Half amplitude / 6 dB drop technique :

Half amplitude technique for defining the ends of a discontinuity is

used when it is longer than the crystal size of the probe. This is the
most popular technique for discontinuity length measurement.
After maximizing the discontinuity indication, set this signal to a
convenient height [ ~ 80 % ]. The probe is then moved towards right,
parallel to the discontinuity or the weld seam as appropriate, up to
the position where the signal drops to half the set amplitude. A point
is marked with a marker above the discontinuity location
corresponding to the centerline of the probe crystal. A similar point is
found by moving the probe towards the left. The distance between
these two points is the length of the discontinuity.
The discontinuity length measured by this technique always results
in an over estimation of the actual size. This is because the half
intensity line is located at an angle to the main axis of the beam
[ centerline of the crystal ].
The error will depend on the size and frequency of the probe and
the beam path distance to the discontinuity. The shape at the ends
of the discontinuity will also influence the measurement. Small crystal
probes [ 4 MHz, 8 X 9, 10 mm ] should be preferred for the
measurements.
This measurement error can be minimized by plotting the half
amplitude beam boundary in the horizontal plane using the IOW
beam profile block and using the graph thus obtained for correcting
the length at the applicable flaw depth.
Edge approach technique :
When the discontinuity size is much smaller than the size of the
crystal, half amplitude technique of measurement does not produce
satisfactory result. A different method called edge approach technique
is used.

In this method the edge of the ultrasound

beam is used to find the starting edge of the
discontinuity.
Once the presence of the discontinuity is
confirmed, the scanning starts from a position
where the discontinuity signal is not visible on
the CRT screen.
The probe is now slowly moved towards the
discontinuity up to the position where the
discontinuity indication just begins to appear on
the CRT screen. A point above the discontinuity
location is marked which coincides with the line
passing through the sidewall of the probe,
facing the discontinuity.
A similar point is to be found by scanning the
discontinuity by probe movement from the other
end. The distance between these two points is
the length of the discontinuity.

Angle probe DAC with side drilled hole block :

Side drilled hole blocks are widely used for plotting the DAC
curve for weld testing. This method compares the reflectivity of a
flaw with that of the tangential area of the horizontal hole at the
relevant test distance and is thus echo amplitude dependent when
assessing flaw acceptability. These blocks contain one inch or more
deep drilled hole, with the hole axis parallel to the scanning
surface and perpendicular to the edge. The side of the hole
reflects ultrasound energy incident at any angle. The diameter of
the hole normally increases with block thickness. A 1.6 mm
diameter reference hole provides good test sensitivity for most of
the weld testing applications.
Depending on the block thickness T, holes are drilled at 1/4 T,
1/2 T, 3/4 T on the edge of the block.
Plotting the DAC curve :
A block is selected whose thickness [ T ] most closely matches
the part thickness [ equal to or within 10% of test thickness ] and
contains the hole, specified in the test procedure in use.
The maximized signal from the hole which produces shortest
beam path, [ Pos 1 or 2 ] is set to 80 % screen height. The probe
should be at least one half inch away from the edge of the block
to avoid corner effect. The peak of the signal is marked on the
face of the CRT screen. Without changing the gain control,
maximized signals from other positions [ Pos 2, 3, 4 ] are marked
and a curve is drawn through all these marks to complete the
DAC curve. A 50 % curve is also drawn by 6 dB reduction method.
Minimum three signal peaks are required to plot the DAC.
For a 1/4 T hole, signal from position 2 should be preferred as
the first reference point of the DAC curve. If the weld crown is
ground flush and the probe can move over the weld surface,
signal from position 1 may be used as the first reference point. In
angle beam testing of unground welds, the sound beam enters the
weld zone after traveling a certain distance in the test material
and depends on the location of the exit point on the probe body.
The DAC curve level falls sharply for higher frequency miniature
[ 4 MHz, 10 mm ] probes.
Flaws producing, > 100% DAC signal is normally rejected or a
certain length is permitted by the code. A certain length is also
permitted, for 50 % or more DAC signals. These signals are to be
recorded in the report for future reference.
For ASME pressure vessels, > 20 % DAC signals are to be
evaluated for crack, lack of fusion and lack of penetration. These
defects are not acceptable regardless of echo amplitude.
Important :

The sound attenuation, surface condition and contact area

of the block should be similar to the test part.

If possible, the block is to be prepared from the test

material itself.

Transfer correction of the reference test sensitivity will be

required if the block is different from the test material.

It is preferable to setup the test sensitivity on a block

equal in thickness to the test part. This will produce a
DAC curve with sufficient test length and internal
reflections similar to the test part. Thickness difference of
10 % is acceptable.

The DAC curve [ level ] must be at least 20 % screen

height up to the full test distance. If required more than
one curve should be plotted for flaw evaluation.
Side drilled hole block thickness and hole
size in inches for weld testing as per ASME
plate
block
hole
thk, T
thk
size
up to 1
T or 3 / 4
3 / 32
>1 to 2
T or 1.5
1/8
>2 to 4
T or 3
3 / 16
>4 to 6
T or 5
1/4
>6 to 8
T or 7
5 / 16
>8 to 10
T or 9
3/8

Sec V.
hole
location
1/4, 1/2, 3/4T

Angle beam probe :

Angle probes are used for detecting flaws oriented at an angle to
the material surface. They will miss flat reflectors, parallel or
perpendicular to the scanning surface. The angled beam must hit the
0
reflecting plane of the discontinuity at 90 for maximum reflection.
Angle beam reflects well from corners but may undergo wave mode
conversion.
Usually shear wave probes are used in angle beam testing, because
the refracted longitudinal wave probe will have a shear wave
component of weaker intensity in the test material. Longitudinal wave
angle probes are specially useful for testing austenitic stainless steel
welds and inside surface of highly curved hollow parts and welds.
Shear wave probes are used for testing welds, material defects in
pipes, tubes, plates and sheets and in irregular shapes where full
contact testing area is not available.
Angle beam probes use the principle of refraction and mode
conversion to produce refracted longitudinal and shear waves in the
test part. In an angle beam probe, longitudinal wave is converted to
refracted longitudinal or shear wave by means of an angled plastic
wedge. The wedge is cut at an angle to provide an incident beam
angle to produce refracted longitudinal or shear wave at the desired
angle in Steel, because steel is tested in most applications. For
designing small crystal low frequency probes, incident angle calculation
based on snells law fails because of wider beam spread associated
with these probes. The refracted angles will change in other materials
0
0
because of velocity difference. A probe of 45 in steel will equal 43
in aluminum. The wedges have serrations cut on the front surface
and fitted with absorbing medium to prevent internal reflections from
producing unwanted echoes but some spurious echoes are often
detectable just after the initial pulse. The wedge can be an integral
part or can be detachable. In detachable system, a single transducer
can be configured to different angles by changing the wedge and is
economical. The detachable wedges are bigger and absorbs more
energy. The detachable type requires couplant between the transducer
and the wedge to permit transmission of ultrasound into the wedge.
0
0
0
Standard angles are 35, 45, 60, 70 and 80 in steel. 80 and 35
probes have limited applications due to prevalence of surface waves
0
0
from 80 and presence of longitudinal waves from 35 probes. Crystal
sizes around 10 mm for miniature and 20 mm for bigger probes are
most popular. Probes with 12.5 mm crystal size is normally
recommended for standard test applications. Rectangular crystals are
often used. Bigger probes have higher sensitivity and sharply focused
sound beam and permit flaw detection at higher depth but cannot be
placed very close to the weld edge. 4 MHz, 8 X 9 / 10 mm probes are
very popular for their small contact area, high resolution and sharp
echoes and are used up to a test distance of 200 mm in steel. Larger
probes are mostly used for thick welds and for applications where
sufficient probe contact area is available and a large area is to be
scanned. A 20 X 22 mm, 2 MHz probe can detect a 2 mm reflector up
to a distance of 700 mm.
Twin crystal angle probes, longitudinal and shear, are available for
direct scanning on ground weld surfaces and low thickness materials.
These probes are more suitable for testing stainless steel and sound
absorbing materials.
With use, the beam exit point and the refracted beam angle will
change with acrylic wear and should be checked before each use.
0
The beam angle change should be controlled within + / - 2 . New
acrylic soles can be pasted with araldite to repair the wear. The front
corner of the sole should be shaped to reduce spurious echoes.
Performance :
A good angle probe with a standard flaw detector, should produce a
minimum 75% signal from the 100 mm radius of a standard
IIW - V1 block with a minimum of 40 dB gain reserve.
The probe should resolve at least three of the five holes [ clearly
detectable peaks ] in the IOW beam profile block.
Noise from internal reflections should not exceed 5% screen height,
at all the working test sensitivity levels.
Beam axis abnormality should be checked by maximizing a signal
and moving the probe forward and backward and rotating left and
right, while monitoring the falling signal. The signal should fall
continuously without any sudden rise in signal height.

Pulse echo A- scan test method :

Pulse echo test method uses reflected ultrasound as a means of collecting

test information. A single crystal probe is normally used for ultrasound
generation as well as reception.
The transmitter circuit of the flaw detector supplies short excitation pulses
of few hundred volts at regular interval to the probe crystal. The excitation
pulse oscillates the crystal to generate short burst of ultrasound such that
the arrival of each returning echo may be identifiable as a discrete event.
During the interval between two successive pulses, the crystal is at rest and
detects any return echo such as from the back wall. A large percentage of
the sound is reflected from the front surface of the test part and the
remainder is reflected by the back surface or discontinuities. The flaw
detectors CRT screen displays the whole operation by producing separated
signals of transmission and the time of arrival of defect echo and the back
wall echo. The transmission pulse and subsequent echoes appear as peaks
rising out of the CRTs base line. The distance between the peaks is a
measure of the defects location or the parts thickness.
Transmission of high frequency ultrasound cannot takes place in air. It is
carried out through an intermediate liquid, in bulk or as a thin layer. Oily
substances or water are generally used. They are called couplants.
The initial or transmitter pulse appears first in time and represents the
electrical zero. This is the exact start time of crystal excitation. The exact
point in time when ultrasound enters the test material is called acoustical
zero. Acoustical zero is superimposed within the initial pulse and is not
distinguishable. The next pulse represents the total elapsed time for sound
to travel from the entry surface to the reflector and back to the entry
surface again.
At the instant the electrical pulse is removed the oscillations of the crystal
do not cease immediately but decreases in an exponential manner until they
reach zero. A dead zone is produced, starting immediately after entry into the
test surface, in which echoes can not be detected.
One single test cycle is so fast that it is not physically visible in the
detectors screen. Hence the flaw detector repeats the test cycle several
times per second by supplying successive excitation pulses to the crystal
and make the event appear as constant due to persistence of vision. The
number of times, the crystal is electrically pulsed per second is called the
pulse repetition rate.

A sufficient amount of time between

successive pulses is necessary to allow
ultrasound to travel through the material
under examination. Higher pulse repetition
rate produces brighter screen display. Very
high pulse repetition rate produces
spurious signals [ ghost echoes ] on the
CRT screen.
The ultrasonic pulses used by the flaw
detector are radio frequency type and
have a serrated look. The pulses are
filtered and rectified to smooth looking
shapes by the flaw detector before
display.
Pulse echo A-scan method displays
distance along the horizontal scale called
the baseline and amplitude of the
reflection along the vertical scale. Because
of similar return path, the screen is
calibrated to display one way travel only.
A scan test method can accurately locate
a discontinuity. The amplitude of the return
signal is a relative measure of the
amount of reflected energy and depends
on the area and orientation of the
reflecting surface. Amplitude of the signal
can be used for accept / reject decision.

Weld discontinuity evaluation :

Ulllll
Discontinuity evaluation consists of various steps to assess the
type or character, orientation, location, length and width of the
reflector.
To reach a reasonable conclusion regarding identification of the
discontinuity, the technician must be thoroughly familiar with the
welding process, degree of perfection in welding fit up and should
accurately locate the reflector within the weld cross section.
Combining this information with the basic shape of the reflector
identified by beam manipulations, the identification of the weld
discontinuity may be possible.
The basic weld discontinuity shapes which can be identified by
ultrasonic beam manipulations are Spherical, Cylindrical and Planar.
Discontinuity types :
Spherical :
single and widely spaced pores [ P ],
non elongated slag [ SL ].
Cylindrical : elongated slag, wormholes, aligned pores,
hollow bead, unfused slug, concave root [ C].
Planar :
cracks, side wall lack of fusion [ LF ], unfused
root faces, Lack of penetration [ LP ], fusion line
slag, burn through, undercut [ UC ], cold lap,
misalignment.
Angle beam probes can be used to obtain information about the
type of the reflector detected during scanning. Use of all the three
angles is recommended. The reflector is to be scanned by lateral,
orbital and swivel movement of the probe. Orbital scanning is made
around the discontinuity in a circular path with the discontinuity at
the center of the circle. Swivel scanning involves rotation of the
probe around an axis through the center of the probe body, and
perpendicular to the scanning surface.
The signal from a spherical reflector remains basically unchanged
as the probe is moved around the reflector in orbital fashion. The
reflector does not respond to swivel scan and also shows no length
with the lateral movement of the probe. The signal from this type of
reflector is normally small with narrow base because of only a
small area of the discontinuity actually reflects the ultrasonic beam.
A single pore produces a sharp indication and a cluster will
produce multiple or a broad based indication with many peaks.
A planar or a cylindrical reflector will produce weak or no
indication if orbital and swivel scanning is performed. With the lateral
movement of the probe, a varying or constant signal may result, but
the continuity of the signal indicates length of the reflector.
To differentiate a cylindrical reflector from the planar, the reflector
should be scanned with several different angle probes. A cylindrical
reflector will produce equivalent or significant signal at all angles of
incidence [ assuming equal sensitivity calibration and adjustment for
attenuation ]. A significantly greater amplitude signal from a particular
angle probe, indicates a planar reflector. Sound is reflected at its
0
maximum from only one angle of interception, i.e. around 90 .
Indications from opened cracks typically shows multiple peaks and
of wider shape because of the many discontinuity facets usually
present. When the probe is rotated or orbited, an angle of some 20
0
to 30 can be maintained before the echo is totally reflected away.
Side wall Lack of Fusion produces sharp indication and usually
detectable from one side. The maximum signal remains constant for
some distance of the probe movement perpendicular to the weld
axis.

discontinuity type
relative sensitivity
Planar
Highest
Linear
Intermediate
Spherical [ cluster ]
Intermediate
Spherical [ isolated ]
Lowest
[ assuming favorable orientation ]

Equipment performance check :

Ulllll
The calibration and performance of manual ultrasonic test
system can be checked using the IIW - V1 block.
Normal Probe :
S : System Sensitivity check, with the hole signal set to 75%
screen height, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required.
R : Resolution check [ ability to produce separate indication ]
The signals from the 85, 91 and 100 mm distances should be
displayed on the screen without overlapping.
D2 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates 10 mm or less.
D1 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates, 5 mm or less.
P : Checks sound generating ability of the system. With the
gain at maximum, 5 full screen signals from the 23 mm
Perspex insert, using a 2 MHz probe should be obtained.
R1 and R2 : Range calibration and Horizontal Linearity.
Angle Probe :
E: Beam exit point, when the signal from the radius
becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe coincides
with the center mark of the scale on the face of the block.
S: Sensitivity check. with the signal from the radius set to
100%, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required.
R: Range calibration for angle probe.
A1: and A2: Angle check, when the signal from the hole
becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe may coincide
with one of the marks on the face of the block to indicate
the refracted beam angle of the probe.
Horizontal Linearity : For accurately locating reflectors, a linear
distance scale is essential.
A 100 mm range is accurately calibrated from location R1.
With the probe at position R2, signals should appear exactly
at 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50 th division on the screen. A signal
position deviation by more than 1% indicates, non linear
distance scale. This check should be carried out over the
maximum range used for actual testing.
The ultrasonic instrument must provide linear vertical
presentation within +/- 5% of the full screen height.
Screen Height Linearity : Using a viscous couplant, a normal
beam probe is positioned at a suitable location of the block
to give a 2 : 1 ratio of amplitudes between two steady
signals. When the attenuator is changed in 2 dB steps, the
smaller amplitude signal must remain 50% of the larger
amplitude within +/- 5% of full screen height.
Amplitude Control Linearity : The accuracy of the amplitude
control of the ultrasonic equipment is also essential.
Using a viscous couplant, a normal beam probe is
positioned on the block to produce a 80% steady signal.
With the attenuator changing by 2 dB steps, the signal
amplitude shall change corresponding to the figure given
below. A deviation of +/- 5% is considered acceptable.
A 50% signal, when reduced by 24 dB, should be
clearly detectable. ( Dynamic range )
Signal to Noise ratio : After setting a signal to 20% screen
height, the gain is further increased till the base line noise
equals 20%. The difference in gain is the signal to noise
ratio and indicates the quality of the amplifier.

Beam exit point and effective angle :

Exit point is the location which marks the entry of the central
ray of the ultrasonic beam into the test specimen. A smaller
discontinuity produces maximum indication, when it is on this
central ray of the beam. Hence, the exact angle of the axis of
the beam can be determined by triangulation after maximizing
signals from known small reflectors. During angle probe
examination, the probe is moved backward and forward to hit
the discontinuity with the axis of the beam so that the location
of the reflector can be determined. All measurements for flaw
location utilize the exit point.
To locate the exit point, move the angle probe over the scale
marked on the IIW - V1 block to obtain the maximum signal
from the 100 mm radius curved surface. Mark the point on the
probe body which coincides with the central line of the scale
marked on the face of the block. This is the exit point of the
axis of the ultrasonic beam.
This check can be performed on the V2 calibration block
also. The 50 mm radius side should be used to avoid near
zone effect.
Refracted beam angle :
Place the exit point of the angle probe in the approximate
position of the angle marked on the face of the IIW - V1
calibration block, that corresponds to the nominal angle marked
on the probe faceplate. Move the probe to maximize the signal
obtained from the reflector hole. Correlate the exit point to the
corresponding angle marked on the calibration block to
determine the angle of refraction of the ultrasonic beam axis,
0
0
i. e. the exit point of a 60 probe should be on the 60 mark
when the signal becomes maximum. The angle thus obtained is
valid for steel only.
Angle can be determined with the V2 block also.
Accurate method :
Refracted angle of the axis of the beam can be accurately
determined by analyzing the maximum reflection signal obtained
from a small diameter side drilled hole at known depth in a
reference calibration block. Smaller hole size at higher depth
provides better accuracy. For deep holes, the maximum signal
should be carefully detected.
Refracted Beam angle is calculated as,
Cos inverse [ hole depth / ( beam path + hole radius )]

Effective beam angle in other materials:

Material
Velocity
mtrs/sec

Effective
angles

4340 Steel
347,Aust Stainless
Aluminum
Inconel
Titanium, 105A

60
56
57
54
57

-------------------------------------------------------------------3240
3090
3130
3020
3120

45
42
43.5
41
43

70
64
65
61
65

Hole depth up to center = 30mm

Beam path up to hole center = 56 + 0.75
or 56.75 mm.
[ Radius of hole, 0.75mm added to beam path ]
Probe angle = Inv Cosine [ 30 / 56.75 ]
0
= Inv Cosine 0.5286 or 58

Flaw Calculations :
Distance to reflector from
The probe exit point :
Beam path X Sin A
Depth of reflector from the
scanning surface level :
In Leg 1
[ before reflection from the
undersurface ]
beam path X Cos A
In Leg 2
[ after reflection from the
Undersurface ]
2 Thickness - ( Beam path X Cos A )
A is effective Angle of the Probe.
0

Angle
80
70
60
45
---------------------------------------------Sin A
.98 .94
.86
.7
Cos A
.17 .34
.5
.7
Tan A 5.67 2.74 1.73 1.0
Sec A 5.88 2.94 2.0 1.4
[ Sec A = 1 / Cos A ]

Locating discontinuities :
Ultrasound beam is a diverging cone with maximum sensitivity along its axis. Consequently, a flaw will produce a
signal even when the beam axis does not pass directly through it. It is therefore necessary to shift the probe till the
flaw signal becomes maximum. The flaw is then on the axis of the beam. The angle marked on the probe is the
angle of this beam axis for steel testing. The location of the flaw is then calculated by recording the sound travel
path displayed on the CRT screen and using trigonometric relations.
The CRT screen is to be marked at half skip and full skip beam paths [ Thickness X Sec A, 2 X Thickness X Sec A ]
to separate Leg 1 and Leg 2 region.
The defects in a test part usually produce a clearly defined echo envelope [ rise and fall of the echo signal ]. Such
indications should be analyzed thoroughly.
Weld flaw signals :
Single Pore : produces low amplitude narrow based sharp echo. When the probe is orbited around the pore, the echo
is maintained with small amplitude variations. They can only be detected as points.
Porosity cluster : Produces low amplitude broad based indications with many peaks. When the probe is orbited around
the cluster, the echoes will be held with amplitude and range variations.
Isolated Slag : produces forked and broad based echo. When the probe is orbited, the echo is maintained with some
amplitude variation and retains the forked shape.
Slag lines : echo falls rapidly when the probe is rotated or orbited and held when moved lateral to the weld.
Cracks and bonding flaws along the weld seam : produce a sharply defined large echo when beamed at right angles.
Due to multi - faceted nature of an open crack, the echo will have multiple peaks and wide envelope.

Graphical plot of discontinuity :

Plotting a discontinuity on the actual image of the weld not
only gives information about the possible type of the
discontinuity but also reduces error of misinterpretation.
Indications caused by misalignment, excess penetration and
from the surfaces of the weld can be easily identified. When
the scanning cross section is an irregular curve, such as
scanning a nozzle from the shell body, graphical plotting is the
most appropriate method.
When a suspected discontinuity signal appears on the CRT
screen, the indication is to be maximized by probe
manipulation. The distance between the probe exit point and
the centerline of the weld or any other selected reference point
is recorded. The sound beam path displayed on the CRT
screen at maximum amplitude is also recorded.
Drawing the weld cross-section :
An accurate cross section of the weld is to be drawn on a
paper, at 1 : 1 scale, with the help of a profile gauge, mound of
modeling clay or a soft soldering wire. The weld drawing must
reproduce, the root face, root gap and the fusion lines.
Accuracy of flaw locating depends on the ability to reproduce
the weld cross section as accurate as possible. It is essential
to know, the weld process used, how it was fabricated and with
which type of weld preparation and materials.
It is the responsibility of the UT operator to physically see all
complicated weld joint preparations [ fit up ] before welding. This
will help him to estimate the root gap and locate the fusion
lines during flaw plotting.
Plotting :
The plotting card is positioned on the weld image such that
the scale point representing the distance, which is equal to the
distance between the exit point and the weld centerline,
coincides with the centerline of the weld image. [ see fig ]
The horizontal line in the card shall overlay the scanning
surface line. The reflector is then marked on the probe
scanning line, at the beam path distance indicated on the CRT
screen.
The reflector position is then considered for possible existence
of a discontinuity.

Flaw detection by diverging sound beam of

lower frequency probe.
0

Root bead echoes : For a flat root bead, 60 and

0
70 probes will hardly pick up any contour
echoes. When the root bead penetration is 1 mm
0
0
or more, both the 45 and 60 probes will receive
root bead response. The response from the bead
0
0
is more for a 45 probe and less when a 60
0
probe is used and no response when a 70
probe is used at normal test sensitivity. The root
bead echoes are broad based echoes. The
echoes will plot slightly below the plate level.
Misalignment : large echoes detected from one
side only at the root usually indicate
misalignment.
Backing bar : Where the backing bar is welded to
the parent material, the inherent gap known as the
nose tends to give a reflected echo which is
not classified as a defect.
Weld cap echoes : The irregular surface contour of
the weld cap produces lower amplitude broad
based indications when the probe is located near
the full skip distance. The response is maximum
0
with a 45 probe. The echoes will plot outside the
top level of the plate. The signal may be strong if
0
the capping is excessive and a 45 probe is in
use. The echoes will respond well to finger
damping techniques.

Graphical plotting card :

Graphical plotting card is used for locating an ultrasound reflector
within a test specimen. It shows the sound beam path in the
specimen and provide all details required for a triangulation
solution of reflector location. The card is extremely useful during
the weld examination with as welded condition and welds with
curved surfaces.
The graphical plotting card together with the drawing of the weld
cross section helps to identify the possible type of the
discontinuity. By showing actual reflection location within the weld
volume, signal indications from misalignment of members and
weld surfaces are correctly indicated.
Drawing a graphical plotting card :
Draw two lines perpendicular to each other as shown in the
picture above.
The horizontal line represents the scanning surface and shows
the distance from exit point to the reflector. The vertical line
shows depth of the reflector from the scanning surface. The
intersection point represents the probe exit point.
Draw a line parallel to and at a depth of 20 mm from the
horizontal line Draw another line starting from the intersection of
the perpendicular lines such that it meets the 20 mm deep line
0
at a distance of 59 mm. [ 20 X probe factor of 70 ]
0
This line represents the scanning line of a 70 probe.

Draw two more lines starting from the

intersection of the perpendicular lines, such that
they meet the 20 mm line at a distance of 40
mm and 28 mm respectively.
The former line represents the scanning line
0
of a 60 probe and the later line represents
0
that of a 45 probe.
Now draw linear scale with 5 mm interval on
each of the lines on the card. Mark all
necessary identification numbers.
The graphical plotting card is now ready for
use.
If the 20 dB beam profile is available for the
probe, then the same can be plotted on the
card. In this case, prepare individual plotting
card for each angle probe.

DAC curve with normal beam Probe :

As sound energy propagates through a medium, energy conversion
takes place and the sound pressure decreases with distance from
the source. In addition, sound spreads out from a true parallel beam
and the intensity per unit area also decreases. Ultrasound energy
also gets scattered by grain boundaries. All these causes the signal
amplitude from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore,
to evaluate reflected signals from discontinuities, Distance Amplitude
Correction [ DAC ] curve is used.
DAC is plotted from signals from reflectors of equal area at
different distances in the same material. Flat bottomed hole blocks
or side drilled hole blocks are used to plot the DAC curve.
Procedure :
At least three flat bottom hole blocks or three scanning locations
in a side drilled hole block are chosen, such that the length of the
curve is sufficient to evaluate discontinuities at any depth in the
material thickness to be tested. The size of the reference hole in
the DAC blocks must be as per the requirements of the test
procedure in use.
Maximum signal from the hole nearest to the scanning surface is
picked up [ pos 1 ] and amplitude of this signal is set to 80 %
screen height. The tip of this signal is marked on the face of the
CRT screen with a marker pen. The gain used in this condition is
the reference gain setting.
Without changing the gain control, the maximum signals from the
hole ( s ) at position 2, 3 etc are picked up and marked on the
CRT screen. The marked points are then joined with a smooth
curve to complete the DAC curve.
To draw a 50 % reference level, the gain setting is reduced by
6 dB from the reference gain setting at each maximized signal
location and the peaks of these reduced signals are marked and
joined to obtain the 50 % reference level.
Transfer correction for the reference gain setting should be made
if the sound attenuation in the block [s] are different from the test
material. Compare back wall signals from the test part and the
block which is nearest to the part thickness and correct the gain
difference as necessary.
When a flaw signal equals the DAC curve, the flaw is generally
considered to be larger than the reference reflectors active
reflection area.
ASTM Flat Bottom Hole set of 10 / 19 blocks are used for
distance amplitude correction and ultrasonic flaw detectors amplitude
linearity check.
Flat bottom and Side drilled hole reference reflectors :
The flat bottom hole [ FBH ] is drilled to have a flat reflecting
surface at the bottom of the hole. The hole bottom is parallel to
the scanning surface for normal probe and at a desired angle for
an angle probe. These holes are useful for comparing equivalent
reflecting area of small unknown reflectors. FBH bears no
relationship to the actual size of a welded flaw. These blocks are
used for evaluating Cast, Rolled and Forged materials.
Side drilled hole [ SDH ] is a drilled hole, the side wall of which
is used as the reflecting surface. The hole bottom is not used.
Side drilled hole reflects equally to ultrasound energy incident at
any angle. Side drilled hole reflection is comparable to many
natural flaws in the weld and these blocks are generally used for
weld evaluation.

DAC Plot.

ASTM FBH blocks.

Mat
Dist
1 / 8
1/4
1/2
3/4
1.5
3.0
6.0

FBH
dia
5 X 1 / 64
5
5
5
5
3, 5 , 8
5,8

Normal beam probe for contact testing :

Normal beam probes are useful for detecting discontinuities with
reflecting plane parallel to the scanning surface. These probes are
used on relatively flat and smooth surfaces to introduce longitudinal
wave into the test material. The common applications are ; testing of
plates, forged and rolled products, castings, thickness and velocity
measurements.
Frequencies between 0.5 to 6 MHz is normally used in contact
testing, because the high frequency crystals are thin and fragile.
High frequency contact probes in smaller crystal sizes are available
with some additional protection. Standard test frequency is 2 - 2.25
MHz. Crystal size of 6.4, 10, 12.7, 19 and 24 mm are most
common. Lower frequencies and larger crystals, are used on long
parts and coarse grained materials. High frequencies and smaller
crystals, are used on thin or fine grained materials. Smaller, high
frequency probes are highly sensitive for short range flaw
detection.
A single crystal probe has a dead zone [ ringing time of the
active element / width of the initial echo on the CRT screen ] and
can not detect discontinuities located within this distance. Scanning
from the opposite parallel surface overcomes this problem.
The main components in the probe are,
Active element : The active element [ or the crystal ] is a piezo
electric ceramic which converts electrical energy received from the
flaw detectors pulser to mechanical vibrations for generating
ultrasound in the test material. It also converts mechanical
vibrations to electrical charge for detecting ultrasound reflections.
Silver conductive coating on the active faces serve as electrodes.
Backing medium : Backing medium is a highly attenuative, high
density material, attached to the back of the crystal to control the
vibration by absorbing the energy radiated from the back surface.
Tungsten powder / Epoxy mixture is often used. The purpose is to
eliminate unwanted and prolong vibration of the crystal. This is
called damping. Careful consideration of the characteristics
[ acoustic impedance ] of this backing material enable the designer
to produce either a very wide band, but lower sensitivity or a
narrow band, but higher sensitivity probe. High damping reduces
dead zone, improves resolution but reduces the overall sensitivity
and thickness penetrating power of the probe.
Wear plate : The wear plate protects the soft silver coated surface
of the crystal from corrosion and wear by friction during contact
testing. A permanently attached ceramic disc or a coating of
abrasive material on the front face is used as the rubbing face.
This offers only limited protection. Replaceable plastic membrane or
nylon wear cap is most popular. Delay line attachments are also
used to reduce dead zone and improve the ability to measure thin
materials and small flaws. Delay line can be contoured to match
curved test surfaces to improve sound transmission. Dry coupling
and short duration testing at high temperature [ 10 sec scan / 60 sec
0
off, 900 F ] delay line options are available. When using a delay
line, there will be multiple back reflections from the end of it.
Performance : The probe should produce a 75 % signal indication
Crystal Size mm :
from the 1.5 mm diameter drilled hole in a standard IIW -V1 block 3 / 5 [ HF ] applications on small contact area.
with a reserve gain of 40 dB or more, when used with a standard 6.4 [ HF ] curves, corrosion, de-lamination, thk, tubing
flaw detector. [ sensitivity ]
[ with delay line applications ]
The probe, with a standard flaw detector, should produce clearly
10 mm
complex shapes, small parts, flat / round
separated 75% height indications from the three distances
bars, tubing, thickness, flaw sizing.
[ 85, 91, 100 mm ] in the IIW-V1 block. [ resolution ]
19 / 24 mm plate, ingot, slab, billet, axels, rolls, big
The probe should have low dead zone and low noise.
wheels and gears, large forgings and
Probe applications [ in metals ] :
castings etc.
.5 / 1 MHz cast Iron, brass, mill rolls, copper, stainless steel,
Paint brush [ multiple element ] for plate testing.
[ 24 dia ] sound scattering materials, long parts.
Wheel type probe mounted in liquid filled rubber
2 / 2.5 MHz standard test applications.
Tire with adjustment for normal, angular
4 MHz thinner parts, aluminium, thk chk, flaw measurements.
and surface wave scanning of large
5 / 10 MHz fine grained materials, inclusions, thin matetrials, bonding
parts such as plates, billets etc.
thickness measurement.
Note : For curved surface, it is recommended to use
High frequency probe will completely miss a disoriented reflector
a suitably designed contoured acrylic adapter. This
because the reflected beam is highly directional.
will improve transmission of energy, reduce dead
zone. Length of the adapter to be used such that
the parts back reflection appear before the adapters
back reflection.

Notches :
For evaluating incomplete penetration in welds or discontinuities
forming a corner, such as a surface crack or weld undercut,
machined surface notches may be employed for sensitivity
calibration and size comparison, since they more nearly represent
the actual discontinuity. A Vee shaped notch is an useful reference
for evaluating side wall lack of fusion in vee welds. Square
notches are useful for evaluating Lack of penetration.
Reflection amplitude from Vee, square and U shaped notches of
comparable dimensions may vary widely depending on the angle,
frequency and vibrational mode of the interrogating sound beam.
These notches are best produced by Electric Discharge Machining
[ spark eroded ] process.

The notches are usually at least one inch long [ min two times
the probe crystal width is recommended ], with a depth
[ d ] of 2 to 10 % of thickness of the part for weld inspection.
The width [ w ] of the cut is usually 1/16". For base material
examination of tubular products, axial and circumferential notches of
the required dimensions on the outside and the inside surfaces, in
a calibration block made from the product being examined is used.
For plates, 3% of thickness depth notch is recommended.
[ always refer applicable test procedure for notch details ]
Sound beam path in curved part :
While testing curved parts, increase in beam path due to part
curvature must be considered.
Two similar angle probes can be used to find the beam path
to hit the undersurface of a curved part. Using a calibrated
range, the equipment is set to dual probe mode. The probes
are positioned on the part, facing each other, and at
approximately one skip distance apart. Keeping one probe fixed,
the other probe is moved to produce a maximized signal. The
distance indicated on the CRT is the effective beam path for
the angle probe in use to hit the under surface of the part.
The maximum incident sound beam angle, [ grazing incidence ]
which can still hit the undersurface [ irradiation depth ] of a
curved part can be found from the relation ;
Probe angle A = Inv Sin [1- ( 2 t / D )]
where, t is wall thickness and D is outside diameter of pipe.
Depth of irradiation can be calculated from ;
Irradiation depth = Irradiation factor X Diameter
Irradiation factor :
.5 [ 1 - sin A ]

35
0.213

45
0.146

60
0.067

70
0.030

Piezo-electric effect :
Piezo electric effect is a phenomenon, whereby electric charges
appear on the surfaces of certain solid materials, when it is
subjected to mechanical stress or pressure.
Conversely, when a piezoelectric crystal is placed in an electric
field, the crystal exhibits deformation, i.e. the dimensions of the
crystal change. When the direction of the applied electric field is
reversed, the direction of the deformation is also reversed. This is
called the reverse piezoelectric effect.
If, instead of DC field, an alternating field is applied, the crystal
will vibrate at the frequency of the AC field. If this driving
frequency corresponds with the frequency where the thickness of
the crystal represents half a wavelength, [ Crystal thk = / 2,
wave length in crystal ] the amplitude of the vibration will be
much greater. This is the crystals fundamental resonance frequency.
The crystal will also have frequencies of large amplitude whenever
the thickness of the crystal is equal to an odd multiple of half a
wavelength. The largest amplitude occurs only at fundamental
frequency and as the harmonic number increases the amplitude of
vibration decreases.
The ability of a material to exhibit piezoelectric effect is due to its
atomic structure. An unstressed piezoelectric crystal will have equal
distances between its positive and negative charges. As stress is
applied, deformation occurs which changes this distance
relationship. This change in distance between atoms results in
polarization of the crystal. Detectable electrical charges appear on
the surfaces. As the applied stress is relived, the positive and
negative charges attract each other and the crystal comes back to
its unstressed condition.
In some crystalline materials piezoelectricity occurs naturally, such
as crystals of quartz or tourmaline. In some ceramic materials,
piezoelectricity can be induced artificially by reorienting their crystal
domains. This is performed by slowly cooling the material from
curie temperature under intense electric field. This is known as
polling. These materials are known as polarized ceramics and are
widely used for the construction of ultrasonic probes for their good
efficiency of ultrasound generation with lower voltage.
Polarized ceramic crystals of Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate
Titanate [ PZT ] are most common for the construction of standard
probes. Barium Titanates are produced by baking together barium
0
carbonate and titanium dioxide at 1250 C. The crystals are
0
subjected to an intense 2kV / mm electric field at 140 C [ the curie
point ] and allowed to cool. The crystals become polarized, and
after loosing 50% activity in 24 hours become fairly constant. These
crystals suffer from aging and are not suitable for testing at high
temperature.
Solid solution of lead zirconate and lead titanate [ or PZT ] offers
good overall performance. This has a much higher curie point [ 320
0
to 350 C ] and its piezoelectric properties can be tailored to out perform barium titanate. Lead zirconate titanate is commercially
available with many added minor constituents, which are not
disclosed by the manufactures.
Lithium Niobate, Lithium Sulphate, Lead Meta Niobate, Lead
Titanate, Quartz are some of the other active elements in probes
and are utilized for their specific properties.

Newly developed 1 : 3 composite materials offer

improved performance. These are materials in which
parallel orientated piezo rods [ active ] are
embedded into a polymer matrix [ passive ] to lower
the overall acoustic impedance of the crystal. This
improves transmission of energy into the test
material. Composite probes have superior
combination of mechanical flexibility, scan width,
sensitivity, resolution, and good penetration in highly
attenuative materials. They are specially useful for
applications where low signal to noise ratio is
required. These probes are costly.
Ultrasonic Probes :
Probe uses a piezoelectric crystal
to generate and receive ultrasonic
signals. It is the most critical component
in any ultrasonic test system. Instrument
characteristics, settings, material
properties and coupling conditions also
play a major role in overall system performance.
Selection of an ultrasonic probe depends on the
requirements of good sensitivity or high resolution
[ depends on probe bandwidth ] and desired
thickness penetration.
A system with high sensitivity [ with narrow
bandwidth probe ] has the ability to produce
detectable signals from small reflectors at a given
depth. Such system has low resolution.
A system with high resolution [ with broad
bandwidth probe ] has the ability to produce clearly
detectable separate signals from reflectors lying at
nearly the same depth and position with respect to
the sound beam. A highly damped probe is
selected for such applications. This system will
have lesser flaw detection sensitivity.
Larger crystals produces less beam spread and
more sound pressure. With good surface and fine
grained material, a 2 MHz probe can penetrate
more than 10 meters. Lower test frequencies allow
inspection of long test parts and sound scattering
materials because of less attenuation but has low
sensitivity to small discontinuities. High frequency
waves are heavily scattered in coarse grained
materials. They do not penetrate far and produce
strong interference echoes. High frequency probes
are suitable for fine grained materials. High
frequency, miniature crystal probes can detect very
small flaws within its usable short range and have
good resolution because of sharper echoes. High
frequency is highly sensitive to flaw orientation.
When using lower frequencies, probes with larger
crystal diameters are to be used to reduce the
effect of beam spread.
Use of higher test frequencies require good
surface finish for better energy transmission. On
rough surfaces, lower frequencies with a viscous
couplant must be used.

Reflection and Refraction of Ultrasound at Interface :

In some ways, the behavior of ultrasound at an interface of two
mediums is similar to that of light. Snell's law is applicable.
When ultrasound strikes an interface of two different mediums,
depending on the ratio of the specific acoustic impedances, some
of the energy will be transmitted through the interface and the
remaining energy will be reflected back with an angle equal to the
angle of incidence. This property of ultrasound is utilized for
detecting reflectors or defects in materials.
0
% of energy reflection [ for 0 angle of incidence ] at an interface is,
]

Z 1 and Z 2 are the acoustic impedances of the two mediums.

Acoustic impedance of a material is the opposition to displacement
of its particles by sound energy. Acoustic impedance for,
longitudinal wave = material density X long wave velocity.
During ultrasonic testing of steel using oil as couplant, only 10%
energy enters steel and on its return journey again only 10% is
transmitted to the probe. Hence, only 1% of the generated energy is
available for amplification and display on the CRT.
When the incidence of a longitudinal wave is perpendicular to the
interface, the transmitted wave mode does not change.
However, If the longitudinal wave hits the interface at an angle,
then mode conversion takes place and both the longitudinal and
the shear wave modes will be produced in the second medium.
The refracted wave is predominantly longitudinal. The refracted
angle of the longitudinal wave is always more than the refracted
shear wave because of higher velocity. With increase in incident
angle, the refracted angle of the waves also increases.
When the first medium is Perspex and the second medium is
0
steel, at 27.6 angle of incidence, the refracted angle of the
0
longitudinal wave becomes 90 [ along the interface ] and only
0
shear wave will be present inside steel at 33 . This is the first
Critical angle for Perspex to Steel transmission.
0
With further increase in incident angle, at 57.2 , the angle of
0
refraction of the shear wave also becomes 90 and the shear
waves converts to surface waves which propagates along the
interface, [ provided a gas or only a very thin layer of Couplant is
present above the second medium ] otherwise shear waves will be
reflected back into the first medium [ total reflection ]. This angle
0
when the shear wave is refracted at 90 is known as the second
Critical angle of the mediums. The value of these critical angles
are different for different combination of mediums.
If the first medium is a liquid, then there would be no reflected
shear wave in the liquid.
In common shear wave probes, which are designed for testing
steel and eliminates the refracted longitudinal wave in steel, the
0
0
incident angles usable are between 27.5 and 57 for refracted
0
0
shear wave angles between 33.3 and below 90 in steel.
The incident, reflected and refracted angles are related as,

Sin 1 is incident angle, C 1 velocity in first medium, Sin 2 is

angle of reflection / refraction. C 2 velocity in second medium.
Calculate the angle of refraction of longitudinal and shear waves
in steel when a longitudinal wave hits the interface of acrylic
0
and steel at an angle of 20 ;
Long wave velocity in acrylic
= 2730 mtrs / sec
Long wave velocity in steel
= 5900 mtrs / sec
Shear wave velocity in steel
= 3230 mtrs / sec
0
Sin 20
= .3420
refracted Longitudinal,
= Inv Sin ( V2 / V1 X Sin 20 )
= Inv Sin ( 5900 / 2730 X .3420 )
0
= Inv Sin .7391 or 47.65
refracted Shear,
= Inv Sin ( 3230 / 2730 X .3420 )
0
= Inv Sin .4046 or 23.86

Sound reflection at water / steel interface,

2
Z1 steel = 4.5, Z2 water = .15 in gms / cm / sec.
% of reflection ;
2
[(4.5 - .15) / ( 4.5 + .15)] X 100 = 87.5
i.e. only 12.5 % ultrasound energy will enter
steel. At water / aluminium interface, 30 % of
incident energy will enter aluminium.
at metal / gas interface, reflection is ~ 100%.

Sound field :
The ultrasound intensity along the beam is not
uniform but varies due to the size of the source
that gives rise to interference effects. The face
of the crystal does not vibrate uniformly under
the influence of the triggering electrical pulse.
The crystal acts as a mosaic of large number
of tiny individual crystals, each vibrating in the
same direction but slightly out of phase with its
neighbors. Each element in the mosaic acts like
a point source and radiates a spherical wave,
outward from the plane of the crystal face. As
these spherical waves with different phases
encounter one another in the region near the
crystal face, interference effect sets up a series
of maximum and minimum intensity locations.
This interference zone ends at the last
maximum, at a distance N from the crystal and
is known as the near field [ Fresnel zone ] of the
sound beam. The location of the last maximum
is the natural focus of the transducer and the
sound field converges to half the source size at
this location. Because of this intensity variations,
echo amplitude from a constant reflector in the
near zone will vary and it can be extremely
difficult to accurately evaluate the size of the
reflector.
Testing in the near zone is limited to :
Thickness measurements, Detection of defects and Sizing of
large defects only.
Intensity variations [ interference ] in the near zone is lesser
for rectangular shaped crystals.
The near field distance depends on the size and frequency of
the transducer and the effective wave length in the test
material. Near field for a circular element with a single operating
frequency in a single medium is,
2
N = D / 4
D is element size and is effective wavelength.
At distance greater than N, known as the far field of the
ultrasonic beam [ Fraunhoper zone ], there are no interference
effects. In this zone the sound field diverge in the shape of a
cone and the sound pressure is inversely proportional to
distance and follows an exponential decay curve.
Half angle of divergence [ to the boundary of sound field ],
- / 2 = Sin 1.22 / D
In the far zone the signal from a large reflector [ larger than
the beam cross section at that distance ] follows the inverse
proportional law. After a distance of three near zones from the
crystal, a double distant echo from a large reflector will cause
the echo intensity to reduce by 6 dB. The signal from a small
reflector causes greater directional change and a smaller amount
of the reflected energy reaches the probe. The signal amplitude
decreases to one fourth when the distance is doubled [ - 12 dB ]
Beam spread decreases with increase in frequency and Crystal
size. Consideration of beam spread is important when measuring
the size of a discontinuity and inspecting for flaws near a
sidewall or corner or small round parts, where the diverging
beam may produce spurious echoes.
The near field and far field effects also occur when ultrasonic
waves are reflected from an interface.

Calculation for the near field length and the beam

spread for a 2 MHz, 24 mm , longitudinal wave
probe in steel and in water;
wavelength in steel [ ] is 5.9 / 2 or 2.95 mm.
wavelength in water [ ] is 1.5 / 2 or .75 mm.
crystal size [ D ] is 24 mm.
in steel
2
near field length, 24 / ( 4 X 2.95 )
or 48.81 mm
Half
0
beam spread, Inv Sin ( 1.22 X 2.95 ) / 24 or 8.62
0
full spread, 2 X 8.62 ~ 17 .
In water
2
near field length, 24 / ( 4 X .75 )
or 192 mm.
Half
0
beam spread, Inv Sin ( 1.22 X .75 ) / 24 or 2.15
0
0
full spread, 2 X 2.15 or 4.30 .

Transfer Correction :
If the reference block used for setting up the
test sensitivity is not fabricated from the material
to be tested, the sound attenuation characteristic
of the block material may be different from that
of the test material. The differences in surface
conditions will also change sound attenuation.
A correction for test sensitivity is required to
compensate for the differences between the
reference blocks and the test specimen for
surface roughness, contact area and internal
sound attenuation. This is known as transfer
correction and must be considered while using a
DAC curve for flaw evaluation.

Correction for normal beam testing :

Transfer correction with normal probe can be determined by
comparing the instrument gain required to produce equal amplitude
back reflections at same material distance from the reference
block and the test part.
Select a region on the test part that has parallel walls and the
surface condition similar to most of the remaining scanning area
as a transfer correction measurement point. Select the reference
block, being used for DAC set up or from the same set of
blocks whose overall material distance most closely matches the
thickness of the part at the measurement point.
Set the back reflection through the block thickness to
80 % screen height and record the gain setting.
Place the probe at the measurement point of the part, and
produce a back reflection of 80 % screen height and record any
change in the gain setting.
The difference between the new and the old gain setting [ for the
block signal ] is the transfer correction.
Correction for angle beam testing :
Plot the DAC curve from the recommended reference block. Using
the probe to be used for testing as a transmitter and a similar
angle probe as a receiver, position both on the reference block,
facing each other at one full skip distance apart. Set the flaw
detector in dual probe mode. Keep the transmitter probe still and
move the receiver probe to maximize the received signal. Adjust
the gain control to peak this signal on the line of the DAC curve.
Record the gain used for this condition.
Repeat the same technique as mentioned above on the
component to be tested. The probe position should be in the
same direction as to be used for the actual examination. Record
the new gain setting.
The difference in gain value is the transfer correction.
Transfer correction may be positive or negative and the
adjustments in the DAC gain setting will be made accordingly. This
corrected gain setting will be used as the discontinuity evaluation
sensitivity for the examination.
The transfer correction value should not be more than 6 dB. The
value of transfer correction increases with probe angle. For
reliability, the transfer correction value should be determined in at
least three different locations of the test part. To ensure that
useful transfer correction factor is obtained, signal comparison
should be made in the far zone of the ultrasonic beam.

Twin Crystal Probe :

The twin crystal probe is designed to eliminate the dead zone
problem of a single crystal probe. But actually, a twin crystal probe
also has a dead zone of few millimeters.
Twin crystal probe contains two independent crystals in a single
housing. The crystals are mounted on plastic delay lines that are
usually cut at an angle to the horizontal plane [ forms the roof
angle ], so that the transmitting and receiving beam paths cross
beneath the surface of the test piece. The dead zone is where the
transmitting and receiving beams have not converged. In this
arrangement, one of the crystals transmits ultrasound and the other
receives the reflected signal. The crystal assemblies are separated
by some form of acoustic barrier [ usually Cork ] to prevent cross
talk noise.
A highly penetrating couplant should not be used, otherwise
damage to this cross talk barrier may take place. Dual crystal
configuration almost eliminates dead zone, improves near surface
and lateral resolution and performs well on corroded back walls
and rough entry surfaces. The crossed beam design acts as
pseudo focus and increases sensitivity for short range flaw
detection. In general, a decrease in the roof angle or an increase
in the crystal size will result in a longer pseudo -focal distance and
an increase in the useful test range of the probe.
Range calibration :
Angled crystal arrangement in dual probe produces a V-path in
the test specimen and hence the sound travel path is more than
the actual thickness of the part. Because of this condition, multiple
back reflections are not used for range calibration when accuracy
of calibration is desired.
For accurate range calibration two independent thickness sections,
one near the start and the other near the end of the required test
range are used. The lower thickness echo is set by the delay
control and the higher thickness echo by the fine range control.
Echo positioning requires many repetitions. Calibrated range will be
accurate between the two selected calibration block thickness.
The calibrated screen does not contain the initial echo because
of the long delay path in the plastic delay line and permits flaw
detection and measurement near the surface. Multiple reflections in
the transmitter delay line is not detected because the transmitter
crystal does not have any reception function. A small cross-talk
echo may appear on the screen and its height will decrease when
the probe is coupled to the test material.
Accuracy of calibration may be checked on a step wedge block
for thickness measurement applications.
Dual crystal probes are useful for detecting discontinuities closer
to the scanning surface. The probe exhibits high sensitivity and
produces good signal amplitude from small discontinuities located
within short distance. After the pseudo focus, the sensitivity drops
rapidly and the useful range for detecting smaller flaws is around
50 mm. [ - 6 dB sensitivity ]
Dual crystal probes are excellent for thickness measurements in
thinner sections, inspection of cladding and bonding, lamination
testing in thinner plates, evaluation of castings and other sound
scattering materials and for measuring corrosion in low thickness
plates and tubing. When measuring very thin sections with larger
probes, sound may bounce twice within the part before reaching
the receiving crystal and record twice the actual thickness.

Ultrasonic wave :
Ultrasound is transmission of energy through an elastic medium,
by means of vibrations of the particles. The vibrating particles
transfers some of the vibrational [ mechanical ] energy on to
neighboring particles and force them to vibrate. The energy thus
propagates through particles. Because of this, sound cannot
propagate in vacuum.
Sound generated above 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound. Ultrasound
propagates more easily through solids than through liquids or
gasses. Ultrasound with frequencies of 1 MHz and above is
directional, has short wavelength, and gets reflected from small
discontinuities in materials. This property makes ultrasound useful
for detecting and locating defects in materials.
Wave length : Ultrasonic vibrations travel in the form of waves. The
distance, measured along the line of propagation, between two wave
surfaces in which the phase differs by one complete period is
wavelength. It is not the material's particles that moves through the
thickness, it is the vibrational [ mechanical ] energy that is
transferred from one particle to another.
Frequency : The number of wave lengths [ vibration cycles of a
particle ] completed in one second is frequency.
Unit of frequency is Hertz [ Hz ]
1000 Hz is equal to 1 KHz, 1000 KHz is 1 MHz.
If a 2 megahertz probe is used for an inspection, that means the
parts particles will vibrate 2000000 times per second. Ultrasound
travels in Steel, 5960000 mm in 1 second, i. e. 2000000 waves will
occupy 5960000 mm. So wave length in this case is 2.98 mm.
Frequency depends on the probe and does not change with test
material.
Cycle : The particles are displaced, first in the forward direction
and then in the opposite direction. These two displacements equal
one cycle.
Period : The time required to complete a full cycle of vibration of a
particle is period.
Period is one second divided by frequency. [ T = 1 / F ]
Velocity : Velocity is the speed of energy transfer between two
points. The distance of propagation of the wave [ energy ] in one
second is the velocity of the wave. Velocity of ultrasound in a
perfectly elastic material at a given temperature and pressure is
constant. Velocity depends on the density, elasticity and rigidity of
the test material.

Velocity, Frequency and Wavelength are related as,

Velocity = Frequency X Wavelength.
Acoustic pressure [ P ] is the amplitude of alternating stresses on
the material by a propagating ultrasonic wave.
P = acoustic impedance X amplitude of particle vibration.
Ultrasonic Intensity [ I ] is the transmission of mechanical energy,
through an unit cross- section area, which is perpendicular to the
direction of the wave propagation.
I = [ acoustic pressure X amplitude of particle vibration ]
Important : The minimum size of a detectable reflector is generally
considered to be half of the test wavelength. Smaller than this,
reflectors scatter sound energy [ reflects energy in random fashion ]
without producing flaw indications. Discontinuity, with thickness of
quarter wavelength or more reflects ultrasound very well. In addition
to the reflection ultrasonic waves get deflected [ spreads out ] from
the edges of a discontinuity.
[ known as tip Diffraction and is useful for measuring the size of
cracks ]
For satisfactory transmission and reception of ultrasound between
the probe and the part, the part surface should be sufficiently
smooth. The roughness of the surface should be less than
1/10 of the wavelength being used for the examination.

Ultrasound velocity in meters / sec and acoustic

2
impedance in gms / cm / sec :
Material
Longitudinal
Shear Impd
Steel
5900
3230
4.54
Cast Iron
5600
3220
4.0
Inconel
5820
3020
4.94
Aluminum
6320
3130
1.7
Acrylic
2730
1430
.32
Water
1480
-----.148
Brass
3830
2050
Titanium
6100
3120
2.76
Calculate wave length of ultrasound in steel and
water for a 2 MHz, 10 mm dia longitudinal wave
probe, Longitudinal velocity, in
steel 5900 Mtrs / sec, water 1480 Mtrs / sec.
Velocity = Frequency X Wavelength.
or, Wavelength = Velocity / Frequency.
6
steel = 5900 Mtrs / sec or 5.9 X 10 mm / sec.
6
water = 1480 Mtrs / sec or 1.48 X 10 mm / sec
6
Frequency = 2 MHz or 2 X 10 cycles / sec
( each cycle produces one wavelength )
Hence, Wavelength = 5.9 / 2
= 1.48 / 2
= 2.95 mm. = .74 mm
in steel
in water

Range calibration with the IIW V1 block :

The main objective of range calibration is to make the CRT
screen represent a desired material thickness. The CRT screen is
graduated in 50 small equal divisions, divided into 10 major groups.
By positioning the leading edge of the echoes of known material
distances to appropriate scale divisions, different test ranges are
calibrated.
100 mm full scale :
Set the coarse range control to 50 mm. In this position, the range
can be calibrated between 50 mm full scale minimum to 250 mm
range full scale maximum. Now Place the probe on the broad face
of the IIW - V1 block, i.e. Pos 1. Multiple echoes of the block
thickness will appear on the screen with distances of 25, 50, 75,
100 mm etc[ use the fine range control to compress or expand
the screen display and the bring the required calibration echoes
within the display screen ]
Now, using the delay control, set the leading edge of the 25 mm
[ first back reflection ] echo at 12.5 th small scale division. Position
the leading edge of the 100 mm echo [ Fourth back reflection ] at
50 th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these
adjustments till both the echoes are accurately positioned [ fixed ]
on the scale. To check the calibration, place the probe at pos 2,
the first back wall echo shall appear at 50 th scale division.
The calibrated range is valid for similar material only.
Minimum calibration range possible is equal to one block thickness.
Alternate Method :
Place the probe at Pos 2. Back wall echoes with 100 mm interval
will appear along with the side wall reflection echoes between them
[ use fine range control ]. Use lower gain setting. Correctly identify
the first and second back wall reflections. Side wall echoes are
smaller and appear after each back wall echo. Position the first
back reflection at 0 division of the scale with the delay control. Set
the second back reflection at 50 th small scale division with the
fine range control.
Repeat these adjustments till the echoes are accurately positioned
on the scale. The screen now displays from 100 mm to 200 mm.
Shift the first back reflection to 50 th small scale division with the
delay control only to bring the first 100 mm range within the display
screen.
Full Scale 200 mm :
With the probe at pos 2, set the first back reflection to 25 th
division with delay control and the second back reflection to the
50 th division with the fine range control.
Repeat till positioning is accurate.
Check the calibration accuracy from pos 3.

Required range 100 mm :

Number of small divisions on the scale = 50
1 small scale division = 100 / 50 or 2 mm
distance to 1 st indication = 25 mm [ Probe position 1 ]
location on scale = 25 / 2
= 12.5 th small scale division.
distance to 2 nd indication = 50 mm
location on scale = 50 / 2
= 25 th small scale division.
Set the 25 mm indication at 12.5 th small scale division with
delay and the 50 mm indication at 25 th small scale division
with the fine range control.
For accuracy of calibration, the first and the last possible echo
[ within the calibrating range ] should be positioned, to reduce
the flaw detectors horizontal linearity error.

IIW block :
for calibration of
test ranges,
probe and flaw
detectors
performance
check.

Calibration of 100 mm full scale for shear wave probe using

a longitudinal wave probe and V1 block :
Angle probe range calibration with the IIW V1 block normally
provides 150 and 250 mm minimum calibrated distances. A 100
mm distance calibration is possible by separately scanning the
25 and the 100 mm radius.
The 91 mm step in the IIW block is also useful for calibrating
100 mm full scale for shear wave probes. The travel time for 91
mm steel by longitudinal wave equals travel time of 50 mm steel
by shear wave. This is because the velocity of shear wave is
nearly 50 % of longitudinal wave. Hence, this 91 mm thickness is
considered to be 50 mm equivalent for a shear wave probe.
Procedure : With the coarse range at 50 mm, pick up two back
reflections from the 91 mm step using a normal probe.
Position the 1st back reflection at half scale with the delay
control and the 2 nd back reflection at full scale location with
the range control. Repeat till the echoes are positioned.
Be careful to correctly identify the side wall reflections
appearing after each back reflection.
The range thus obtained is theoretically equivalent to 100 mm
for a shear wave probe.
Delay correction for the Shear wave probe : A delay correction
for the plastic wedge is required to correctly set the scale to
100 mm with each shear wave probe.
Scan the 100 mm radius with the shear wave probe for which
the range is to be calibrated and maximize the signal obtained
from the radius. Observe the location of this indication on the
scale and bring it to the full scale location using the delay
control only.

Maximizing the 100 mm radius signal, produces indications

with distances of 100, 225, 350 etc. By positioning the 100
and 225 mm indications at 4th and 9th division respectively,
250 mm range is obtained.
If the 25 mm radius is scanned the indications will appear at
25 mm, 150 mm, 275 mm etc. [ echo separation for this
block is 125 mm ]

Calibration of shear wave test ranges with the

V2 calibration block :
Position the exit point [ as found by scanning the 25 mm radius
of the block ] of the angle probe on the center of the
scale marked on the face of the V2 calibration block to obtain
the maximized signal from the 25 mm radius.
Alternatively, move the probe above the scale area to obtain the
maximized signal from the 25 mm radius.
Set the coarse range control to 50mm.
The echoes with distances of 25 and 100 mm will appear on the
screen [ use the fine range control to compress the screen and
bring the echoes within view ] Set the gain control to display clear
interpretable signals.
Full scale 100 mm :
Position the 25 mm echo at 12.5 th small scale division with the
delay control.
Adjust the fine range control to position the 100 mm echo at
50 th scale division.
Repeat these adjustments till the echoes are accurately
positioned.
To confirm the accuracy of calibration, scan the 50 mm radius of
the block, the maximized indication shall form on the 25 th division
on the CRT screen [ 2 X 12.5 divisions ].
Full scale 125 mm :
To calibrate 125 mm full scale, position the 25 mm echo at
10 th small scale division with the delay control and the 100 mm
echo at 40 th small scale division with the fine range control.
Full scale 200 mm :
To calibrate 200 mm full scale, set the coarse range control to
250 mm position, because shear wave velocity is nearly 50 % of
longitudinal wave.
Bring the 25, 100 and 175 mm echoes within the screen [ use
fine range control ].
Now position the 25 mm echo at 6.25 th small scale division
with the delay control and the 100 mm echo at 25 th small scale
division with the fine range control, repeat adjustments till the
echoes are accurately positioned. Check accuracy of calibration.

Probe angle check using the 5 mm dia through drilled hole.

Only reflections from 25 mm radius reach crystal.

Calibration of 125 and 200 mm using V2 block :

Move the probe over the scaled area to obtain the maximized
signal from the 50 mm radius. The beam index point of the probe
can be found by marking the probe body, above the central line
of the scale divisions.
Set the coarse range control to 50 mm .
Using the fine range control, compress the scale and bring the
50 and 125 mm distance signals within the CRT screen.
Full scale 125 mm :
Position the 50 mm signal at 20 th small scale division with the
delay control. Adjust the fine range control to position the 125 mm
signal at 50 th small scale division. Repeat these adjustments till
the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further
adjustments.
Check calibration using the 25 mm radius, maximum signal shall
appear at 10 th division.
Full scale 200 mm :
Set the coarse range switch to 250 mm position.
Compress the scale using fine range and bring 50, 125 and 200
mm echo signals within the screen.
Position the 50 mm [ 1 st echo ] at 12.5 th small scale division
with the delay control and the 200 mm [ 3 rd echo ] at 50 th small
scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these adjustments
till the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further
adjustments.

Range calibration procedure :

Required range 125 mm ;
Number of small divisions in the scale = 50
1 small scale division = 125 / 50 or 2.5 mm
distance to 1 st indication = 50 mm
location on scale = 50 / 2.5
= 20 th small scale division
th
[ 4 mark on the screen ]
distance to 2 nd indication = 125 mm
location on scale = 125 / 2.5
= 50 th small scale division.
th
[ 10 mark on the screen ]
Set the 50 mm indication at 20 th small scale division with
delay control and the 125 mm indication at 50 th small scale
division with the fine range control. Repeat the adjustments till
the indications are accurately positioned.

Maximizing the indication from the 50 mm

radius of the block, produces signals at 50,
125 and 200 mm etc

AWS - DC type block designed for distance and

beam index calibration of angle beam probes. This
is a simple block for calibrating a shear wave
probe. The block has 1" radius overlying a 2" radius
on 180 degree half circle. The block produces 1
and 2 inch echoes and calibration is easy. This
block can be easily machined and is useful when
standard blocks are not available for non ferrous
material testing. Block thickness is 1 inch.

Ultrasound propagates by
means of the oscillatory
motion of the atomic or
molecular particles in the
medium.
Ultrasound wave modes :
All material substances are composed of atoms, which may be
forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions.
When the particles are displaced from their equilibrium positions
by any applied force, internal stress acts to restore the particles
to their original positions. Because of this inter-atomic forces
between adjacent particles, a displacement at one point induces
displacement at neighboring points and so on, thus propagating
a stress - strain wave. The actual displacement of matter that
occur in ultrasonic wave is very small.
The amplitude, mode of vibration and the velocity of the wave
differ in solids, liquids and gasses because of the large
differences in the mean distances between particles in these
form of matters. These differences influence the forces of
attraction between particles and the elastic behavior of the
materials. In air, sound travels by compressions and rarefactions
of the air molecules in the direction of sound propagation and
generate longitudinal wave. In solids, the molecules can support
vibrations in other directions, hence, a number of different types
of sound wave modes are possible.
Longitudinal or Compressoinal wave is generated when the
external applied force produces vibration of the particles in the
direction of the wave propagation. The wave produces alternate
zones of compressions and rarefactions. Longitudinal wave can
propagate by simply pushing the particles of the medium and
hence can be generated in gasses, liquids and solids. Because
of its easy generation and detection, longitudinal wave is most
widely used in ultrasonic testing. Almost all of the ultrasonic
energy used for material testing is generated in this mode and
is then converted to other wave modes for different testing
applications. Straight beam examination utilize these waves.
Shear waves can have the vibration at any angle with respect
to the direction of wave propagation and can therefore be
polarized. Shear wave is commonly described as a wave with
particle vibration perpendicular to wave propagation. These waves
propagate with a velocity which is about 55 % of longitudinal
waves. Shear waves will not propagate in liquids and gasses
since these mediums do not support shear forces. Shear wave
has shorter wavelength, can detect smaller flaws and has higher
attenuation compared to equivalent longitudinal wave. Angle
beam examination mostly utilize shear waves.
Surface waves propagate along the surface of a metal with an
elliptical particle motion. To sustain the waves, the medium above
the metal surface must be gas or a very thin layer of liquid
couplant. The waves propagate along the test surface through a
thickness of only one wavelength. At one wavelength deep, the
wave energy drops to only 4 %. The waves have a velocity of
approximately 92 % of equivalent shear wave.
Surface wave follows curved surfaces and gets reflected from
sharp corners, surface and very near surface discontinuities.
Surface wave has low attenuation and high sensitivity for
detection of surface defects.
Lamb wave or plate waves are produced by an angulated
compression wave launched into a thin plate [ few wavelengths
thick ]. Lamb waves are zig zag reflected longitudinal and
transverse waves, but bounded by the sheet or plate surfaces

causing a wave guide effect. Some particles oscillate

0
90 to the plate surfaces and others at various
angles. They propagate by flexing the plate surfaces
and saturate the plate thickness. Lamb wave testing
is usually done by mechanized scanning systems.
Mode conversion : Ultrasonic wave when reflected
may change from one form to another, i.e. from
0
longitudinal to shear, shear to surface etc. If a 60
0
shear wave hits a vertical plane at 30 angle of
incidence, the wave changes to longitudinal mode
with nearly 20 dB loss of energy. The mode changes
are accompanied by the appropriate change in
0
velocity. 60 probes are not suitable for vertical
defects, tandem technique, weld root face.

Welding defects :
Crack : Cracks are rupture of metal caused by severe heat and stress.
Crack can occur anywhere in the weld metal, heat affected zone and
in the base metal. Longitudinal cracks propagate along the weld length.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the weld seam. Crater cracks
form at the weld surface and radiate out in many directions [ visible at
surface ]. Base metal cracks may be in any orientation to the weld.
Tight crack produces small indication or no indication at all. Opened
cracks usually produce recognizable high amplitude broad based
indication with wide signal envelope.
Lack of penetration : Incomplete filling and not bridging the gap of the
weld root opening. Weld metal does not extend entirely through the
joint thickness. For welding from one side, this discontinuity is open to
the surface. Produces high amplitude sharp indication from the corner
of the root face, detectable from both the sides of the weld. Plotting
does not cross over the root centerline. Cross over indicates probability
of root lack of fusion or root undercut.
Lack of fusion / Cold lap : Failure of the weld metal to fuse along the
edges of the base metal [ bevel ] or lack of bond between adjacent
weld passes [ an area of the parent metal or already solidified weld
metal does not get melted to fuse with the weld metal ]. Usually caused
by improper heat or poorly prepared weld surfaces. Lack of fusion may
have slag associated with it. Produces high amplitude sharp indication,
0
only when intercepted at 90 , usually detectable from one side of the
weld only. When slag is present, the defect is detectable from both
the sides of the weld.
Slag / Inclusions : Entrapment of foreign material in the weld metal. Slag
may be small irregular fragments or elongated. Slag lines follow the
direction of welding and will be located along the weld groove edge or
between passes following a valley left by weld passes. Produces
forked, broad based, lower height indication, Usually detectable from both
the sides of the weld.
Porosity : Porosity occurs when gasses in the molten weld metal fails
to escape before solidification of the weld material. Occurs anywhere
within the weld. Isolated pore is a single spherical gas pocket.
Scattered porosity is random distribution of single pores. Cluster
porosity is a group of pores. Wormhole is an elongated
[ tunneling ] pore. Hollow bead is an elongated gas pocket that tunnels
down the root pass in the direction of welding.
Single pore produces a narrow base sharp small amplitude indication.
Single and dispersed / scattered pores are difficult to detect.
Cluster will produce broad base indication with multiple peaks.
Root concavity : The root of the weld is fused but the center of the
root weld pass is below the surface of the adjacent base material. This
defect occurs on joints that are welded from one side only, where
excessive melting of the underside occurs. This discontinuity is open to
the surface. Detectable as low amplitude signal from both the sides of
the weld. Plotting short of plate thickness with no crossover. Difficult to
0
detect if wide and shallow. [ a 45 probe is preferred ]
Undercut : Undercut is a groove cut along the edge of the weld,
caused by excessive melting of base material and left unfilled by the
weld metal. Undercut forms on any or all the four edges of the weld. It
is open to the surface. Produces sharp indication at half or full skip
0
beam path, amplitude depends on depth of cut [ 45 probe preferred ].
May produce twin peaked signal due to beam spread hitting both the
defect and the root bead. Plots short of plate thickness with no cross
over.
Excess Penetration : Excess metal accumulation at root, occurs mostly
after root repair. Low amplitude signal from the root bead, detectable
from both the sides, distinguishing feature is ringing of the falling edge
of the signal. Beam path just longer than half skip beam path. Plots
deeper than plate thickness level with cross over.
Misalignment with / without penetration : Misalignment of the members is
visible at the surface. Produces high amplitude root signal detectable
from the member which is lower in height. Scanning from the other
member does not produce any indication.
Backing Bar : The inherent gap between the backing bar and the base
material and the edges of a narrow backing strip produce indications.
Other defects : Irregular weld surface, Excessive capping, Under fill,
Irregular root penetration, Burn through, Tungsten [ GTAW ],

Weld Scanning calculations :

[ for flat plates ]
Half skip distance
Thickness X Tan A
Half skip Beam path
Thickness / Cos A
or, Thickness X SF
Full skip distance
2 Thickness X Tan A
Full skip Beam path
2 Thickness / Cos A
or, 2 Thickness X SF
A is effective probe angle,
SF [ Slant factor = 1 / Cos A ]
A

Tan 80 0
Tan 70 0
Tan 60 0
Tan 45 0
Cos 80 0
Cos 70 0
Cos 60 0
Cos 45 -

Weld scanning with angle probes :

In angle beam weld testing, the probe is moved in a Zig
Zag path, perpendicular to the axis of the weld, from the
edge of the weld to full skip distance. [ 2 Thk X Tan A ]
The distance [ along the test surface ] between the center /
root of the weld to probe exit point, when the sound beam
hits the root of the weld is known as Half skip distance.
The distance, where the beam hits the top [ plate level ] of
the weld is Full skip distance.
First, the angle probe movement area should be scanned
with a suitable single / twin normal probe to detect presence
of laminar flaws which may prevent full body weld testing.
For sensitivity, second backwall echo should be set to full
screen height. If the weld surface condition permits, then the
weld volume should be scanned with a twin crystal normal
probe from the surface of the weld to detect internal flaws.
This is a good technique for detecting slag, porosity and
root penetration.
To scan the full body of the weld and to detect
discontinuities along the fusion lines, the weld must be
scanned with different angle probes and from both the sides
of the weld [ scan 1, 2 ].
Thick welds [ > 50 mm ] should be scanned from all the four
surfaces [ up to half skip distance from each surface ].
Attempt should be made to hit the defect with shorter beam
path to produce good signal amplitude for evaluation. Care
should be taken to detect fusion line discontinuities with a
suitable angle probe [ perpendicular hit ]. The weld should be
scanned for transverse defects also by directing the sound
beam nearly parallel to the weld seam [ probe body nearly
parallel to the weld seam, scan 3a ]. Weld scanning sensitivity
must be at least 6 to 12 dB above the flaw evaluation gain
setting. Slag fragments and dispersed porosity is difficult to
detect at DAC gain setting. Ideal sensitivity standard is the
smallest flaw placed in the test block at maximum test
distance. The flaw detector / probe combination shall be able
to produce a clear signal from the smallest flaw to be
detected throughout the scanning range. Maximum sensitivity
can be achieved by adjusting the gain to produce grass up
.

5.67
2.74
1.73
1.0
0.17
0.34
0.50
0.70

SF

80 0
70 0
60 0
45 -

5.75
2.94
2.0
1.41

to the maximum test distance.

A fixed root scan should be carried out from both
sides of the weld using a guide strip. For weld root
0
examination, a 45 angle probe exhibits good sensitivity.
The probe will also produce indications from irregular
0
[ corroded / pitted ] undersurface. A 60 probe may hit
0
the root with 30 angle of incidence. This will cause
0
mode conversion and loss of signal amplitude. A 70
probe does not produce good signal from root
discontinuities with rounded reflecting surface such as a
concave root or shallow undercut. Misaligned root may
produce strong signal, detectable from one side of the
weld. Misalignment may produce Lack of penetration.
For evaluation of root defects reference notches may
be given consideration. Unnecessary root repair should
be avoided.
Wherever possible, reflections, located near the surfaces
should be checked by finger damping.
Generally selected angle probes for weld scanning,
0
4 to 6 mm -- 80
0
up to 10 mm -- 70
0
0
up to 25 mm -- 70 and 60
0
0
more than 25 mm -- 60 and 45
0
0
For curved surfaces / welds 45 and 60 probes are
more suitable because of lesser increase in beam path.