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Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic Mean Definition:
Arithmetic mean is commonly called as average.Mean or
Average is defined as the sum of all the given elements divided by
the total number of elements.
Formula:
Mean = sum of elements / number of elements
= a1+a2+a3+.....+an/n
Example: To find the mean of 3,5,7.
Step 1: Find the sum of the numbers.
3+5+7 = 15
Step 2: Calculate the total number.
there are 3 numbers.
Step 3: Finding mean.
15/3 = 5
Arithmetic Median
Arithmetic Median Definition:
Median is the middle value of the given numbers or distribution
in their ascending order.Median is the average value of the two
middle elements when the size of the distribution is even.
Example 1: To find the median of 4,5,7,2,1 [ODD].
Step 1: Count the total numbers given.
There are 5 elements or numbers in the distribution.
Step 2: Arrange the numbers in ascending order.
1,2,4,5,7
Step 3: The total elements in the distribution (5) is odd.
The middle position can be calculated using the formula.
(n+1)/2
So the middle position is (5+1)/2 = 6/2 = 3
The number at 3rd position is = Median = 4
Example 2: To find the median of 4,5,7,2,1,8 [Even]
Step 1: Count the total numbers given.
There are 6 elements or numbers in the distribution.
Step 2: Arrange the numbers in ascending order.
1,2,4,5,7,8
Step 3: The total elements in the distribution (6) is even.
As the total is even, we have to take average of number at
n/2 and (n/2)+1
So the position are n/2= 6/2 = 3 and 4
The number at 3rd and 4th position are 4,5
Step 4: Find the median.
The average is (4+5)/2 = Median = 4.5
Arithmetic Mode
Mode Definition:
Mode is the most frequently occurring value in a frequency
distribution.
Example: To find the mode of 11,3,5,11,7,3,11
Step 1:Arrange the numbers in ascending order.
3,3,5,7,11,11,11
Step 2:
In the above distribution
Number 11 occurs 3 times,
Number 3 occurs 2 times,
Number 5 occurs 1 times,
Number 7 occurs 1 times.
So the number with most occurrances is 11 and is the Mode
of this distribution.
Mode = 11
Range Definition:
Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest
values in a frequency distribution.
Example: To find the range in 3,5,7,3,11
Step 1: Arrange the numbers in ascending order.
3,3,5,7,11
Step 2:
In the above distribution
The largest number is 11
The smallest value is 3
Formula = largest number - smallest number
Range = 11-3 = 8
Standard
Deviation
Population
Standard
Deviation
where = Sum of
X = Individual score
M = Mean of all scores
N = Sample size (Number of scores)
Variance :
Variance = s2
Standard Deviation Method1 Example: To find the Standard
deviation of 1,2,3,4,5.
X2
1
4
9
16
25
Step 1: Find f.
f = 7
Step 2: Now, find fX.
fX = ((1*2)+(2*3)+(3*2)) = 14
Step 3: Now, Substitute in the above formula given
Arithmetic mean = fX/f = 14/7 = 2
Intervals Frequency(f)
10 - 20
3
20 - 30
9
30 - 40
5
Step 1: Find f.
f = 7
Step 2: Then, Find the Midpoint for the class interval.
25, 35
Step 3: Now, Find fX.
fX =((3*15)+(9*25)+(5*35)) = (45+225+175) = 445
Midpoint(X) = (10+20)/2, (20+30)/2, (30+40)/2 = 15,
Intervals Frequency(f)
10 - 20
20 - 30
30 - 40
Midpoint
(10 + 20)/2
= 15
(20 + 30)/2
= 25
(30 + 40)/2
= 35
Xf
3 * 15
= 45
9 * 25
= 225
5 * 35
= 175
X Values
60
61
62
63
65
Y
Values
3.1
3.6
3.8
4
4.1
X
Y
Value Value
60
3.1
61
3.6
62
3.8
63
65
4.1
X*Y
60 * 3.1 =
186
61 * 3.6 =
219.6
62 * 3.8 =
235.6
X*X
60 * 60
3600
61 * 61
3721
62 * 62
3844
63 * 63
63 * 4 = 252
3969
65 * 4.1 = 65 * 65
266.5
4225
Y*Y
=
=
=
=
=
3.1 * 3.1 =
9.61
3.6 * 3.6 =
12.96
3.8 * 3.8 =
14.44
4 * 4 = 16
4.1 * 4.1 =
16.81
Regression Tutorial
Regression Definition:
A regression is a statistical analysis assessing the association
between two variables. It is used to find the relationship between
two variables.
Regression Formula:
Regression Equation(y) = a + bx
Slope(b) = (NXY - (X)(Y)) / (NX 2 - (X)2)
Intercept(a) = (Y - b(X)) / N
where
x and y are the variables.
b = The slope of the regression line
a = The intercept point of the regression line and the y
axis.
N = Number of values or elements
X = First Score
Y = Second Score
XY = Sum of the product of first and Second Scores
X = Sum of First Scores
Y = Sum of Second Scores
X2 = Sum of square First Scores
X
Y
Value Value
60
3.1
61
3.6
62
3.8
63
65
4.1
X*Y
60 * 3.1 =
186
61 * 3.6 =
219.6
62 * 3.8 =
235.6
63 * 4 =
252
65 * 4.1 =
266.5
X*X
60 * 60
3600
61 * 61
3721
62 * 62
3844
63 * 63
3969
65 * 65
4225
=
=
=
=
=
Factorial Tutorial
Definition:
The number of sequences that can exist with a set of items,
derived by multiplying the number of items by the next lowest
number until 1 is reached. In mathematics, product of all whole
numbers up to the number considered. The special case zero
factorial is defined to have value 0!=1, consistent with the
combinatorial interpretation of there being exactly one way to
arrange zero objects. The notation n factorial (n!) was introduced
by Christian Kramp in 1808.
Formula:
n! = 123...n.
where
n! represents n factorial
n = Number of sets
Example 1: Calculate the Factorial of 4 ie., 4!.
Step 1: Muliply all the whole numbers up to the number
considered.
4! = 4321 = 24
Example 2: Simplify the following: 3! + 2!, 3! - 2!, 3! 2!, 3! / 2!
Step 1: Find the factorial of 3.
3! = 321 = 6
Step 2: Find the factorial of 2.
2! = 21 = 2
Step 3: Add 3! + 2!
3! + 2! = 6 + 2 = 8
Step 4: Subtract 3! - 2!
3! - 2! = 6 - 2 = 4
Step 5: Multiply 3! 2!
3!2! = 62 = 12
Step 6: Divide 3! / 2!
3! / 2! = 6 / 2 = 3
Formula:
Permutation = nPr = n! / (n-r)!
Combination = nCr = nPr / r!
where,
n, r are non negative integers and r<=n.
r is the size of each permutation.
n is the size of the set from which elements are
permuted.
! is the factorial operator.
Example:Find the number of permutations and combinations:
n=6; r=4.
Step 1: Find the factorial of 6.
6! = 654321 = 720
Step 2: Find the factorial of 6-4.
(6-4)! = 2! = 2
Step 3: Divide 720 by 2.
Permutation = 720/2 = 360
Step 4: Find the factorial of 4.
4! = 4321 = 24
Step 5:Divide 360 by 24.
Combination = 360/24 = 15
MultipleEventProbability
ProbabilityDefinition:
Probabilityisusedtofindthenumberofoccurrenceofaneventoutofpossible
outcomes.Probabilityshouldalwaysliesbetween0and1.
Multipleeventprobabilitydefinition:
MultipleEventprobabilityisusedtofindtheprobabilityformultipleeventsthat
occursforanexperiment.Forexample,considertossingacointwice,wemayget
headatfirsttimeandtailatsecondtime.Heretwoeventsarenotoccuring
togetherandthistypeofeventsoccuringissaidtobemutuallyexclusiveevents.
Formula:
ProbabilitythateventAoccursP(A)=n(A)/n(S).
where,
n(A)numberofeventoccursinA
n(S)numberofpossibleoutcomes
ProbabilitythateventBoccursP(B)=n(B)/n(S).
where,
n(B)numberofeventoccursinB
n(S)numberofpossibleoutcomes
ProbabilitythateventAdoesnotoccurP(A')=1P(A).
ProbabilitythateventBdoesnotoccurP(B')=1P(B).
ProbabilitythatboththeeventsoccurP(AB)=P(A)xP(B).
ProbabilitythateitherofeventoccursP(AB)=P(A)+P(B)P(AB).
ConditionalProbabilityP(A|B)=P(AB)/P(B).
Example:
Consider,adieisthrowntwice.Calculatetheprobabilityofgettingoddnumbers
andevennumbersfromtheevents?
where,
n(A)=occurrenceofoddnumbers=3,
n(B)=occurrenceofevennumbers=3,
n(S)=totalnumberofsamplespace=6.
P(A)=n(A)/n(S)
=3/6=0.5.
ProbabilitythateventAoccurs=0.5.
P(B)=n(B)/n(S)
=3/6=0.5.
ProbabilitythateventBoccurs=0.5.
P(A')=1P(A)
=10.5=0.5.
ProbabilitythateventAdoesnotoccur=0.5.
P(B')=1P(B)
=10.5=0.5.
ProbabilitythateventBdoesnotoccur=0.5.
P(AB)=P(A)xP(B)
=0.5x0.5=0.25.
Probabilitythatboththeeventsoccurs=0.25.
P(AB)=P(A)+P(B)P(AB)
=0.5+0.50.25=0.75.
Probabilitythateitherofeventoccurs=0.75.
P(A|B)=P(AB)/P(B)
=0.25/0.5=0.5.
ConditionalprobabilityofAgivenB=0.5.
Probability Distributions
Probability Distribution definition:
Probability is used to find number of occurrence of an event out
of possible outcomes.
Example:
Consider a coin is tossed, we will get either head or tail as
expected result and we can find the probability of getting head(or
tail).
Types of probability distribution:
There are two types of probability distribution,
1) Discrete probability distribution
2) Continuous probability distribution
Discrete probability distribution:
Discrete probability distribution is used to calculate probability
for a countable number of occurrence of an event.
Example
Consider a coin is tossed, we will get 1 occurrence(either head or
tail) out of 2 possible outcomes.
Types of discrete probability distribution:
There are two types of discrete probability distribution,
1) Finite discrete distribution
2) Infinite discrete distribution
Finite discrete distribution:
Finite discrete distribution is used to calculate probability for a
countable number of values.
Example:
Consider a die is rolled, there is a chance of 6 possible outcomes
and total number of outcome is a finite number 6.
Infinite discrete distribution:
Infinite discrete distribution is used to calculate probability for
infinite number of values.
Example:
Consider two dice are rolled together until we get six in both the
dice and this type of infinite number of occurrences is said to be
infinite discrete distribution.
Continuous probability distribution:
Continuous probability distribution is an infinite probability
distribution used to find probability for a continuous range of
values.
Example:
Consider students mark in a class, we want to calculate the
probability of students those who got above 35% and below 80%.
Here, we are finding probability with some range of values and this
process will continue for each student in the class.
Step 4: Calculate e
= 2.7183.125 = 22.75
Step 5: To find PDF formula is used.
= 0.199 x 22.75 = 4.53
Example 2: Find Standard Normal Distribution(m=0; =1) with,
Normal random variable x=2
Step 1: Find 1/sqrt(2).
sqrt(2) = 2.51
1/sqrt(2)) = 1/2.51 = 0.39
2
Z table
How to use Z table:
The values inside the given table represent the areas under the standard normal
curve for values between 0 and the relative z-score. For example, to determine the area
under the curve between 0 and 2.36, look in the intersecting cell for the row labeled 2.30
and the column labeled 0.06. The area under the curve is .4909.
z
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.091
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.148
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.17
0.5 0.1915 0.195
0.1517
0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.258
0.3365 0.3389
0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
0.379
0.381
0.383
0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.437
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.475
2
0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.489
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.492
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.498
0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3
3.1 0.499
0.499
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
Poisson Distribution
Definition:
In statistics, poisson distribution is one of the discrete
probability distribution. This distribution is used for calculating the
possibilities for an event with the given average rate of value(). A
poisson random variable(x) refers to the number of success in a
poisson experiment.
Formula:
f(x) = e-x / x!
where,
is an average rate of value.
x is a poisson random variable.
e is the base of logarithm(e=2.718).
Example:
Consider, in an office 2 customers arrived today. Calculate the
possibilities for exactly 3 customers to be arrived on tomorrow.
Step1: Find e-.
where, =2 and e=2.718
e- = (2.718)-2 = 0.135.
Step2: Find x.
where, =2 and x=3.
x = 23 = 8.
Step3: Find f(x).
f(x) = e-x / x!
f(3) = (0.135)(8) / 3! = 0.18.
Hypergeometric Distribution
Definition:
In statistics, hypergeometric distribution is one of the discrete
probability distribution. This distribution is used for calculating the
probability for a random selection of an object without repetition.
Here, population size is the total number of objects in the
experiment.
Formula:
h(x;N;n;k) = [kCx] [N-kCn-x] / [NCn]
where,
N is the total population size.
n is the total sample size.
k is the number of selected items from the population size.
x is a random variable.
Example:
Consider, 5 balls are chosen randomly from the total of 10 balls
without repetition. Calculate the probability of getting exactly 2 red
balls out of 6 red balls.
Step1: Find [kCx]
where,
[kCx] = ( k! / (k-x)!) / x!
= (5! / (5-2)!) / 2! = 20 / 2 = 10.
Step2: Find [N-kCn-x]
where, N-k=5 and n-x=4
[N-kCn-x] = ((N-k)! / ((N-k)-(n-x))!) / (n-x)!
= ((5! / 1!) / 4!) = 5 / 4! = 5.
Step3: Find [NCn]
where, N=10 and n=6
[NCn] = ( N! / (N-n)!) / n!)
= ((10! / 4!) / 6!) = 151200 / 6! = 210.
Step4: Find [kCx] [N-kCn-x] / [NCn]
where,
[kCx] = 10, [N-kCn-x] = 5 and [NCn] = 210.
h(x;N;n;k) = [kCx] [N-kCn-x] / [NCn]
= [5C2] [5C4] / [10C6]
= (10 x 5) / 210
= 0.238.
Hence there are 23.8% possibilities for choosing exactly 2 red
balls without repetition.