CHAPTER-2

PREDICTING FORMATION PRESSURES

Several methods of pressure prediction is available to the engineer. These
methods can be grouped logically as follows:
-areal analysis from seismic data,
-off-set well correlation log analysis, drilling parameter evaluation, production or
test data,
-real time evaluation as , a) qualitative, b) quantitative.
The real time analysis involves monitoring drilling and logging parameters
while the prospect well is drilled.

Origin of Abnormal Pressures

By definition, abnormal pressure is any geo-pressure that is different
from the established normal trend for the given area and depth. Pressure may
be less than normal, called sub-normal or greater than normal pressure which
has been termed geo-pressured, super pressured or simply abnormal pressure.
Sub-normal pressures present few direct well control problems. However,
subnormal pressures do cause many drilling and well planning problems. For
clarity, the term abnormal pressure will identify the pressures greater than
normal. Formation pressure is the presence of fluids in the pore spaces of the
rock matrix. These fluids are typically gas or salt water. The overburden stress

is created by the weight of the overlying rock matrix and the fluid filled pores.
The rock matrix stress is the overburden stress minus the formation pressure.
For general calculations the overburden stress gradient is often assumed to be
1.0 psi/ft with a density of 19.23 lb/gal, an average weight of fluid-filled rock.
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the
native formation fluids. In most cases, the fluids vary from fresh water with
density of 8.33 lb/gal (0.433 psi/ft) to salt water with density of 9.0 lb/gal
(0.465 psi/ft). However, some field reports indicate instances when the normal
formation fluid density was greater than 9.0 lb/gal. Regardless of the fluid
density, the normal pressure formation can be considered as an open hydraulic
system where pressure can easily be communicated throughout.
Formation pressures resulting from under compaction often cab be
approximated with some simple calculations. If it is assumed that compaction
does not occur below the barrier depth, the formation fluid below the barrier
must support overburden, rock matrix and the formation fluids. The pressure
can be calculated as:
P = 0.465 psi/ft (DB)+ 1.0 psi/ft (Di DB)
DI = depth of interest below the barrier, ft
DB = depth of barrier, ft
P = formation pressure at Di , psi

Figure 1.1 Abnormal pore pressures are generated in the under-compacted

region because the shale matrix cant support the overburden stress

Example 1-1:
A well is drilled to 15000 ft. The entrance into the abnormal pressures at
10000 ft is caused by under compaction. Calculate the expected formation
pressure at 15000 ft. Assume formation fluid and overburden stress gradients
are 0.465 psi/ft and 1.0 psi/ft respectively?

Solution:
The formation pressure at 15000 ft:
P = 0.465 psi/ft (DB)+ 1.0 psi/ft (Di DB)

P = 0.465 psi/ft (10000)+ 1.0 psi/ft (15000 10000)

P = 9650 psi
P = (9650 / 0,052 x 15000)
P = 12.4 ppg

Log Analysis
Log analysis is a common procedure for pore pressure estimation in both
off-set wells and the actual well drilling. New measurement while drilling (MWD)
tools implement log analysis techniques in real time drilling mode.
The resistivity log was originally used for pressure detection. The log
response is based on the electrical resistivity of the total sample, which includes
the rock matrix and the fluid-filled porosity. If a zone is penetrated that has
abnormally high porosities ( at the same time high pressure) the resistivity of
the rock will be reduced due to the greater conductivity of water than rock
matrix. The expected response can be seen in Figure 1-2. This figure illustrates
several important points. Since the high formation pressures were originally
developed in shale sections and later equilized the sand zone pressures, only the
clean shale sections are used as plotting points. This excludes sand resistivities,
silty shale, lime and any other type of rock that may be encountered. As the
shale resistivities are selected and plotted, a normal trend line should develop
prior to entry into the pressured zone. An actual field case can be seen in Fig. 1-

2. The impermeable .shale section was entered at about 9,500 ft. Although this
section contained normal pressure from 9,500-9,800 ft, as evidenced by the
increasing resistivity of the normal trend, the reversal can be seen from 9,80010,900 ft. The mud weight was 9.0 lb/gal at 9.500 ft but was increased to
13.5 lb/gal at 10,900 ft.

Figure 1-2 Generalized shale resistivity plot

Hottman and Johnson developed a technique based on empirical

relationships whereby an estimate of formation pressures could be made by
noting the ratio between the observed and normal rock resistivities. As they
explained, the following steps arc necessary to estimate the formation pressure.
1. The normal trend is established by plotting the logarithm of shale resistivity
vs depth.
2. The top of the pressured interval is found by noting the depth at which the
plotted points diverge from the trend.
3. The pressure gradient at any depth is found as follows:
a) The ratio of the extrapolated normal shale resistivity to the observed shale
resistivity is determined.
b) The formation pressure corresponding to the calculated ratio is found from
Fig. 1-3.

Figure 1-3 Shale resistivity from the log

Figure 1-4 Emprical correlation of formation pressure gradient vs. a

ratio of normal to obseerved shale resistivity

Example 1-2:
Plot the data given below on a semi-log paper. Where does the entrance
into the abnormal pressure occur? Use Hottman and Johnson procedure to
compute formation pressure at each 1000 ft interval below the entrance into
pressures?
Resistivity,
ohm-m

0.54
0.64
0.60
0.70
0.76
0.60
0.70
0.74
0.76
0.82
0.90
0.84

Depth, ft

Resistivity,
ohm-m

4000
4600
5600
6000
6400
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9700
10100

0.80
0.76
0.58
0.45
0.36
0.30
0.28
0.29
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30

Depth, ft

10400
10700
10900
11000
11100
11300
11600
11900
12300
12500
12700
12900

Solution:
1- Plot the data. (Figure 1-5)
2- The estimated entrance into abnormal pressure occurs at 9700 ft.
3- Extrapolate the normal trend established between 8000 ft and 9700 ft.

Figure 1-5 Resitivity plot of example 1-2

4- The observed and extrapolated resistivities are at the bottom are 0.30 and
1.60 ohm-m.
5-Compute the ratio of Rnormal (Rn) and Robserved (Rob). R = Rn / Rob

R = 1.60 / 0.30
R = 5.333
6- From Fig. 1-4, the formation pressure associated with a ratio of 5.333 is 18
ppg.
Salinity Changes:
The Hottman and Johnson procedure, as well as the overlay techniques,
assume that formation resistivities are function or the following variables:
-lithology
-fluid content
-salinity
-temperature
-porosity
The procedures make the following assumptions with respect to these variables:
-lithology is shale,
-shale is water filled.
-water salinity is constant.
-temperature gradients are constant.
-porosity is the only variable affecting the pore pressure.
Foster and Whalen developed techniques for predicting formation
pressure in regions that have salinity variations. Their techniques have proved
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successful and can be applied universally, although the complexity associated

with their use prevents wide acceptance. New computerized applications help
make the technique more useful. The Foster and Whalen method is based on a
formation factor, F, and its relationship to the shale resistivity and formation
water resistivity:
F=Ro / Rw
F = formation factor, dimensionless
Ro = shale resistivity, ohm-m,
Rw= formation water resistivity, ohm-m.
The shale resistivity, Ro

is read directly from the log. The water

resistivity, Rw is computed from the mud filtrate resistivity, Rmf. The SP

deflection is computed from the shale base line. The formation pressures are
calculated from a plot of formation factors and the depth equivalent approach,
as previously presented. Example 1.3 will illustrate the procedures required to
calculate Rw and F.
Exampe 1-3:
Use the following data to calculate F and Rw. Assume that all the bed
thickness corrections are made.
Ro = 0.98 ohm-m
SP = -87 mv (deflection from shale base line)
Temp. = 190 F at 8000 ft

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Depth of interest = 8000 ft

Rmf = 0.40 ohm-m at 90 F
NaCl=12000 ppm

Solution:
1-From

Figure

1-6,

value

of

-87

mv

yields

10.5

for

the

ratio.

2-The resistivity of the mud filtrate, Rmf, is 0.40 ohm-m at 90 F. It must be

converted to an equivalent value of Rmfe. (Fig. 1-8).
3- From Fig. 1-8, Rmfe = 0.195 ohm-m.

Figure 1-6 Rwe determination

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4-Combining step 1 & 2.

SP = Rmfe / Rwe
10.5 = 0.98 / Rwe
Rwe = 0.0185 ohm-m
5- Fig. 1-7 is used to convert Rwe to Rw, or 0.028 ohm-m
F = Ro / Rw
F = 0.98 / 0.028
F = 35

Figure 1-7 Rwe conversion to Rw

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Formation pressure calculations are made at defining the depth, in the

normal pressure region that has a formation factor of equivalent to the deeper
depth of interest. The upper depth is defined as the equivalent depth, De.
DG = 0.465 psi/ft (De) + (D - De) (1.0 psi/ft)
D = depth of interest, ft
De = equivalent depth, ft
G = formation pressure gradient, psi/ft at D
1.0 psi/ft = assumed overburden stress gradient
If the depths D and De are known, the formation pressure gradient, G, is
computed as

G = [ (1 psi/ft) D - 0.535 De ] / D

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Figure 1-8 Temperature correction for Rw and Rmf

Example 1-4:
The following log data were taken from a well that is suspected to have
significant salinity variations in the formation fluids. Use Foster-Whalen method

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to calculate formation pressures at each of the given depths. Assume that all
appropriate bed thickness corrections have been made to log values.
Logging Depths:

Depth, ft
10300
11400

Rmf- ohm-m
0.65 at 90 F
0.89 at 80 F

Depth, ft

Temp., F

3900
5400
6900
7700
8900
9700
10300
10700
10850
11400
12000
12600
12800

114
135
162
170
191
201
211
218
221
239
250
261
270

Robs, ohm-m

SP
mv

0.76
0.76
0.84
0.96
0.99
1.23
1.02
0.93
0.73
1.30
1.70
2.08
1.03

Deflection,
-70
-76
-78
-85
-90
-87
-90
-94
-90
-60
-57
-38
-55

Solution:
The actual calculations will shown at a depth of 12800 ft.
1-The SP deflection from the shale baseline at 12800 ft is 55. From Fig. 1-6 a
55 mv value at 270 F correlates as:
Rmf(e) / Rw(e) = 3.77

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2-The resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) at 12800 ft is 1.03. From Fig. 1-8,
this value is corrected from 90 F to the bottom hole temperature of 270 F.
3- The results from the above steps:
Rmf(e) / Rw(e) = 3.77
0.34 / Rw(e) = 3.77
Rw(e) = 0.090
4- Convert Rw(e) to Rw ( Fig. 1-8)
5- The formation factor, F is computed as :
F = Ro / Rw
F = 1.03 / 0.086
F = 12

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Figure 1-9 Rwo,Ro, and F for Example 1.4

6-The values for Ro and Rw are plotted on Figure. 1-9.

7- A vertical line is constructed from the formation factor, F, at 12800 ft. (F =
12) until it intersects the normal trend line in the shallow sections. The points of
intersection are defined as the equivalent depth, or, 4800 ft.

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8-The formation pressure at 12800 ft is computed as.

G = [ (1 psi/ft) D - 0.535 De ] / D
G = [ (1 psi/ft) 12800 - 0.535 . 4800 ] / 12800
G = 0.799 psi/ft
G = 0.799 / 0.052
G = 15.4 ppg

Example 1-5:
The following sonic log was taken from a well in Oklahama. Plot the data on
semi-log paper. Use Hottman and Johnson technique to calculate the formation
pressure at 11900 ft.
Travel
sec/ft

190
160
140
120
122
105
110
99
99
98
100

Time,

Depth, ft

Travel
sec/ft

3400
5000
6600
7300
7900
8200
8600
9000
9200
9400
9600

100
110
100
110
101
101
105
100
110
100
-

Solution:
1-Plot the data on semi-log paper (Figure 1-10).

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Time,

Depth, ft

9800
10000
10200
10400
10600
10800
11100
11400
11600
11900
-

Figure 1-10 Sonic data plot

2-The divergence from the normal trend at 9500 ft denotes the entry into the
pressured zone.
3-At 12000 ft, the difference between the extrapolated normal trend and
observed value is 32 sec/ft.

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4- Enter Figure 1-11 with a value of 32 sec/ft and read the formation pressure
as 17 ppg.

Figure 1-11 Emprical correlation of formation pressure gradients vs. a

difference
observed and normal travel times (Hottman & Johnson)

Bulk Density
When drilling in normally pressured zone bulk density of the drilled rock
should increase due to compaction, or porosity reduction. As high formation
pressures are encountered. the associated high porosities, will cause a deviation
in the expected bulk density trend. A typical plot of bulk densities is seen in Fig.
1-12. The transition from normal to abnormal pressures occurs at the depth
where divergence from the normal trend is observed. The resistivity plot shows
transition zones at 10,700 and 12,500 ft. The density log detected the lower

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transition zone but was unable to define the upper transition zone due to the
lack of an established trend line.
Drilling Equations
Many mathematical models have been proposed in an effort to describe
the relationship of several drilling variables on penetration rate. Most depend on
the combination of several controllable variables and one combined formation
property.

Figure 1-12 Generalized shale density plot

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Several of the models are designed for easy application in the field,
while others require computerization. When conscientiously applied, most
of the available models can accurately detect and quantify abnormal
formation pressures. An attempt to quantify differential pressure is the
basis of most drilling models. If this value is known, the formation pressure
can readily be calculated. Gamier and van Lingen showed that differential
pressure has a definite effect on penetration. In field studies, Benit and
Vidrine found evidence that the range in differential pressure of 0-500
psi has the greatest effect in reducing penetration. Perhaps the most
common model used by the industry is the de-exponent. The basis of the
model is found in Gingham's equation to define the drilling process:

(R / 60N) = a (12W / dB)b

R = bit penetration rate, ft/hr
N = rotary speed, rpm
W= bit weight, l000 lb
de = bit diameter, in.
b = bit weight exponent, dimensionless
a = formation drillability, constant, dimensionless
Jordan and Shirley modified Bingham's equation to the following form:
d = [ log (R / 60N) ] / [log (12W / 1000 dB)]

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where; d replaces the b and a is assumed as unity. d depends more on

differential pressure than on operating parameters. In field applications
the d-exponent should respond to the effect of differential pressure.
Rehm and McClendon brought the equation to its final form by
realizing that mud weight increases would mask the difference between
normal and actual formation pressures. They proposed the normalization
ratio to account for the effect of mud weight increase:
dc = d (normal form. pressure ) / (actual mud weight)
dc = corrected d-exponent
d = original value,
normal form. pressure = ppg
actual mud weight = ppg

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Figure 1-13 Typical d exponent plot

Example 1-6:
Geological and bit records from a control well were used with the deexponent principle to determine formation pressures. Compute the form.
pressures. Prepare a plot of formation pressure vs. depth.

Solution:
1-Calculate d-exponent;
d = [log (R / 60N)] / [log (12W / 1000 dB)] at 500 ft;

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d = [log (95 / 60 (120))] / [log (12 (70) / 1000 (17.5))]

d= 1.425
2-The de-exponent is calculated as:
dc = d (9 /MW)
dc = 1.425 (9 / 9.2)
dc = 1.394
3-Plot dc-exponent.

Figure 1-14 dc exponent plot

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4-The formation pressure is computed as;

FP = (9d / dc) -0.3
where; 0.3 represents the trip margin. At 16000 ft, the FP is equivalent to
15.7 ppg.
5-The formation pressure plot is also prepared (Figure 1-15).

Figure 1-15 Formation pressure plot

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