without parity
RAID1 – disc mirroring
RAID4 – parity
RAID5 – disk stripping with parity

RAID0
Minimum – 2 hard disk
Maximum – 32 hard disk
Data is written alternaltively and evenly to two or more disks
Read and write speed is fast
Fault Tolerance is not available

RAID1
Minimum – 2 hard disk
Maximum – 2 hard disk
Simultaneously data will be written to two volumes on two different disks
Read speed is fast and write speed is slow
Fault tolerance is available
50% overhead
Used always for boot partitions and installation of OS
RAID4
Minimum – 3 hard disk
Maximum – 32 hard disk
Data is written alternatively and evenly to two or more disk and a parity is only written in one disk
Read and write speed is fast
Fault tolerance is available
Parity is used for error detection and correction

RAID5
Minimum – 3 hard disk
Maximum – 32 hard disk
Data is written alternatively and evenly to two disks and a parity is written on all disks
Read and write speed is fast
Fault tolerance is available
Also know as Striped with parity

Steps
First Create 4 partitions
Raid Commands:
[root@comp1~]# mdadm –C /dev/md0 –n3 /dev/hda8 /dev/hda9 /dev/hda10 –l5 To club all the RAID
partition in to a single array
[root@comp1~]# mdadm –D /dev/md0 to display RAID array
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 /dev/md0
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /raid
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/md0 /raid
[root@comp1~]# cd /raid
[root@comp1~]# mdadm –a /dev/md0 /dev/hda11 to add one more partition to raid as spare
[root@comp1~]# mdadm –f /dev/md0 /dev/hda10 to make a partition faulty
[root@comp1~]# mdadm –r /dev/md0 /dev/hda10 to remove partition from Raid array

Access Control List (ACLs)

ACLs’ are implemented to configure different set of file permissions for different users on Single resource
(file/directory).
- ACLs can be implemented only on ACL enabled partitions’
- ACLs can be applied on users and groups

[root@comp1~]# fdisk /dev/had create partition

[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 /dev/hda9 format partition
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /kaka create a mount point
[root@comp1~]# mount –o acl /dev/hda9 /kaka mount new partition with ACL option
[root@comp1~]# useradd user1 create user
[root@comp1~]# useradd user2 create user
[root@comp1~]# useradd user3 create user
[root@comp1~]# groupadd sales create group
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m u:user:rw- /kaka/test1 ACL permission to the directory for users
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m g:sales:rwx /kaka/test1 ACL permission to the directory for groups
[root@comp1~]# getfacl (filename) to check the permission about user on a file
Implementing ACLs on user (steps):

Create a partition
[root@comp1~]# fdisk /dev/had
[root@comp1~]# partprobe
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 /dev/hda9
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /sam

Enabling ACLs
[root@comp1~]# mount –o acl /dev/hda9 /sam
[root@comp1~]# cd /sam
[root@comp1~]# touch a b c d create multiple files
[root@comp1~]# useradd amit
[root@comp1~]# useradd bob
[root@comp1~]# useradd krish

Applying ACLs
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m u:amit:- a
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m u:amit:- /sam/a
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m u:bob:r /sam/b
[root@comp1~]# setfacl -m u:krish:rw /sam/b
[root@comp1~]# getfacl /sam/a to check the file permission for users

Implementing ACLs on a group

Create a group
[root@comp1~]# groupadd chess
[root@comp1~]# useradd c1
[root@comp1~]# useradd c2
[root@comp1~]# gpasswd –M c1,c2 chess
[root@comp1~]# tail /etc/group
[root@comp1~]# cd /sam
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m g:chess:rwx /sam/a
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –m u:c1:r /sam/a

Removing ACLs
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –x u:c1 /sam/a for user
[root@comp1~]# setfacl –x g:chess /sam/a for group
 QUOTAS
Quotas allow Administrator to specify restriction in two ways:
- Restricting a user or a group by creating files in a specific location
- Restricting a user or a group by the disk space in a specific location

Advantages of Quotas
- The idea behind quotas is that users are forced to stay under their disk consumption limit or with
the number of files in a particular location
- Quotas is handled on a per user, per file system basis

Types of Quotas
Quotas are two types
- User level quotas usrquota
- Group level quotas grpquota

Steps for applying quotas on new partition

- create a new partition
- create a mount point
- format partition
Implementation
[root@comp1~]# fdisk /dev/had
[root@comp1~]# partprobe
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext3 /dev/hda10
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /sid

Enabling quotas
[root@comp1~]# mount –o usrquota,grpquota /dev/hda10 /sid
Creating database files
[root@comp1~]# quotacheck –cug /dev/hda10 (cug=check,user,group)
[root@comp1~]# quotaon /dev/hda10
[root@comp1~]# chmod 777 /sid
[root@comp1~]# useradd u1
[root@comp1~]# edquota –u (username)
[root@comp1~]# edquota –u u1
To check
[root@comp1~]# su – u1
[root@comp1~]$ cd /sid
[root@comp1~]$ touch 123 456 789

Implementing group quota

Quota can be applied on only primary groups of users
[root@comp1~]# useradd s1
[root@comp1~]# useradd s2
[root@comp1~]# useradd s3
[root@comp1~]# groupadd linux
[root@comp1~]# usermod –g linux s1
[root@comp1~]# usermod –g linux s2
[root@comp1~]# usermod –g linux s3
[root@comp1~]# edquota –g linux
 BACKUP AND RECOVERY
What is backup?
- copy data to alternate media
- Prevent data loss
- Only Administrators can backup the data

Roles of Administrator
- Installing Operating System
- Installing applications
- Managing users and groups
- Taking backup of data

Types of data
- System generated data
- User generated data

Types of Backup
- Full backup: complete backup of entire system
- Incremental backup: It includes all files that were changed since the last backup. Its always smaller
than differential backup
- Differential backup: it includes all the files that were changes since the last full backup. As time
increases since the last full-backup, the size of differential backup increases.

Commands for backup

-tar (tar archieve)
-cpio (copy input/output)
-dump (works only on devices)

TAR commands
[root@comp1~]# tar (options) (destination) (sources)
Options
-c - create
-v - verbose (this option displays the background process going on for backup)
-f - file
-t - table of content
-x – extract to
-w – interactive
-z - zip

Taking the backup of directory/file

[root@comp1~]# tar –cvf (path/filename) (source) to backup (cvf=create,verbose,file)

[root@comp1~]# tar –tvf (path/filename) (source) list the content of tar file
[root@comp1~]# tar –xvf (path/filename) (source) to extract the content of tar file
Steps
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /unix
[root@comp1~]# cd /unix
[root@comp1~]# touch a b c d
[root@comp1~]# tar –cvf /opt/backup.tar /unix
[root@comp1~]# tar –tvf /opt/backup.tar
[root@comp1~]# rm –rf /unix
[root@comp1~]# tar –xvf /opt/backup.tar

File compression
Gzip and bzip2 are commands used for compression in Linux/unix
The difference between gzip and bzip2 is gzip compresses files upto 80%-90% and bzip2 compresses files
upto 70%-75%

How to compress with gzip command?

[root@comp1~]# gzip (filename) to compress (compressed file will be save with extension .gz)
[root@comp1~]# gunzip (filename.gz) to unzip
How to compress with bzip2 command?
[root@comp1~]# bzip2 (filename) to compress
(compressed file will be save with extension .bz2)
[root@comp1~]# bunzip (filename.bz2) to uncompress
[root@comp1~]# tar –cvzf (destination) (source) to compress the file at the same time backup
[root@comp1~]# tar –xvzf (destination) (source) to unzip the file at the same time restore

CPIO commands
Taking backup only for files
[root@comp1~]# ls (options) | cpio –ov > (filename) to take backup
[root@comp1~]# cpio –iv < (filename) to extract/restore

Taking backup only for directory

[root@comp1~]# find (directory) | cpio –ov > (backup filename) to take backup
[root@comp1~]# cpio –I < (backup filename) to restore

Dump commands (works only on devices)

By using dump, we can do only incremental and differential backup
[root@comp1~]# dump -0uf (device/destination) (filename) to take backup
[root@comp1~]# restore –rf (path) to extract
[root@comp1~]# dump -1uf (destination) (source) Incremental backup
[root@comp1~]# restore –if (backup filename) restoring incremental backup
Restore> ls
:12345
Restore> add 1 2 3 4 5 (or) add *
Restore> extract
Specify the volume number
Yes
Restore> exit

For incremental backup, the number in command increase from (1-9) and for differential backup the
number in command is in reverse order (9-1)
 LINKS
Hardlink vs Softlink
Hardlink
- Original and link file will have same
inode number
- It cannot be created across the
partitions
- If original file is deleted then also the
link file will be accessible
- Editing of original file will replicate
in the linked file
- Size of hardlink is same as original
file
Softlink
- Inode number of the link file will be
different
- It can be created across the partitions
- If original file is deleted the link file
will not be accessible
- Editing of original file will replicate
in the linked file
- Size of softlink file is smaller than
original file

Link commands:

[root@comp1~]# ln (source file) (destination file) to configure hardlink

[root@comp1~]# ln –s (source file) (destination file) to configure softlink
[root@comp1~]# ls –li (filename) to know the inode no.of file/directory

Softlink
[root@comp1~]# whereis clear
[root@comp1~]# cd /usr/bin
[root@comp1~]# ls –s clear cls (softlink can also be used to give alias name to commands)

ADVANCED FILE PERMISSIONS

1. “setgid” numerical value: 2 rwxrwsrwx

Example:
[root@comp1~]# pwd
/root
[root@comp1~]# mkdir zoom90
[root@comp1~]# groupadd linux
[root@comp1~]# chgrp linux zoom90
[root@comp1~]# cd zoom90
[root@comp1~]# touch 123
[root@comp1~]# ls –l 123 (the group of file will still be “root” instead of “linux”
[root@comp1~]# cd ..
[root@comp1~]# chmod 2755 zoom90
[root@comp1~]# cd zoom90
[root@comp1~]# touch 456
[root@comp1~]# ls –l 456

If you set the “setgid value” the default group name will be the one that is of the directory in which
you create the file and directories (if the “setgid value” is not set for the parent folder then by
default the group of file/directory will be root coz its created under /root)
2. “setuid” numerical valu: 4 rwsrwxrwx
Example:
[root@comp1~]# whereis ping
[root@comp1~]# useradd venkat
[root@comp1~]# su – venkat
[root@comp1~]$ ping 192.168.0.253
[root@comp1~]$ exit
[root@comp1~]# cd /bin
[root@comp1~]# chmod 0755 ping
If you remove the “setuid value” for ping command, normal user cannot use this command, but the
root user.
[root@comp1~]# whereis passwd
[root@comp1~]# cd /usr/bin
[root@comp1~]# ls – l passwd
If you remove the “setuid value” for passwd command, then users cannot change their passwords,
but the root user.

3. “Sticky bit” numberical value: 1 rwxrwxrwt

Example:
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /zoom100
[root@comp1~]# chmod 777 /zoom100
[root@comp1~]# ls –ld zoom100
[root@comp1~]# su – venkat
[root@comp1~]$ cd /zoom100
[root@comp1~]$ cat > test3
[root@comp1~]$ ls –l
[root@comp1~]$ exit
[root@comp1~]# chmod 1777 /zoom100
[root@comp1~]# ls –ld zoom100
[root@comp1~]# su – venakt
[root@comp1~]$ cd /zoom100
[root@comp1~]$ touch abc
[root@comp1~]$ exit
[root@comp1~]# useradd bob
[root@comp1~]# su – bob
[root@comp1~]$ cd /zoom100
[root@comp1~]$ ls –l
[root@comp1~]$ rm abc
Permission denied coz of sticky bit
[root@comp1~]$ exit
[root@comp1~]# chmod 0777 /zoom100 removing sticky bit
A user can delete the file created by himself, but not the other user’s files
 RPMS
- RPMS is the acronym for RedHat Package Manager Services
- By using RPM utility the user can install the new packages, can upgrade and can also
remove existing packages.

Xmms-1.2.10-9.i386.rmp
Xmms - 1.2.10-9. i386 .rmp
Package name-versionnumber-type of architecture-extension of RedHat

[root@comp1~]# rpm (options) (package name-version) --force --aid to install the rpm pkge
Options:
-i - to install the package
-v - verbose
-h - display the progress in hashes
--force – to install package forcefully
--aid - to install package along with dependencies
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /mnt
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/cdrom /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd RedHat/RPMS
[root@comp1~]# ls –l | more
[root@comp1~]# ls –l vsftpd* for FTP service package
[root@comp1~]# rmp –ivh vsftpd-2.0.1-5.i386.rpm --force --aid

Query commands
[root@comp1~]# rpm (options) (package name) to query the RPM package
Options:
-q - To query the availability of installed package
-qa- Queries all installed RPMs in OS
-qc- lists only the configuration files stored in the queried rpm
-qd- lists only the documentation files stored in the queried RPM
-qi – displays complete information about the queries RPM
-qs – displays the states of files in the queries RPM
-ql – displays all the files related to the queries RPM
-qif – displays all the function of the command
-qpi – displays the package information which is not installed

Upgrade RPM
[root@comp1~]# rpm (options) (package name.version) to upgrade package
Options:
-U - to upgrade the existing package
-v - verbose
-h - to display the progress in hashes

Remove package
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e (package name) –nodeps To uninstall the package even if
dependencies are present
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e (package name) to simply uninstall the package.
 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK

What is FQDN?
- Fully Qualified Domain Name
- Identifies a host’s name with in the DNS namespace hierarchy
- Host name + DNS domain name = FQDN
Eg: mail.zoomgroup.com

Configuring Hostname:
[root@comp1~]# hostname (systemname) temporary hostname till next reboot
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/sysconfig/network Assigning hostname permanently
Modify below setting in /etc/sysconfig/network
NETWORKING=yes
HOSTNAME=(systemname)
[root@comp1~]# hostname displays present hostname in use

Configuring IP address:
[root@comp1~]# ifconfig eth0 (ipaddress) netmask (netmask) assigning temporary IP address
[root@comp1~]# netconfig assigning permanent IP address
[root@comp1~]# service network restart restarting service to make IP address valid for use
[root@comp1~]# netconfig --device (interface):(n) assigning virtual IP address
[root@comp1~]# netconfig --device eth0:1
*When writing a complete word in a command use (--) or when using single lettered option use (-)
[root@comp1~]# ifconfig –a | more Displays the current assigned IP address in use
Example:
[root@comp1~]# netconfig --device eth0 assign IP address for first LAN card
[root@comp1~]# netconfig --device eth1 assign IP address for second LAN card
[root@comp1~]# neat Graphical tool to assign IP address
[root@comp1~]# system-config-network Graphical tool to assign IP address
[root@comp1~]# ethttool (interface) to check whether NIC is detected
[root@comp1~]# ifup (interface) Enabling Network Interface
[root@comp1~]# ifdown (interface) Disabling Network Interface
Example:
[root@comp1~]# ethtool eth0
[root@comp1~]# ifup eth0
[root@comp1~]# ifdown eth0:1

Location where the IP addresses are stored

[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts
[root@comp1~]# vi ifcft-eth0for IP address
[root@comp1~]# vi ifcfg-eth0:1 for Virtual IP address
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf for primary DNS

Everything in Linux/Unix is treated as file. Whatever devices is added or enabled will be saved as
a file under /dev but not NIC card, the TCP/IP protocol is not saved as a file but its already
bundled along with the Kernel.
 BOOT PROCESS
Boot phrases
Hardware Boot
- BIOS (Basic Input Output System) Initialization
- Performs First POST (Power On Self Test)
- If all hardware connectivity is correct gives a healthy report
- Boot Strap finds the device from where to boot
o Floppy
o CD Rom
o Hard Disk
DLL – Dynamic Link Libraries
CMOS – Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
MBR – Master Boot Record (512 Bytes)
GRUB – Grand Unified Boot Loader

Boot Loader
- Active Partition – 2 Bytes
- Partition Information – 64 Bytes
- Boot Loader Information – GRUB
Stage 1: Sector of Stage 2
Stage 2: Kernal – vmlinuz, Initrd…..img

*** There can only be 4 primary partition coz of partition information size (64 bytes), each OS
information needs 16 bytes, so (16 x 4 = 64 bytes) there can be only four primary partitions. The
extended and logical partition information is stored under 4th partition information

Kernel
- Kernel initializes the devices
- It mounts the root file system
- It starts first process ‘init’ process (/sbin/init)
*** First process/program started by Linux/Unix is ‘init’

Init
- Init reads /etc/inittab
- This file contains what program or services should be run at different run levels
Init 0 shutdown
Init 1 single user mode
Init 2 multi-user mode + only text + No support for all services
Init 3 multi-user mode + only text + Full support for all services
Init 4 (unused)
Init 5 multi-user mode + test mode + GUI + Full support for all services
Init 6 reboot

/etc/init.d/  All the scripts are available in this path

Local login hostname:

The final Step for the boot process is the login screen, where it authenticates using Kerberos (kbr5)
protocol or md5 protocol
 NETWORK FILE SERVER (NFS)
Network File System/Service/Server
This service is used for sharing the resources like directory over the network

What is NFS?
Components:
- NFS Server
A system that contains the file resources to be shared with other system on the network
- NFS Client
A system that mounts the file resources shared over the network and presets the file
resources as if they were local

Benefits of NFS?
The benefits of an NFS include
- Centralized file access
- Common software access
- Easy to use

*** Through NFS you have to always share directories. NFS is sometimes also used for taking
back-up also.

Requirements:
- Packages
portmap-4.0-63.i386.rpm
nfs-utils-1.0.6-46.i386.rpm
- Port numbers
nfsd 2049
portmap 111
- configuration fie
/etc/exports
- Service
portmap
nfs
- Daemons
nfsd
mountd
statd
lockd

*** When you are working with a certain command (like vi or Cat), the command temporarily
loads the program into memory and when you close the program, it is also removed from memory,
but Daemons are permanently put up into the memory and continue to run from there.
When
Configuring NFS server
Server side configuration:
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt To mount the
Share network drive to install RPM packages
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh nfs* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /var/zoom create a directory to be shared
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/exports Open configuration file for editing

Steps:
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep nfs Chec for installed package with name nfs
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e nfs-utils --nodeps Uninstall the package nfs-utils
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep portmap Check for package
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh nfs* --force –aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /var/zoom
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/zoom
[root@comp1~]# touch 1 2 3 4 5
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/exports Editing configuration file
/var/zoom 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0(rw,sync) for complete network to access the dir
/var/zoom 192.168.0.20(rw,sync) for a single system with IP address
/var/zoom 192.168.0.20 192.168.0.30(rw,sync) for two system with mentioned IP addr
/var/zoom 192.168.0.40-192.168.0.60(rw,sync) for systems between mentioned range
In the above file you can mention as many directories to be shared one below the other. If you
want to permit access to single IP, DO NOT mention subnet mask
[root@comp1~]# service nfs start

Client Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# mkdir /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.254:/var/zoom /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# cd /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# cp * /home/
[root@comp1~]# cd /home
[root@comp1~]# ls –l
[root@comp1~]# cp /var/log/* /zoom10
Permission denied coz the permission on the directory /var/zoom in the server is not set for write

Server Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# chmod 757 /var/zoom Write permission for others
[root@comp1~]# service nfs restart

Client side configuration

[root@comp1~]# umount /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.254:/var/zoom /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# cp /var/log/* /zoom10
Server side configuration
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/zoom
[root@comp1~]# ls –l

*** Even if you are accessing the Shared directory on Client machine using root account, it will be
treated as other user that is why you cannot copy files from client to server unless you have write
permission on the shared folder for other users.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

What is FTP?
- File Transfer Protocol is one of the oldest members of the TCP/IP protocol stock, yet it is
still in common use today. As the same suggests, it is optimized for transferring files.

FTP Server for Linux/Unix

- vsFTPd – very secure FTP Daemon
- WU-FTP – Washington University’s FTP (St. Louis)
- Proftpd

Requirements:
- Package
Vsftpd-20.0.1-5.i386.rpm
- Port numbers
20 FTP Data transfer
21 FTP control Connections
- Configuration file
/etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf
- Service
vsftpd
- Daemon
vsftpd

Server Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep vsftpd
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e vsftpd
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh vsftpd --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# useradd samsid
[root@comp1~]# passwd samsid
[root@comp1~]# Service vsftpd start
Client Side configuration
[root@comp1~]# pwd
/root
[root@comp1~]# vi test5
[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254 to connect to server through ftp protocol
Username: samsid
Passwd: samsid
ftp> pwd
ftp> 257 “/home/samsid”
ftp> put test5 To upload file to server
ftp> ls (or) dir to list the files
ftp> cd /var/log
ftp> get rpmpkgs To download from server
ftp> !ls –l To execute command from ftp command mode on to client local machine
ftp> lcd /home To change directory on local machine from ftp command mode
ftp> prompt off to disable confirmation of file upload/download
ftp> bye To exit the ftp protocol and disconnect from the server
[root@comp1~]#

Server Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/vsftpd
[root@comp1~]# vi vsftpd.conf
Anonymous_enable=YES
Default directory for anonymous user in ftp is /var/ftp
By default you can cannot upload files to ftp anonymous account but you can download and
connect to server with username as ftp or anonymous and there is no password allotted by default

[root@comp1~]# cd /var/ftp
[root@comp1~]# ls –l
[root@comp1~]# cd pub
[root@comp1~]# cp /var/logmaillog.1
[root@comp1~]# chmod 777 maillog.1

Client side configuration

[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254
Username : ftp
Password: 
ftp> cd /var/ftp/pub
ftp> dir
ftp> get maillog.1
ftp> bye

Server side configuration

[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf
In configuration file, if there are (#) comments present at the beginning of line, then that means
that, this particular option is disabled. Removing (#) comment will enable the option
Remove (#) at line 27, to enable upload for anonymous account
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/ftp
[root@comp1~]# mkdir upload
[root@comp1~]#service vsftpd restart
Client Side configuration
[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254
Username: ftp
Password: 
ftp> dir
ftp> cd upload
ftp> put test5
ftp> bye
Anonymous user cannot create directories by default

Restrict user from moving to other directory, except his home directory
Server Side configuration
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/vsftpd
[root@comp1~]# vi vsftpd.conf
Remove # at line 96,8
[root@comp1~]# service vsftpd restart
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi vsftpd.chroot_list
Mention the usernames that you want to restrict
[root@comp1~]# service vsftpd restart

Client side configuration

[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254
Username: raghu
Password: raghu
ftp> cd /etc
failed to change directory
ftp> bye
[root@comp1~]#

Restrict FTP service for particular users:

Server side configuration
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/vsftpd
[root@comp1~]# vi vsftpd.conf
Userlist_deny=NO add this line at the end
[root@comp1~]# vi vsftpd.user_list
Mention the usernames for whom you want to permit the ftp service.
[root@comp1~]# service vsftpd restart
[root@comp1~]# useradd phany

Client side configuration

[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254
Username: raghu
Password: raghu
ftp> (successful login)
ftp> bye
[root@comp1~]# ftp 192.168.0.254
Username: phany
Password: phany
Login failed
SAMBA SERVER
It has Heterogeneous environment support. This service is used to share files between Linux
machine and Windows machine.
SMB – Server message block Protocol present in windows for file sharing
NMB – Network message block Protocol present in windows for file sharing

Trigger Andrewson developed the application for Linux for file sharing, but ‘SMB’ name was
proprietary name registered to the protocol in Windows. So Trigger Andrewson searched the
dictionary for a word with letter S, M & B and found the word ‘SAMBA’ and so named the
protocol after it.

Server Side package

- Samba
- Samba-common
- Samba-client

Protocols
- SMB
- NMB

Daemon
- smbd
- nmbd

Main configuration file

/etc/samba/smb.conf

Server side configuration

[root@comp1~]# mkdir /zoom
[root@comp1~]# cd /zoom
[root@comp1~]# touch 1 2 3 4 5
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep samba
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e samba --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e samba-common --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/samba/smb.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e samba-client --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh samba* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/samba
[root@comp1~]# vi smb.conf
At line 28, remove [;] and mention the host 192.168.0.1/255.255.255.0
At line 282 type 8yy and P at 291  this copies the 8 lines and pastes at 291
Remove [;] at 291-298 and give the sharename & details (It will be used for sharing and mounting)
***password of normal users will not be accepted for samba server, so you need to create separate
samba server passwords for users.

[root@comp1~]# useradd Krishna

[root@comp1~]# smbpasswd –a Krishna
[root@comp1~]# service smb restart
[root@comp1~]# testparm This command is to check if samba server is configured properly

*** Samba-swat is a graphical tool to configure Samba-server

*** Rdesktop is package installed in linux machine to connect remove desktop to windows
machine. You don’t need any package to install on Windows machine for this.

Client side configuration

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep samba-common
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e samba-common --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/samba/smb.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep samba-client
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e samba-client --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh samba* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt

To use samba server work like NFS server on Linux client

[root@comp1~]# mkdir /samba
[root@comp1~]# smbmount //192.168.0.253/sambashare /samba –o username=raghu
Password: (mention samba password)
[root@comp1~]# cd /samba
[root@comp1~]# ls –l
[root@comp1~]# cp * /home/
[root@comp1~]# umount /samba

To use samba server work like FTP server on Linux client

[root@comp1~]# smbclient //192.168.0.253/sambashare –U raghu
Password: (mention samba password)
Smb: \> (you can use almost all command of ftp here)
 DNS SERVER
Domain Naming Server/System/Service

Zone: Zone is a storage database which contains all zone records

- Forward lookup zone
o used for resolving host name to IP address
o It maintains host to IP address mapping information

- Reverse lookup zone

o Used for resolving IP address to host name
o It maintains IP address to host mapping information

Types of Records
- SOA record
o The first record in any zone file
- NS Record
o Identifies the DNS server for each zone
- A Record
o Resolves a host name to an IP address
- CNAME Record
o Resolves an alias name to host name
- PTR Record
o Resolves an IP address to a host name
- MX Record
o Used by the mail server

Requirements:

- Packages
Bind-chroot-9.2.4-2.i386.rpm
Bind-devel-9.2.4-2.i386.rpm
Bind-libs-9.2.4-2.i386.rpm
Bind-utils-9.2.4-2.i386.rpm
Bind-9.2.4-2.i386.rpm
Caching-nameserver-7.3-3.noarch.rpm

- Port numbers
53 DNS

- Configuration file
/etc/named.conf

- Service
Named

- Daemon
Named
Server side configuration
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep bind
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep caching-nameserver
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e caching-nameserver --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/named.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh bind* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh caching* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
In this file at line 37 type 5yy and P at line 66
Mention the details
Zone “zoom.com” IN (
Type master ;
File “zoom.for” ; means zoom is domain name and for is forward lookup zone
Allow-update { none; };
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.name zoom.for
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.10
stores (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.20
[root@comp1~]# service named restart
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
Nameserver 192.168.0.254 (IP of the DNS configured Server)
[root@comp1~]# nslookup
>www.zoom.com

Client system
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
[root@comp1~]# nameserver 192.168.0.254

Server system
[root@comp1~]# vi /var/named/chroot/var/named/named.ca (contains all the root server IP
Address)
[root@comp1~]# cd data (all the DNS data is stored in this directory)

Master DNS

Reverse Lookup zone

Install the same packages as for forward look up zone
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
At line 43 type 5yy and p at 72
At line 67  zone “zoom.com” IN {
Type master ;
File “zoom.for” ;
 Allow-updates { none ; } ;
At line 72  zone “0.168.192.in-addr.arpa” IN {
Type master ;
File “zoom.rev”; (to mention the reverse lookup zone)
Allow-update { none ; } ;

:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone zoom.for to copy the template into the zoom.for file
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone zoom.rev to copy the remplate into the zoom.rev file
*** localhost.zone file contains the sample for forward and backward lookup file configuration
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.10
:x
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.rev
10 (tab) IN (tab) PTR (tab) www.zoom.com
The value “10” is just the host portion of 192.168.0.10 and the first three network protion
192.168.0.10 is already mentioned in named.conf file

There is no link between forward and reverse lookup zones

:x
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
[root@comp1~]# service named restart

[root@comp1~]# named-check.conf /etc/named.conf To check the mistakes in configuration

File.
If you have any mistake it will show you the lines, if not it wont display anything
[root@comp1~]# named-checkzone zoom.com zoom.for To check the forward lookup zone
[root@comp1~]# named-checkzone zoom.com zoom.rev To check the reverse lookup zone

In master for slave configuration

[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.for
The starting files at the right top corner are configuration for slave
- in master server, you have to manually change the serial number for every change or
modification
- Refresh rate should be mentioned in seconds if mentioning below one hour time period

Slave configuration
Install the packages as in master DNS
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
At line 43 type 5yy and p at 72
At line 67  zone “localhost” IN {
Type slave ;
File “slaves/zoom.for” ;
Allow-updates { none ; } ;
Master {192.168.0.253;};
At line 72  zone “0.168.192.in-addr.arpa” IN {
Type slave ;
File “slaves/zoom.rev”; (to mention the reverse lookup zone)
Allow-update { none ; } ;
Master {192.168.0.253;};
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# services named restart
For checking updates, In master
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.for
Make some changes here
SOA – Start of Authority
NS – Naming server

To check if slave is working, from any client (except master DNA and Slave DNS)
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
Nameserver 192.168.0.253
Nameserver 19.168.0.7
:x
[root@comp1~]# nslookup
> www.zoom.com
The physically switch off the master DNS server, then the request goes to slave and if you get IP
resolving the slave DNS server is working fine.
 WEB SERVER (APACHE SERVER)
Python, Perl, ASP, JSP, PHP - for scripting and application server
SQL, ORACLE etc - Database server
Tomcat, J-Boss - Server to execute Java programmes
SAN - Storage Area Network.
It has pool of hard disks for bulk storage

Web server for Linux/Unix

- Tux
o Kernel based only text support, very fast
- Strong hold
o From RedHat Linux
- AOL server
o Also know as iPlanet from Sun Microsystems
- Apache
o Open Source, reliable, stable and fast
- Netscape

NCSA – National Council of Supercomputer Association introduced first concept to Web Server

Initially the web server known as httpd was funded by Govt. of American but when it showed no
result the funds were stopped. But some open source group made developments to httpd web
server software and fixed the bugs in it & named it as A’patchy’ server and its today known as
APACHE SERVER

What is Apache?
Apache is a freeware and is the most popular and widely sued server which consumes 70% of web
market, that can be configured in both windows and linux

Requirements:
- packages
o httpd-2.0.52-9.ent.i386.rpm
o httpd-devel-2.0.52-9.ent.i386.rpm
o httpd-manual-2.0.5.2-9.ent.i386.rpm
o httpd-suexec-2.0.52-9.ent.i386.rpm
- port number
o http 80
- configuration file
o /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
- Services
o Httpd
- Daemon
o Httpd
Configuring one website on a single server

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep httpd

[root@comp1~]# rpm –e httpd --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh httpd* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/httpd/conf
[root@comp1~]# vi httpd.conf
This configuration is divided into 3 parts
- Global section – meant for tuning web server
- Main server
- Virtual hosting
At line 235  serveradmin support@zoom.com (if there is any problem in server configuration,
it will generate error report and send it to the mentioned email
At line 249 remove (#) Servername www.ge.com
At line 265, document root “/var/www/html” to specify the directory containing webpages
to be hosted
At line 375, Directory index ge.html To display the first page/homepage for website
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/www/html
[root@comp1~]# vi ge.html
Welcome to Ge
[root@comp1~]# Service httpd restart
[root@comp1~]# ifconfig –a | more check ip number
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/host
192.168.0.254 (tab) www.ge.com

Client machine
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
At line 43 type 5yy and p at 72
At line 67  zone “ge.com”
IN {
Type master;
File “ge.for” ;
Allow-update {none;};
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone ge.for
[root@comp1~]# vi ge.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# Service named restart
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
Nameserver 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# nslookup
> www.ge.com
 VIRTUAL HOSTING
Name Based Virtual hosting
Install all DNS packages and configure DNS (IP 192.168.0.253)
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
At line 37 type 5yy and p at 71 & 77

Zone “yahoo.com” IN {
Type master ;
File “yahoo.for” ;
Allow-update {none;};

Zone “ibm.com” IN {
Type master ;
File “ibm.for” ;
Allow-update {none;};
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone yahoo.for
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone ibm.for
[root@comp1~]# vi yahoo.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# vi ibm.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# service named restart
[root@comp1~]# nslookup
> www.yahoo.com
192.168.0.254
> www.ibm.com
192.168.0.254

Configure web server

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep httpd
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e httpd --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh httpd* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/httpd/conf
[root@comp1~]# vi httpd.conf
Go to section 3 : Virtual hosts
At line 1003 remove (#)
Name virtual host 192.168.0.254:80
At line 1016 type 7yy and p at 1023 (remove #)
<virtual host www.yahoo.com:80>
Serveradmin root@yahoo.com
Documentroot /var/www/html
Servername www.yahoo.com
Directoryindex yahoo.html
</virtual host>

At line 1016 type 7yy and p at 1031 (remove #)

<virtual host www.ibm.com:80>
Serveradmin root@ibm.com
Documentroot /var/www/html
Servername www.ibm.com
Directoryindex ibm.html
</virtual host>
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/www/html
[root@comp1~]# vi yahoo.html
Welcome to Yahoo site
[root@comp1~]# vi ibm.html
Welcome to IBM site
[root@comp1~]# service httpd restart
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/host
192.168.0.254 www.yahoo.com
192.168.0.254 www.ibm.com

IP based Virtual Hosting & Port based virtual hosting

[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi named.conf
At ine 37 type 5yy and p at 78

Zone “redhat.com” IN {
Type master ;
File “redhat.for” ;

Zone “rediff.com” IN {
Type master ;
File “rediff.for” ;
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone redhat.for
[root@comp1~]# cp localhost.zone rediff.for
[root@comp1~]# vi redhat.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.150
[root@comp1~]# vi rediff.for
www (tab) IN (tab) A (tab) 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# service named restart
[root@comp1~]# nslookup
Web server configuration
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/httpd/conf
[root@comp1~]# vi httpd.conf
Go to end of the file, at line 1016 type 7yy and p at 1038 and 1046
<virtual host 192.168.0.150:80>
Serveradmin root@redhat.com
Documentroot /var/www/html
Servername www.redhat.com
Directory index redhat.html
</virtual host>
Listen 5000
<virtual host www.rediff.com:5000>
Serveradmin root@rediff.com
Documentroot /var/www/html
Servername www.rediff.com
Directory index rediff.html
</virtual host>
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/www/html
[root@comp1~]# vi redhat.html
Welcome to RedHat Site
[root@comp1~]# vi rediff.html
Welcome to Rediff Site

Now, assign the virtual IP for hosting redhat.com

[root@comp1~]# netconfig --device eth0:1
[root@comp1~]# service network restart
[root@comp1~]# service httpd restart
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
Nameserver 192.168.0.254
[root@comp1~]# ifconfig –a | more

TROUBLESHOOTING
Recovering Root password
- Root password can be recovered in specialized trouble shooting (i.e. init 1)
- Init 1 level provides a shell (i.e. sh) without logging in

At boot screen press ‘e’ for edit and again ‘e’ to edit and select
“/boot/vmlinuz-2.6.9-5.EL ro root=LABEL=/1 rhgb quiet” and press ‘e’ to edit and at the prompt
type (space) 1 and hit enter and press ‘b’ to boot. It shows a shell prompt
Sh-300# passwd
Sh-300# (new password)
Sh-300# (confirm password)
Sh-300# init 6
But the problem with this method is that anyone can enter into your system and change the root
password and delete all your critical files. So you have to Set grub password so that you can secure
your machine.
Assigning Grub Password
[root@comp1~]# grub-md5-crypt >>
/boot/grub/grub.conf
[root@comp1~]# vi /boot/grub/grub.conf
Hidden menu
Password –md5 (encrypted password) [copy the encrypted md5 format password here]
Title RedHat--------
(and remove the encrypted md5 password from here)
:x
On reboot
Press ‘e’ to edit and ‘p’ to enter password for grub.

Recovering Grub password

-Boot the system in Rescue mode
To enter rescue mode insert 1st boot cd of the RedHat Linux and press F5.
Boot: linux rescue
And skip the network restarting part
Sh-300# chroot /mnt/sysimage
Sh-300# vi /boot/grub/grub.conf
Delete the password line from this grub configuration file
:x
Sh-300# exit

Configuring other devices

[root@comp1~]# system-config-printer Configuring printer

[root@comp1~]# system-config-network-druid Configuring modem
[root@comp1~]# ps –aux To view the process running
[root@comp1~]# kill -9 (process id) To kill a specific process
[root@comp1~]# top To view CPU usage by all processes

Configuring routing
[root@comp1~]# echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip-forward Routing-Temporary
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/sysctl.conf Configuring routing permanently
[root@comp1~]# sysctl –p load in sysctl setting at runtime

Network monitoring tools

[root@comp1~]# netstat –ant {} To view network connection with port no’s
[root@comp1~]# nmap (ip address) To view remote network connection port no’s
[root@comp1~]# uptime To view how long system has been running
[root@comp1~]# ps –ef | more

If you want to start services at boot process

[root@comp1~]# chkconfig httpd on To start web server at boot process
[root@comp1~]# chkconfig httpd off To stop web server at boot process

[root@comp1~]# chkconfig --list | more To see the list of services enabled at boot
[root@comp1~]# chkconfig --level (runlevel no) (service name) (on/off)
To enable/disable a particular service in desired runlevel
 MAIL SERVER
MTA: Mail Transfer Agent Sendmail, Lotus, Postfix, Enim, MS exchange
MDA: Mail Delivery Agent Procmail, mailer
MUA: Mail User Agent Eudora, Outlook, Mozilla, Squirrel mail, pine, mail

Requirement:
- Packages
o Sendmail-8.13.1-2.i386.rpm
o Sendmail-cf-8.13.1-2.i386.rpm
o Sendmail-devel-8.13.1-2.i386rpm
o Sendmail-doc-8.13.1-2.i386rpm
o M4-1.4.1-16.i386.rpm
- Port numbers
o 25 Simple mail Transfer protocol (SMTP)
o 110 Post Office Protocol (POP3)
o 143 Internet mail/message Access protocol (IMAP4)
- Configuration file
o /etc/mail/sendmail.mc (always edit this sample file and append to Sendmail.cf)
o /etc/mail/sendmail.cf (It is not recommended to edit this configuration file)
- Service
o Sendmail
- Daemon
o Sendmail

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep sendmail

[root@comp1~]# rpm –e sendmail --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/mail/sendmail.mc.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/mail/sendmail.cf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh sendmail* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/mail
[root@comp1~]# vi sendmail.mc
At line 105, Daemon-options (‘port=smtp, Addr=0.0.0.0, Name=MTA’)dnl
At line 144, local_Domain (‘Zoom.com’)dnl
:x
[root@comp1~]# m4 sendmail.mc > sendmail.cf
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/sysconfig/network
NETWORKING=yes
Hostname=mail.zoom.com
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/mail
[root@comp1~]# vi local-host-names
Mail.zoom.com
Zom.com
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/host
192.168.0.254 mail.zoom.com
[root@comp1~]# useradd venkat
[root@comp1~]# useradd raghu
[root@comp1~]# chkconfig sendmail on
[root@comp1~]# service sendmail restart
[root@comp1~]# su –venkat
[root@comp1~]$ mail raghu@mail.zoom.com
Subject: message from venakt
This is just a test
Cc:
[root@comp1~]$ exit
[root@comp1~]# mail (or) mailq
Too see the mail, select the mail number and type t (no.)
All the mails are stored under /var/mail/(username) in the respective folders of the users.

DNS configuration
[root@comp1~]# vi zoom.for
Mail (tab) IN (tab) A 192.168.0.253
Zoom.com (tab) (IN) (tab) MX (tab) 5 (tab) mail.zoom.com
DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
It involves the process called DORA
Discover, Offer, Request, Acknowledgement

What is DHCP?
- It gives IP address automatically to the clients who is requesting for an IP address
- Centralized IP address management
- DHCP presents IP address conflicts and helps conserver the use of client IP address on the
Network
- DHCP reduces the complexity and amount of administrative work by assigning TCP/IP
configuration
- Client IP configuration is updated automatically

Why DHCP?

STATIC IP ADDRESS DYNAMIC IP ADDRESS

- IP addresses are entered manually in - IP addresses are supplied
the clients. automatically
- IP address could be entered - Correct configuration information is
incorrectly ensured
- Communication and network issues - Client configuration is updated
can result automatically
- Frequent computer moves increase - A common source of network
administrative effort problem is eliminated

Why DHCP reservation?

- Assigning IP address dynamically have some problem that every time a client system boots
it is not sure that it will get the same IP so it will be uneasy task for other system to find the
particular system.
- To solve the above problem we can do mac-address bindly of the IP’s. Just give its entry in
the fixed-address portion.

Requirements:
- Packages
o dhcp
- Port numbers
o 67 BootP
o 68 DHCP
- Configuration file
o /etc/dhcpd.conf
- Service
o dhcpd
- Daemon
o Dhcpd
[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep dhcp
[root@comp1~]# rpm –e dhcp --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh dhcp* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /usr/share/doc/dhcp-3.0.1/
[root@comp1~]# cd dhcpd.conf.sampl /etc/dhcpd.conf
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc
[root@comp1~]# vi dhcpd.conf
At line 21 --specify the IP range
For fixed IP address copy from line 26-30 as sample and paste at required destination and modify
accordingly.
To know the macaddress use ifconfig –a
[root@comp1~]# service dhcpd restart

In client machine, go to netconfig and select the option use dynamic IP address
[root@comp1~]# service network restart
 PROXY SERVER
- Package
o Squid
- Configuration file
o /etc/squid/squid.conf
- Port number
o 3128 (but this can be modified later)
- Service
o Squid
- Daemon
o Squid

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep squid

[root@comp1~]# rpm –e squid --nodeps
[root@comp1~]# rm /etc/squid/squid.conf.rpmsave
[root@comp1~]# mount 92.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh squid* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/squid
[root@comp1~]# TERM=vt100,export TERM (to change the resolution of the file)
[root@comp1~]# vi squid.conf
At line 1803 create a blank line and type
Acl zoom1 src 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0 (to permit the internet access to complete network)
Acl zoom2 src “/etc/squid/ipallow” (to permit the internet access for selected IP address)
Acl zoom3 scr “/etc/squid/ipdeny” (to deny the internet access for selected IP address)
At line 1845 create a blank line and type
http-access allow zoom1
http-access allow zoom2
http-access deny zoom3
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /etc/squid
[root@comp1~]# vi ipallow
192.168.0.10
192.168.0.20
[root@comp1~]# vi ipdeny
192.168.0.30
192.168.0.40
[root@comp1~]# service squid restart
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/resolv.conf
Nameserver 192.168.0.19

Open firefox browser – Edit – preferences – general tab – connections settings – manual proxy
configuration and enter the details accordingly
 NIS SERVER
Network Information Server/Service (Previously know as Yellow pages)

NIS server:
- The two common authentication services are the network information services (NIS) and
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
- Both NIS & LDAP allows to manage all users and computers centrally.

Requirements
- Packages
o Ypserv-2.13.5.i386.rpm
o Ypbind-1.17.2-3.i386.rpm
o Yptools-2.8-7.i386.rpm
- Port numbers
o NIS uses random port numbers
o [root@comp1~]# rpcinfo -p
- Configuration file
o /var/yp/Makefile
- Service
o ypserv
- Daemon
o Ypserv
o yppasswdd

You have to used NFS services also along with the NIS services to share the home directories of
the users so that it can be easy for authentication and all the files that user creates will be centrally
located and saved on the server in his home directory

Server Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep yp

[root@comp1~]# mount 192.1680.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh yp* --force –aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# nisdomainname zoom.com Assigning temporary domain name
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/sysconfig/network Assigning permanent domain name
NISDOMAIN=ZOOM.COM (add this line)
[root@comp1~]# service portmap restart To restart the NIS services
[root@comp1~]# service yppasswdd restart To restart the NIS services
[root@comp1~]# vi /var/yp/Makefile Open configuration file
At line 23, NOPUSH=TRUE
At line 109, all: passwd group hosts \
[root@comp1~]# service ypserv restart To restart the NIS services
[root@comp1~]# /usr/lib/yp/ypinit –m To build database of users and groups
then mention the IP address of the current machine (m in the command denotes master machine)
Press Ctrl+D to exit
[root@comp1~]# useradd venkat
[root@comp1~]# useradd raghu
[root@comp1~]# cd /var/yp
[root@comp1~]# make This command links the database of users created to the NIS services
(it is like enabling domain user account in the Windows 2003 server)
[root@comp1~]# service yppasswdd resart
[root@comp1~]# service ypserv restart

NFS configuration part

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep nfs
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh nfs* --force --aid
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/exports
/home (tab) 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0(rw,sync)
:x
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# chmod 757 /home
[root@comp1~]# service nfs restart

Client Side configuration

[root@comp1~]# rpm –qa | grep yp
[root@comp1~]# mount 192.168.0.250:/var/ftp/pub/RedHat/RPMS /mnt
[root@comp1~]# cd /mnt
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh ypbind* yp-toos* --force --aid
(Ypserve tool is not required as it is for server configuration)
[root@comp1~]# rpm –ivh autofs* --force --aid (automatically mount file system for NIS
services i.e. /home directory)
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /mnt
[root@comp1~]# nisdomainname zoom.com Assigning temporary domain name
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/sysconfig/network Assigning permanent domain name
NISDOMAIN=ZOOM.COM
[root@comp1~]# authconfig connecting to server for authentication
Select NIS next
Domain: zoom.com
Serverip: 192.168.0.253
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/auto.master
/home (tab) /etc/auto.misc (make this entry in the file)
[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/auto.misc
* (tab) -fstype=nfs (tab) 192.168.0.253:/home/& (make this entry in the file)
In this case you have to mention the IP address of the server system and user folder
[root@comp1~]# cd /
[root@comp1~]# umount /home
If mounting /home from server system on to the client machine, then there will be conflicts coz of
same name for two mount points, so we have to unmount /home file system on client machine
[root@comp1~]# system autofs restart
 LOGICAL VOLUME MOUNT (LVM)
What is LVM?
- LVM is a method of allocating hard drive space into logical volumes that can be resized
instead of partitions.
- With LVM, the hard drive or set of hard drives is allocated to one or more physical
volumes
- The physical volumes are combined into volume groups
- Each volume group is divided into logical volumes, which are assigned mount points such
as /home and / and file system type such as ext3.

Steps to configure LVM:

- Create physical volumes form the hard drive
- Create volume groups from the physical volumes
- Create logical volume from the volume groups and assign the logical volumes mount
points.

Implementing LVM
First create normal partition
[root@comp1~]# pvcreate (groupname) /dev/hda11 /dev/hda12 /dev/hda13 Create physical
volumes from previously created partition.
[root@comp1~]# pvdisp
lay | less To display physical volumes details
[root@comp1~]# vgcreate (VGname) (pv1) (pv2) Creation of volume group
[root@comp1~]# vgdisplay (VGname) To get the information above volume group
[root@comp1~]# lvcreate –L (size) (VGname) –n (volume name) Create logical volume
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /lvm Resizing logical volume
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/zoom/linux /lvm mount logical volume on mount pont
STEPS
[root@comp1~]# pvcreate secbad /dev/hda11 /dev/hda12 /dev/hda13
[root@comp1~]# vgcreate secbad /dev/hda11 /dev/hda12 /dev/hda13
[root@comp1~]# lvcreate –L +50M secbad –n linux2
[root@comp1~]# mkfs.ext /dev/secbad/linux2
[root@comp1~]# mkdir /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# mount /dev/secbad/linux2 /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# cd /zoom10 Access logical volume
[root@comp1~]# touch a1 b1 c1
[root@comp1~]# umount /zoom10
[root@comp1~]# lvresize –L +sizeM LVname Create a mount point
[root@comp1~]# lvremove LVname remove logical volume
[root@comp1~]# vgextend VGname PVname Resizes volume group

NETFILTER TABLES AND CHAINS

Filter – This is where main packet filtering is preferred in this tables

NAT – This is where Network Address Translation (NAT) occurs
Mangle – This is where a limited no.of “special effects” can happen. This is rarely used.
Filter point Table
Filter NAT Mangle
Input x x
Forward x x
Output x x x
Pre-routing x x
Post-routing x x

IP table example
- The simple example of blocking an icmp (ping) from a host to IP 92.168.0.4 will be like this
[root@comp1~]# iptables –A INPUT –s 192.168.0.4 –p icmp –j REJECT
-A INPUT : Appends a rule in the INPUT chain
-s 192.168.0.4 : It specifies the source of request
-p icmp : It specifies the protocol for matching
-j REJECT : It is the action iptables should take when a packet matches the criteria

IPtable commands
[root@comp1~]# iptable –A
[root@comp1~]# iptable –D
[root@comp1~]# iptable –I
[root@comp1~]# iptable –F
Appends the rule in the chain
Delete a rule from a particular chain
insert a rule in a chain
flush all rules from iptables

*** /var/log directory contains all the log files that are used to monitor the performance, errors,
information about the system, applications, users and groups, files and ports. It is necessary that we
keep backup of these log files for atleast past 3 years.

[root@comp1~]# lsmod | more Drivers information

[root@comp1~]# insmod To insert a module into the kernel (eg: drivers)
[root@comp1~]# rmmod To remove module from the kernel (eg: drivers)

For, Remote Installation Services (RIS) go to applications – system tools – kick start