Cooling Towers

Design of Cooling
Tower
Although the worlds total fresh water supply is abundant, some areas have water usage
demands that are heavily out of balance with neutral replenishment. Conservation and efficient
reuse of this precious and versatile resource are mandatory if such areas are to achieve proper
development. Cooling Tower used to reuse of water in Industry.
A Project Report on
Submitted by
Mr. Avinash M. Nirwan

Mr. Dayanand T. Mehar
Mr. Vedant V. Khadkekar
Guided By
Prof. P. G. Jadhav
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (Chemical Engineering)

at
SHRI GURU GOBIND SINGHJI

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
VISHNUPURI, NANDED.
(MAHARASHTRA STATE)
PIN 431606 INDIA
2012-2013
DECLARATION
I Mr./ Ms. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar, hereby declare that this project report is the
record of authentic work carried out by me during the period from July 2012 to May 2013 and
has not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree / diploma
etc.
Signature
Name of the student : Mr. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar
Date : 01/05/2013
Vishnupuri, Nanded , (M.S.) India 431 606

(An Autonomous Institute)
This is to certify that the Project report entitled
Being submitted by Mr. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar, for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering is a record of benefice work carried out by

them under my supervision and guidance satisfactorily in the year 2012-13.
Date: 20 / 05 / 2013.
Prof. P.G.Jadhav
Prof. P.G. Jadhav
Head of Department
(Project Guide)
Chemical Engineering Department
Chemical Engineering Department
SGGS IE&T, Nanded.
SGGS IE&T, Nanded.
Acknowledgment
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it possible. We are grateful to a number of
individuals whose professional guidance along with encouragement have made it very pleasant
endeavor to present this project.
We have a great pleasure in presenting the project report on Design of Cooling Tower
with the kind permission from respected Dr. L. M. Waghmare, Director and Prof. P. G.
Jadhav, Head, Department of Chemical Engineering of S.G.G.S.I.E. &T., Nanded.
We are truly grateful to our Project guide Prof. P. G. Jadhav for his valuable guidance
and encouragement. Her encouraging words went a long way in providing the patience and
perseverance which were needed to present this project successfully. Also her true criticism
towards technical issues provided me to concentrate on transparency of our project.
We take an opportunity to thank all the staff members of our department. Finally we
express our sincere thanks to all those who helped us directly or indirectly in many ways in
completion of this work.
Projectees
III
INDEX
Particulars
Page No.
I.
Declaration
II.
Certificate
II
III.
Acknowledgment
III
IV.
Index
IV
V.
List of Tables
VI
VI.
List of Symbols/Abbreviations
VII
VII.
List of figures
VIII
VIII.
Abstract
IX
1. Introduction
1.1. Classification
1.2. Categorization by air-to-water flow
1.3. Parameters
1.4. Components of Cooling Tower
10
1.5. Cooling Tower Internals and the Role of Fill
11
1.6. Experimental Objective
14
2. Literature Review
16
2.1. Research in cooling tower
17
3. Analysis of Cooling Tower
21
3.1 Analysis of Cooling Tower
22
3.2 Temperature and Concentration Profile at Interface
23
3.3 Characteristics of cooling tower
24
4. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
27
4.1. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications

4.2. Data from Psychometric Chart and Steam Table
4.3. Design Calculation
28
28
29
5. Experimental Procedure
33
IV
6. Observations & Discussion
35
6.1 Observations
36
6.2 Design Calculation
36
6.3 The influence of process conditions upon design
37
7. Cost Estimation of Cooling Tower
41
8. Energy Saving Opportunities
44
9. Typical Problems and Trouble shootings for CT
46
10. Conclusion
49
11. Bibliography
51
IX.
Appendix
53
LIST OF TABLES
Table no.
Particulars
Page no.
1.
Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
29
2.
Data from Psychometric Chart and Steam Table
29
3.
Observation table
37
4.
Observation Table -2
37
5.
Typical Problems & Trouble Shooting
48
6.
Steam Table
53
VI
LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATION

Symbol
Meaning
CTA
Cooling Tower Approach
CTR
Cooling Tower Range
N
Hlom
Efficiency
Log mean temperature difference
DL
Drift losses
WL
Windage Losses
EL
Evaporation losses
BL
Bow down losses
XC
Concentration of solids in circulating water
XM
Concentration of solids in Make-up water
CWT
Cold Water Temperature
DBT
Dry Bulb Temperature
G1
Flow rate of inlet Air
G2
Floe rate of Outlet Air
H1
Enthalpy of water at outlet temperature
H2
Enthalpy of water at inlet temperature
Ha1
Humidity of Inlet Air
Ha2
Humidity of Outlet Air
HOG
Height of Heat Transfer Unit
HWT
Hot water Temperature
KaV/L
Cooling Tower Characteristics
KGa
Mass Transfer Coefficient
L1
Outlet water Flow rate
L2
Inlet water Flow rate
MB
Average Molecular Weight of Air
Mw
Mass flow rate of water
VII
NOG
Number of Heat Transfer Unit
Pressure
Quantity of heat loss
T1
Outlet water Temperature
T2
Inlet water Temperature
Ta1
Inlet Tempretute of air
Ta2
outlet Tempretute of air
WBT
Z
Wet bulb temperature

Height of Cooling Tower
VIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.
Name of Figure
1.1
Cooling Water System
1.2
Typical Cross Flow Cooling Tower
1.3
Typical Counter flow Cooling Tower
1.4
Different types of Cooling Towers
1.5
Range and Approch
1.6
Free and Interrupted Fall.
1.7 (a)
Rectangular Fills
1.7(b)
Triangular Fills
3.1
Schematic Diagram of a cooling tower
3.2
Water Drop Balance
3.3
Temperature and concentration profile in upper part of cooling tower
3.4
Characteristics of Cooling Tower
5.1
Arrangement of cooling tower
6.1
Effects of design Variables on the size of potential
IX
Abstract
Although the worlds total fresh water supply is abundant, some areas have
water usage demands that are heavily out of balance with neutral replenishment. Conservation
and efficient reuse of this precious and versatile resource are mandatory if such areas are to
achieve proper development. And, the need for water conservation does not limit its self only
to arid regions. Recognition of the detrimental environmental impact of high temp. water
discharge into an estuary, whose inhabitants are accustomed to more moderate temperature
levels, make one realize that the re-cooling and reuse of water, however abundant ,conserves
not just that natural resource-It conserves nature as well one helpful means to that end is the
water cooling tower.
Cooling towers are one of the biggest heat and mass transfer devices that are in
widespread use. In this paper, we use a detailed model of cooling towers in investigating the
performance characteristics. The validity of the model is checked by experimental data
reported in the literature. The thermal performance of the cooling towers is clearly explained
in terms of varying air and water temperatures, as well as the driving potential for convection
and evaporation heat transfer, along the height of the tower. The relative contribution of each
mode of heat transfer rate to the total heat transfer rate in the cooling tower is established. The
variation of air and water temperatures along the height of the tower (process line) is
explained on psychometric charts.
In Project, we use a detailed model of cooling towers in investigating the
performance characteristics.
Design of Cooling Tower
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
SGGS IE&T, Nanded
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
A hyperboloid cooling tower was patented by Frederik van Iterson and Gerard
Kuypers in 1918[1]. The first hyperboloid cooling towers were built prior to 1930 in
Liverpool, England to cool water used at a electrical power station that used coal[2]. A
cooling tower is a unit where water is cooled with air. Warm water enters the top of the
tower, runs down the column and chills because it partially vaporizes to air, which flows
upward. Also, the air flow is usually colder than the water flow, so water is chilled because
of the heat exchange. Since both mass and heat transfer phenomena are present, the theory
of cooling towers is a bit complicated. Certain simplifications can be made because the
liquid phase is pure water, and therefore there is no driving force for mass transfer in that
phase. As many other vapor-liquid mass transfer units, the cooling tower is packed with
packing materials, which increases the surface area, in order to enhance the mass and heat
transfer[3].
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary
task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively
inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The
make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat
exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back
to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower
system is shown in Figure 1.1.
Fig.1.1, Cooling Water System
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1.1. Classification
1.1.1. Air flow generation methods
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
Natural draft Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally
rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy
produces an upwards current of air through the tower.
Mechanical draft Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the
tower.
o
Induced draft A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at
the top) which pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air
out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities,
reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back
into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.
Forced draft A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the
intake. The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low
exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to
complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a
forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its
ability to work with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in
more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill
geometry is also known as blow-through.
Fan assisted natural draft A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup,
though airflow is assisted by a fan.
Hyperboloid (sometimes incorrectly known as hyperbolic) cooling towers have become

the design standard for all natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength
and minimum usage of material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the
upward convective air flow, improving cooling efficiency. These designs are popularly
associated with nuclear power plants. However, this association is misleading, as the same
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kind of cooling towers are often used at large coal-fired power plants as well. Conversely,
not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers, and some instead cool their heat
exchangers with lake, river or ocean water.
1.2. Categorization by air-to-water flow

1.2.1. Cross flow
Cross flow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water
flow (see diagram below). Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to
meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The
air continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume.
Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere. A distribution or hot water basin
consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in its bottom is located near the top of a cross
flow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill
material. Mechanical draft cross flow cooling tower used in an HVAC application.
Advantages of the cross flow design:
Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.
Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.
Disadvantages of the cross flow design:
More prone to freezing than counter flow designs.
Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
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Fig. 1.2, Typical Cross Flow Cooling Tower
1.2.2. Counter flow

In a counter flow design, the air flow is directly opposite of the water flow (see diagram
below). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up
vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and
then
flows
downward
through
the
fill,
opposite
to
the
air
flow.
Advantages of the counter flow design:
Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.
Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.
Disadvantages of the counter flow design:
Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively

affected.
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Fig.1.3, Typical Counter flow Cooling Tower
Common aspects of both designs:
The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of
temperature, and evaporation of water.
The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling
tower.
A collection or cold water basin is used to collect and contain the cooled water after
its interaction with the air flow.
Both cross flow and counter flow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical
draft cooling towers.
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Fig. 1.4, Different types of Cooling Towers
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1.3. Parameters
Range: It is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature.
Approach: It is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water
temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach
should be monitored, the `Approach is a better indicator of cooling tower
performance.
Effectiveness: Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to

the ideal range, i.e., difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient
wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).
Fig. 1.5, Range and Approch
Capacity: Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product
of mass flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
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Evaporation loss: It is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and,
theoretically, for every 10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out
3
to 1.8 m . An empirical relation used often is:

3
Evaporation Loss (m /hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m /hr) x (T -T )

1
T -T = Temperature difference between inlet and outlet water.

1
Cycles of concentration (C.O.C): is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating

water to the dissolved solids in makeup water.
Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation
losses and is given by relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. 1)
Wet bulb temperature:

It is the temperature measure in the saturated air. Wet bulb temperature is an
important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling equipment. It is a

controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to which water
can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the
plant, process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering
wet bulb temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential
is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb
temperature, when a heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of
thermal conditions and tower capability.
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1.4. Components of Cooling Tower

The basic components of an evaporative tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water
basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.
Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior
enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller
designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer
by maximizing water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars,
continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash fill. Film fill
consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and
provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower,
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin
usually has a sump or low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many
tower designs, the cold water basin is beneath the entire fill.
In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom
of the fill is channeled to a perimeter trough that functions as the cold water basin.
Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower.
With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access to the fans
and their motors.
Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that
otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.
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Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take
up an entire side of a towercross flow design or be located low on the side or
the bottom of counter flow designs.
Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is
to equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter
flow tower designs do not require louvers.
Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution
at the top of the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface.
Nozzles can either be fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns
or can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers.
Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal
fans are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can
either be fixed or variable pitch.
A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be
used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at
the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in
response to changing load conditions.
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1.5. Cooling Tower Internals and the Role of Fill

If the water passes through a nozzle capable of producing small droplets, a large
surface becomes available for air-water contact .Since the water air interface is also the
heat transfer surface, the use of the nozzle permits the attainable of considerable
performance per cubic foot of contact appratus. This is the principal of spray pond and the
spray tower. Consider a hypothetical spray tower as shown in fig.1.6.
Fig.1.6, Free and Interrupted Fall.
Liquid fed to it falls through by gravity. if tower is 16 ft. high and no initial velocity
imparted to the droplet ,it falls in approximate according with the free fall low,
Z=1/2g2,
Where, Z is the height, g the acceleration of gravity, and the time. A droplet of
water will fall through height of the tower in 1 sec. if liquid is fed at the rate of one droplet
per second and there is no obstruction, one droplet be always present in the tower and one
droplet will continuously remove from the tower per second[4].
Now suppose that by introducing some geometrical forms on which the droplet may
impinge or be deflected it is possible to make a droplet take 4 sec to fall through the height
of the tower. Then as shown in fig.1.6 ,one droplet is fed per sec at the top and one droplet
is continuously removed at the bottom but four remain in the tower. The effective surface in
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the later is that of four droplets remain in the tower. The function of fill is to increase the
available surface in the tower is either by spreading the liquid over a great surface or by
retarding the rate fall of the droplet surface through the apparatus. In ordinary diffusion
towers such as chemical absorbers the packing is introduced in the form of Rasching Rings,
Berl Saddles, or other objects which are very compact and provide a surface on which the
liquid spreads and exposes a large film. This is Film Surface. In the cooling tower, because
of the requirement of the large air volume and the allowable pressure drop , It is customary
to use spaced wooden slats of triangular or rectangular cross sections, leaving the tower
substantially unobstructed.
The packing, or fill, in the cooling tower is almost entirely fabricated in either of
the forms of fig.1.7, and its purpose is to interrupt the descent liquid.
Fig. 1.7 (a), Rectangular Fills
13
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Fig. 1.7(b), Triangular Fills

Fig. 1.7, Common Types of Cooling Tower Fills
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1.6. Experimental Objective

Our lab-scale cooling tower is designed to mimic an industrial operation, except it
recycles and re-heats the water as it is cooled.
The goals of the experiment are:
1). To perform mass and energy balances on the system.
2). To determine average heat & mass transfer coefficient.
3). To observe the effects of process variables on the exit temperature of the water.
- Air flow rate
- Water flow rate (cooling load)
- Inlet water temperature
- packing density
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
This chapter has the research from other people regarding the performance of
cooling tower. The explanation on types, parts and theory involving cooling tower are
describe thoroughly as the cooling tower used in the industry. Without cooling tower, a big
facility or building tower might not stable at it will increased the heat to the people in the
building. There are also some explanation about the system and the transfer between air and
the cooling tower.
2.1. Research in cooling tower:

1. Rafat Al-Waked and Behnin made research about computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) simulation of wet cooling tower. Heat and mass transfer inside a natural draft
wet cooling tower (NDWCT) have been investigated numerically under different
operating and crosswind conditions. The three-dimensional CFD model has utilized
the standard k- turbulence model as the turbulence closure. The current simulation
has adopted both the Eulerian approach for the air phase and the Langrangian
approach for the water phase. The film nature of the water flow in the fill zone has
been approximated by droplets flow within a given velocity. At that specific droplet
velocity, effects of the following operating parameters on the thermal performance
of the NDWCT have been investigated: droplet diameter, inlet water temperature,
number nozzles, water flow rate and number of tracks per nozzle. As a result, the
effect of crosswind velocity on the thermal performance has been found to be
significant. Crosswind with velocity magnitude higher than 7.5 m/s have enhanced
the thermal performance of the NDWCT.
2. S. V. Bedekar, P. Nithiarasu and K. N. Seetharamu have studied the performance of
fluidized bed cooling towers; ignoring the higher pressure drop compared to other
film and splash type towers, their performance was excellent. Sisupalan and
Seetharamu examined the performance variation of a fluidized-bed cooling tower
for different statics bed heights. Recently, Dreyer and Evens studied the modeling
of a cooling tower splash pack. The performance of a falling-film type cooling
tower has been studied by Ibrahim. There are many studies available on
mathematical modeling of cooling tower heat and mass transport, including a
17
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number of recent publications. The available literature shows a lack of experimental
data on film type, packed-bed cooling towers.
3. To relief hot climate in summer season, direct evaporative cooling system (shower
Cooling Tower System) was examined. Satoshi Yajima has studied the performance
of the shower cooling in Japan. This system was developed by B. Givoni. In
general, evapotive cooling system is recognized that it is suit for hot and dry
climate. But this system can supply cooled water and generate cooled air flow. This
characteristics means the ability of utilize this system also in humid climate. They
tested this system with objective to plan and apply this in Japan, and examined its
cooling effectiveness and air flow generation.
4. J. C. Kloppers and D. G. Kroger have made a critical investigation into the heat and
mass transfer analysis of counter flow wet-cooling towers. This study gives a
detailed derivation of the mass transfer equations of evaporative cooling in wetcooling towers. The governing equations of the rigorous Poppe method of analysis
are derived from first principle. The method of Poppe is well suited for the analysis
of hybrid cooling towers as the state of the outlet air is accurately predicted the
governing equations of the Merkel method of analysis are subsequently derived
after some simplifying assumptions are made. The equations of the effectivenessNTU method applied to wet cooling tower also presented. The governing equations
of the Merkel method of analysis are subsequently derived after some simplifying
assumption are made. The equations of effectiveness -NTU method applied to wetcooling towers also presented. The governing equations of Poppe method are
extended to give more detailed presentation of Merkel number. The differences in
the heat and mass transfer analysis and solution techniques of the Merkel and Poppe
methods are described with the aid of enthalpy diagrams and psychometric charts.
The psychometric chart is extended to accommodate air in the supersaturated state.
5. J. Smrekar, J. Oman and B. Sirok have made a research to improve the efficiency of
natural draft cooling towers. This study shows how the efficiency of natural draft
cooling tower cab be improved by optimizing the heat transfer along the cooling
tower (CT) packing using a suitable water distribution across the plane area of
cooling tower. On the basis of cooling air measurements, it is possible to distribute
the water in such a way that it approaches the optimal local water/air mass flow
ratio and ensures the homogeneity of the heat transfer and a reduction of entropy
generation, thus minimizing the amount of energy lost. The velocity and
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temperature fields of the airflow were measured with the aid of remote control
mobile robot unit that has developed to enable measurements at an arbitrary point
above the spray zone over entire plane area of the cooling tower. The topological
structures of the moist air velocity profiles and the temperature profiles above the
spray zone were used as input data for calculation of the entropy generation in the
cooling tower. On the basis of measured boundary conditions, a numerical analysis
of the influence of the water distribution across the cooling towers plane area on
entropy generation and energy destruction in the cooling tower was conducted.
6. J. C. Kloppers and D. G. Kroger have studied the influence of temperature
inversions on wet-cooling tower performance. Nocturnal temperature inversions
have detrimental effect on the performance of natural draft wet cooling towers. The
effects of the temperature inversion profile, the height of inversion and height from
which air is drawn into the cooling tower, on the performance of cooling towers are
investigated. Relatively simple and accurate equations are employed in the analysis
to determine the temperature inversion profiles and inversion heights, which only
have ground based measurements as input. The detrimental effect in tower
performance, during nocturnal temperature inversions, is due to the reduced
potential in draft and the increase of the effective air inlet temperature.
7. Jameel-Ur-Rehman Khan and M. Yaqub, Syed M. Zubair studied the performance
characteristics of counter flow wet cooling towers. Cooling towers are one of the
biggest heat and mass transfer devices that are in widespread use. Here, we use a
detailed model of counter flow wet cooling towers in investigating the performance
characteristics. The validity of the model is checked by experimental data reported
in the literature. The thermal performance of cooling towers is clearly explained in
terms of varying air and water temperatures, as well as the driving for convection
and evaporation heat transfer, along the height of the cooling tower. The relative
contribution of each mode of heat transfer rate to the total heat transfer in cooling
tower established. It is demonstrated with an example that the predominant mode of
heat transfer is evaporation. For example, evaporation contributes about62.5% of
the total rate of heat transfer at the bottom of the tower and almost 90% at the top of
the tower. The variation of air and water temperatures along the height of the tower
(process line) is explained on psychometric charts.
8. Paisarn Naphon studied on the heat transfer characteristics of an evaporative cooling
tower. In the present study, both experimental and theoretical results of the heat
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transfer characteristics of the cooling tower are investigated. A column packing unit
is fabricated from the laminated plastic plates consist of eight layers. Air and water
are used as working fluids and the test runs are done at the air and water mass flow
rates ranging between 0.01 and 0.07 kg/s, and between 0.04 and 0.08 kg/s,
respectively. The inlet air and inlet water temperatures are 230C, and between 30
and 400C, respectively. A mathematical model based on the conservation equations
of mass and energy is developed and solved by an iterative method to determine the
heat transfer characteristics of the cooling tower. There is reasonable agreement
from the comparison between the measured data and predicted results.
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Chapter 3
Analysis of Cooling Tower
3.1. Analysis of Cooling Tower
A schematic of a counter flow cooling tower, the major assumptions that are used to
derive the basic modeling equations are:
Heat and mass transfer is in a direction normal to the flows only;
Negligible heat and mass transfer through the tower walls to the environment;
Negligible heat transfer from the tower fans to the air or water streams;
Constant water and dry air specific heats;
Constant heat and mass transfer coefficients throughout the tower;
Constant value of Lewis number throughout the tower;
Water lost by drift is negligible;
Uniform temperature throughout the water stream at each cross section; and
Uniform crosses sectional area of the tower.
Ta1
Fig 3.1, Schematic Diagram of a cooling tower
3.1.1. Overall Mass Balance

Input = Output
L2-L1 = G2-G1
Where, L2-Flow rate of inlet water,
L1- Flow rate of outlet water,
G1-Air Inlet,
G2-Air Outlet.
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Fig. 3.2, Water Drop Balance
3.1.2. Water Mass Balance

L2-L1 = G2 * Ha2 - G1 * Ha1
G2 = G1 = G
L2-L1 = G *(Ha2- Ha1)
Where, Ha1 Humidity of Inlet Air,
Ha2 Humidity of Outlet Air
3.1.3 Energy Balance

Q = H2 H1
Where, H2 = Enthalpy of Inlet Air
H1 = Enthalpy of Outlet Air
3.1.4. Determination of Number of Transfer Units
Where, NOG Number of transfer units (Dimensionless)
3.1.5. To Calculate Mean Driving Force
3.1.6. To Calculate Over all Mass Transfer Coefficient
23
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Where, HOG Height of Transfer Unit,

MB Molecular Weight
P - Pressure, and
KGa - Mass Transfer Coefficient.
3.2. Temperature and Concentration Profile at Interface
Fig. 3.3, Temperature and concentration profile in upper part of cooling tower
3.3. Characteristics of cooling tower
The basic function of a cooling tower is to cool water by intimately mixing it with
air. This cooling is accomplished by a combination of sensible heat transfer between the air
and the water and the evaporation of a small portion of the water. This type of transfer is
represented by the following equation:
This equation is commonly referred to as the Merkel equation. The left-hand side of this
equation is called the "tower characteristic," which basically indicates the 'degree of
difficulty to cool' the water or the 'performance demand' of the tower.
24
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The tower characteristic and the cooling process can best be explained on a
Psychometric Chart. The process is shown in the figure on the right -known as the Driving
Force Diagram. The upper curve shows the relation between the temperature and enthalpy
of the saturated air. This curve applies to the air film surrounding the water. Merkel
assumed that the drops of water falling through the tower are surrounded by a film of
saturated air and the heat and mass transfer basically takes place between this film [which
has the same temperature as of the water] and the upstream air. The condition of the air film
is represented by the Water Operating Line and is limited by the hot and cold water
temperatures, points A and B.
Fig.3.4, Characteristics of Cooling Tower
The lower curve known as the Air Operating Line, represents the condition of air
flowing through the cooling tower. The origin of this line, point C, is vertically below B
and is positioned to have an enthalpy corresponding to that of the entering wet bulb
temperature. As the water is cooled one degree, the enthalpy of the air is increased 1 Btu
multiplied by L/G [water circulation -lbs.per unit time/ air circulation -lbs. per unit time].
Thus, the L/G ratio is the slope of the air operating line C-D. Point D, representing the air
leaving the cooling tower, is the point on the air operating line vertically below point A.
The projected length C-D is the cooling range.
The Merkel Equation primarily says that at any point in the tower, heat and water
vapor are transferred into the air due [approximately] to the difference in the enthalpy of the
25
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air at the surface of the water [represented by the Water Operating Line A-B] and the main
stream of the air [represented by the Air Operating Line C-D]. Thus, the driving force at
any point is the vertical distance between the two operating lines. And therefore, the
performance demanded from the tower is the inverse of this difference. The integrand of the
Merkel equation can be represented by the Demand Curve -shown on fig.3.4.
26
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27
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Chapter 4
Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
4.1. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
Water Flow Rate, (L2)
0.116 m3/hr
Inlet Tempretute of Water (T2)
45 0C
outlet Tempretute of Water (T1)
35 0C
Wet Bulb Tempreture (WBT)
29 0C
Height of Cooling Tower (Z)
0.762 m
Inlet Tempretute of air (Ta1)
30 0C
outlet Tempretute of air (Ta2)
39 0C
Air Flow Rate, (G)
150 m3/hr
Table 4.1, Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
4.2. Data from Psychometric Chart and Steam Table:
Enthalpy of water at inlet temperature(H2)
188.4 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of water at outlet temperature(H1)
146.6kJ/kg
Humidity of Inlet Air (Ha1)
0.025 Kg Water / Kg
dry air
Humidity of Outlet Air (Ha2)
0.03 Kg Water / Kg dry

air
Table 4.2, Data from psychometric chart & Steam table
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L2-L1 = G2 * Ha2 - G1 * Ha1
G2 = G1 = G
L2-L1 = G *(Ha2- Ha1)
L1 =0.116 150 * (0.003-0.0025)
L1 = 0.041 m3/hr
4.3.2. Energy Balance

Q = H2 H1
=188.4 kJ/kg 146.6 kJ/kg
= 41.8 kJ/kg
4.3.3. Calculate number of transfer unite (NTU) :
= (H2 H1) / Hlm

Mean driving force,
= (188.4 - 146.6) / ln (188.4/146.6)

= 166.62 kJ/kg
NOG = (188.4 - 146.6) / 166.62 = 0.25

Now, Height of Cooling tower, z = 2.5 ft = 0.762 m
Z = HOG*NOG
Hence, HOG= z / NOG = 0.762/0.25 = 3.048 m
3.048 m= (1.236 kg / m2sec) / (1 atm * 29 kg / kgmol*KGa)

KGa = 0.01398 kgmol / atm *m2*s
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Overall mass transfer coefficient, KGa = 0.01398 kgmol / atm *m2*s.
Cooling Tower Characteristics are given as,
= 0.149 kg0K / kJ
4.3.4. Characteristics of Cooling Tower

1. Cooling Tower Approach (CTA)
CTA = T1 WBT = 35 29 = 6 0C
2. Cooling Tower Range (CTR)

CTR = T2 T1 = 45 35 = 10 0C
Now, Mass of water circulated in cooling tower
Mw = Flow Rate of Water x Mass density of water
Mw = 0.116 x 1000
Mw = 116 Kg / hr
3. Heat Loss By Water (HL)

HL = Mw1 x Cpw x (T2 T1)
HL = 116 x 4.186 x (45 - 35)
HL = 4855.76 KJ / hr
4. Effectiveness in %
Effectiveness = Range / (Range + Approach)
= 100* (cooling water Inlet Temperature- cooling water Inlet Temperature) /
(Cooling water Inlet Temperature-Wet Bulb Temperature)
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= 100* (45-35) / (45-29)
= 62.5 %
5. Cooling Capacity
Cooling Capacity = mass flow rate of water *Specific heat *Temperature difference
= 116 * 4.185 * (45-35)
= 4854.6 kJ/hr
6. Evaporation Losses
Evaporation Losses = 0.00085 * 1.8 * circulation rate (m3/hr) * (T1-T2)
= 0.00085 *1.8 *0.116 * 10 = 1.7748 *10-3 m3/hr
7. Efficiency of Cooling Tower

Efficiency of Cooling Tower = N = (T1 T2) / (T1 WBT)
N = (45 - 35) / (45 - 29)

N = 62.5 %
4.3.5. Different Types of Losses

1. Drift Losses (DL)
Drift losses are generally taken as 0.10 to 0.20% of circulating water.
DL = 0.20 x mw1 / 100
DL = 0.20 x 116 / 100
DL = 2320 Kg / hr
2. Windage Losses (WL)

Windage losses are generally taken as 0.005 of circulating water.
WL = 0.005 x mw1
WL = 0.005 x 116
WL = 0.58 Kg / hr
3. Evaporation Losses (EL)

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Evaporation losses are generally taken as 0.00085 of circulating water.
EL = 0.00085 x mw1 x (T1 T2)
EL = 0.00085 x 116 x (45 - 35)
EL = 0.986 Kg / hr
4. Blow Down Losses (BL)

Number of cycles required for cooling tower is given by
Cycles = XC / XM
Where,
XC = Concentration of solids in circulating water
XM = Concentration of solids in Make-up water
Water balance equation for cooling tower is
M = WL + EL + DL
M = 2320 + 0.986 + 0.58
M = 2321.566 Kg / hr
XC / XM = M / (M - EL)
XC / XM = 2321.566 / (2321.566 - 0.986)
XC / XM = Cycles = 1.0004
So, Blow down loss
BL = EL / (Cycles - 1)
BL = 0.986 / (1.0004 - 1)
BL = 2465 Kg / hr
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Chapter 5
Experimental Procedure
1- Introduce water and record its flow rate.
2- Put the heaters on so that water is heated to the required temperature.
3- Introduce air and record its flow rate.
4- Wait for steady state then record steady state dry and wet bulb temperature of air at the
entrance and exit.
5- Record the inlet and outlet temperature and flow rate of water also record temperature at
different stages.
6- Change the air flow rate & Water flow rate and repeat step 3.
Fig. 5.1, Arrangement of cooling tower
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Chapter 6
Observations & Discussion
6.1. Observations
1. Inlet water Temperature= 450C
2. Wet Bulb Tempreture =29 0C
3. Air flow rate =2.5 m3/min
Sr. No.
Water Temperature,0C
Flow rate of water

m3/hr
Inlet
outlet
1.
0.0847
45 0C
32 0C
2.
0.1101
45 0C
35 0C
3.
0.213
45 0C
36 0C
Table 6.1, Observation Table
Design and Operation Conditions
Water Distribution System and

Material of Construction
Tower Type
Mechanical Forced draft
Stand Pipe
PVC
Flow Type
Counter Flow
Flexible Pipe
PVC
Water Flow Rate
0.116 m3/hr
Distributer
Steel Sheet
Hot Water Temp.
45 0C
Mechanical Equipment
Cold Water Temp.
35 0C
Blower
Centrifugal
Wet Bulb Temp.
29 0C
Manufacturer
Black & Deckars
Flow Rate
2.5 m3/min
Structural Details
Height of CT
2.5 ft
Water Motor
Area of Cross Sect. 0.44 ft2
Manufacturer
YANG Pumps
Basic Tower Construction Material
Flow rate
6 lit/min
Tower Frame
Acrylic Sheet
Power Consumption
18W
Casing
Aluminium
Piping Connections & Distributers
Cold Water Basin
Plastic Material
Inlet Pipe Dia.
inch
Filling
PVC
Distributer Area
0.34 ft2
Bolt Nuts
Cast Iron
Area of Holes (10)
70.68 mm2
Table 6.2, Observation Table

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L2-L1 = G2 * Ha2 - G1 * Ha1
G2 = G1 = G
L2-L1 = G *(Ha2- Ha1)
L1 =0.116 150 * (0.003-0.0025)
L1 = 0.041 m3/hr
6.2.2. Energy Balance

Q = H2 H1
=188.4 kJ/kg 146.6 kJ/kg
= 41.8 kJ/kg
6.2.3. Calculate number of transfer unite (NTU):
= (H2 H1) / Hlm
Mean driving force,
= (188.4 - 146.6) / ln (188.4/146.6)

= 166.62 kJ/kg
NOG= (188.4 - 146.6)/ 166.62 = 0.25
Now, Height of Cooling tower, z= 2.5 ft = 0.762 m
z= HOG*NOG
Hence, HOG= z/NOG = 0.762/0.25 = 3.048 m
3.048 m=(1.236 kg/m2sec)/(1 atm * 29 kg/kgmol*KGa)

KGa = 0.01398 kgmol/atm *m2*s
Overall mass transfer coefficient,
KGa = 0.01398 kgmol/atm *m2*s.
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6.3. The influence of process conditions upon design

It is rewarding to study the effects of various process changes upon the height and
cross section of the apparatus or the cost of its operation. Six of the considerations which
affects the size of the tower are indicated in fig.6.1. They are analyzed best by means of the
enthalpy- temperature diagram, since the area between the saturation and operating lines is
a measure of the total potential. The smaller the area the greater the height of tower
required for fulfillment of the process conditions[4].
a. Unsaturation of the inlet air. Heretofore reference has been made only to the wetbulb temperature of the inlet air ant not to its dry bulb. In each case it is assumed
identical with wet bulb, i.e., adiabatically saturated. Suppose the air is at a dry bulb
of 850F when the wet bulb is 750 F. the air will be unsaturated, and its enthalpy will
be41.7Btu/lb instead of 39.1.In fig.6.1(a) this will drop the operating line
insignificantly from H1-H2 to (H1)- (H2), the cross hatch area representing the
increase in potential. Failure to correct the enthalpy for dry bulb gives results which
are slightly on the safe side, and for this reason it is customary to specify only the
wet bulb.
b. Close Approach. Both operating lines in fig.6.1(b) have the same L/G ratio and
equal ranges of 350 F for the removal of the same process heat load. The operating
line (H1)-(H2) attempts to do the same cooling as H1-H2 and with the same inlet air
but between the temperatures of 115 and 800F instead of 120 and 850F. The area
between the saturation curve and the operating line is greatly decreased by (H1)(H2). Similarly it might be desired to obtain water from 120 to 850F with 800 wet
bulb instead of 750F wet bulb air. This will raise the operating line H1- H2 vertically
and also decrease the potential.
c. Changing the L/G ratio. If the ground area is too limited, such as when a cooling
tower is erected atop a building, it may necessary to employ a relatively high liquid
loading without increasing the air quantity, since 400fpm is about the maximum
economical air velocity. This will decrease the cross section of the tower but
increase the slope of the tower line H1 H2 to H1 (H2) as in fig.6.1(c), resulting in
decreased potential and higher tower. This is simple observation that the less air
circulated per pound of water the less the extent of cooling[6].
d.
Location of the operation range. The saturation line has a varying curvature. In
fig.6.1(d) an operating line H1- H2 is shown with a range from 105 to 700F. Suppose
it is desired to design a tower using the same inlet air but to cool water from 95 to
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600F. This would be impossible with the same L/G ratio, since the operating line
(H1)-(H2) would intersect the saturation line. Obviously heat transfer would stop at
the intersection (H2), since the potential would be required, which in turn means
more air must be circulated for the removal of the same number of Btu.
Fig. 6.1, Effects of design Variables on the size of potential

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e. Staying. One of the means of overcoming the small L/G ratio in the preceding
paragraph can be accomplished by the use of two towers. This is staying. The water
at the top of the first tower is hot and contacts air of enthalpy H2 along the operating
line H1-H2 as shown in fig. 6.1(e). the water is removed from the basin at
temperature T2 and is pumped over the second tower, which also uses atmospheric
air of enthalpy H1. The second tower operates between H1 and H3. In this way both
operating line may have large slopes without intersecting the saturation line. The
fixed charges and operating cost of two towers increases the cost of water
considerably, but water produced in this manner should be regarded as chilled
water, and its cost and range compared with that of refrigerator water.
f. Elevation. Some plants are located at high elevations. Should this be mentioned in
the process conditions? At reduced atmospheric pressure, as seen in fig. 6.1(f), the
saturation line is higher, which in turn increases the potential and reduces the
required size of tower if all other conditions are the same. This occurs because the
partial pressure of the water is fixed whereas the total pressure has been decreased.
The humidity of saturated air at higher elevation is also greater.
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41
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Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Operating Cost
7.1. Fixed / Construction Cost

1. Cooling Tower frame (Acrylic Sheet)= Rs. 1000/2. Fill Material =Rs.300/3. Water Pump = Rs.200/4. Air Blower = Rs.4000/5. Pipes = Rs.200/6. Valves and Couplings = Rs. 250/7. Basin = Rs. 300/8. Distributer = Rs. 300/Total Fixed Cost = Rs. 6550/-
7.2. Operating Cost

Energy required for water Pump= 18 W
Energy required for Air Blower = 250W
Total Energy Consumed = 268W = 0.268kW
Now, 1 Unit of electricity = 1kW * 1 hr
Hence, for 1 hr Number of units consumed = 0.268 Units
For 1 day, it will be = 0.268 * 24 = 6.432 units.
At the rate of Rs. 7 per unit,
Total Working Cost of 1 Day =7 * 6.432 = Rs. 45.024
7.3. Total Cost

Total Cost = Fixed cost + Operating Cost
= 6550 + 45.024
= Rs.6595.024
Rs. 6600
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43
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Chapter 8
Energy Saving Opportunities
From the above data of the design of cooling tower and observations & discussions
we are able to conclude some energy saving opportunities for the cooling tower is as given
below:
Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.
On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new
square spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern
Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.
Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
Cover hot water basins to minimise algae growth that contributes to fouling.
Optimise blow down flow rate, as per COC limit.
Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, selfextinguishing, PVC cellular units.
Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
Monitor L/G ratio, CW flow rates w.r.t. design as well as seasonal

variations. It would help to increase water load during summer and times
when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and
when approach is narrow.
Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity for continuous

optimisation efforts, as per seasonal variations as well as load side
variations.
Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.
44
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Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings.
Consider possible improvements on CW pumps w.r.t. efficiency

improvement.
Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures especially

in case of small units.
Optimize process CW flow requirements, to save on pumping energy, cooling

load, evaporation losses (directly proportional to circulation rate) and blow
down losses.
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46
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Chapter 9
Typical Problems and Trouble Shootings for
Cooling Tower
Problem /
Possible Causes
Remedies/Rectifying
Difficulty
1.
Action
Excessive Voltage Reduction
Check the voltage
absorbed current / 2a. Incorrect angle of axial fan Adjust the blade angle
electrical load
blades
2b. Loose belts on centrifugal Check belt tightness
fans (or speed reducers)
3.
Overloading
excessive
air
owing
flow-fill
to Regulate the water flow by

has means of the valve
minimum water loading per m
of tower section
4. Low ambient air temperature
The
motor
is
cooled
proportionately and hence

delivers more than name
plate power
2. Drift/carry-over Uneven
operation
of
spray Adjust the nozzle orientation
of water outside the nozzles
and eliminate any dirt
unit
Eliminate any dirt in the top
2. Blockage of the fill pack
of the fill
3. Defective or displaced droplet Replace
eliminators
or
realign
the
eliminators
4. Excessive circulating water Adjust the water flow-rate

flow (possibly owing to too high by means of the regulating
pumping head)
valves. Check for absence

of damage to the fill
3.Loss
of
water 1. Float-valve not at correct Adjust the make-up valve
from basins/pans
level
47
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2.
Lack
of
equalizing Equalize
connections
the
basins
towers operating in parallel
4.Lack of cooling 1. Water flow below the design Regulated
the
flow
and hence increase valve
means of the valves
in
Check
temperatures 2. Irregular airflow or lack of air
Flowing
of
to
the
by
direction
of
rotation of the fans and/or
increased
belt tension (broken belt
temperature range
possible)
3a.
Recycling
of
humid Check
discharge air
the
air
descent
velocity
3b. Intake of hot air from other Install deflectors

sources
4a. Blocked spray nozzles (or Clean the nozzles and/or the
even blocked spray tubes)
tubes
4b. Scaling of joints
Wash or replace the item
5. Scaling of the fill pack
Clean
material
or
replace
(washing
the
with
inhibited aqueous sulphuric

acid is possible but long,
complex and expensive)
Table 9.1, Typical Problem and Trouble Shooting for CT
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49
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Chapter 10
Conclusion
It is deduced that the condition of the surface area and the distribution of water on
the sheets such as the distance between the repeated ribs and their angle to air flow
and water flow play an important part in the efficiency of each pack, resulting from
the influence of the different water distribution on the two sides of the sheets. It has
been found that a packing with high air turbulence in combination with relatively
low fluid velocity is more economic than a fairly smooth and straight packing in
combination with high liquid velocity.
The mass transfer and heat transfer is decreased with increase inlet air humidity and,
the objective of use packing is to increase area of contact between water and air.
The cooling tower does not use in the place which the air have high humidity.
The theoretical calculations are approximately matches with the experimental

observations and observations shows that cooling tower range is decreases with the
increase in inlet Water flow rate.
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51
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Chapter 11
Bibliography
[1] Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete. UK Patent No.
108,863
[2] Power Plant Cooling Towers Like Big Milk Bottle" Popular Mechanics, February 1930
bottom-left of pg 201
[3] Richardson & Coulson, Chemical Engineering, Fifth Edition 2002, University of Wales
Swansea.
[4]D. Q. kern, Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill Edition 1997.
[5]McCabe Smith, Harriott, Unit operation of Chemical Engineering, Fifth Edition 1993,
Tata McGraw Hill.
[6] Perry R. H. and Chilton, C. H., eds., Chemical Engineering handbook,5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill,1973.
[7] London. A. L., W.E. Mason and L.M. K. Bolter, Trans. ASME, 62, Page no. 41-50
(1940)
[8] Robert E. Treybal, Mass transfer Operations, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 1981.
[9] R. Burger, Wiley, Maintenance, Upgrading and Rebuilding Cooling Tower Technology,
Wiley, 1995.
[10] S. Johnson, A. Barz, Comparative performance characteristic of cooling tower
packings, in: LAR 7th Cooling Tower and Spring Pond Composium, Leningrad, Russia,
1990.
[11] F. McQuiston, Heat, mass and momentum transfer data for ve plate n tube heat
transfer surfaces, ASHRAETrans. Part 1 84 (1978) 226308.
[12] Narendra Gosain, Ph.D., P.E. and Farouk Mahama, Ph.D., Walter P. Moore And
Associates, Inc., Complex Structural Analysis Simplifies Repair Phasing In Restoration Of
Hyperbolic Cooling Towers 2010.
52
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Appendix
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1. Steam Table
54
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55
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2. Psychometric Chart
56
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Design of Cooling

Mr. Avinash M. Nirwan

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (Chemical Engineering)

SHRI GURU GOBIND SINGHJI

Vishnupuri, Nanded , (M.S.) India 431 606

This is to certify that the Project report entitled

Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering is a record of benefice work carried out by

Prof. P.G. Jadhav

Chemical Engineering Department

Chemical Engineering Department

SGGS IE&T, Nanded.

SGGS IE&T, Nanded.

1.2. Categorization by air-to-water flow

1.4. Components of Cooling Tower

1.5. Cooling Tower Internals and the Role of Fill

1.6. Experimental Objective

2.1. Research in cooling tower

3. Analysis of Cooling Tower

3.1 Analysis of Cooling Tower

3.2 Temperature and Concentration Profile at Interface

3.3 Characteristics of cooling tower

4.1. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications

6. Observations & Discussion

6.2 Design Calculation

6.3 The influence of process conditions upon design

7. Cost Estimation of Cooling Tower

8. Energy Saving Opportunities

9. Typical Problems and Trouble shootings for CT

Cooling Tower Technical Specifications

Data from Psychometric Chart and Steam Table

Typical Problems & Trouble Shooting

LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATION

Cooling Tower Approach

Cooling Tower Range

Bow down losses

Concentration of solids in circulating water

Concentration of solids in Make-up water

Cold Water Temperature

Dry Bulb Temperature

Flow rate of inlet Air

Floe rate of Outlet Air

Enthalpy of water at outlet temperature

Enthalpy of water at inlet temperature

Humidity of Inlet Air

Humidity of Outlet Air

Height of Heat Transfer Unit

Hot water Temperature

Cooling Tower Characteristics

Mass Transfer Coefficient

Outlet water Flow rate

Inlet water Flow rate

Average Molecular Weight of Air

Mass flow rate of water

Number of Heat Transfer Unit

Quantity of heat loss

Outlet water Temperature

Inlet water Temperature

Inlet Tempretute of air

outlet Tempretute of air

Wet bulb temperature

Cooling Water System

Typical Cross Flow Cooling Tower

Typical Counter flow Cooling Tower

Different types of Cooling Towers