BASIC DRILLING ENGINEERING

COURSE
(a guide for drilling engineers)
B. Basic Pore Pressure and Fracture
Gradient Estimate
Units of Measurement
Principal Units
The principal units of measurement used throughout this manual are as follows:
 PRESSURE: expressed in pounds per square inch (psi)
 DEPTH: expressed in feet (ft)
Mud Weight
Mud weight is generally expressed in pounds per US gallon (ppg) but it may also
be referred to in terms of Pressure Gradient i.e. psi/ft vertical depth.
Other mud weight units in use are;

 Pounds Per Cubic Foot: only in minority use, and

 Specific Gravity (SG): expressed as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of
mud to that of an equal volume of water at 4°C.
System International (SI) Units

SI is an updated metric system commonly used in the North Sea. These units, with
conversion factors are shown in Section 13.
Conversion Factors for other Mud Weight
Units
Specific Gravity x 0.433 = psi/ft
(mud weight) (pressure gradient)

Pounds per cubic foot ÷ 144 = psi/ft

(mud gradient) (pressure gradient)

Kilogrammes per cubic metre x 0.00044 = psi/ft

(pressure gradient)

The last equation may be easier to use when written as:

Kilogrammes per cubic metre 2262 = psi/ft

(pressure gradient)
Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) is defined as the pressure due to the

weight and vertical height of a column of fluid

HP = Fluid Density x True Vertical Depth (psi)

 Hydrostatic Pressure
(English Units)

A cubic foot contains 7.48 gallons and

exerts, for a fluid of 1ppg
a force of 7.48 lbsf / sq ft or

7.48 / 144 lbsf / sq in.

= 0.051944 lbf / sq in

This is usually rounded to 0.052

P (psi) = 0.052 x MW x TVD

 Hydrostatic Pressure (Cont’d)
For a fluid of a different mud weight we simply multiply this constant by
the density of the fluid for the gradient and this by the TVD to obtain the
Pressure.

For example: For a Mud Wt of 9.8 ppg, depth of

3,800 ft TVD of 3,118 ft
Mud Wt x Constant = Mud Gradient (psi / ft)
9.8 ppg x 0.052 = 0.5096 psi / ft

Mud Gradient x TVD = Bottom Hole Pressure (psi)

0.5096 psi / ft x 3,118 ft = 1588.93 psi
Exercise

Calculate for the following:

1. For a Mud weight of 12. 6ppg what is the gradient? What
is the bottom hole pressure for a 13,256 ft (TVD) well?
2. If my well is 17,678 ft (TVD) and my requires bottom hole
pressure is 8641psi, what Mud weight do I need? What is
the gradient?
3. What is the increase in bottom hole pressure if I drill from
6890 ft (TVD) to 10,975 ft (TVD) with a 10.5 ppg mud?
Formation Pressure

Also called Pore pressure. And it’s the pressure of the fluids in
the pore spaces of the rock matrix.

Significantly affects the well planning well costs, casing design

and mud weight selection.

It is particularly important to be able to predict and detect high

pressure zones, where there is the risk of a blow-out.

Formation Pressure

Correspondingly, the pore pressure gradient ranges from 0.433psi/ft (purewater) -

0.50psi/ft. In most geographical area the pore pressure gradient is approximately
0.465psi/ft.

Normal (equal to 0.465 psi/ft)

Normal Pore Pressure is the Hydrostatic Pressure of the fluid in which the
sedimentation took place

Sub-normal (i.e. less than 0.465 psi/ft): any formation pressure less than the
corresponding fluid hydrostatic pressure at a given depth
Formation Pressure
Ab-normal (i.e.higherthan0.465psi/ft)
These are formations whose pore pressure is greater than that corresponding to
the normal gradient of 0.465psi/ft.
Abnormal Pore Pressure is caused by:
Faults

Salt Domes

Formation dips

Erosion of the overburden

Detection Techniques
Detection techniques are used whilst drilling the well. They are basically used to
detect an increase in pressure in the transition zone. They are based on three
forms of data:
 Drilling parameters - observing drilling parameters (i.e. ROP) and applying
empirical equations to produce a term which is dependent on pore pressure.
 Drilling mud - monitoring the effect of an over pressured zone on the mud
(e.g. in temperature, influx of oil or gas).
 Drilled cuttings - examining cuttings, trying to identify cuttings from the
sealing zone.
Exercise
pressure information has been supplied for the well you are about to drill. Plot the
following pore pressure/depth information on a P-Z diagram:
Depth ft Pressure, psi

0 0
1000 465
5000 2325
8000 3720
8500 6800
9000 6850
9500 6900

b. Calculate the pore pressure gradients in the formations from surface; to 8000ft;
to 8500ft; and to 9500ft. Determine the mudweight required to drill the
holesection: down to 8000ft; down to 8500ft; and down to 9500ft.
Assume that 200psi overbalance on the formation pore pressure is required.
Exercise contd.
c. If the mud weight used to drill down to 8000ft were used to drill into
the formation pressures at 8500ft what would be the
over/underbalance on the formation pore pressure at this depth?

d. Assuming that the correct mud weight is used for drilling at 8500ft but
that the fluid level in the annulus dropped to 500ft below drill floor,
due to inadequate hole fill up during tripping. What would be the
effect on bottom hole pressure at 8500ft?

e. What type of fluid is contained in the formations below 8500ft?

Solution
b. The pore pressure gradients in the formations from surface are:
0 -8000 ft 3720/8000 = 0.465 psi/ft
0 - 8500 ft 6850/8500 = 0.800 psi/ft
0 - 9500 ft 6900/9500 = 0.726 psi/ft
Required Mud weight:

@ 8000 ft

3720 + 200 = 3920 psi 3920/8000 = 0.49 psi/ft = 9.42 ppg

@ 8500 ft

6800 + 200 = 7000 psi 7000/8500 = 0.82 psi/ft = 15.77 ppg

@ 9500 ft

6900 + 200 = 7100 psi 7100/9500 = 0.75 psi/ft = 14.42 ppg

Solution contd.
c. If the mud weight of 9.42ppg were used to drill at 8500ft the under balance would
be:
6800 - (8500 x 9.42 x 0.052) = 2636psi
Hence bore hole pressure is 2636 psi less than the formation pressure.
d. If, when using 0.82psi/ft (or15.77ppg) mud for the section at 8500ft, the fluid
level in the hole dropped to 500ft the bottom hole pressure would fall by:
500 x 0.82 = 410psi
Hence the pressure in the borehole would be 410psi below the formation pressure.
e. The density of the fluid in the formation between 8500 and 9500ft is: 6900 –
6800/1000=0.1psi/ft
The fluid in the formations below 8500ft is therefore gas.
Formation Fracture Pressure

Every formation has a limit to the pressure that it can withstand before it
permanently deforms or fractures. This limit needs to be determined so
that it is not exceeded in well control operations.

There are two systems for determining the upper pressure limit during
well killing operations:
 The Leak Off Test (LOT)
 The Formation Integrity Test (FIT)
 The Leak-Off Test
In practice, formation fracture pressures or, as they are commonly called, formation
breakdown pressures are determined in leak-offtests. The “Leak-off test” is used to
determine the pressure at which the rock in the open hole section of the well just
starts to break down (or “leak off”). These tests are normally performed at the start
of each new hole section, just after drilling out of a casing shoe of the previous hole
section.

The procedure is as follows:

1. drill to 5-10ft below the casing shoe
2. close the BOPs at surface
3. Raise the surface pressure in increments and record the volume pumped and
the pressure in the system at each volume increment.
4. stop pumping when the pressure in the well does not increase linearly for an
increase in the volumeof fluid pumped into the well
This information is usually plotted as shown in the graph
below
 The Leak-Off Test

The operation is generally stopped at the first point which deviates from
the straight line portion of the plot. The formation is then considered to
have started to fracture at point B on Figure.

This value can be used to determine the maximum pressure that must be
allowed to act at that point in the well and also to determine the
maximum mud weight which can be used in the subsequent open holes
ection

The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) Surface

Pressure
MAASP = Leak off pressure + Hydrostatic @ that point
 The Leak-Off Test

The fracture pressure of the formation just below the casing shoe is generally
expressed as an equivalent mud gradient(EMG) so that it can be compared with
the mud weight to be used in the subsequent hole section. and below can be
calculated from:

Maximum Mud Weight( psi/ft) = Pressure at shoe when Leak-off occurs (psi)
True Vertical Depth of the shoe (ft)

Usually a safety factor of 0.5ppg (0.026psi/ft) is subtracted from the

allowable mud weight.
Equivalent Circulating Density

The Equivalent Circulating Density or ECD is the sum of the

Hydrostatic Pressure and the Annular Pressure Loss (frictional
loss) when circulating.

An equivalent circulating density (ECD) can then be calculated

from the sum divided by the true vertical depth of the well.

Pd = annulus frictional pressure drop at a given circulation rate(psi)

Itshould be monitored to ensure that the pressure at the bottom

of the hole, due to the ECD of the fluid and system, does not
exceed the fracture pressure
Example
While performing a leak off test the surface pressure at leak off was 940 psi.
The casing shoe was at a true vertical depth of 5,010ft and a mud weight of
10.2 ppg was used to conduct the test.
The Maximum bottom hole pressure during the leak-off test can be calculated
from:
Hydrostatic pressure of Colum of mud + leak off pressure at surface
(0.052 x 10.2 x 5010) + 940 = 3597 psi
The maximum allowable mud weight at this depth is therefore:
= 3,597 psi / 5,010 ft
= 0.718 psi/ft
= 13.8 ppg
Allowing a safety factor of 0.5 ppg,

The maximum allowable mud weight = 13.8 - 0.5 = 13.3 ppg.

Example
a. A leak off test was carried out just below a 13-3/8” casing shoe at
7000ft. TVD using 9.0 ppg mud. The results of the tests are shown below.
What is the maximum allowable mudweight for the 12-1/4“ hole
section?
BBLS PUMPED SURFACE PRESSURE (psi)
1 400

1.5 670

2 880

2.5 1100

3 1350

3.5 1600

4 1800

4.5 1900

5 1920
Example (cont’d)
b. If the circulating pressure losses in the annulus of the above well is
300psi when drilling at 7500ft, what would be the ECD of a 9.5ppg mud
at 7500ft.

c. If a mud weight of 9.5ppg mud is required to drill the 12-1/4” hole

section of the above well what would the MAASP be when drilling this
hole section?
Solution
 It can be seen that at 1800psi surface pressure the uniform increase in
mud volume pumped into the hole did not result in a linear increase in
the pressure observed at surface.

This is an indication that the formation at the casing shoe has failed and
that the fluid pumped into the well is escaping into fractures in the
formation.
Solution (cont’d)
The maximum pressure that the formation will withstand at the Shoe (assumed to
be the weakest point in the next hole section) is therefore 1800psi with 9ppg mud
in the hole.
Thus the maximum absolute pressure that the formation will
withstand (with zero surface pressure) is:
(9ppg x 0.052 x 7000ft) + 1800psi = 5076psi.

The maximum allowable mud weight that can be used in the next
hole section is:
5076psi/7000ft = 0.73 psi/ft= 13.95ppg
A safety margin of 0.5ppg mud wight is generally subtracted from
the allowable mud weight calculated above.
Solution (cont’d)
The ECD of a 9.5ppg mud at 7500ft would be:
9.5 + (300/7500)/0.052 = 10.27ppg
The maximum allowable mud weight in the next hole section
is13.95ppg.

The pressure at the casing shoe with 13.95ppg mud:

13.95 x 0.052 x 7000 = 5078psi
The pressure at the casing shoe with 9.5ppg mud:
9.5 x 0.052 x 7000 = 3458psi
The MAASP is therefore = 5078 – 3458 = 1620psi
Overburden Pressure
The pressure exerted by the total weight of overlying formations above the
point of interest.
The total weight is the combined weight of both the formation solids (rock
matrix) and formation fluids in pore space.
The overburden pressure can therefore be expressed as the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by all materials overlying the depth of interest or:

where,
Ρb = bulk density of porous sediment
D = true vertical depth (ft)
And similarly as a Overburden gradient (EMW) in ppg:
Overburden Pressure (cont’d)
A common solution for overburden gradient under field
conditions of varying lithological and pore fluid density is given
by:
Overburden Pressure (cont’d)
The specific gravity of the rock matrix may vary from 2.1 (sandstone) to 2.4
(limestone).

Therefore, using an average of 2.3 it can be seen that the obverburden

pressure gradient exerted by a typical rock, with zero porosity would be:
2.3 x 0.433 psi/ft = 0.9959 psi/ft

Thisfigure is normally rounded upto 1psi/ft and is commonly quoted as

the maximum possible over burden pressure gradient, from which the
maximum overburden pressure, at any depth, can be calculated.
Example:

Calculate the overburden gradient for the following:

Formation type: Sandstone, density = 2.65 gm/cc

Formation water: 1.03 gm/cc

For porosities 5%, 20% and 35%

 Casing Seat Selection
Selecting casing setting depths for each casing string to be run in a
well is often the most critical decision made in pre-planning;
especially where abnormal pressures or weak, lost circulation zones,
are expected.

The key to satisfactory casing seat selection is the assessment of

pore pressure (formation fluid pressures) and fracture pressures
throughout the well. Evidently, as the pore pressure in a formation
being drilled approaches the fracture pressure at the last casing seat
then a further string of casing is necessary.
The figure below illustrates an idealized casing seat selection
Casing Seat Selection cont’d
Casing is set at Depth 1, where pore pressure is P1 and the fracture pressure is
F1.

Drillingcontinues to Depth 2, where the pore pressure P2 has risen to almost

equal the fracture pressure (F1) at the first casing seat.

Another casing string is therefore set at this depth, with fracture pressure (F2).
Drilling can thus continue to Depth 3, where pore pressure (P3) is almost equal
to the fracture pressure F2 at the previous casing seat.
Casing Seat Selection cont’d
 Thesize, weight and grade of casing required for any well will be defined by the
maximum loads to which the casing may be exposed.

 Casing size is dictated by well depth and the type of completion required.

 The weight and grade of the casing can then be determined, taking appropriate safety
factors into consideration. This is to ensure that casing strength is sufficient to ensure
proper well control.

 The three primary load to be considered are:

 collapse pressure,
 burst pressure and
 Tension

 Theeffect of casing wear in high deviation wells is also a source of concern, and must
be considered.
Casing Seat Selection cont’d

Limitations in casing strength, especially when wear safety allowance

are made, mean that there is a limit to the size of kick, particularly gas
kick, which can be safety handled by a given casing.

In deeper well work, this may be a significant limitation of which drill
crews must be aware.
Well Control
Well control
The function of the well control system is to prevent the uncontrolled flow of
formation fluids from the wellbore.

The well control system is designed to:

Detect a kick
Close-in the well at surface
Remove the formation fluid which has flowed into the well
Make the well safe

Failure to do this results in the uncontrolled flow of fluids - known as a blow-

out which may cause loss of lives and equipment, damage to the environment
and the loss of oil or gas reserves.
Primary Well control Concepts
Primary well control relies on the use of hydrostatic pressure to control
the pore pressure in exposed formations. The hydrostatic pressure
exerted by a column of fluid at any depth is dependent on:

 Thedensity of the fluid expressed as unit weight (lbs/bbl, lbl/gal) or

pressure gradient (kpa/m, psi/ft etc)

 The true vertical height of the column of fluid

HP(psi) = 0.052 x MW(ppg) x TVD(ft)

 Where;

 HP = hydrostatic pressure (psi)

 MW = mud weight (ppg)

 TVD = vertical height of mud column (ft)

Effect of Density

10 ppg 11 ppg 12 ppg

5000’

PSI PSI PSI

Effect of Depth

10 ppg 10 ppg 10 ppg

5000’

7500’

PSI

10000’

PSI

PSI
Balanced Pressure

Mud Hydrostatic = Formation Pressure

Overbalanced Pressure

Mud Hydrostatic > Formation Pressure

Under-balance Pressure

Mud Hydrostatic < Formation Pressure

Underbalanced Pressure

Mud Hydrostatic < Formation

Pressure
Secondary Well Control
Secondary control is the proper use of blow-out preventer (BOP)
or pressure control equipment to regain control of the well
in the event that primary control cannot be properly maintained.
What is a Kick?
It is an influx of formation Fluid that causes the
well to flow.
Causes of Kick
The most common causes of kicks indicate what we need to be
monitoring
Insufficient Fluid Density
Poor Tripping Practices

Improper Hole Filling While Tripping

Swabbing / Surging
Lost Circulation

Abnormal Formation Pressure

Obstructions in the Wellbore

Cementing Operations
Kick Indicators
There are a number of warning signs and indications, which alert the drill crew to
the presence of a kick, or an impending kick.
1. During Drilling
There are several indications which show that a kick is in progress:
Increase in Flow Rate

Increase in Pit volume

ROP Increase (Drill Break)

Change in cutting size and shape

Change in d-exp

Pump pressure decrease/pump stroke increase.

2. During Tripping
 Incorrect hole fill volume.
 Hole keeps flowing between stands, while running in.
Another sign may be mud flowing out of the well even when the pumps are shut
down (i.e. without circulating).
Kick Indicators
The size and severity of kick depends on:

The degree of under balance

The formation permeability

The length of time the formation is allowed to remain

underbalanced.

When a well kicks, it should be closed in immediately. Reaction time is

critical, The decision to close in the well is the responsibility of the
driller. This should be done immediately and without recourse to a
supervisor.
What is a Blowout?
An uncontrolled exit of the formation fluids
At the surface
What is a Blowout?
Blow Out Preventors (BOPs)
Blow out Preventors must be installed to cope with any kicks that may
occur. BOPs are basically high pressure valves which seal off the top of
the well and are operated from the rig floor.
There are two basic types of BOP.
1. Annular Preventor - designed to seal off the annulus between the
Drill string and the side of hole (may also seal off open hole if kick occurs
while the pipe is out of the hole).
2. Ram type preventor - designed to seal off the annulus by ramming
large rubber faced blocks of steel together. Different types are
available:
blind rams - seal off in open hole

pipe rams - seal off around drill pipe

shear rams - sever drill pipe (used as last resort)

BOP Stack Components

Annular type blow out

preventer
Double ram type preventer with
two sets of rams

Drilling spool with die outlet

connections for choke and kill line

Single ram type preventer

BOP Stack Components
BOP while Drilling
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Closing
BOP Leak while Closed
BOP Seals Activated
Blowout Preventers
WELL CONTROL CYCLE
Primary Prevention
WELL CONTROL CYCLE

PRIMARY
PREVENTION

TAKE KICK
WELL CONTROL CYCLE

PRIMARY
PREVENTION

TAKE KICK

SHUT IN WELL

SECONDARY
WELL CONTROL CYCLE

PRIMARY
PREVENTION

KILL WELL TAKE KICK

SHUT IN WELL

SECONDARY
WELL CONTROL CYCLE

PRIMARY
PREVENTION

KILL WELL TAKE KICK

SHUT IN WELL

SECONDARY
Shut-in Methods
When a kick has been detected the first course of action is to close the
well in. the following are steps to shut in well:
Stop rotation
Pickup off bottom for spacing out

Stop pumping

Check for flow, if positive;

A number of shut-in methods are used within the drilling industry for
different types of rigs and for different drilling operations. These are:
Soft Shut-in method

Hard Shut-in method

Soft Shut-in method
When a possible indication is observed, stop rotary, pick-up off bottom
until spaced out.

1. STOP pumps. Check for Flow. If positive, then;

2. OPEN choke line valve at the BOP stack (often called HCR valve or
‘F’ type valves.)
3. CLOSE annular BOP.
4. CLOSE choke. If this choke is NOT a positive shut off type, it is
necessary to close a valve (ideally just downstream of the choke)
in order to read well pressures.
5. Alert supervisors. Read and record pressures and times. Check pit
volume gain.
6. If necessary, control

 NOTE: Choke is left opened position at all times.

Hard Shut-in Method

When any indication is observed while drilling that the well maybe
flowing, stop rotating the drill string, raise the drill with pumps on until
spaced out.

1. Stop pumping and check for flow, if positive;

2. Close annular or pipe rams.
3. Open choke line HCR valve.
4. Call supervisor and commence plotting a graph of shut in drill
pipe pressure. Check pit volume again.

NOTE: Choke remains closed position at all times.

Kick Control Methods
The objective of the various kick methods is to circulate out any invading fluid and
circulate a satisfactory weight of kill mud into the well without allowing further fluid
into the hole. This should be done with minimal damage to the well. After the kill mud
has been fully circulated, the well can then be opened and normal operation
commences.

Different methods of circulating out kicks are listed below:

Driller’s

Engineer’s

Concurrent

Gas Migration

Dynamic

Low Choke Pressure

Partition
Driller’s Method
Two complete circulations

Advantage:

There is no waiting time, well control process starts immediately after well
is shut in and stabilized shut-in pressures are read.
Circulate kick out of hole using old mud

Circulate old mud out of hole using kill weight mud

 Circulate kick out of hole using
old mud

Circulate old mud out of hole using kill weight mud

Engineer’s method
One circulation is required. The influx is circulated out by pumping kill
mud down the drill string displacing the influx up the annulus. The kill
mud is pumped into the drill string at a constant pump rate and the
pressure on the annulus is controlled on the choke so that the bottom
hole pressure does not fall allowing a further influx to occur.
Advantages:
Since heavy mud will usually enter the annulus before the influx reaches
surface the annulus pressure will be kept low. Thus there is less risk of
fracturing the formation at casing shoe
The maximum annulus pressure will only be exerted on the wellhead for
a short time.
Itis easier to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure by adjusting the
choke
The engineer’s methods is generally considered better than the driller’s
method since it is safer, simpler and quicker. Its main disadvantage is the
time taken to mix the heavier mud, which may allow a gas bubble to
migrate.
One Circulation Method
Mud Hydrostatic and Formation Pressure

HP
Always Remember that HP and FP
are two opposite forces.

FP
Boyle’s Law Application in influx expansion

Boyle's law states that the absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of
confined gas are inversely proportional, if the temperature remains
unchanged within a closed system. Thus, it states that the product of
pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas as long
as the temperature is constant
The mathematical equation for Boyle's law is:

PV = K
where:

P denotes the pressure and pressure of the system.

V denotes the volume of the gas.
k is a constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the
system.
Boyle’s Law Application in influx expansion

Boyle's law is used to predict the result of introducing a change, in volume

and pressure only, to the initial state of a fixed quantity of gas. The before
and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the
before and after temperatures are the same (heating or cooling will be
required to meet this condition), are related by the equation:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Here P1 and V1 represent the original pressureand volume, respectively,
and P2 and V2 represent the second pressure and volume.
Accumulator Type & Size
Two types of accumulator are in common use: bladder type and float
type. They each have a total capacity (fluid + nitrogen + ladder/float) of
11 gallon although 15 gallon versions are also available.
Accumulator Type & Size
Accumulator Type & Size

In an 11 gallon accumulator bottle the Volume of Nitrogen it contains

before any fluid is pumped it will be 10gallons (note: the rubber bladder
occupies a volume of 1 gallon).
According with Boyle’s law:
P1* V1=P2*V2 and also P1* V1 = P3*V3
Where:
P1= nitrogen pre-charged pressure of 1000psi
P2=minimum operating pressure of 1200psi
P3=maximum operating pressure of 3000psi
V1=bladder internal volume at pre-charged pressure (11gal-1gal)
V2 = bladder internal volume at minimum operating pressure, P2 (in
gals)
V3 = bladder internal volume at maximum operating pressure P3 (in gals)
Accumulator Type & Size
Therefore:-

1000psi x 10gals = 120 psi x V2

And
1000psi x 10gals = 300 psi x V3
Giving
V2 = 1000psi x 10 gals = 8.33gals

–1200 psi
and
–V3 = 1000 psi x 10gals = 3.33gals
–3000 psi
–The usable volume of hydraulic fluid from the bottle as nitrogen expands
from V3 (3.33gals) to V2 (8.33gals) at 1200psi will be equal to:-
–V1 – V3 = 8.33gals -3.33gals = 5gals