Sops

Standard Operating Procedures
Revised as of August 2016
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Anhydrite/Gypsum Drilling............................................................................................................... 3
Barite Plugs ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Bit Balling................................................................................................................................................. 9
Cement, Drilling ................................................................................................................................... 13
Depleted Sands..................................................................................................................................... 14
Differential Sticking ........................................................................................................................... 17
DRIL-N Fluid Systems ......................................................................................................................... 22
Drilling in Permafrost ....................................................................................................................... 30
Filter Cake/Filtration Control......................................................................................................... 26
Fluid Displacements Overview ....................................................................................................... 32
Fractured Limestone, Drilling ........................................................................................................ 33
Gas Hydrates ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Gunk Squeezes ..................................................................................................................................... 40
Hole Cleaning ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Horizontal Drilling .............................................................................................................................. 50
High Temperature High Pressure Wells ..................................................................................... 54
Lost Circulation .................................................................................................................................... 62
Solids Control ....................................................................................................................................... 74
Weight-Material Sag ........................................................................................................................ 102
Well Control ....................................................................................................................................... 110
Wellbore Stability ............................................................................................................................ 120
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Anhydrite/Gypsum Drilling SOP Code: DG Revision Date: August 2015
Anhydrite/Gypsum Drilling
Introduction
Calcium sulfate occurs in nature as gypsum (CaSO4 • 2H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO4). It is found in thick
sections, stringers, in make-up water, embedded in silts as in evaporite formations and sometimes in the
caprock of a salt dome.
Causes of Anhydrite/Gypsum Contamination

Calcium sulfate is highly soluble in water and when these formations are drilled with water-based drilling
fluids, aggregation and flocculation of solids results. An immediate increase in fluid viscosity is usually seen
along with a loss of filtration control. Soluble hardness as measured using the Total Hardness Titrating Test
will rapidly increase as well. If a calcium based water mud is in use, the calcium sulfate contamination has
little or no effect on the mud properties. There is little effect on fluid properties when oil-based or
synthetic-based invert emulsions fluids are used.
Preventing and Curing Anhydrite/Gypsum Contamination

A common method of drilling anhydrite or gypsum formations is to pre-treat the mud with thinners that
works effectively in the presence of calcium and sulfates and alkalis. The contamination of the mud by the
drilled calcium sulfate is nullified. If it is desired to maintain a fresh water mud after calcium sulfate
contamination has occurred, it is necessary to treat out the ions that cause aggregation and flocculation.
This may be done by adding soda ash (Na2CO3) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 = CaCO3 (precipitate) + Na2SO4
The calcium is precipitated as insoluble calcium carbonate (limestone). A general rule is to add 0.02 lb/bbl
of soda ash for every epm of hardness. After adding the soda ash, a thinner is usually added to reduce the
viscosity and gel strength. Sodium bicarbonate can also be used but is not as efficient, as two units of
sodium bicarbonate are produced for each calcium carbonate unit precipitated.
A difficulty is encountered if large amounts of soda ash are added. The soluble sodium sulfate tends to build
up and cause "ash gels" which are indicated by high progressive gel strength. High dilutions levels are then
required to restore good mud properties.
One peculiarity of drilling anhydrite with a NaCl-based brine or mud is that anhydrite is much more soluble
in Na-brines than it is in water. Hence larger hole washouts with use of salt muds should be expected.
Associate hole cleaning problems with increased hole sizes can also be expected, especially if the anhydrite
layers are found in the deviated sections of the hole.
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Anhydrite/Gypsum Drilling SOP Code: DG Revision Date: August 2015
Drilling Conditions Contaminant Contaminant Method of Possible Course of

Anhydrite/Gypsum Compound/ Source Measurement Effect on Mud Action
Drilling Contaminant ion
Anhydrite/ CaSO4 Formation Ca+2 High Yield Treat with

Point Soda Ash
Gypsum CaSO4 • Commercial titration High Fluid Ca+2(mg/L)

2H2O Loss x 0.00093 =
lb/bbl
Na2CO3
Ca+2 Gypsum High gels or
Thick filter cake Ca+2 (epm) x 0.0188 = lb/bbl Na2CO3
Ca+2increase
pH decrease Break over to a gypsum mud
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Barite Plugs SOP Code: BP Revision Date: August 2015
Barite Plugs
Introduction
Barite plug use is normally limited to extreme or emergency conditions where it is imperative that some
measures be taken to seal off the bottom section of the wellbore. This type of plug is applicable in several
situations including:
 Simultaneous kicking and lost circulation.

 Abandonment procedure allowing safe withdrawal of drill pipe to allow setting of cement plug.
 Withdrawal of drill pipe to either set casing or repair existing casing strings.
 Plugging drill pipe in emergency situations.
 High pressure salt water flows where required kill mud weight approaches or exceeds the formation
breakdown equivalent at some point in the open hole, usually the last casing shoe.
Objectives of Setting Barite Plugs

A barite plug is basically a slurry of barite that is pumped down the drill pipe and placed at the bottom of the
wellbore. A successful Barite plug should accomplish two things:
 Initially, the weight of the barite slurry should kill the well.
 After a period of time, the settled barite plug should mechanically block any flow up the wellbore.
The well should be killed before a mechanical blockage is established in the wellbore.
Barite Plug Design

Designing a barite plug for killing a well is straightforward. The barite slurry pumped into the well must be
heavy enough and fill enough of the wellbore to increase the bottomhole pressure to a level exceeding the
formation pressure. Problems arise when formation pressure is unknown or when weight or volume of the
required barite slurry becomes excessive.
Designing a barite plug to physically block the wellbore is somewhat more complicated. The generally
accepted method is to mix a slurry so that the barite settles out from the slurry into a hard plug which will
block the wellbore. The rate that barite will settle into a hard plug is usually slow but somewhat predictable.
Fairly accurate field predictions may be made from an observation of the initial barite settling rate in a
small, tall container, e. g. a 200 ml graduated cylinder. Generally, the initial rate is constant and
independent of the height of the slurry. However, the initial settling rate lasts for a relatively short period of
time, after which the settling rate decreases as fewer barite particles remain in suspension. For example, in
a container one foot high, the initial settling rate applies for approximately five minutes. In contrast, for a
field situation with 500 or more feet (150 or more meters) of barite slurry, the initial rate may apply for a
day or longer. The proportion of barite settling in a shorter period can be computed as the product of the
initial rate times the waiting time.
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Field experience has shown that slurries of up to 20 lbs/gal (2.40 SG) are relatively easily prepared using
only base-oil, EZ MUL (Oil Wetting Agent), DRILTREAT and Barite for oil muds. Water, SAPP, caustic soda
and barite are used for water-based muds.
Preparation
From a practical point of view, the following points should be considered:
Use of a cement unit is preferable. This requires that either bulk barite be fed directly to the cement unit
surge tank or that sufficient stocks of sacked barite be available at the rigsite. Standard plugs can be mixed
to the desired density with no problems of massive settling before displacement.
Oil Mud Application

Barite plug settling rates in oil muds are normally dependent on the density of the slurry and the type and
concentration of oil wetting agents. Laboratory studies have shown that oil-based plugs have a tendency to
settle, on average, more slowly than water-based slurries. At too low a concentration of EZ MUL and
DRILTREAT the barite is insufficiently oil-wet and is not self-suspending. At too high a concentration the
barite becomes extremely well suspended and the rate of settling is reduced. It is therefore very important
to carefully select the optimum concentration of EZ MUL for the plug density required.
If a cement unit is not able to mix barite, use a slug pit or the reserve mud pits, depending on the total
volume of slurry required. The length of the plug is a wellsite determination to be based on the severity of
the situation. In most cases a plug in the range of 250 - 500 ft (app. 75-150 m) is sufficient.
Oil-Based Mud Procedure
Oil-based mud slurries can be mixed as follows:
Transfer sufficient oil-based mud to the slug pit to maintain circulation through the mixing pump.
 Fill pit to half its capacity with base oil and add approximately 4 lbs/bbl (11.4 kg/m 3) EZ MUL and 4
lbs/bbl (11.4 kg/m3) DRILTREAT.
 Weight up with barite to required density; the pit should then be nearly full.
 If total capacity of the slug pit is insufficient for the required volume of plug, transfer the slurry
already mixed to a reserve pit making sure that agitators are used constantly and another mixing
pump put on to circulate that pit.
 The Engineer on site should ensure that the following measures are also adhered to:
 To avoid the chance of initiating rapid settling, excessive additions of base oil are not made at any
stage.
 Small additions of up to 1.5 lbs/gal (4.3 kg/m3) EZ MUL may be made to control viscosity increases
observed during barite additions.
 Barite addition rate is controlled to avoid excessive increases in viscosity or possibly initiating
settling.
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Formulations for oil-base muds:

18.0 lbs/gal 19.0 lbs/gal 20.0 lbs/gal
Base Oil (bbls) 0.582 0.547 0.513
EZ MUL (lbs) 4 4 4
DRILTREAT (lbs) 4 4 4
Barite (lbs) 597 650 700
Water-Based Mud Application
The slurry is composed of barite, fresh water, sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and caustic soda. SAPP,
a thinner, increases the barite settling rate by lowering the yield point and gel strength of the slurry, and
the caustic soda is added to provide an alkaline environment (pH = 10).
Formulation for one barrel of a 20 lbs/gal barite slurry is:
Material Amounts
Fresh water 0.56 bbls
Caustic soda 0.25 lbs
Barite 656 lbs
SAPP 0.7 lbs
Or
Material Amounts
Fresh water 0.56 bbls
Caustic soda 1.0 lbs
Barite 656 lbs
QUIK-THIN™ Thinner 8 lbs
Displacement
Displacement techniques are the same as in cementing; i.e., the slurry should be under displaced so that
the height of the slurry retained in the drill pipe is 2 bbls greater than that in the annulus. This allows the
drill pipe to be withdrawn with a natural slugging action and will minimize movement of the slurry in the
hole, reducing contamination.
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Because of the high density of these slurries, high differential pressures can be created by under or over
displacement. Care must be taken when calculating volumes.
After the plug is spotted in place, tripping out of the hole should be done as quickly as possible and the plug
allowed to settle for several hours. The well should be observed to ensure there is no flow. When tripping
back into the hole, "feeling" for the plug should begin near the theoretical top of the plug.
Operations can then be started to set a cement plug above the barite, and the well can be safely secured.
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Bit Balling SOP Code: BB Revision Date: August 2015
Bit Balling
Introduction
Balling occurs when clay based drilled solids adhere together and cling to the metal surfaces of the bit and
pipe. Bit balling usually occurs while drilling shale. Clay adhesion is a function of the electrochemical
attraction of clay to clay solids and clay to metal (surface tension). The reaction begins when clay solids
become wet and hydration/dispersion of the clay occurs. Adhesion magnitude is determined by the degree
of clay hydration, the chemical properties of the clay, chemical composition of the mud's aqueous phase,
and the proximity between reactive solids or the solids concentration. Massive concentrations of reactive
solids can overwhelm most mud systems. Balling will normally slow down the rate of penetration (ROP).
ROP will not respond to rotary RPM increases or weight on the bit, this may result in pulling a bit before it is
due to be replaced.
Causes
Balling can occur with any hydratable clay. Clay particles can adhere to each other or metal surfaces, given
the right water and solids ratio. Therefore, reduction of adhesion and/or balling can be achieved by
controlling hydration and/or solids concentration. Bit balling is more of a problem when using water- based
muds. When invert emulsions are used, bit or bottom hole assembly (BHA) balling normally does not occur.
For bit and or BHA balling to take place two or more of these conditions must exist:
• A reactive clay formation must be present.
• Water must be available for the clays to become hydrated.
• Cuttings are compressed - causing adhesion.
• Sufficient concentrations of electrochemically attractive clays.
• Inadequate bit cleaning due to poor hydraulics.
• Electrochemical attraction of clay to metal.
Procedures to Prevent Balling
It is important to limit the concentration of cuttings in the annulus. When large volumes of dispersible solids
or cuttings are generated into a specific volume of drilling mud, an infinite amount of surface area is
created. If these cuttings are not quickly removed from the area of the bit, the electrochemical attraction of
the clays for metal will cause these cuttings to adhere to the bit. The following procedures can aid in
cuttings removal.
Control ROP vs Flow Rate
High concentrations of mud solids and drilled solids lead to bit balling. This is a function of mud composition
and ROP vs flow rate. Excessive penetration rates relative to flow rates can create a massive concentration
of reactive solids in the annulus. Therefore, when drilling "clay type" formations, the low gravity solids
concentration in the mud should be maintained as low as possible (5% by volume or less). In addition, the
cuttings concentration in the annulus should be limited to 4% by volume by coordinating the flow rate and
ROP. This may require controlling instantaneous rates of penetration.
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Sweeps
Depending on hole deviation, high density, high viscosity and/or low viscosity sweeps can be used to
effectively remove cuttings from the wellbore. The turbulence of the low viscosity sweep stirs the cuttings
bed and the high viscosity fluid carries the solids to the surface. Use BARAZAN® PLUS and N-VIS® (instead of
commercial bentonite) to increase viscosity and avoid increasing the clay content of the mud system.
Bit Type and Hydraulics
Fluid dynamics such as velocity and turbulence are critical for cleaning the bit and preventing balling. Create
high velocity and a high degree of turbulence. Flow rates alone are not the key. Fluid viscosity and/or
turbulence at the bit are functions of fluid composition and velocity. Solids surface area is the limiting factor
for a drilling fluid to shear thin. Therefore, optimizing solids concentration is critical for effective fluid
dynamics at the bit. Hydraulic horsepower at the bit must be optimized. Bit design can contribute to bit
balling. Anti-Balling (AB) coated bits are recommended.
Hole Wiping
Frequent short trips in directional wells are very beneficial for reducing the buildup of cuttings beds.
The cuttings bed is disturbed by the bit so it can be removed by annular flow, after circulation is resumed.
This technique will also help reduce pack-off and gumbo attacks.
Balling Reduction by Mud Composition
Solids adhesion can be reduced by neutralizing the attractive charges on clays by ionic satisfaction, i.e.,
sodium, calcium, potassium, cationic and anionic polymers, and surface active agents (surfactants).
Balling severity is reduced by limiting the "specific surface area" of reactive solids within the fluid. This
process is partially accomplished by preventing hydration and dispersion of drilled solids with inhibitive
drilling fluids. Among the basic fluids for consideration are those that contain chloride, calcium, potassium,
surfactants, oil, esters, formates, silicates, glycols, and the multiple combinations of these basic ingredients.
Effective mud systems include:
WBM HPWBM OBM HPOBM
BARASILC™ BOREMAX® ENVIROMUL™ ACCOLADE
EZ-MUD™ HYDRO-GUARD® INVERMUL® ENCORE
PerformaDril® INNOVERT
SHALEDRIL® INTEGRADE
BaraECD
BaraPure
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pH control is an important consideration since the hydroxyl ion is dispersive. First, hydroxyl ions promote
hydrogen bonding of water molecules to the steel surfaces. Second when the hydroxyl ion is hydrated, its
large volume of associated water forces clay platelets and layers apart. This dispersive action increases as
the pH is increased. pH ranges should be adjusted to coincide with the inhibitive nature of the mud system
being used.
Minimizing the clay concentration by solids removal equipment and dilution of reactive solids also reduces
the "specific surface area" available for adhesion and balling. Commercial bentonite can aggravate the
problem; it should be added very cautiously. When balling is a potential problem, low gravity solids should
be maintained at 5% or less by volume and the equivalent bentonite concentration should be 20 lbs./bbl (57
kg/m3) or less, determined by the methylene blue test.
Encapsulate cuttings with EZ-MUD™ to prevent dispersion and mechanical degradation. Coating solids with
EZ-MUD will have two beneficial effects. It binds a solid to prevent dispersion and, it provides lubricious film
that allows solids to slide past one another thus preventing mechanical disintegration.
Adding DRIL-N-SLIDE™/BARALUBE GOLD SEAL will reduce electrochemical attraction of clay to metal.
Treatments Associated with Cleaning Balled Bits and Assemblies
These pills can be spotted or circulated through the bit and annulus, to help eliminate balling problems.
Hydrostatic pressures must be maintained when utilizing these pills. The appropriate pill will depend on the
mud type being used, materials available on the rig, formation sensitivity, and safety/environmental
concerns.
Caustic Pill
A caustic pill can be spotted or circulated through the bit. Caustic can be mixed in freshwater or seawater to
accelerate the hydration and dispersion of reactive clay. Greater turbulence and a jetting action is formed in
the balled area, when pumping water.
CON DET™ Pill (Detergent)
This pill is usually made up of whole (active) mud with 3 - 20% CON DET. This also can be done with fresh
water and circulated through the bit. CON DET performs by reducing surface tension, increasing lubricity,
and reducing the sticking tendency of the clay. If using whole mud, mud weights can be maintained.
Note: Detergents may effect several aspects of a drilling fluid system i.e., foaming, environmental concerns.
WALL-NUT® Pill
This pill is made up of whole (active) mud. WALL-NUT® comes in three available sizes; fine, medium, and
coarse. WALL-NUT® can be mixed from 5 to 60 lbs/bbl (14 to 171 kg/m3) depending on the mud type and
mud weight. This pill is pumped down and through the bit with high pump rates to physically erode the ball
of clay adhering to the bit or drill string.
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SAPP or QUIK-THIN™ Pill (Dispersant)
A highly concentrated dispersive pill can be mixed in water or whole mud. This pill is designed to disperse
balled up bits and assemblies. High pH ranges can also aid in dispersing clays. QUIK-THIN™ Thinner may be
used up to 20 lbs/bbl (57 kg/m3). SAPP may be added from 1 to 3 lbs/bbl (2.85 to 8.5 kg/m3). Do not use
SAPP in high Calcium environments.
Note: These pills are highly dispersive and can cause wellbore washout.
Surfactant Pill
Highly concentrated blends of surface active agents can be added directly to the suction pit, dumped down
the drill pipe on connections or sprayed directly on the bottom hole assembly. These blends will lower the
surface tension of the water and help neutralize the surface charges of the clays, minimizing hydratable clay
adhesiveness.
EZ-MUD™/CLAYSEAL®
Slugging the pipe on connections with neat EZ-MUD™ or CLAYSEAL®.
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Cement Drilling SOP Code: DC Revision Date: August 2015
Cement, Drilling
Introduction
Drilling cement can introduce contaminants into a drilling fluid system that can produce negative effects on
drilling fluid rheological and filtration control properties and mud pH levels. The wetter (‘greener’) the
cement, the more serious are the effects it can have on drilling fluid properties. Generally, water-based
drilling fluids are more sensitive to cement contamination than invert emulsions are, and more care and
preparation is needed with these fluids.
Cement contamination affects water-based drilling fluids by:
 Introducing high levels of soluble calcium, which can flocculate clays and precipitate anionic
polymers (PHPA, PAC, CMC, etc.) Rapid deterioration in filtration control follows.
 Increasing the system pH to high levels that react with amine-based polymers (EZ MUD, PHPA,
THERMA-CHEK, etc.) to hydrolyze the polymer and produce ammonia gas as a reaction by-product.
Cement contamination in oil-based mud is usually not as serious, but lengthy exposure of oil-based or
synthetic-base drilling fluid to wet cement can produce reduced levels of electrical stability.
Precautions
Proper planning and pretreatment will serve to minimize problems associated with high flocculation,
plugged flow lines and cement-contaminated surface equipment. The following precautions should be
made if it is planned to drill cement, particularly when there is a risk that the cement is green.
If it is possible, drill out as much of the cement with seawater if a ready supply is available. Be prepared to
discard badly-contaminated mud when it returns to surface, as often this is cheaper and offers a better
option than trying to chemically treat the entire circulating system.
Normal Treatments
Pretreat water-base muds with sodium bicarbonate 0.25-0.50 lb/bbl (0.70 - 1.50 kg/m3). On the second
circulation, add equal amounts of citric acid or acetic acid to bring down the system pH. Thereafter use
sodium bicarbonate as needed to keep soluble calcium levels in the desired range. Treatments with SAPP
can be also done to deflocculate the fluid exposed to high calcium levels.
Closely monitor mud returns at the shale shakers and immediately dump any green cement or badly
contaminated water-base mud.
If large cement sections have to be drilled and treatments are not sufficient to counter the effects of the
cement, convert to a lime-based system that tolerates high calcium levels or switch the drilling fluid system
to an oil-based or synthetic-based drilling fluid. If conversion to a lime-based system is done, refer to the
Lime-Based Drilling Fluids for more information on conversion and system handling.
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DRIL-N Fluid Systems SOP Code: DS Revision Date: March 2015
Depleted Sands
Introduction
The issue of drilling depleted zones is increasing in importance as more wells are drilling in mature fields. As
production from existing fields continues, reservoir pressures and formation strength diminish. Specially
optimized drilling fluid is required for depleted zones to provide a fit-for-purpose solution with superior
performance.
Drilling wells with high pressure differentials between formations can lead to a number of potential
problems, including having to set drilling liners that could also result in the loss of a well. Pressure
differentials not only apply to interbedded sands, but also shales contained within reservoirs where the
pressure required to stabilise the shale may be a lot higher than the pore pressure in the sand. Pressure
depletions have been reported as high as 13,000 psi in Gulf of Mexico wells. Drilling through depleted zones
can prove troublesome. Fracture gradients change and their relationship to mud weights needed to
maintain wellbore stability can shift.
Higher mud densities can stabilize the imbalance and facilitate cuttings transport, but increase the risk of
differential sticking and lost circulation. Additionally, higher mud densities can create fractures that take
mud while drilling and return mud during connections. This wellbore breathing (“ballooning”) complicates
the correct diagnosis of whether there is a wellcontrol issue and increases the risk of losing the well. Early
identification of these competing mechanisms is critical to efficient and successful drilling.
Primary issues associated with drilling depleted sands are:

 Formation damage caused by high overbalance
 Formation stability (strength reduced by depleted zones) (refer to Wellbore stability SOP for more
details)
 Risk of differential sticking (Refer to Stuck Pipe SOP for more details)
 Risk of lost circulation (Refer to Lost Circulation SOP for more details)
 Well kick, if virgin pressure compartments are drilled with inadequate mud weight
Drilling Through Depleted Sands
The specific challenge is to drill depleted sand formations without incurring losses, destabilizing the
wellbore or getting the drillstring differentially stuck. The problem of drilling depleted sands is that shales
retain their virgin pressure even when the pressure in the sand is reduced. Additionally in a
compartmentalized scenario, such as that experienced on mature field developments, there is the added
risk of encountering compartments with significantly different pressure regimes, should drilling and
production be conducted simultaneously. Thus the operator is faced with the challenge of drilling through a
depleted sand (with a reduced fracture gradient) using a mud weight high enough to stabilize the pressured
shales and/or balance virgin pressure in a different compartment. Mud stability will be critical, together
with the selection of fluid systems and products that ensure minimum ECD.
NOTE: when a mature field is being developed, the window of safe mud weight operation between fracture
gradient of the depleted sand and the stabilizing gradient for the shale/virgin pressure compartment
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decreases throughout field life as reservoir pressure depletes. Under certain conditions, this may render it
impossible to drill further wells at the same location. The small safe drilling margin encountered whilst
drilling such wells has generally forced the full development drilling campaign to be completed prior to the
onset of production.
Drilling depleted zones with a high overbalance significantly increases the risk of borehole tensile failure,
with subsequent lost circulation. To minimize these risks, appropriate engineered treatments must already
be present in the drilling fluid as new formations are exposed.
The conventional solution of additional fluid loss material may result in thicker filter cakes and increased
probability of differentially stuck pipe. Often these materials are fibers, asphalt materials and lignite, all of
which can “plaster” to the well bore wall, but in so doing increase the filter cake thickness.
What is required is properly sized particulate material that can use both “near size” pore throat plugging as
well as aggregating in the pores. In order for these materials to be applied in the drilling fluid they must not
adversely affect the rheology or increase the ECD. An engineered approach for sizing the material to the
application must be taken to achieve full benefit.
Application strategy has two components – prevention (pre-treatment) and remediation. The following
practices are advocated to provide the best available technology:
 Pre-Treatment. Pre-treat with optimally sized LCM (a combination of STEELSEAL 25, 50, 100 and
BARACARB 5, 25, 50 & 150) before drilling high risk lost circulation zones, such as depleted sands.
 Subsequent Treatment. Add subsequent treatments as sweeps (large BARACARBs & STEELSEALs),
rather than adding material directly into the active drilling fluid system via the suction pit. This type
of addition will help ensure the well bore sees a higher concentration of particulate materials in
general, and the larger particles in particular.
 Stress Cage Treatment. When LWD data indicates that the bit is entering the next depleted sand, a
treatment containing larger sized material (STEELSEAL 400, BARACARB 150 and 600) to enhance
“near size” plugging and build a “stress cage” around the well bore (previous Baroid experience and
unpublished presentation, Mark Alberty, BP) is applied in a sweep. These sweeps are continued until
the bit enters the next shale. Alternatively, the smaller and larger size materials are applied,
depending on whether a sand or shale is being drilled.
 Corrective Treatment. Keep remediation materials on site for immediate application if needed,
should wellbore breathing and loss of circulation occur. The selection process here will depend on
the severity of the losses and the potential risk. But, LCMs like STOPPIT could be effective.
At all times it will be crucial to utilise a mud system that generates the lowest ECD, does not excessively gel
under static conditions and exhibits no barite sag. This will result in the minimum additional pressures, both
positive (surge) and negative (swab) pressures, being exerted on the formation, thereby maximising the
safe pore pressure, fracture gradient window. Always utilise a true hydrostatic pressure that is as close to
the pore pressure as possible. To enable accurate calculation of true on-bottom hydrostatic pressure, use
Baroid’s DFG software with DrillAhead module which corrects density for the effects of temperature and
pressure.
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NOTE: It is critical that the amount of LCM used is based on volume rather than weight.
STEELSEAL is a unique LCM and has been very effective in Depleted Sands. It is recommended to have
STEELSEAL as part of the LCM combination especially when drilling through depleted sands. STEELSEAL use
has been shown to increase fracture propagation pressure by up to 80 -100%. It has also been successfully
used in the field to increase formation integrity by 0.3 – 0.5 ppg.The development of STEELSEAL, a specially
manufactured dual composition resilient carbon material proprietary to BAROID, has made a significant
difference in our ability to pre-treat effectively. One unique characteristic of STEELSEAL is the resiliency, a
compressive property allowing it to “mold” itself into the fracture tip, promoting screen-out. If the pressure
is released, the material “rebounds,” thus continuing to plug the fracture completely.
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Differential Sticking SOP Code: DS Revision Date: March 2015
Differential Sticking
Introduction
There are numerous causes of stuck pipe, including wellbore instability, poor hole cleaning and key seating.
The first two causes can be reduced or eliminated by proper fluid design (inhibition, mud weight, rheology).
However, many incidents of stuck pipe are caused by the effects of differential pressure between the
formation pore pressure and the wellbore hydrostatic pressure. Excessive differential pressures occurring
across lower-pressure permeable zones can cause the drill string, or casing, to be pulled into the filter cake
and wellbore wall, where it becomes stuck.
Differential Sticking should be properly addressed in the well pre-planning stage and proper preventive
measures should be taken to avoid the substantial associated cost penalties. Preventive measures include
pre-treatment to prevent sticking and a pre-agreed action plan should sticking occur. Experience has shown
that differential sticking can occur with a minimum of overbalance pressures and should always be
considered a hazard when drilling permeable formations such as sandstone.
Causes of Differential Sticking
The root cause of differential sticking is excessive overbalance when the wellbore is exposed to a high
permeable zone. This overbalance may be necessary due to an open hole section containing reactive,
pressurized shales requiring a high mud weight to impart stability. This may be further complicated where
wells are deviated, requiring higher mud weights (compared to vertical wells) to stabilize the shales
combined with an increase in equivalent circulating density (ECD) and in most cases a lower fracture
gradient. Differential sticking may also result when the specific requirements for casing design expose sands
to excessive overbalance.
A formation pressure reversal or depleted zones may promote differential sticking. Other contributors to
the problem include poor quality filter cake, excessive fluid loss, and poor hydraulics/rheology resulting in
high ECD values. Poor drilling practices, such as leaving the drill string stationary across a permeable zone,
and excessive ROPs that lead to high annular mud weights can both lead to differential sticking.
Preventing and Curing Differential Sticking
Bridging Materials
The use of a high-quality, properly sized bridging material can effectively bridge across porous sands,
minimizing filtrate and whole mud invasion and excessive filter cake thickness, can reduce the risk of
differential sticking.
If the pore sizes of the depleted zone are known, the particle size distribution can be modelled through the
use of our WELLSET® software. This can help to minimize the testing required to develop a successful
bridging package.
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The optimum concentration for the bridging material should be determined through testing with the
Particle Plugging Apparatus, FANN® 77 and FANN®77 to determine the combination of products that will
provide the lowest spurt and fluid loss. It is important to bridge and seal pore spaces with the initial loss of
filtrate. This minimizes filtrate loss and filter cake build up. The FANN® 90 provides two parameter values
called: Cake deposition Index (CDI) and the dynamic filtration rate. In the graph below: are recommended
values for both parameters at different mud density ranges.
Dynamic filtration can be evaluated in the laboratory under a variety of conditions. These include various
shear rates, pressures, and temperatures and filter medium permeability. The lab requires details about the
size and permeability of sand to be drilled. Ideally, the tests should be completed far enough in advance so
the treatment can be implemented and the active system tested to confirm the lab results prior to drilling
the sands.
Filter Cake Quality
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To minimize the incidence of stuck pipe due to undergauge hole, the filter cake must be thin and have some
lubricity. In addition, the cake must be erodible as the filtration process is converted from static back to
dynamic. These properties require that the filtration products be properly sized to bridge the pores,
deformable, lubricious and shearable. Hydrated solids such as commercial bentonite and polymers meet
these requirements as do solid materials such as BARACARB® and STEELSEAL®. Excessive drill solids in the
system can contribute to a thick, sticky filter cake and should be minimized at all times.
Reducing Overbalance
Mud weights, fluid rheologies and pump rates can be manipulated to reduce any overbalance. Measures to
reduce ECD include minimizing cuttings in the wellbore, keeping the weight in the annulus to a minimum,
and pumping sweeps after entering the depleted zone until section TD. Seepage losses are an indication of
overbalance across a permeable formation but can be difficult to identify while drilling. Very careful
monitoring of fluid volumes when a depleted zone is exposed will be required to quantify seepage losses.
Drilling Practices
Good drilling and tripping practices are vital in avoiding differential sticking. It is very important not to
minimize incidence of the drill pipe remaining motionless during connections or when tripping. Any
undergauge sections identified should be reamed through. Communication between all drilling personnel is
very important while drilling overbalanced in a permeable zone. A drilling jar and spiral drill collars should
be included in the bottom hole assembly.
Materials and Systems
Preventing Differentially Stuck Pipe
BARACARB®, acid soluble, pure ground marble (BARACARB®) is a superior bridging agent compared to softer
limestone. The marble grains resist attrition from shear/dynamic conditions downhole and are available for
bridging against the wellbore instead of breaking into smaller particles and penetrating the formation,
making removal and acidizing more difficult. BARACARB is available in many grades giving excellent
flexibility in particle size distribution. Extensive research on differential sticking has shown that BARACARB
can reduce the force required to free differentially stuck pipe by up to 30%, and can reduce filter cake
thickness by 33%.
BAROFIBRE® can also be used to help prevent differential sticking when drilling through sections which
exhibit low formation pressure. Additions of BAROFIBRE® can reduce the permeability of the formation at
the wellbore face, minimizing the cake build up and the potential for differential sticking. Spotting a pill
containing BAROFIBRE prior to coming out to run casing can aid in the prevention of stuck casing in
depleted sands. Some starches such as DEXTRID® and FILTER-CHEK™ have proven very effective in
augmenting even the best bridging package.
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STEELSEAL®, BXR™, BXR L, BARO-TROL® PLUS and, may be used in conjunction with BARACARB® and
BAROFIBRE® for some applications.
Due to their inherent lubricity, oil or synthetic muds are the best choice when drilling significantly
overbalanced through depleted sands, however due to environmental regulations they are not always
acceptable. Whenever the differential pressure is greater than 2000 psi, an invert emulsion mud should
always be considered.
Freeing Differentially Stuck Pipe
Identifying differentially stuck pipe is essential in developing the proper corrective action. If stuck pipe
occurs when the drill string is exposed to known depleted zones it is highly probable that is is caused by
differential sticking. If the drill string cannot be rotated or reciprocated, then differential sticking is
indicated. When differentially stuck pipe cannot be worked or pulled free within the drill string’s safe
allowable tension limits, there are two techniques that are commonly used to free differentially stuck pipe.
• Reduction of Differential Pressure/U-Tubing
• Spotting Fluids
Reduction of Differential Pressure
The reduction of differential pressure by mud weight reduction or U-Tubing techniques has been used to
free differentially stuck pipe. It can, however, cause further problems and all factors should be considered
before using these techniques. Reducing hydrostatic pressure can cause certain formations, usually shales,
to become unstable. Often this leads to packing off and further stuck pipe problems. Reduction of
hydrostatic pressure can lead to well control problems. For these reasons many operators will use spotting
fluids as their first option to free stuck pipe.
Spotting Fluids
When differential sticking occurs, spotting fluids can be used to free the pipe. Each spotting fluid has its
own recommended spotting procedure.
Note: It is critical to have the spotting fluid readily available on the rig and to apply it within six hours of
the stuck pipe occurrence. Spotting fluids are designed to penetrate and break up the filter cake.
EZ SPOT® is a good all purpose, oil-based spotting fluid, suitable for use in many different regions.
QUIK-FREE® is a spotting system developed for freeing pipe in water-base muds in environmentally
sensitive areas where oil-based spotting fluids cannot be used. It is highly effective and can increase
lubricity as much as 35%.
If the drilling fluid has more than 30% of BARACARB®, N-FLOW® can be used to react with the calcium
carbonate in the cake and help to free the pipe.
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DRIL-N Fluid Systems

Introduction
Baroid’s, DRIL-N fluid systems are designed to drill reservoir intervals when minimizing formation damage is
of primary importance. With the advent of Baroid's DRIL-N™ line of systems, Baroid can furnish all the
various drilling fluid systems needed for drilling operations through the production zone. The primary focus
for a DRIL-N fluid is to be essentially non-damaging to the producing formation, provide superior hole
cleaning, allow easy clean-up and be cost effective. These fluids address the wide range of problems
encountered in horizontal drilling, completion and workover operations. Baroid's DRIL-N systems are
specifically designed to provide the lowest filtration rate possible in order to minimize or prevent formation
damage. In order to accomplish this fluid loss control the use of specially selected polymers and bridging
particles are incorporated into our DRIL-N™ systems. Additionally, a tremendous amount of testing and
research has gone into the selection process to determine the best polymers and their optimum
concentrations for our DRIL-N systems. Through this research and testing, specific bridging particles have
been selected and sized to provide the best possible bridging results which result in low filtration rates and
thin, ultra-low permeability filter cakes. After determining the best components to use in a DRIL-N system, a
fluid is then prepared with the desired rheological properties as well to produce a thin, ultra-low
permeability filter cake. The bridging particles used to provide good filtration and this thin filter cake are
BARAPLUG® (sized salt) and BARACARB® (sized calcium carbonate). As important as the filtration control
and filter cakes are to the various systems, the ability to effectively remove these filter cakes requires
special technical attention. Through proper displacements and clean-up procedures this cake is removed,
thus, reestablishing the initial return permeability of the formation and enhancing the production of the
zone of interest.
Custom DRIL-N fluids for every reservoir
Since Baroid believes that each reservoir is unique; optimizing its performance requires a unique
approach. Standard, off-the-shelf fluids compromise the reservoir. Based on core samples, the appropriate
fluid design/selection is determined to match the reservoir’s salinity, pH, water hardness, clay mineralogy
and emulsion-forming abilities. This customization minimizes precipitates, emulsions, clay swelling, scaling,
and potential water blockages that could impact production rates.
Improve Well Producibility
Baroid's systematic procedures for fluid selection and design are recognized as best practices that can
minimize the skin factor and help improve well producibility. Operators have seen improved results by using
engineered DRIL-N fluids designed for the actual mineralogy and morphology of the reservoir rock. The
result can be significantly improved reservoir producibility.
Minimize Formation Damage
Baroid engineers fully understand the importance of protecting the pay zone. Baroid’s DRIL-N fluid systems
are specially-designed fluids used to minimize costly formation damage and facilitate an optimal production
environment. Few operators focus on the fluids which come in contact with the reservoir. Having the
wrong focus can result in major damage to the reservoir. If this happens, then millions of barrels of oil and
billions of cubic feet of gas are never recovered. Reducing formation damage can help reservoirs to produce
at higher rates, resulting in faster payouts. Correctly chosen fluids can reduce overall lifting costs by
increasing the volume of hydrocarbons produced. Permeability is required for the free flow of hydrocarbons
22 | P a g e
into the wellbore. Reducing the reservoir’s permeability reduces potential hydrocarbon production. Poorly
designed fluids can reduce the permeability of the payzone - Reservoir DRIL-N fluids are tools that should be
removed from the well after the job is finished.
Formation Damage Mechanisms Considered When Designing/Selecting DRIL-N Fluids

 Incompatibility Between Wellbore Fluids & Payzone Water
• Mineral precipitates - mineral scale
• Organic precipitates - waxes, asphaltenes
• Reservoir wettability changes
 Particle Invasion & Pore Channel Plugging
• Mud solids - polymers, chemicals & drill solids
• Swelling clays - including bentonite
• Natural pore mineral fines migration
 Other Mechanisms
• Emulsion blocks
• Contaminants (pipe dope), debris (rust, perforating debris, etc.)
Both DRIL-N fluids and completion brines are foreign to the reservoir and can cause severe formation
damage if improperly chosen - The most common formation damage from incompatible fluids is due to the
precipitation of mineral salts.
Emulsion blockage(s) can occur when such wellbore fluids come into contact with the condensate and/or
crude oil present in the formation. These emulsions can form inside the formation and are primarily
viscous, water-in-oil emulsions; however, incompatible brine as a base fluid component of the DRIL-N fluid
with also form an emulsion with the formation hydrocarbons. Emulsion tendencies are tested by mixing
filtrate/brine and formation oil together.
Sandstone reservoirs are originally water-wet. Oil flows better against water-wet surfaces. Water-wet
sandstone preferentially produces oil while oil-wet sandstone preferentially produces water & oil-wet fines.
Oil-wetting reduces permeability to oil, so in order to protect against this it is important to minimize/reduce
the filtrate or brine loss as well as minimize the use of surfactants/oil-wetting agents.
Problems associated with the three (3) main types of clays (Illite, Smectite, Kaolinite) include: Swelling,
Dispersion, Migration, Disintegration, and Polymer adsorption. The swelling, dispersion, and migration of
these clays can lead to blocked/plugged pore spaces detrimentally effecting permeability and producibility
of the reservoir.
DRIL-N Fluid Design Goals

A reservoir DRIL-N fluid is a drilling fluid that is specifically designed for reservoir drilling. DRIL-N fluid
technology evolved from an effort to minimize formation damage and should be able to be removed from
the well after the job is finished. Such reservoir-friendly fluids are to be designed to be non-invading,
compatible with reservoir minerals and fluids, provide formation stability, and offer quick clean-up with
degradable components. Anything foreign to the reservoir has the potential to damage it such as mud
products, drill solids, mud filtrate, etc. Radial Flow of produced fluids into the wellbore creates an increase
in the flow velocity near the wellbore. Damage to this sensitive area has the greatest effect on reservoir
23 | P a g e
permeability. To help ensure these specifically utilized DRIL-N fluids protect the reservoir the following are
done:
 Limit the Introduction of foreign material into the reservoir
 Insure the foreign material has minimal impact
 Remove the foreign material prior to production
Bridging material sizing is critical to forming a tight filter cake, preventing foreign material invasion. This is
accomplished using specially ground marble as the major part of the filter cake. Limestone changes over
time forming harder marble crystals. Marble does not degrade as rapidly as limestone and subsequently
marble maintains the carefully chosen sizes longer for improved reservoir bridging. BARACARB is the sized
calcium carbonate preferred by Baroid. The optimum particle size distribution (PSD) of the BARACARB is
calculated using the WellSET modules within CFG (Completion Fluids Graphics) and DFG (Drilling Fluids
Graphics). By choosing the best PSD for each reservoir a tight filter cake will form quickly limiting the flow
of foreign material into the pay zone. An incorrect PSD can result in a thick, soft filter cake, which increases
the risk of stuck pipe while drilling.
Successful bridging requires an optimum concentration:

 Too little will result in deep filtrate penetration
 Too much can effect fluid rheology and raise ECD
 Best results should be between 30 and 45 lbs/bbl
The Particle Plugging Apparatus (PPA) is the field method to accurately determine the effectiveness of the
bridging material on the reservoir.
Reservoir Sensitivity Study

Including, but not limited to are the following required lab reservoir sensitivity studies.
Reservoir Fluid Reservoir Rock
Water Analysis & Fluids Compatibility Mineral Analysis & Clay Fraction
Emulsion Tendencies Grain & Pore Size Distribution
Scaling Tendencies Porosity & Permeability
In order to provide a custom designed DRIL-N fluids program to include displacements and filter cake clean
up certain questions need to be answered. Please fill out this document as fully as possible; customer input
is necessary.
DIF Design
Information Sheet.docx
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DRILL-N Fluid Systems Offered

Historically, Baroid has offered seven (7) DRIL-N fluid systems. Six of these were water based while one was
an all-oil based fluid.
System Description
BARADRIL-N Sized calcium carbonate
BRINEDRIL-N High density brine based
COREDRIL-N All oil drilling/coring
MAXDRIL-N Mixed metal silicate
QUIKDRIL-N Modified polymer with LSRV
SHEARDRIL-N Clay free, modified polymer
SOLUDRIL-N Sized salt
NOTE: Many of these systems are now only rarely utilized.
High Performance Water Base DRILL-N Fluid Systems
BARADRIL-N® Reservoir Drilling Fluid System
Baroid’s BARADRIL-N® system is a clay-free, acid soluble reservoir drilling fluid designed to help achieve
maximum potential production. BARADRIL-N fluid provides effective fluid loss control and reliable wellbore
and formation stability. The BARADRIL-N system can be also used for completion and workover
operations. BARADRIL-N systems have been used to drill different sandstone and carbonate reservoirs in
thousands of wells worldwide.
BARADRIL-N fluids are formulated with freshwater or brine, thermally stable polymers for suspension and
filtration control, and sized calcium carbonate bridging particles. BARADRIL-N system has excellent
lubrication characteristics for enhanced penetration and consistently demonstrates good fluid loss control
and stable rheology.
BARADRIL-N fluids do not require special mixing equipment and the system is easily prepared and
maintained in the field. BARADRIL-N system filtercakes do not hinder or slow reservoir clean-up procedures
and can be removed with conventional acid treatment or Baroid’s N-FLOW™ system.
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BRINEDRIL-N® Brine-Based DRIL-N Fluid System
Baroid’s BRINEDRIL-N® system is a specially formulated high-density, brine-based fluids system designed for
drilling, completion and workover operations. Easy to prepare and maintain, at low shear rate the fluid
exhibits uniquely high viscosities and shear-thinning capabilities that can ensure stability and effective
wellbore cleaning.
Customized BARACARB® bridging material in BRINEDRIL-N fluids minimize fluid invasion into the producing
formation to avoid disrupting the reservoir rock mineralogy and morphology.
Customized formulations of BRINEDRIL-N fluids are used to enhance reservoir producibility in a variety of
field applications and helps increase recovery of reserves in mature land assets. BRINEDRIL-N fluids are the
optimal solution to maximize both drilling efficiency and reservoir protection.
BARADRIL-N® X High-Temperature DRIL-N Fluid System

Baroid’s BARADRIL-N® X high-temperature DRIL-N fluid system is a non-damaging water-based fluid that
exhibits high temperature stability while helping to achieve maximum recovery and production. The
BARADRIL-N X system combines the benefits of minimized formation damage with thermal stability and
performance, providing an environmentally acceptable vehicle for the delivery of open-hole completions in
HPHT reservoirs. With the use of a synthetic polymer comprised of strongly bonded chemical linkages and
cross-linked chains, BARADRIL-N X fluid demonstrates long term high-temperature stability. This fluid will
maintain rheology, suspension and hole cleaning performance under extended HPHT exposure. In addition
fluid conditions and performance can be maintained under static conditions as well as dynamic circulation.
Designed specifically as a non-damaging reservoir drilling fluid, BARADRIL-N X fluid does not depend on
potentially damaging components such as clays, weighting agents and stabilizers. The formulation can be
customized for specific reservoir conditions using tailored bridging packages, enabling high penetration
rates and helping achieve maximum production.
High Performance Oil Base DRILL-N Fluid Systems
COREDRIL-N™ System
Baroid’s COREDRIL-N™ system is a specifically designed water-free system for obtaining native state
reservoir core samples. It differs from conventional invert emulsion drilling and coring fluids that usually
contain high concentrations of strong oil-wetting surfactants that can cause dramatic alteration to the
reservoir rock and core samples. COREDRIL-N fluids preserve the natural reservoir rock wettability
characteristics and are ideal for securing reliable core samples required for special core studies.
COREDRIL-N fluids are less invasive and contain an optimal concentration of specially selected sized solids
to plug the pores of the reservoir rock without penetrating deep into it. The particle size distribution and
concentration of these solids are carefully customized to seal off the target formation, achieve very low
filtration rates, and minimize fluid invasion and flushing of the core samples. The COREDRIL-N system
26 | P a g e
allows more realistic reservoir evaluation and facilitates determination of water saturation. In addition, it
helps to confirm porosities and permeabilities derived from electric logs.
High-Performance Invert Emulsion Systems

Baroid’s high-performance invert emulsion systems are organophilic clay free and provide improved drilling
performance in the majority of wells drilled with an invert emulsion. Relying on emulsion and polymer
technology for rheology, these fluids provide a superior rheological profile and robust, yet fragile gels to
help ensure excellent hole cleaning and reduced sag tendencies. Other fluids utilizing organophilic clay
treatments often require time to fully yield. Baroid’s organophilic clay free systems prevent the
requirement for circulating to stabilize the mud weight after long static periods. These systems’ co-polymer
technology produces an extremely thin filter cake, which provides a better seal than conventional
technologies resulting in low fluid invasion, optimal logging conditions, less skin damage, excellent return
permeability and low lift-off pressures. High-performance systems are ideal for use in areas where the pore
pressure/fracture gradient window is narrow. The rheology modifiers are polymer based which minimize
surge pressures and can manage equivalent circulating density (ECD).
Baroid's current line of clay-free high performance invert emulsion DRIL-N fluids includes ACCOLADE®,
® ®
ENCORE®, INNOVERT and INTEGRADE systems. Each system is built around a technology that provides
significant benefits over the traditional invert emulsion-based fluids currently in use. Through advanced
engineering of the emulsion and use of polymer technologies, the organophilic lignite and the organophilic
clay that can cause problems in today’s deepwater, land and shelf drilling environments have been
removed. The reduction in solids, lack of clay-based gel structure, and increased water ratio produce a
superior drilling fluid. Gel strengths are high when needed, but break easily under the slightest pressure.
Lower solids content, fragile gel strengths and relatively high rheology can generate lower ECDs in the
wellbore while improving hole cleaning to result in faster ROP.
Benefits of the clay-free technology include:

• High, yet fragile, low shear gel strengths to help eliminate barite sag
• Lower cold temperature rheological profile
• Less products needed at the rigsite
• On average, significantly lowers downhole losses
• Superior return permeability with low lift-off pressures
• Faster chemical treatment time
• Lower base oil consumption
• Higher tolerance to solids and water contamination
• Improved rheological profile under temperature and pressure
ACCOLADE fluid uses an Isomerized Olefin (IO) and a renewable resource, Vegetable Ester blend, to provide
superior biodegradability performance. This system is used primarily in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) to exceed
environmental regulations and reduce the risk of having to incur the cost of going to zero discharge.
ENCORE fluid uses 100% IO to provide competitive biodegradability and environmental conformance,
though less than ACCOLADE fluid in the GoM, at a lower unit price than our original ACCOLADE fluid.
INNOVERT uses paraffin or mineral oil base fluid to provide the same drilling performance for the global
market. INTEGRADE fluid is the diesel-based version of our high performance invert technology. This system
27 | P a g e
can deliver the same performance benefits as our other high performance inverts to markets where diesel
is the base fluid of choice.
Guidelines for running these clay-free systems can be referenced in the attached:
ClayFree_Inverts_G
uidelines.pdf
DRIL-N STIM™ Filtrate Additive

No other service company has developed a solution quite like Baroid’s DRIL-N STIM™ filtrate additive. The
ultimate goal is not only to save the operator time and money, but also increase the well’s producibility by
offering an additive that performs during both drilling and completion phases to remove formation damage
and reduce water saturation near the wellbore.
Filtrate invasion, which usually causes formation damage, is made advantageous by improving production
using the DRIL-N STIM filtrate additive’s unique formulation. The reservoir’s final permeability is optimized
by enhancing the water-wetting of the formulation during the drilling process, allowing it to produce at a
higher rate.
By using Baroid’s DRIL-N STIM filtrate additive, we can help increase returns by:
• Reducing formation damage by improving wettability
• Regaining and increasing the permeability to help enhance production value
 Removing damage from other drilling-fluid additives
• Cleaning out naturally occurring blockages
This customized-per-well solution can increase the wellbore’s final permeability, ultimately achieving much
greater production value.
N-FLOW™ Filter Cake Breaker Systems

Baroid’s breaker systems aid in the removal of filtercake and potential causes of formation damage to the
reservoir in order to improve productivity or injectivity of treated wells. N-FLOW systems are designed to
provide an effective clean-up and encourage maximum performance from a wide variety of well and
formation types. Baroid’s breaker systems have the ability to treat an entire section of the borehole rather
than just localized areas within the well. By enabling the fluid to be placed across the entire interval of
interest before the acid is released, N-FLOW systems are much more effective towards the filtercake and
other acid soluble damaging solids, and you are left with a more effective well clean-up. N-FLOW breaker
systems can be used to enhance production in a variety of applications such as deepwater and mature land
assets. N-FLOW breakers also work to dissolve filter cake from water-based or oil-based reservoir drilling
fluid; in horizontal or vertical wells; and in formations that may destabilize on contact with strong mineral
acid. Compared to competitive breaker systems involving live acids, the N-FLOW system carries much less
HSE risk. This system does not require special acid resistant tanks, pumps, and other equipment, and can be
safer for rig personnel than conventional mineral acid breakers.
In order to provide a custom designed N-FLOW treatment recommendation include completion design and
type of filter cake clean up certain questions need to be answered. Please fill out this document as fully as
possible; customer input is necessary.
28 | P a g e
N-FLOW - Well
Assessment Questionnaire Rev 1.doc
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Drilling in Permafrost SOP Code: DP Revision Date: March 2015
Drilling in Permafrost
Introduction
The majority of wells penetrating permafrost formations have been drilled on the North Slope of Alaska and
Siberia in North Russia. Permafrost is a highly unconsolidated formation with ice serving as the matrix
structure. The permafrost sections of these wells occur in the surface interval and are characterized by
having heavy gravel in the upper sections which can range in size from large sand to fist size or greater.
Large pieces of wood are often associated with the gravel cuttings as well. In addition to the gravel sections,
sticky clays are often encountered in the lower sections of the interval. For the most part, temperatures of
the permafrost formations range from just below 0°C (32°F) to -10°C (15°F). Depths of the permafrost
formations vary and may range to as deep as 600 m (2,000 ft) true vertical depth (TVD).
Potential Problems
The most troublesome problems encountered in drilling of permafrost formations are hole cleaning and
caving in the gravel sections due to poor cementation. Extremely high penetration rates up to 183 m/h (600
ft/hr) contribute to the hole cleaning problems that are inherent in permafrost drilling.
Formations which contain heavy concentrations of wet clays can cause extremely high viscosity, screen
blinding, and bit and stabilizer balling as secondary problems in the surface interval of wells having
permafrost. These formations are generally encountered in the transition zone just below the permafrost
sections and may continue for several hundred feet.
Occurrences of gas hydrates have been observed during the drilling of permafrost formations and those
formations just below permafrost.
Note: If gas hydrates are encountered, the best practice is to drill through the hydrate zone to get the
thawing gas above you and away from the bit/BHA area. Gas hydrates will become entrained in the thick
spud mud and cause pump cavitation problems back at surface. The longer the bit is near the gas hydrates,
the more thawing will occur, causing more hydrates to become entrained in the system. Attempt to dump
any fluid containing gas hydrates seen coming to surface, before it becomes entrained in the surface pit
system.
Solutions
Standard spud muds for drilling surface intervals which will contain permafrost usually consist of fresh
water extended bentonite slurries. If it is known that large gravels will be encountered, the funnel viscosity
of the fluid should be targeted for the 300-400 second per quart range with yield points in the 50 to 60
range. Formulating the fluid will consist of treating the hardness of the makeup water to less than 100 mg/l
with Soda Ash and then mixing 57 - 70 kg/m³ (20 - 25 ppb) of AQUAGEL™ with approximately 0.3 kg/m³ (0.1
ppb) of X-TEND® II. Approximately 0.8 kg/m³ (0.25 ppb) of caustic soda in the initial makeup of the fluid, will
aid in increasing the yield of the AQUAGEL™. Generally, no maintenance of pH is required after the initial
mixing of the fluid. Drilling in areas where the gravel size is known to be small in size can be accomplished
with viscosities in the 100 to 150 seconds per quart range.
In wells which have large gravels, maintain the viscosity in the 300 to 400 second per quart range until all of
the permafrost has been drilled. It is advised that under no circumstances allow the viscosity to fall below
250 seconds per quart in this section. It is prone to serious problems from tight hole, swabbing, and packing
off. Maintain the system with AQUAGEL™ with X-TEND II.
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Drilling in Permafrost SOP Code: DP Revision Date: March 2015
Note: Pac products can also be added to help support gravels just below the conductor pipe and to reduce
mud invasion through the highly unconsolidated areas below the conductor.
Close attention to the solids control system is of primary importance due to the very high viscosity of the
fluid and the high penetration rates encountered drilling permafrost. Run shaker screens as fine as possible
and use all of the hydrocyclones in the solids control system to maintain the abrasive solids content below
one percent, if possible. Fast drilling in the large diameter gravel sections can result in sand contents of 10%
if this phase of the program is neglected. Due to the fast penetration rates and heavy solids buildup, high
dilution rates are usually required to control the density of the fluid. It is quite common to use 1 bbl/ ft
dilution rates in order to maintain acceptable solids content in the spud mud system for a 12 ¼” wellbore
size.
Prior to drilling the base of the permafrost formation, treat the system with approximately one percent by
volume of CON DET® or DRIL-N-SLIDE® to combat the effects of screen blinding and bottom hole assembly
balling caused by the wet, sticky clays which will be encountered in the formations just below the
permafrost. These formations are generally recognized as being mud making zones that raise the viscosity
of the fluid. For this reason, the dilution rates will remain high and the rig site engineer will then be fighting
viscosity increases.
Due to fast penetration rates and the large diameter holes, it is advisable to run the maximum pump rates
possible to ensure good hole cleaning. If annular loading is extreme it may require controlled drilling to
minimize the severity of the problem.
Prior to the last trip out of the hole before running surface casing, adequate circulation time should be
allowed to ensure that the hole is clean, particularly in situations of high deviation of the wellbore. Reduce
the viscosity of the fluid to the 150 seconds per quart range to minimize surge pressures while running the
casing. After the casing string is on bottom, reduce the mud viscosity to <100 seconds per quart to avoid
problems with cement channeling through thick fluid.
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Filter Cake/Filtration Control SOP Code: FC Revision Date: March 2015
Filter Cake/Filtration Control

Introduction
Sealing permeable zones in the wellbore is a primary function of a drilling fluid. Filtration control
represents a major portion of the mud cost. Traditionally, most of this cost has resulted from
controlling the filtration rate as opposed to controlling filter cake quality. This is understandable since
a definitive filtration rate is easier to quantify than a subjective evaluation of filter cake quality.
Filter cake quality is often difficult to define and communicate. Therefore, a review of some basic
principles along with some new and old testing procedures will promote better communication,
improved drilling fluid design, and proper product usage.
The primary objectives of filtration control are:

• Minimize damage to production zones
• Reduce hydration of formation clays
• Optimize formation evaluation
• Avoid differential sticking of pipe
• Avoid under gauge hole due to thick filter cakes
These objectives are achieved by focusing on important design factors:

• Compatibility of filtrate with formation
• Thin, impermeable, and deformable filter cakes.
• Lubricious and shearable filter cakes
• Design Factors for Filtration Control/Filter Cake
Filtrate Compatibility with Formation
The chemical composition of a drilling fluid is a key design factor that will facilitate the fluid's ability to
maintain wellbore stability and minimize damage to productive zones. The specific filtration rate of a
fluid is important, but it is just as important to minimize hydration and dispersion of clay solids.
Filtrate movement through microfractures in shale is often a capillary action. This spontaneous
movement of fluid is not slowed by mere filtration reduction. However, viscosifying the filtrate, sealing
the fractures, or adjusting the filtrate chemistry may reduce fluid movement in a fracture.
Filter Cake Permeability
Filter cake permeability is determined by the fluid's solids concentration, particle size distribution,
solids deformability, and the electrochemical properties of the solids. Permeability is reduced as solids
are deposited on a filter medium. Permeability is also reduced by the bridging of particles of various
sizes. Particle sizes one-third the diameters of the pore throat opening are required for bridging. In
addition, permeability is reduced by solids that have the ability to deform and compact into void
spaces.
The water associated with hydrated solids allows these solids to deform much like water balloons.
AQUAGEL™ GOLD SEAL is such a solid. Polymeric materials like EZ-MUD™, DEXTRID®, THERMA-
26 | P a g e
CHEK®, and PAC™ products also hydrate. When these hydrated polymers are absorbed by other solids
and/or contained in the filter cake, they bond solids together and seal pore spaces within the cake or
formation surface.
Hydrated solids are also compressible under pressure. Compressibility is the ability to squeeze
together, condense, shrink or reduce in size. As a solid is compressed, some of the outer layers of
bound water are forced away from the solid thereby reducing its effective surface area. Compression
also allows the electrochemical charges on clay surfaces to be placed at a closer proximity to the
surfaces of other solids. This increases the adhesion of solids in the filter cake and is the reason why
the filter cake nearest the wellbore or filter medium is dehydrated. In other words, filter cake is
progressively drier depending on the pressure and temperature.
Most drilling fluids are designed to prevent hydration of clay solids. However, maintaining
deformability with hydrated AQUAGEL™ GOLD SEAL is difficult in the presence of QUIK-THIN™
thinner, lime, gypsum, sea water, KCl, and other inhibitive chemicals. Even when prehydrated,
AQUAGEL™ dehydrates in time and loses its effectiveness. Replacement becomes necessary, but when
adding more AQUAGEL™, care must be taken to prevent adverse effects on the fluid's solids content,
rheology, and, in turn, mud stability.
Lubricious and Shearable Filter Cake
A drilling fluid is a "partly solid" lubricant designed to reduce the coefficient of friction between the
pipe and the wellbore. This includes the depositing of lubricious solids as filter cake, thereby, reducing
pipe drag across permeable sands. Liquid lubricants such as BARO-LUBE™ GOLD SEAL are used to
reduce the coefficient of friction between surfaces. Polymers such as EZ-MUD™ function as boundary
lubricants as they adhere to the surface of pipe and mud solids. These lubricity characteristics provide
lower pipe drag and less adhesion between solids. Toughness and durability have traditionally been
desirable filter cake characteristic. However, tests have proven that stuck pipe is often freed as the
filter cake shears apart as opposed to metal shearing apart from the cake. This indicates that the so
called tough and durable filter cake can actually magnify the problem of stuck pipe. A slick coating on
the pipe and on solids within the cake can reduce stuck pipe frequencies by promoting lubrication
between the metal and the cake itself.
Controlling Filtration Rates/Cake Quality
Filtration Control Mechanisms

There are four basic mechanisms for controlling filtration rates and reducing filter cake permeability.
Understanding these mechanisms along with how filtration control products function is important.
Most products have primary and secondary functions. How a product affects other fluid properties
must be considered as part of the product evaluation process.
Bridging
Bridging reduces filtration rates and permeability by plugging or blocking the pore spaces at the face of
the filter medium. It generally requires solids about one-third the diameter of the pore throat opening
to form a bridge. AQUAGEL™, CARBONOX®, BARANEX®, DEXTRID, BARACARB®, BAROFIBRE®,
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STEELSEAL® and other LC materials function as bridging materials.
Bonding
Bonding is the connecting or binding of solids together. THERMA-CHEK, PAC, CMC, and other high
molecular weight polymers function as bonding materials. Secondarily, PAC and CMC function by
viscosifying the filtrate, reducing its flow ability.
Deflocculation
Deflocculants reduce the electrochemical attraction between solids, allowing solids to be filtered
individually, as opposed to flocs. This reduces the void spaces in the cake created by those flocs.
CARBONOX, QUIK-THIN™ thinner, and other low molecular weight polymers function as Deflocculants.
Viscosity
Fluid loss decreases proportionally to the increase in viscosity of the filtrate. Temperature alone may
change the filtrate viscosity, making filtration control more difficult at high temperatures. Any soluble
material added to the fluid will viscosify the filtrate. In most cases, this is a secondary effect of a
product. Lignosulfonates and low molecular weight polymers increase the filtrate viscosity slightly
while high molecular weight polymers and GEM™'s increase its viscosity to a greater extent.
Controlling Filter Cake Quality

Filter cake quality is influenced by the degree of hydration and flocculation of the filtered solids. The
effectiveness in permeability reduction may be demonstrated by a ranking of clay solids according to
their surface characteristics:
• Dehydrated/Aggregated/Flocculated (high permeability)
Hydrated/Flocculated (Medium Permeability)

Hydrated/Deflocculated (Low permeability)
Since fluid loss and filter cake quality are important design factors, it is important to understand the
predominant electrochemical state of the solids. Initially, cake permeability is reduced as prehydrated
AQUAGEL™ GOLD SEAL is added to the system. When these clay particles become flocculated, they
promote deformability and permeability reduction from increased pressure. With deflocculation,
permeability is further decreased, as the voids created by the flocs are diminished.
During drilling operations, hydrated solids eventually become dehydrated as the solids content
increases and/or the system is converted to an inhibitive fluid. At this point, a decision must be made
on the basis of economic and operational objectives. More prehydrated AQUAGEL™ and/or other
products may be added. These other products include CMC, PAC, DEXTRID, and FILTER-CHEK™. The
water content must be increased in conjunction with the additions to allow the products to hydrate
and function properly.
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Monitoring Cake Quality
Monitoring Permeability of Static Filter Cakes (API, HTHP)

Filter cake deformability is verifiable and can be monitored and recorded daily. Monitoring requires
filtration rates at various times and pressures determined with a filter press. Test results are then
evaluated based on standard filtration equations.
The first equation states that filtration rates through a fixed filter medium will change in proportion to
the square root of time.
Equation: Q2 = Q1 Where:
Q1 = Filtration rate at 7.5 minutes Q2 = Theoretical rate at 30 minutes T1 = 7.5 minutes T2 = 30 minutes
(API)
This equation states that a fluid producing 5 cm3 of filtrate in 7-1/2 minutes will produce twice that
value of 10 cm3 of filtrate in 30 minutes. However, if deformable solids are deposited with the initial
spurt of filtrate, the filtration rate will be less than the calculated value. This means that the filter cake
permeability is decreasing with time and pressure.
A second monitoring technique requires testing filtration rates at two different pressures and the
results evaluated based on the equation below:
Equation: Where Q1 = Known filtration rate Q2 = Calculated filtration rate P1 = Low pressure, 100 psi P2
= High pressure, 500 psi
In the equation above, filtration rates through a fixed filter medium change proportional to the square
root of pressure. Therefore, a filtration rate of X at 100 psi would then be 2.2X at 500 psi. However, if
the solids provide a deformable filter cake, the ratio of the filtration rates will be less than the
calculated value. Permeability is then decreased when pressure increases.
Field muds with hydrated/flocculated solids may provide a 500/100 psi filtration ratio of 1.0 or less. A
deflocculated fluid with deformable solids may provide a filtration rate of 1.2 or less.
The evaluation of filtration rates and filter cakes at varied times and pressures are more informative
than the single data point reported on the standard API report form.
Monitoring Permeability of Static Filter Cakes (PPA)

Permeability under wellbore conditions is somewhat different from the conditions within the API HTHP
test cell. However, the principles of filtration and permeability remain the same. The Particle Plugging
Apparatus (PPA) simulates downhole conditions at pressures to 3,000 psi, temperature to 500°F
(260°C), and varying permeability using aloxite disks that range from 750 md to 75 Darcies.
To reduce permeability, some of the solids initially deposited at the face of a permeable zone must be
of sufficient size to bridge pore throats. If not, whole mud will pass through. In addition to bridging,
some solids must be deformable. They compact into void spaces to restrict fluid movement.
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If the initial spurt loss of the PPA test includes solids or whole mud, the pore throats are not being
bridged. This can result in high fluid loss and thick filter cake due to depositing of coarse solids on the
filter medium.
An efficient filter cake, as defined by PPA, will have the following:
• A low spurt loss with little or no solids in filtrate.
• Fluid loss values near equal at different pressures.
• Filter cake thickness near equal at different pressures.
Filtration products should be selected based on temperature stability, particle size, deformability, and
bonding ability. A polymer may reduce fluid loss at low pressures; however, it may be blown through
the pore space at high pressures. In this case, firm solids like BARACARB or STEELSEAL may be needed
to bridge the pore spaces.
Monitoring Permeability of Dynamic Filter Cakes (FANN® 90)

When the drill bit penetrates a permeable zone, solids are filtered from the fluid as the filtrate is
forced into the formation by the differential pressure. Some of these solids are washed or eroded from
the face of the wellbore by the circulating action of the drilling fluid. When the rate of solids erosion
and the rate of solids deposition reach equilibrium, the filtration rate and cake thickness become
constant.
As with static filtration, it is important to bridge and seal pore throats with the initial loss of filtrate.
This minimizes filtrate loss and filter cake build-up.
When the filtrate process is converted from dynamic to static, cake build-up increases and filtration
rate decreases. The effectiveness of the initial filter cake will determine the magnitude of the cake
build-up under static conditions. To minimize "under gauge" hole, the filter cake must be thin. In
addition, the cake must be erodible as the filtration process is converted from static back to dynamic.
These properties require that the filtration products be properly sized, deformable, lubricious and
shearable. Bound water in hydrated solids such as commercial bentonite and polymers gives these
desirable characteristics. In most cases, the dynamic filtration rate will be lower after the static period
than during the initial dynamic phase.
When solids have low water contents, the electrochemical charges on the surfaces of the solid are
placed in a closer proximity to the charges on other solids. The electrical attraction between these
solids along with the compaction under pressure makes them very difficult to separate. As a result, a
thick and tough filter cake may be formed, resulting in an under gauge wellbore and stuck pipe
potential. Dynamic filtration can be evaluated in the laboratory using the FANN® 90 under a variety of
different conditions, including various shear rates, pressures, temperatures, and filter medium
permeabilities. As with the PPA test, the object is to achieve fluid loss control with thin filter cakes
while varying the test parameters.
It is important to know the composition of the fluid and the filtration characteristics of all the elements
within a fluid to make a logical evaluation of the fluid and recommendations for adjusting filtration
rates.
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The maximum acceptable values for the dynamic filtration rate and cake deposition index (CDI) are
shown in the table below.
Mud Weight lbs./gal Rate, ml/min CDI
9-14 0.16 22
Filtration Control versus Stuck Pipe

Prevention of differential pressure sticking is a primary function of drilling fluids. The formula for
differential pressure sticking is:
Vertical Pull = (Differential Pressure, psi) (Area of Contact, in2) (Coefficient of Friction)
The differential pressure (psi) is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column
and the formation pressure. To be able to minimize differential pressure, the mud chemistry must
have a stabilizing effect on the shale or wellbore. This prevents the need for excessive mud weights to
maintain wellbore stability.
The area of contact (in2) is determined by pipe and hole diameters along with filter cake quality. Thick
and soft filter cakes allow greater contact as the pipe embeds into the cake. As the area of contact
increases, the total horizontal force increases as a product of the area of contact and the differential
pressure. Effective solids control and a thin impermeable cake on the wellbore will minimize the area
of contact.
The coefficient of friction defines a lubricity characteristic. As the lubricity of the fluid and cake
improves, the vertical pull required to move pipe decreases as a product of the coefficient of friction
and the horizontal force. Lubricants and/or lubricious solids allow the pipe to slide past permeable
zones. Further, this allows the solids within the cake to shear apart more easily. This facilitates the
prevention of stuck pipe as well as the freeing of pipe that has become stuck.
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Fluid Displacements Overview SOP Code: FD Revision Date: March 2015
Fluid Displacements Overview

Introduction
Cleanup Requirements
Displacement prior to completion operations is the process of removing one fluid, usually a drilling
fluid, from a wellbore and replacing it with another, usually a clean completion fluid. The process is
performed using a series of pills and spacers, which provide both chemical and physical cleaning
actions. The pills and spacers provide separation between incompatible fluids, remove drilling fluids,
create water-wet surfaces and transport residual solids out of the well.
The planning, design and execution of a displacement operation require an understanding of the
drilling fluid, the behavior of the clean completion fluid and suitable cleaning additives at appropriate
concentrations.
Although displacement and cleanup operations are commonly performed between drilling and
completion tasks, they may also be required for drilling, workover and suspension activities.
When displacing fluid in a wellbore over from one type to another, the most important factor is to
create a sharp interface between the two fluids to minimize contamination and waste. Steps must be
taken to minimize channeling and ensure as complete a removal of the fluid being displaced as
possible. Specially designed spacers are formulated to provide separation of the fluids whether the
displacement is mud to mud, brine to mud, or mud to brine.
Displacement methods include direct and indirect. Direct displacement is used when the fluid is
displaced directly with a displacement fluid. Indirect displacement uses large amounts of water to flush
out the wellbore before circulating the displacement fluid.
Baroid has HMS documentation in place to fully describe the processes required for mud-to-brine
displacements. All information can be found in HMS Global Standard processes within the documents
found here:
http://halworld.corp.halliburton.com/hms-baroid/Wellbore%20Cleanup.page
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Fractured Limestone, Drilling SOP Code: FD Revision Date: March 2015
Fractured Limestone, Drilling

Introduction
Fractured limestone formations occur in many areas of the world, from the depleted mature reservoirs
of the Middle East, Mid-Con USA and Venezuela, to the more recently developed formations offshore
East Africa. In all cases, drilling fractured limestone formations may result in problems characterized
by:
• Lost Circulation - sudden, from partial to total.
• Wellbore instability - especially in horizontal development wells of recent years.
• Formation damage - usually solids blocking from mud invasion. Also, incompatible mud filtrate
chemistry can cause precipitates.
• Differential sticking
• Acid gases - CO2 and H2S
Lost Circulation
Refer to Well Blueprint "Lost Circulation" for further detail.
Seepage to Partial Losses

Use mixtures of BARACARBs, BAROFIBRE and STEELSEALs. In reservoirs, mixtures of BARACARB® have
proven most effective. Drill with suitable Dril-N fluid. Use BARACARB bridging material in the drilling
fluid.
Severe to Total Losses
If severe to total losses are expected, STOPPIT is the recommended LCM to be part of the contingency
plan. If losses are not cured with STOPPIT, DIAMOND SEAL (or HYDRO-PLUG) BAROLIFT can be added
as a supplemental material. When using BAROLIFT, the pill has to be pumped either open ended or
through a treating sub (eg., PBL sub).
Wellbore Instability
In recent years, during horizontal well developments in fractured limestone reservoirs there have been
instances of severe wellbore erosion as a result of blocky limestone pieces falling into the wellbore.
This condition has led to stuck pipe and the need for side-tracks. In the most severe cases, the well has
had to be abandoned. This condition requires a drilling fluid which will carry large pieces of fractured
limestone out of the hole, to allow drilling to proceed. The MAXDRIL-N system has been used
successfully in these conditions.
Formation Damage
Solids invasion and blocking will occur if fractures are not properly bridged, leading to production
impairment. The correct PSD of bridging materials is best determined from examination of core
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samples. Modern 3-D logging techniques can also be used to determine fracture size and direction.
BARACARB is the preferred bridging material as it is acid-soluble.. It is important to bridge the
fractures at the borehole wall, so that clean-up techniques can be most effective. With the pore throat
size information, WellSET should be used to design appropriate bridging package. After choosing the
appropriate bridging package, have it tested in the lab in a PPA test.
Carbonates and sulfates are common constituents of connate water in limestone reservoirs. These
form precipitates with divalent ions such as calcium and magnesium. The mud should be treated to
remove Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions.
Differential Sticking
Differential sticking is a common occurrence in highly fractured and depleted limestone reservoirs.
Differential sticking is dealt with in detail in the appropriate section. To summarize, use FANN® 90 and
PPA tests to optimize CDI and PSD. Take the appropriate precautions to minimize the risk of
differential sticking.
Acid Gases
CO2 and H2S are commonly associated with limestone reservoirs. These gases will cause drill string
corrosion and failure if they are not dealt with. The presence of H2S is a life-threatening hazard to
drilling rig personnel.
CO2: Add lime and caustic soda to treat out. At BHST > 250°F, use BARACOR® 95 in place of lime. Raise
the mud density to prevent further influx.
H2S: Use an H2S scavenger to treat out, eg., BARA-SCAV, Ironite Sponge. Maintain a high pH (>10.0) to
buffer against minor influxes. Raise the mud density to prevent further influx.
Preventive Measures
The key to dealing with fractured limestones is to minimize the severity of associated problems
through careful planning and good drilling practices. This includes:
Casing Seat Selection

Set casing as close to the top of the limestone as possible. This will allow the mud density to be run as
appropriate for the limestone, without having to adjust density for other troublesome formations .
Maintain Minimum Mud Density

This will be easier if casings are set as described. It is vital that ECD be monitored and minimized. In
many instances, there will be a narrow density window between loss of circulation and influx. Use a
mud system which minimizes ECD, such as BaraECD fluid systems.
Minimize Swab and Surge

High pressure surges will contribute to the severity of losses encountered while drilling fractured
limestones. Abnormal swabbing pressures can lead to large volumes of gas/liquid influx. Utilize
Baroid’s DFG hydraulic software to review the surge/swab pressures. These pressures are minimized
by:
Reducing ECD through optimum fluid design

• Breaking circulation (e.g. every 1000 ft) when tripping in the hole
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• Reducing pipe running speeds - drill pipe and casing

• Rotating drill pipe while starting pumps, to help break gels
• Adopting slowest practical pump rates while drilling
• Control drilling to avoid overloading the annulus with cuttings
Be Prepared for Lost Circulation

Have a remedial plan ready to implement if losses become severe to total. Prepare appropriate LCM
Decision Trees This will reduce the time taken to combat losses should they occur.
Do Not Over Displace the Pill

Retaining the lost circulation pill in the near wellbore region is a significant problem for highly
fractured formations. After displacing the pill into the open hole, count pump strokes so as to not
overdisplace. Provide at least a 50% excess pill volume if possible. Once the pill has been displaced into
the open hole and fractures, then pull up and allow the pill to soak.
Baroid Solutions
BARADRIL-N and MAXDRIL-N drilling fluids systems:
BARACARB
BAROFIBRE
STEELSEAL
DUO-SQUEEZE R
EZ-PLUG
STOPPIT
STOPPIT + DIAMOND SEAL or HYDRO-PLUG + BAROLIFT
Lost Circulation Materials
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Gas Hydrates SOP Code: GH Revision Date: March 2015
Gas Hydrates
Introduction
Gas hydrates are products of a thermodynamic phenomenon where water and gas molecules combine
to form crystalline solids. The crystal lattice structure of hydrogen bonded water molecules provides a
cage-like framework to host gas molecules. The two common hydrate structures may contain eight or
twenty-four cavities with one molecule of gas per cavity. The final composition is approximately 15%
gas and 85% water. As much as 184 ft3 of natural gas can be concentrated into 1 ft3 of hydrates. They
are commonly associated with deep water drilling operations but have also been observed while
drilling permafrost.
Gas hydrates formation is a function of pressure, temperature and the composition of both the
drilling/completion fluid make up water and the gas itself. Gas hydrates form more readily at high
pressure, lower temperature (exactly the conditions encountered at the BOP/wellhead of deepwater
drilling/completion operations) with higher gravity gases, and in lower salinity waters. These
conditions are often at temperatures much above the freezing point of water. In order for gas hydrates
to form, there must be a large quantity of entrained gas in the drilling/completion fluid and the right
combination of high pressure and low temperature. The temperature at which hydrates form is a
direct function of pressure. As pressure increases with increased water depth, the temperature at
which hydrates can form also increases. The hydrostatic head of the drilling/completion fluid column in
the riser combined with the cold temperatures at the mudline create an environment conducive to gas
hydrate formation.
Problems associated with the formation of gas hydrates in drilling/completion fluid include:
• Plugging of choke and kill lines, BOP's and the riser from background or kick gas.
 Plugging of flow lines are a kick has occurred
• Interference with drill string movement or BOP operation.
• The liberation of large quantities of gas near the surface as the hydrates decompose
or melt.
Gas Hydrate Problems

Temperature, pressure, and gas composition determine conditions favorable for hydrate formation.
Solidification occurs as the temperature decreases and/or the pressure increases. A light gas
(methane) resists hydrate formation more than the heavier gases (ethane and propane).
As the temperature of the fluid is decreased and/or pressure is increased, seed crystals or hydrate
nuclei are formed. At the critical pressure/temperature/gas combination, massive nucleation and
encapsulation of gas into the hydrate structure occur. Elevated pressures and low temperatures in
specifically in deepwater drilling promote hydrate formation. The gas hydrate crystals can plug
subsurface and BOP equipment during drilling fluid circulation. Conversely, as temperature increases,
gas is released through dissociation like gas breakout from oil mud. An uncontrolled sudden release of
gas can become a kick.
The amount of inhibition required to prevent hydrate formation is determined by the difference
between the water temperature at the wellhead and the hydrate formation temperature in fresh
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water. Hydrate problems can go unnoticed - many cases have been unreported due to an inaccurate
diagnosis such as settled barite or mechanical problems.
Preventing the Formation of Gas Hydrates

Drilling fluids rarely contain enough gas at the proper pressure and temperature for hydrates to form.
In two reported cases of gas hydrates, the problem occurred while dealing with a well control problem.
To prevent gas hydrates there are several methods that can be used. These include:
• An inhibitive mud system designed for the worst case scenario.
• Higher concentration salt polymer muds. Invert emulsions, preferably synthetics, as
unlatching the riser in deepwater has major environmental implications.
• Glycerine/Polyglycerine salt muds (GEM™ 2000). Water-base muds with crystal-size
modifiers such as EXTENSOL.
• Polyglycol/Salt systems (GEM GP/CP/SP).
• Spotting an inhibitive fluid in the kill and choke lines, BOP's and riser prior to shut
in.
 Minimize any shut down time.
• Remove any entrained gas prior to shut down.
The formation of gas hydrates can be calculated by Baroid's hydrate prediction modeling software,
which is actually PVTsim licensed from Calsep, Inc.. Requirements include seabed or mudline
temperature and related reservoir and/or BOPE test pressures. Various salts, alcohols, and glycol
combinations can be mixed to suppress the gas hydration formation temperature. These are referred
to as thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors.
Use PVTsim hydrate prediction modeling software to determine what concentration (wt%) of
thermodynamic hydrate inhibitor(s) may be necessary to suppress the hydrates on the well. Prediction
data is presented by interval because as mud weight changes (pressure related) the requirements
change.
Note: The software doesn’t allow for modeling of whole drilling fluid or mud, so only the base fluid in
the case of a WBM or the internal water phase in the case of a SOBM can be examined. Naturally, a
whole completion fluid can be modeled.
Strategies Related To Managing Wellbore Fluids

There are two basic operational strategies when managing wellbore fluids related to gas hydrate
suppression: 1) Build an appropriate drilling/completion fluid system that is gas hydrate inhibitive that
can be installed and circulated throughout the entire well or 2) Knowing that the drilling/completion
fluid system may not be fully hydrate inhibitive throughout the entire well utilize a smaller volume of
hydrate inhibitive fluid to fill the choke and kill lines to prevent hydrate formation at the BOP.
As a safety precaution when drilling with WBM in particular, keep enough alcohol or glycol on location
to provide 40% by volume of the choke and kill lines volumes - particularly before the mud system has
37 | P a g e
enough wt% salt(s) (as mud weight allows) to suppress the hydrates. Be aware of the effect this will
have on the hydrostatic head.
When plugging and abandoning, pulling casing, etc., keep the thermodynamic inhibitor(s) at the levels
that gives maximum possible gas hydrate suppression. The dilution cost will be more expensive
because drill or seawater cannot be used to reduce mud weights, but it could save days by preventing
hydrates from forming.
Maximum suppression can be achieved with 22% NaCl in WBM. It is not necessary to have more than
22% NaCl by weight in a WBM unless a salt saturated fluid is required. If the NaCl percentage is greater
than 22% the extra salt will come out of solution at the sea bed temperatures and the precipitated salt
can also accumulate inside the stack.
Note: WBM Systems are limited in totally inhibiting gas hydrates at sea floor temperatures with
greater than 3,500 ft of water depth and in the higher mud weight ranges. It is important to keep the
mud circulating. Do not go for extended periods of time without circulation. The common practice of
circulating bottoms up prior to a trip, will help reduce any high concentration or influxes of gases into
the wellbore and/or riser.
Note: SOBM Systems are typically less likely to provide an environment in which hydrates are formed.
The bottom hole temperature and pressure constraints are such that the gas tends to remain in
solution within the base oil. Furthermore, the internal water phase (often comprised of a natural
thermodynamically hydrate inhibitive brine) helps to suppress the formation of hydrates.
Remedial Action
If blockage with hydrates does occur, the main thrust for remediation is removing one or more of the
necessary conditions of hydrate formation. The following methods have been successfully used in past
situations:
 Flush out the hydrates with coiled tubing using hot fluid, methanol, a concentrated brine, or a
calcium chloride fluid.
 The calcium chloride will provide inhibition by its exothermic reaction when it goes into
solution.
 Pull the subsea BOP's to a given depth at which the hydrates would become unstable.
 The depth necessary to decompose the hydrates can be calculated using the thermal gradient
of the seawater.
 The exact formation parameters and configuration of the hydrate mass along with current well
conditions and the hydrate characteristics of the drilling fluid will determine the best
remediation protocol.
PVTsim – Calsep, Inc. Gas Hydrate Prediction Software

The PVTsim gas hydrate prediction software from Calsep, Inc. is the recommended tool for gas hydrate
modeling and now replaces the formerly utilized WHyp – Westport Hydrate Prediction software. The
PVTsim software allows the user to determine the temperature and or pressure at which hydrates will
38 | P a g e
form for a particular drilling/completion fluid. It will also determine the degree of hydrate suppression
imparted to the fluid through the addition of thermodynamic gas hydrate inhibitors.
The gas used to model hydrate formation can be described in terms of specific gravity, or the actual
gas composition can be specified. A default gas composition equivalent to Green Canyon (Gulf of
Mexico) gas can also be selected if the specific gas composition for the given field isn’t available.
PVTsim provides a selection of 10 common salts, 8 glycols, and 2 alcohols for use as inhibitors. In any
one fluid formulation, multiple combinations of salts, alcohols, and glycols can be evaluated; however,
there may be issues with solubility limits. The inhibitor concentrations can be specified, in terms of
weight percent of the aqueous phase, or the program can calculate the required single inhibitor
concentration needed to suppress hydrate formation at specified mudline temperature and pressure
conditions.
The program also allows the user to calculate the hydrate forming conditions for a specific drilling fluid
based on the filtrate activity or resistivity. Salts should be the first choice as thermodynamic hydrate
inhibitors. The most effective salt, allowing for environmental considerations and cost, is sodium
chloride. If full hydrate suppression is not possible, then alcohols and glycols can be added to the
drilling/completion fluid formulation to improve the inhibition.
PVTsim provides the ability to model the inhibitive effect of polyalkylene glycol, which is equivalent to
Baroid's GEM products. The software does not take into consideration the effect of any other
drilling/completion fluid components other than salt and glycols on gas hydrate formation. Bentonite,
barite, polymers and other mud additives may have a negative effect on hydrate formation conditions,
but this effect cannot be modeled with the current available technology.
For ultra-deepwater drilling it is recommended that Baroid Technical Service Engineers consult with
their regional Technology Manager prior to specifying drilling/completion fluid formulations for
customers. Gas hydrate modeling performed using the PVTsim software is available through various
individuals within the Completion Fluids Services sub-PSL throughout all regions and Global Technical
Services.
Note: Halliburton Baroid does not have the testing apparatus or facility to physically test hydrate
formation/suppression. This must be done by a third party lab (if physical testing/confirmation is
required). Generally, the hydrate curves generated via the PVTsim software are commonly accepted
as accurate.
The following information is required to accurately model gas hydrate risk and mitigation and must be
completed prior to submission when requesting hydrate modeling.
Hydrate Information
Sheet.doc
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Gunk Squeezes SOP Code: HC Revision Date: March 2015
Gunk Squeezes
Introduction
A method called "Gunk Squeeze" may be applied in cases of severe lost circulation.
There are several variations of "Gunk Squeezes". Typically a mixture of 200-400 lbs/bbl (570- 1,150
kg/m3) of bentonite in non-aqueous base fluid (eg. diesel or synthetic oil) is pumped out the end of
drill pipe, mixing with mud being simultaneously pumped down the annulus. Bentonite's great
affinity for water causes a rapid thickening that is sometimes capable of sealing a loss zone. A 50: 50
mixture of Bentonite-Diesel Oil (BDO) or Bentonite-Synthetic Oil (BSO) and mud, can plug open
holes. Because of the near instantaneous setting, BDO/BSO mixtures have been successfully used to
shut off underground water flows while other materials would have been washed away before
setting up.
Squeezes are usually started at a 1 to 4 mixture of mud to BDO/BSO, followed by an increase in

mud to BDO/BSO ratio in steps if squeeze pressure is not evident. Large scale laboratory work has
shown that more effective mixtures result if a perforated bull plug is used on the end of the drill
pipe. A 50/50 bentonite/cement mixture rather than all bentonite is stronger and may be more
effective in some cases.
BDO/BSO Formulations for Water-Based Muds
Bentonite-Diesel/Synthetic Oil
 10 bbl Batch - 11.3 lbs/gal

 7.2 bbls Diesel Oil/Synthetic
 26 sx Bentonite (100 lb sx)
 50 lbs Course Mica(or STOPPIT)
 50 lbs Fine Mica (or BARAFLAKE M)
 10 lbs Fiber (eg, BAROFIBRE)
Note: Mixture can be weighted with barite.
Bentonite - Cement - Diesel/Synthetic Oil
 10 bbl Batch - 11.7 lbs/gal

 7.1 bbls Diesel Oil/Synthetic
 14.0 sx Bentonite (100 lb sx)
 14.0 sx Cement (94 lb sx)
Note: Sealing Material if desired.
Mixture can be weighted with barite.
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BDO/BSO Formulations for Oil-based Muds (“Reverse Gunk”)
Invert BDO/BSO formulations mixed with oil or oil-base muds set up like the normal BDO/BSO formulation
does with water. Organo-Clay is dispersed in water for the Reverse Gunk. Use 10 plus bbls of water or gel
mud spacers before and after the squeeze mixture.
Invert BDO/BSO Formulations (Water-Organophilic Bentonite)
10 bbl Mixture - 12.0 lbs/gal 10 bbl Mixture - 16.4 lbs/gal
7.14 bbls Water 5.9 bbls Water
33 lbs QUIK-THIN™ Thinner(or 10 lbs Caustic

equivalent thinner)
16.5 lbs Caustic 5 lbs QUIK-THIN Thinner
50 sx GELTONE® V(or equivalent 32.5 sx GELTONE® V (50 lb sx)

organo-clay)
30 sx Barite (100 lb sx)
Note: Mix caustic and thinner into water, then add GELTONE® V and barite last.
To mix a Gunk Squeeze, or a Reverse Gunk Squeeze, follow these steps:
 A clean mixing pit is recommended to ensure no contamination occurs while mixing,. If the BDO/BSO
mixing uses rig equipment, pits, hoppers, gunlines, etc., they must be completely clean prior to
mixing the formulation. (Less important for a Reverse Gunk)
 Isolate pop-off valves and use cementing line to the drill pipe.
 Spacers of at least 10 bbls of diesel/synthetic oil must precede and follow the BDO/BSO mixture to
prevent contact and plugging in the drill pipe.
 Unless the BDO/BSO mixture density is more than the drilling mud, a back pressure valve should be
run in the string to prevent backflow when pipe is disconnected at the end of the squeeze.
 The BDO/BSO mix and spacers are pumped through a back pressure valve and displaced with mud to
the bit. Then the open-ended pipe (or with a bull-plug) is lowered to 50 ft above the loss zone, drill
pipe filled and the squeeze performed.
 Maximum allowable pressure to be applied should be calculated based on maximum equivalent
mud density needed at the casing seat. The casing gauge should be monitored for this purpose.
 When the mix is displaced to the end of the drill pipe (at 50 ft above the loss), close annular
preventers and start pumping on the annulus at 1 or less bpm and on the drill pipe at 1 to 4 bpm (1-4).
The ratio is determined by trial mixes on the rig.
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 If after pumping approximately one half (1/2) of the BDO/BSO with no pressure observed, the pump
flow on the drill pipe should be slowed to 1 to 2 bpm. After the three quarters (3/4) of the BDO/BSO is
pumped, slow to 1 bpm. This will usually plug the open hole.
 If there is open hole above open-ended drill pipe the formation may break down and the mix will
begin to set at the new loss zone. Pipe should be worked slowly through the annular preventer during
the squeeze to detect drag. If drag occurs, pull until pipe free and resume squeeze. Then final squeeze
pressure is obtained, pull drill pipe into casing, re-impose final squeeze pressure and hold for 2-4
hours.
 If cement is used in the mixture, allow 8 hours before attempting to drill out.
 Any BDO/BSO remaining in the drill pipe cannot be reversed out without plugging the drill pipe so it
must be pumped out in small volumes as pipe is pulled.
 Pull out, add bit and collars, wash through spilled out BDO slowly and drill out plug.
Usually, 1,000-2,000 lbs bit weight is required to drill out the plug. When cement is used
in the slurry, as much as 20,000 lbs bit weight has been required to drill out the plug.
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Hole Cleaning SOP Code: HC Revision Date: March 2015
Hole Cleaning
Introduction
Hole cleaning, otherwise known as cuttings transport, is a major function of drilling fluids, especially in
deviated wellbores. The ability of a drilling fluid to efficiently transport cuttings to surface and to suspend the
cuttings when the fluid is static is key to the successful drilling and cleaning. Inability to adequately clean a
hole can lead to unwanted pack-offs, stuck pipe, and loss of the wellbore.
The following factors affect hole cleaning in vertical / near-vertical wellbores:
 Flow rate (annular velocity)

 Rotation speed of the drillpipe
 Drilling fluid rheological properties
 Fluid density
 Cuttings size (diameter), shape, and density
 Rate of penetration
 Hole and pipe geometry
In angled wellbores > 30° deviation or in horizontal holes, in addition to the seven factors listed above, two
other major factors also affect hole cleaning:
 Hole angle
 Drillpipe eccentricity
All of the above factors can be measured at the wellsite except for drillpipe eccentricity, which cannot be
controlled in the drilling process. In vertical wellbores the drillpipe eccentricity is assumed to be 0 or near-
zero in value, which means the drillpipe is considered to be positioned in the middle of the hole or very close
to the center. See Fig. 1a below for the concentric case. Using the first seven factors in the above list, the
ability of the drilling fluid to remove cuttings from the hole while drilling can be predicted from calculations,
such as those used in Halliburton’s DFG hydraulics and hole cleaning software program.
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Fig 1: Depiction of concentric geometry case (drillpipe eccentricity = 0)
For deviated wellbores, the ability to model the cleaning efficiency of a drilling fluid is more complex. In
these wellbores, the drillpipe is not assumed to be centered in the middle of the annulus, but will lie close to
the low side of the hole due to gravity effects. Normally the gravity effect is described using drillpipe
eccentricity values, as Fig. 2 shows.
Fig. 2 – the eccentric geometry case assuming a high-angle wellbore
The maximum eccentricity level in a given deviated drilling scenario is the eccentricity that will provide a gap
under the body of the drillpipe equivalent to the tool joint stand-off distance. As a result, there exists a
differential in the average velocities moving above the drillpipe and those moving below the drillpipe. The
differentials in fluid velocities can be as high as a factor of 10 or 12. Because the fluid under the drillpipe is
moving much slower than that above the drillpipe, any cuttings found in this area have a greater propensity
to accumulate in the low shear environment and form cuttings beds. The challenge for the drilling operation
is to provide adequate velocities under and around the rotating drill pipe to remove any cuttings / cuttings
beds in an efficient manner.
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The Importance of Fluid Velocity
The pump rate should be optimized for the hole and pipe geometry being used in the well. Generally
speaking, average fluid velocities required to clean a vertical wellbore are lower than those required to clean
a deviated or horizontal wellbore. Guidelines for recommended velocities and related cleaning techniques
have been established for deviated and horizontal wellbores having hole diameters 12.25-in to 8.5-in, as seen
below.
Fig. 3 – Annular Velocity Ranges for Varying Degrees of Hole Cleaning
In Fig. 3, the color-coded system, modeled on traffic stoplights, indicates the following consequences:
 Black – annular velocities are too low, hole cleaning nearly impossible
 Yellow – annular velocities are slightly inadequate for efficient cleaning, so use caution while drilling
ahead
 Green – annular velocities are in the correct range, so proceed with drilling; few hole cleaning
problems expected
 Red – Slow down the pumps!!! Annular velocities are more than adequate for efficient hole cleaning;
reduce pump rate to get back into the green zone
Actions that can be taken to further improve hole cleaning are found in Fig. 3 as well. These actions can
include changes in drillpipe rotation speed, changes in drilling fluid rheological properties, and the use of
drilling fluid sweeps. Each of these potential changes is discussed below.
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Drillpipe Rotation Speed
Drillpipe rotation speed is considered to be the second-most important factor in hole cleaning. Having
adequate rotation speed provides extra velocity around the drillpipe lying on the low side of the hole to pick
cuttings up out of cuttings beds and throw them into the faster-moving fluid flow stream on the upper side of
the hole. Moreover, due to the unsteady position of the drillpipe while rotating in deviated wellbores, the
drillpipe can physically move across or through any debris-filled sections, thereby destabilizing any cuttings
beds and hastening their removal. In 12.25-in holes, rotation of the drillstring around 120-140 rev/min is
considered adequate for efficient hole cleaning. In 8.5-in holes, rotation speeds of 80-110 rpm are usually
adequate, and in smaller hole sizes, recommended drillpipe rotation speeds are further less.
Fluid Rheological Properties
Fluid rheological properties should be maintained in a range to provide adequate suspension of cuttings
when the fluid is static. Baroid recommends the use of the Herschel-Bulkley rheological model for use in the
evaluation of hole cleaning in the DFG software. The key rheological parameter here is to control the value of
tau zero (yield stress) in the range of 7-10 lbf/100 sq ft. The fluid should also have adequate plastic viscosity
that can help to slow down dynamic settling of drilled particles. Generally, drilling fluids will have their flow
index ‘n’ factor determined by fluid type. Because water-based drilling fluids are more shear-thinning, their
‘n’ values will fall in the range of 0.5 – 0.65, and for invert emulsions, which are less shear-thinning, the ‘n’
factors will be higher in the range 0.75 – 0.9. To improve hole cleaning on a well, changes to tau zero levels
are most commonly used – changes in fluid ‘n’ factors are usually not considered.
Sweeps in Vertical / Near-Vertical and in Deviated Wellbores
Sweeps can be used in wellbores where hole cleaning is suspected to be not optimized. But sweeps are
secondary cleaning tools, whereas having the correct fluid annular velocity range is of primary importance.
Because the physics of hole cleaning in vertical/near-vertical wellbores is quite different from that in deviated
/ horizontal wellbores, each case is discussed separately.
In vertical / near vertical wellbores, the recommended sweeps include high-viscosity and/or high-density
sweeps. As long as the average particle diameter is small (less than 0.25-in), high-viscosity sweeps will
improve cleaning. While they do shear-thin and thus lose viscosity, with increasing drillpipe rotation speed,
they can still perform well in vertical / near-vertical wellbores. When particle sizes become larger, or when
the hole is exhibiting signs of instability, and larger-sized cavings appear at the shakers, then high-density
sweeps are recommended. The advantages to use of high-density sweeps in these cases include the fact they
are less shear-thinning than high-viscosity sweeps and their extra density reduces the density differential
between the cuttings/cavings and the fluid, so they are more efficiently carried by the fluid. Use of low-
viscosity or tandem sweeps (one type sweep immediately followed by another type) is not recommended.
Fiber-based sweeps (Baro-fibre) can be used as well. These sweeps have little effect on fluid rheological
properties and have been shown to work well in vertical / near-vertical wellbores. Because of the fiber size
and shape, these sweeps can catch and hold cuttings effectively. In deviated / horizontal wellbores, the only
type of sweep Baroid recommends is the use of high-density sweeps. In studies of sweep efficiency coupled
with downhole pressure measurements, high-density sweeps have been shown to be the most efficient for
improving cleaning.
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General recommendations for these sweeps include:
 Volume to cover 200-400 linear feet of open hole
 Density 2-4 lbm/gal more than the density of the base circulating system
 Anticipated ECD increases with use of high-density sweeps should be checked first by consulting the
sweep modeling module in DFG. Any ECD increases should remain below any anticipated fracture
gradient levels in the open hole.
 Only one high-density sweep should be circulated in the hole at any one time.
 In highly-deviated / horizontal holes, it normally takes 3 ‘bottoms up’ to remove the sweep from the
wellbore. Do not expect one bottoms-up circulating time will be sufficient for removal.
High-density sweeps can also be used as diagnostic tools in angled wellbores. If the hole is deficient in
cleaning, look for increased cuttings debris to fall over the shakers when the sweep reaches the surface. If
little debris comes out, then the hole is clean. If a good deal of cutting/cavings come out, then the tools for
improving hole cleaning should be emphasized more.
Rate of Penetration
The rate of penetration (ROP) in a wellbore can affect hole cleaning efficiency. As ROPs increase, more stress
is exerted on the drilling fluid for cleaning, and cleaning efficiency goes down. Hence it is quite possible to
‘out-drill’ a hole beyond the fluid’s ability to clean. In these cases, pack-offs and/or stuck pipe often occur.
From experimental flow loop tests in deviated wellbores, we know increased drillpipe rotation speed
improves hole cleaning in a linear fashion. Generally, the faster you rotate, the better the hole cleaning. But
hydraulic considerations can put an upper limit on how fast is optimum for a particular drilling environment.
The DrilAhead Hydraulics (DAH) module in DFG should be used to evaluate optimized ROP levels as a function
of increased borehole ECD and available standpipe pressure.
Evaluation of Hole Cleaning in DFG
The DrilAhead module in DFG should be used to predict cleaning efficiency in wellbores. All the pertinent
information and results are summarized in the DrilAhead Snapshot, an example of which is found below in
Fig. 4. The well profile, hole angles, average annular velocities, etc. are shown by hole section. From the
calculations within DFG, the Cuttings Transport Efficiency % (CTE) and Effective Annular Cuttings Loading are
shown. CTE numerically described how fast the cutting is falling compared to its net velocity up. A CTE value
of 100% represents ‘perfect’ cleaning, while those near 0% represent ‘little if any’ cleaning. The order of
descending importance of the calculated tracks in Fig. 4 is given below:
#1 – the Average Annular Velocity track (3rd from the left)

#2 – the Cuttings Transport Efficiency track (2nd from the left)
#3 – the Annular Cuttings Accumulation track (#1 from the left)
#4 – the ECD tracks with and without cuttings (#5 from the left)
To best evaluate hole cleaning efficiency in DAH, monitor the CTE plot. Look for sections where the CTE
values are low, for those sections are those where cleaning problems will first occur. For vertical wellbores
the CTE values should be 50% or greater, and for deviated / horizontal wellbores the CTE values should be
30% or greater. In the example in Fig. 4, CTE values are quite low in the 17.5-in open hole section (outlined
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in red). The DAH Snapshot does not tell us why that is so, but it does tell us something is amiss. The low CTE
values in the bottom sections are accompanied by the increased levels of cuttings accumulation in the
annulus (the left-most track in DAH) in the high-angle section. As a result of the cuttings accumulation
prediction, there is an accompanying jump in ECD with cuttings in Track 5 (red curve). This information is
another warning sign that hole cleaning is not optimized and something needs to be done about it.
Fig. 4 – A typical DrilAhead Snapshot.
To calculate how many bottoms-up circulations need to be done to clean the well as described by Fig. 4, use
the following method:
 Identify the CTE % values in the sections. Assume that the CTE % in the top section is 60% and in the
lower section is 16%. This will be the section hardest to clean, and hence will be the controlling
section for optimizing hole cleaning.
 Convert the CTE % values to decimal fractions. In the upper section the fraction is now 0.6 and in the
lower section case the fraction is now 0.16.
 Take the reciprocal of the CTE fractions, which give 1 / 0.6 (=1.67) and 1 / 0.16 (= 6.6).
 Adjust for interval depths and divide by well total depth: (3800 m * 1.6 + 2900m * 6.6) / 6700 m,
which equals 3.8.
 Circulate a minimum of 3.8 bottoms up to get the cuttings out of the hole. Circulation for less-lengthy
periods will not likely get the cuttings out of the hole, but only move them upward. They could form
into a new cuttings bed, then, and cause pack-offs, stuck pipe, etc. later.
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 With constant cleaning conditions as above, prepare to circulate at least 3.8 bottoms up before
making a trip out of the hole. Any improvement in hole cleaning using the methods cited in this SOP
will likely reduce the time required to circulate in order to clean the well.
 As the worst possible case, assume 16% TE for the entire well, and the maximum number of bottoms
up to clean equals 1 / 0.16, which gives 6.6 bottoms up. Somewhere between 3.8 and 6.6 bottoms up
is what it will take to thoroughly clean the hole.
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Horizontal Drilling SOP Code: HD Revision Date: August 2015
Horizontal Drilling
Introduction
Horizontal drilling has increased worldwide. It is used to revive production rates in old fields and reduce the
required number of wells in new fields. Horizontal reaches in these wells have surpassed the 43,000 ft mark
and planning for 50,000 ft departure wells has been done, though the wells have not yet been drilled. Drilling
horizontal wells is more complicated than drilling vertical or near vertical wells; therefore, the pre-well
planning phase is more involved.
The following areas should be considered when preparing a drilling fluids program for a horizontal well:
 Hole Cleaning
 Borehole Stability
 Lubricity
 Reservoir Protection
 Solids Control
 Materials and Systems
Causes of Horizontal Drilling Problems
Hole Cleaning
Hole cleaning in horizontal wells is often the most difficult part of the drilling process. A horizontal well
contains a vertical/near-vertical section and a deviated/horizontal section, and the hole cleaning protocol is
quite different between the two sections. In the deviated/horizontal section, it is important to realize that
the horizontal section is not the most difficult to clean. Problems in hole cleaning usually occur when the hole
angle is between 40° and 60°, in the build section of the well, further up the annulus, or when sliding /
steering. In experimental flow loops, it has been seen that cleaning is most difficult at 65 º and is somewhat
less difficult in horizontal holes. Hole cleaning in horizontal wellbores can be summarized as:
 The cuttings generated during the drilling process fall toward the low side of the hole. If annular
velocities and drillpipe rotation speeds are not sufficient, the cuttings will fall to the low side of
the hole and form cuttings beds.
 Hole cleaning must be constantly monitored and cuttings removed in an efficient process. Pump
rates, annular velocities, drillpipe rotation speed, and Rate of Penetration (ROP) must be
optimized so the cuttings can be cleaned efficiently.
 These areas of cuttings accumulation can give problems in drilling later on in the form of pack-offs,
high rotating torque, and stuck pipe if they are not cleaned efficiently during the drilling process.
 For more detailed discussion of hole cleaning in deviated/horizontal wells, please refer to the SOP
Hole Cleaning.
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 Sweeps can be used to aid in hole cleaning. For these types of wells, high density and fiber
sweeps have been shown to work most efficiently. Low-viscosity sweeps, high-viscosity sweeps,
and tandem sweeps (combination of these 2 sweep types) are not recommended.
 Viscous fluids/sweeps do not clean well in deviated wellbores as the viscous fluid usually takes the
path of least resistance and the bulk of it stays on the high side of the hole, an area where few of
the cuttings are found. When the drillpipe is eccentric, of off-side (usually toward the low side of
the hole), flow rates below the drill string where the cuttings lie are low and cuttings beds begin to
accumulate.
 To clean cuttings beds in the annulus requires mechanical agitation by the pumping of high-
density sweeps and by pipe rotation. The high density sweeps work by two means: 1) their higher
density favors their remaining on the low side of the hole for a lengthy period and 2) their higher
density makes the cuttings more buoyant. In other words, a high density sweeps is used to assist
in "floating" cuttings out of the hole.
 BAROFIBRE® fiber sweeps are another sweep technique that can be used, and little change in
drilling fluid rheology results. Take care to monitor the shakers when the fiber sweeps arrive at
surface. Some fluid loss over the shakers can be expected.
Borehole Stability
Borehole instability can be induced chemically, mechanically, or both, and is most often seen while drilling
shales, which represent 85% of wellbore instability problems in the field. It is important to determine the
correct mud weight required to give mechanical stability when planning horizontal wells. The mud weights
used in the drilling process should be greater than the predicted hole collapse pressure (as calculated in
geomechanical study) and the corresponding equivalent circulating density (ECD) less than the predicted
fracture initiation pressure (also calculated in geomechanical modeling). It should be noted that the required
mud weight can be significantly higher than the mud weight required to drill a vertical well in the same
formation. Mechanical stability is dependent on the rock mechanics of the exposed formation and on the
circulating pressures exerted by the moving fluid. Excessive annular velocities can cause erosion of
unconsolidated formations. Underbalanced drilling can also cause wellbore instability.
Correct mud weight and adequate inhibition are the keys to borehole stability in horizontal wells. In
unconsolidated formations, annular velocities may need to be controlled. The correct mud weight will vary:
Equivalent circulating density (ECD) while circulating and equivalent static density (ESD when the wellbore is
static, as on trips.
The chemical interaction between a reactive formation and the drilling fluid can also be the cause of many
problems. The types of formations that can give problems are swelling or dispersive formations, such as
shales. Shales weaken when in contact with poorly water-based muds this reduction of strength can lead to
mechanical failure. Once a borehole has destabilized, re-stabilizing it can be very difficult and expensive;
therefore, optimization of fluid circulating pressures is always recommended. With oil-based drilling fluids,
water from the oil mud can enter the shale formation under the right conditions, and water can be pulled out
of the water-bearing shales under different conditions. The salinity of the water phase of the oil-based mud
has a great influence on which direction the water in shale moves: in or out.
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Lubricity
Drilling torque is usually high, caused by a high degree of drill pipe contact with the wellbore and casing.
Cuttings accumulation on the low side adds to the torque, and can frequently be seen as drag on trips out of
the hole and on connections. Maintaining adequate lubricity can be a problem for medium to long extended
reach wells. Torque and drag are also seen if a formation is not sufficiently inhibited and is swelling or
heaving. Maintaining a system in as clean a state as possible will aid in keeping torque and drag values to a
minimum. Lubricants treatments can help maintain the ability to slide for directional needs. Torque and drag
problems must be identified before the appropriate lubricant treatment can be recommended. Wide swings
in rotating torque can often indicate a poor hole cleaning situation (peaks and valleys in the rotating torque
plots).
Reservoir Protection
Whenever a reservoir is drilled overbalanced, especially a depleted reservoir, there will inevitably be invasion
of the formation by mud filtrate and whole mud. This can cause considerable damage and reduce the
production rate (and profitability) of the well. Fluid invasion is more critical in long open hole reservoir
sections. Adequate return permeability work should be performed on proposed drilling fluids to ensure the
formation is adequately protected.
Solids Control
Solids control is critical in high angle wells, because undesired solids can rapidly build up. This is because
build-up is mechanically induced by:
 "Mortar and Pestle" effect of drill pipe grinding on the low side of the hole. In these situations, the
cuttings at the shalers look like coffee grounds.
 Longer transportation time of cuttings from bit to surface
 Bit design coupled with high RPM mud motors
 High ROP for extended periods of time
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Materials and Systems

For deviated and horizontal wells with horizontal reaches in the following ranges, the general fluid
recommendations are given:
 For wells having horizontal reaches less than 10,000 ft, water-based fluids are commonly used.
 For wells with horizontal reaches 10,000-20,000 ft, water-based fluids can be used, but more frequent
drilling problems should be expected, especially if a significant section of the hole is drilled in shale.
With the higher range of horizontal reaches, lubricity / torque are a common problem, and greater
consumption rates of lubricants should be expected. Oil-based / synthetic-based (OBM and SBM)
drilling fluids are commonly used for these same type wells, and usually fewer drilling problems are
seen.
 For wells with horizontal departures greater than 20,000 feet, oil-based / synthetic-based drilling
fluids have commonly been used. The longer the horizontal step-out, the more likely these fluids will
be needed to drill the wells successfully. This is partly due to the fact that oil-based/synthetic-based
drilling fluids are more lubricious, and due to the capillary pressure effect. In simple terms, the
capillary threshold effect requires significant extra pressure to force the first drop of filtrate into the
wellbore, while for water-based muds, no extra pressure is required. Over the long term, shales
remain much more stable when drilled with OBM/SBM than with water-based drilling fluids.
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High Temperature High Pressure Wells SOP Code: HTHP Revision Date: March 2015
High Temperature High Pressure Wells
Introduction
High Temperature, high pressure wells are defined as wells having a BHT above 300F and requiring a mud
weight of 16.0ppg or higher to balance formation pressures.
According to the SPE E&P glossary, high temperature is where the undisturbed bottom hole temperature (at
prospective reservoir depth or total depth) is greater than 300°F or 150°C. As for high pressure, that
definition is met when the maximum anticipated pore pressure of the porous formation to be drilled exceeds
a hydrostatic gradient of 0.8 psi/ft, or the well requiring pressure control equipment has a rated working
pressure in excess of 10,000 psi.
Halliburton has further defined HP/HT wells as follows:
- Extreme HPHT: Temperature greater than 350F/175C and up to 400F/200C Pressure greater than
15,000 and up to 20,000 psi
- Ultra HPHT: Temperature greater than 400F/200C and above Pressure greater than 20,000 Psi and
above
These wells present significant challenges due to the combined simultaneous effects of the high pressure and
temperature. As well as being technically demanding they represent significant financial investments and
present a higher potential risk for hazardous events. Typically such wells are deep, involving long, large
diameter hole intervals in the upper part where reactive formations can have significant exposure time
before passing into the high pressure reservoir section via a transition zone in which pore pressure builds
rapidly. Drilling fluids used on such wells must be stable under both static and dynamic conditions up to and
including the maximum pressures and temperatures expected for the well.
High Temperature High Pressure well Issues
The first step is to perform a thorough review that addresses, in total, all potential problems and then devise
solutions to prevent their occurrence. The review does not only address fluid issues in isolation but also
includes the entire work scope that can impact the successful outcome of the well.
Issues for Consideration
- Fluid stability
- Rheology Control
- Well bore Stability
- Pressures exerted by drilling fluid
- Losses/Differential Sticking (see separated pages)
- Barite Sag (see separated pages)
- Rig Capability and Logistics
- Elastomers
- Formation Protection (see separated pages)
- Environmental Issues
- Fluid Sampling and Testing
- HSE
Fluid Stability
Fluid instability on HPHT wells is the single most important reason for well problems, cost overruns and
failure to achieve the planned objective. Without fluid stability the well becomes at best difficult to drill and
at worst, impossible. Barite sag, excessive gelation, high fluid loss, differential sticking and lost circulation can
all be the result of fluid instability. As temperature is increased the effect of contaminants is increased and
product breakdown accelerated. High temperature can also affect the behavior of products contained within
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system. Chemical reactions that may affect the performance of drilling fluid additives are accelerated at
higher temperatures and there is an increased tendency for thermal flocculation. Thermal degradation of
drilling fluid additives may result in unstable rheology, filtration properties and alkalinity. These altered
properties can result in reduced penetration rates, swabbing, increased circulating pressure losses, lost
circulation, borehole instability and possible stuck pipe. Controlling fluid properties at high temperatures
sometimes requires expensive maintenance treatments.
Not all the products used in general oil based or water based mud systems are suitable for exposure to high
temperatures therefore either preliminary testing or case histories must be used to evaluate the suitability of
the system for the anticipated well conditions To ensure that the drilling fluid will remain stable under the
extreme conditions to be encountered Baroid draws on its extensive field and laboratory experience to select
a fluid formulation it considers suitable for the project. Then an extensive laboratory qualification test
program is designed that subjects the mud to the specific temperatures and pressures expected to exist on
the planned well.
Rheology Control
Mud rheology can vary considerably with temperature, pressure and the product mix employed therefore it
must not be automatically assumed that the surface rheology measurements are the same as those under
downhole conditions. Both temperature and pressure affect the rheology and density profile. The only way of
determining the mud rheology under specific conditions is either to directly measure using a FANN 7X series
test that measures rheology at varying temperatures and pressure or DFG software that can accurately
calculate it from surface conditions
Wellbore Stability
Well bore stability is achieved by stabilizing the well both physically and chemically. The physical stability
requirements are related to the magnitude and direction of local tectonic stresses, pore pressure and
fracture pressure regimes for the various formations, angle of any bedding planes relative to the well bore,
rock strength and angle and azimuth of the well.
Chemical stability is governed by the chemical make-up of the rock and reactivity of its components with the
drilling fluid.
The control of downhole pressures is key to the successful drilling of an HPHT well. The stability and
performance of the fluid directly impacts these pressures.
Pressure Exerted by Drilling Fluid

The drilling fluid must have sufficient rheology to eliminate dynamic barite sag yet must not give rise to
excessive equivalent circulating densities (ECD). Its gel structure has to be adequate for barite and cuttings
support during static periods but not so high that excessive pressures result when breaking circulation that
could lead to formation fracturing. Baroid’s premise is that to successfully drill an HPHT well, it is crucial to be
able to predict and measure the following phenomenon as related to the drilling fluids under realistic down
hole conditions with DFG software.
- Dynamic and transient temperature profile in the well
Baroid’s DFG software permits input of the well thermal gradient (will accept up to 7 temperature
points) and it uses this to model the fluid thermal profile both under dynamic and static conditions.
Coupled with the PVT data on the base fluid this allows the programme to calculate overall volume
changes to the system caused by thermal effects.
- Hydrostatic pressure predictions
BAROID has software to correct mud density for the effects of temperature and pressure for a variety
of “oil” phases - XP-07, PETROFREE, mineral oil and diesel. The software is able to calculate “local”
densities as well as giving the cumulative hydrostatic effect seen by any point in the well dynamic
annular pressure loss predictions.
- Downhole Rheology Prediction
Downhole pressure and temperature at HTHP wells are extremely different. Downhole Rheology will
55 | P a g e
affected by temperature and pressure. DFG Fann 75/77 predictions permit to input raw data from
Fann 75/77 instrument for HTHP downhole rheology prediction.
- Dynamic Annular pressure/ECD Control
On HPHT wells, minimising ECD is critical to the success of the project. ECD will be a concern not just
in the reservoir section where there is such a slim margin between pore pressure and fracture
gradient but also in other hole sections. It will be important to not only control ECD but to be able to
accurately predict it for any point in the well
- Mud Thixotropic
It is Baroid’s opinion that gels play a major part in downhole pressures. This is because the pressure
required to break them can result in significantly increased downhole pressures that can lead to the
fracturing of the formation. High gels can also cause problems of excessive swab and, during a test
phase, can restrict the transfer of pressures downhole required to operate various test tools.
BAROID’s DFG enables calculation of pressures required to break gels. This can be used as a guide to
breaking circulation and can also be used to predict a requirement for gel reduction treatment of the
mud prior to tripping or running casing.
- Swab/ Surge
DFG allow predicting surge/swab pressure during trip in/out BHA, run Casing and Liner.
Rig Capability and Logistics

HPHT wells with their extended length large hole sections generate large active mud systems. The
installation must have adequate space and load capacity to carry sufficient stocks of materials to build, treat
and maintain such large systems while drilling at high ROPs. In addition these types of wells often utilize 2
mud system when large weight changes are called for e.g. at casing points since it can be time consuming to
weight up the one system. And/or higher temperature mud is spotted for static condition during running
casing/liner, trip in/out and logging. Under such circumstances the installation should ideally be able to
accommodate both system volumes simultaneously.
Where cuttings have to be handled for either injection or skip and ship operations an additional demand is
placed on the space and load capabilities of the installation. Handling cuttings will typically peak during the
large hole sizes in fast drilling formations through shales. This peak demand for cuttings handling also
coincides with the greatest drilling fluids requirements periods.
The solution to these potential problems is to contract a rig capable of doing the well in terms of space,
capacity, pump output etc. These high demand wells require excellent logistics planning both onshore and
offshore with large capacity supply vessels and a large onshore mixing and storage mud plant to ensure an
uninterrupted supply of materials for the mud system(s) and all necessary contingency materials.
Elastomer, Downhole tools and Surface Equipment

Common elastomers used in the industry today are designed to withstand reasonable levels of temperature
variation and generally there are additional ones that are rated for high temperature applications.
Usually the restriction on the circulation temperature is the rating of the annular BOP elastomer however
high temperature also affects other surface equipment elastomers such as pump swabs and shaker rubbers.
The higher temperatures reduce the life span of this equipment and alternatives such as ceramic pump liners
etc should be considered in addition to more frequent maintenance schedules on equipment e.g. wash pipe
packing.
Down hole tools such as motors are normally temperature rated and can withstand high temperatures.
However specialist LWD/MWD tools have to be selected for the expected temperature and may cost
significantly more than conventional tools due to the higher temperature ratings. The main method of
extending the life on these tools is use a mud cooler to limit the exposure to the high temperature and
thereby extend the operating life.
56 | P a g e
Environmental
HPHT wells present immense technical challenges. The systematic evaluation and risk analyses of the
previous criteria will lead to the selection of the most appropriate drilling fluid system to achieve the wells
technical objectives. However the well cannot be looked at in isolation as a purely technical challenge.
Increasingly today environmental legislation results in a drilling fluids selection being a compromise between
technical demands and requirements and the need for sound environmental compliance.
Fluid Sampling and Testing

During the drilling of such technically demanding wells it is important to regularly test the drilling fluid over
and above that required by standard API procedures. This is done for two reasons:
1. To ascertain fluid performance in areas not normally dealt with by standard API testing.
2. To provide a “look ahead” on how the fluid will perform as conditions change and identify any additional
treatments required.
HTHP Fluid planning - Minimum phase

The minimum phase is required to identify the optimum HTHP fluid formulation and program for a specific
set of well conditions. These would consist of one or more of the following:
- Finger printing of the base oil before and after heat ageing to ensure no “cracking” or change in
properties occurs. (Invert Emulsion Fluid)
- Flash point measurement of base oil before and after heat ageing again to ensure that the base fluid is
stable. (Invert Emulsion Fluid)
- Evaluation of the fully formulated drilling fluid to ensure adequate Barite suspension at expected BHT
temperatures.
- Shearometer testing to ascertain drilling fluid gelation characteristics.
- The overall stability of the mud system is measured (rheology, gelation, fluid loss and barite
suspension) after both dynamic and static ageing for a period of time at BHT to simulate trips and
logging periods
- Dynamic HTHP fluid loss is measured after ageing the mud @ BHT
- The bridging capability of the fluid at temperature and under the differential pressures anticipated is
tested.
- The FANN 75/77 HTHP rheological profile is measured before and after ageing @ BHT
- PVT data for the base oil is verified.
- Effective, detailed pre-job planning
- Fluid selection with engineered property recommendations
- Personnel competency and selection – fluid supervisor and field engineers
- Pro- active monitoring and testing while drilling
- Fluid Processing /Solids Control equipment selection, arrangement and efficiency planning
- Close Liason with the drilling and completion teams
- Training of rig personnel to manage critical HTHP parameters
Common Problems with Water-Based Systems

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Lack of Free Water
High pressure wells require high density mud. As additional solids (both desirable weight material and
undesirable low gravity drilled solids) are incorporated into the system, water requirements become greater.
Additional solids increase the surface area to be wet, leaving less free water available. Consequently, the
viscosity of the mud increases. Colloidal particles which have a greater specific area are of particular concern
because they bind tremendous amounts of water. The free water available in a high density mud can quickly
become depleted leading to poor flow properties and gelation. When the mud is subjected to high
temperature, free water will be depleted more rapidly due to evaporation at the surface. Replacement of
evaporation water is the starting point when determining water addition requirements.
Deterioration of Chemicals under High Temperatures

The temperature stability of thinners, filtration control agents, and clays is very important in the planning
stages. Degradation of drilling fluid chemicals can result in unstable mud properties resulting in excess
circulating and conditioning time.
It is common for wells to be drilled successfully using mud additives that degrade at temperatures well below
bottom hole temperatures. Mud temperatures approach bottom hole temperature only when circulation is
interrupted for extended periods of time. Mud additive degradation may take place near bottom in a hot
hole, but the volume of mud affected is usually relatively small. When high viscosities and gel strengths are
caused by a break down in a mud systems thermal stability, logging may become difficult, and surge and
swab pressures may become a problem.
Carbonate contamination, caused by thermal degradation, is sometimes a byproduct when drilling high
temperature wells. Carbonate contamination causes increased rheology and fluid loss, with reduced pH,
reduced pf and increased mf. Carbonates can be treated out chemically by raising the pH and adding lime or
other soluble calcium salts to form insoluble calcium carbonate. BARACOR® 95 is a highly active carbon
dioxide inhibitor and is thermally stable up to 350°.
Thermal degradation of mud materials may also generate small amounts of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide content can be monitored with a Garrett Gas Train if the presence of sulfides is suspected.
SOURSCAV® or NO-SULF® should be used as hydrogen sulfide scavengers.
To limit thermal degradation, use products with higher temperature stability. Increasing pH to 9.5 - 10.5 and
using an oxygen scavenger such as OXYGON, BARASCAV™ D or BARASCAV L can extend the stability of some
polymers by up to 25°F by limiting hydrolysis and oxidation.
Planning High Temperature High Pressure Water-based Muds

Mud system planning and proper product application is essential for maintaining fluid stability when drilling
in high temperature environments. It is important to select the proper drilling fluid and products to control
rheology and to provide filtration control under extreme conditions. Lab testing is an essential step in
planning high temperature drilling fluids.
(See: HTHP Fluid planning - Minimum phase)
High Temperature Water-based Systems
Baroid has developed water-based mud systems that provide stable mud properties in high temperature
environments. The systems include:
- THERMA-DRIL™, THERMA-DRIL systems are designed for temperatures above 350°F and can be used
with inhibiting salts such as NaCl, KCl (up to saturation, depending on the presence of reactive clays
and shales in the area), lime and gypsum. THERMA-DRIL muds are usually new mud systems. Existing
systems can be converted to a THERMA- DRIL system; however existing muds that are solids laden or
contain large quantities of products susceptible to thermal degradation should not be converted.
58 | P a g e
- BARADRIL-X, Baroid’s High-Temperature Drill-In Fluid System was developed in response to the need
for a water-based fluid that can provide high temperature stability while protecting the reservoir and
meeting increasing environmental demands.
Common Problems with Invert Emulsion Fluid
Mud Conditions which Influence Fluid Stability and Sag Tendency

Rheology (Surface vs. Downhole): One of the methods used to minimize Sag is increasing the fluid low shear
rheology to provide added suspension properties. However, experience shows that Sag can occur even when
traditional rheology measurements (high PV, YP and Gels) taken under surface conditions indicate that it
should not be problematic (ref.: Hutton TLP well H32 and well 22/22b-2).
When measured under downhole temperature and pressure conditions on a FANN 75/77 viscometer, mud
which exhibits sagging behavior in the well is usually seen to demonstrate very different rheology and
suspension characteristics than the surface measurements indicate. Although Barite Sag can be
minimized/eliminated through the increase of the low shear rheological properties (through using the correct
organophilic clays) the resulting increase in ECD would not be desirable in most HPHT wells.
The degree of variance between surface and downhole rheological measurements is to some extent a
measure of the quality of the mud system - the less variance, the more stable the mud system is.
Factors which affect rheological variance and behavior in an invert emulsion mud system include the
following:
- Type of Base Fluid: Viscosity versus temperature behavior is critical.
- Quality of Emulsion: Emulsifier type dictates water droplet size, spacing and stability of the emulsion
under pressure and temperature. Sufficient emulsifier/wetting agent is required to ensure proper oil
wetting of Barite and to prevent Barite agglomerating into large clusters. The emulsifiers used in the
system must be compatible and work in synergy. The use of a large number of different emulsifiers is
discouraged as this can cause an imbalance in the mud system. PERFORMUL HT is recommended into
formulation.
- Oil/Water Ratio: Oil/Water ratio combination with optimum organophilic clay content (ENVIROMUL
HT mud system) is critical under certain conditions. BDF-568, BDF-570, RHEMOD-L are example Baroid
non-clay viscosifier for high temperature condition.
- Type/Quality Filtrate Reducer: Filtrate reducers also affect the rheology of invert systems under
downhole conditions. Some filtration control additives behave as thinners and can drastically impair
the ability of the mud system to suspend particles and clean the hole. It is critical that the filtrate
reducer chemistry is wholly synergistic with the mud system chemistry. ADAPTA 450, BDF-454 and
BDF 513 are polymer base Fluid loss controller. DURATONE HT is organophilic lignite fluid loss
reducer.
- Solids Content: The type and quantity of solids, their Particle Size distribution and density affect the
mud system’s ability to suspend under deviated downhole conditions. In general the lower the
specific gravity and the particle size of the weight material, the less will be the sagging tendencies.
However, this can compromise the rheological properties, particularly PV and also affect ECD. It is
critical that the PSD and specific gravity of weight material in particular is controlled via optimum
utilization of specific additives and solids control equipment. BAROID recommends a minimum Barite
SG of 4.24, and less than 6 micron particles no more than 20% (compared with 4.2 and 30% for API
59 | P a g e
specifications). This will minimize the PV and ECD and combined with the proper mud formulation
eliminate Barite Sag.
Various weighting agent:

o BAROID 41 D50 – 25 micron
o BAROID 325 D50 – 15 micron
o Ultrafine Barite – 2- 5 micron
o Micromax - D50 0.5-1.0 micron
Additional solid material to enhance stability, rheology and suspension such as BARACARB and
STEELSEAL.
- “Thinning” the Mud System: The practice of “thinning” the mud system prior to running casing may
often directly lead to Barite Sag. This measure can be avoided provided appropriate steps are taken to
properly engineer the mud system while drilling the hole section, i.e. planning and pilot testing.
- Contamination: Contamination with powerful water-wetting surfactants affects the quality of the
emulsion and can lead to Sag. Optimized use of cement spacers and cementing procedures can
minimize/eliminate such mud contamination.
Planning High Temperature High Pressure Invert Emulsion Fluid

(See: HTHP Fluid planning - Minimum phase)
60 | P a g e
High Temperature High Pressure Invert Emulsion Fluid Systems
Current
IEF
Portfolio
Standard IEF: ENVIROMUL HT

High Performance IEF-Clay Free: INNOVERT, ENCORE, INTEGRADE
Another Baroid HTHP Solution

Insulating Packer Fluids, N-SOLATE® System
Lost Circulation Solutions, WellSET®, STEELSEAL®, STOPPIT®, DUO-SQUEEZE® H, HYDRO-PLUG®,

DIAMOND SEAL® Additives
Digital Software Solutions, DFG™, DFG-RT™, CFG, AFO, RTDV Software and Services
61 | P a g e
Lost Circulation SOP Code: LC Revision Date: March 2015
Lost Circulation
Introduction
Lost circulation describes the complete or partial loss of whole mud to a formation as a result of
hydrostatic and/or annular pressure exerted by a drilling fluid. Losses can result from natural or induced
causes. They are identified by a reduction in the rate of mud returns from the well compared to the rate at
which the mud is pumped down hole (flow out < flow in). This causes a decrease in the mud volume and
impairment of drilling operations. In extreme cases, lost circulation can lead to well control problems,
including blowouts. Losses can add extensively to the overall well cost, both in time and in mud
requirements.
Better planning, preparation, and having proven solutions on hand before a loss of circulation occurs can
reduce or eliminate substantial lost time and cost. In the past the chief response to lost circulation was the
use of cheap lost circulation material (LCM) that were commonly used in the area and easily available.
With the rise in the costs of both drilling fluids and rig time a more pro-active approach is required, and the
current emphasis is to study the particular area and recommend the materials, techniques, and methods
for prevention of the loss prior to beginning drilling operations.
Potential Types of Lost Circulation Zones
Lost circulation is classified into four basic types:

 Highly permeable formations
 Induced fractures due to a pressure imbalance
 Naturally fractured formations
 Cavernous formations (described as “vugular”)
Permeable Zones (Pores/Matrixes)

Loss rates to permeable zones may range from a slight seepage to several percent of the pumped volume as
more of the zone becomes uncovered. A permeable zone typically consists of coarse sands and/or gravel, and
is more often found in surface intervals. Shell beds, , reef deposits and depleted reservoirs may also be
classified as permeable formations, but they may also be vugular in the case of shell beds and reef deposits.
The depleted formations are prone to induced fractures as well. The hole may or may not stand full with the
pumps off.
Induced Fractures
Loss of mud to induced fractures is the most common type of lost circulation. These losses can be slow,
moderate or complete, at any depth. Induced fractures generally occur when the ECD exceeds the local
fracture gradient, causing the formation to break down. These losses can also occur during pressure
surges, i.e. during connections or during trips. Induced fractures often occur during routine increases of
mud weight or during a kick and kill operation. The hole may stand full or drop to an equilibrium point.
Wellbore breathing is a particularly troublesome type of induced fracturing. Here the fractures take fluid
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while the well is circulating, but once the pumps are shut off some up to all of that lost fluid returns to the
wellbore. The fluctuating mud volume requires time to stabilize to insure that it does not represent a true
kick and risk a well control incident. Once initiated, the cycle of wellbore breathing often remains for the
life of the interval, and although mitigation is possible, prevention is by far the best solution. The hole will
flow with the pumps off until equilibrium is reached, although this may take hours to stabilize.
Naturally Fractured Formations

Losses to naturally fractured formations can be up to a 100% loss of returns with no preceding gradual
losses. These losses may occur at overbalances as low as 50 psi. Since no fracture initiation pressure is
required, losses occur when the pore pressure or fracture reopening pressure is exceeded. The hole
normally will not stand full. Natural fractures and fault zones can be encountered at any depth but are most
likely to occur in tectonically-stressed areas at shallow to intermediate depths. Carbonates are prone to
having natural fractures.
Cavernous/Vugular Formations
Losses to cavernous/vugular formations are normally the easiest type to recognize. Immediate 100% loss of
returns takes place, accompanied by loss of weight on bit. They are caused by the dissolution of limestones,
dolomites, and salts by ground water; this creates caverns that vary in size. The likelihood of success in
regaining returns is limited. The most common solution is to drill blind for several feet below the zone, then
to run casing.
Important Note:
Prior to assuming that mud loss to the formation has taken place, all surface equipment must be examined
for leaks or breaks, i.e. mud pits, solids control equipment, mud mixing system, riser slip joints, and/or
incorrectly lined up pumps or circulating lines. Determine also if losses occurred during a recent fluid
transfer.
Wellbore Breathing
Wellbore breathing can range from an almost complete return of all fluid lost, to severe losses. If not
recognized early, continued fracture propagation can increase the severity of the losses and may result in
failure to complete the drilling of the well. Depending on the severity the losses may not represent a large
portion of the mud bill, but the time lost waiting for the well to stabilize after each connection can have a
major impact on the overall well cost. In areas know for wellbore breathing, controlling the ECD through
drilling practices, fluid properties and background LCM use can prevent the problem from occurring.
This complex issue can be treated with the following:
 The best cure is to prevent the cause of the problem – induced fractures.
o In areas known for breathing, controlling the ECD and surge pressures are vital in preventing
the problem. Once started the breathing may continue until the interval is cemented behind
casing. If the fracture gradient is known, use DFG modeling and if possible real-time PWD to
monitor and control the ECD while drilling.
63 | P a g e
o In high risk areas it is recommended to use a back ground treatment and /or circulate sweeps.
Combinations designed with WellSET may be used or engineered composite LCM such as BaraShield
663 or 664..
 Once breathing has been initiated several methods can help control it. Paramount is to control the
annular pressures that will continue to open the fractures and increase the severity of the breathing
phenomenon. Modeling with DFG can identify areas to address, i.e., flow rate, ROP and fluid
properties. The minimum ECD can be achieved with a balance of mud and drilling parameters. In high
angled wells it is critical to maintain a sufficient flow rate to clean the hole and to minimize cuttings
bed formation. At the same time maintain sufficient equivalent mud weight at the borehole wall to
maintain stability to avoid pack-off and stuck pipe. Controlling the ROP may be unavoidable to
minimize annular cuttings loading, and careful drilling practices are vital in avoiding high surge
pressures – circulating prior to connections, controlling pipe running and pulling speeds, rotating the
drill pipe to break gels before starting the pumps, and staging the pump speed on start-up.
 STEELSEAL has proven to be one of the best products to use for wellbore breathing. In some areas it
is the only LCM that has proven effective. The breathing is usually helped with STEELSEAL additions
because it prevents the pressure transmission to the fracture tip which will extend the fracture. A 30-
50 ppb STEELSEAL/BARACARB blend with the product concentration ratio based upon volume not
weight, appropriately sized for wellbore coverage – can be spotted across the loss zone. If spotting or
sweeping STEELSEAL pills alone are not sufficient, then the addition of a background concentration of
STEELSEAL to the active system (minimum 10 ppb is recommended) should be considered. An
adequate loading of STEELSEAL (or a STEELSEAL/BARACARB/BAROFIBRE O blend) can produce
fracture tip “screen out” the instant the fractures are re-opened as the pumps are brought up to
speed.
Causes of Lost Circulation
Virtually all causes of lost circulation are due to the pressures induced by the drilling fluid onto the loss
zone, pushing fluid away from the wellbore. These excess pressures can either fill existing openings in
the formation (sand/gravel), or they can induce the propagation of new fractures.
Some contributing factors to losses are:
 Inappropriate mud properties can increase the pressures on the formations:
 Higher than needed mud weights place greater pressures on the formation.
 Higher than needed rheologies increase the ECD and thus pressure.
 High gel strengths increase the pressure required to initiate circulation after trips or when
running casing.
 Lower than needed rheologies limit hole cleaning and can result in excessive cuttings loads in
the annulus, increasing the hydrostatic pressure.
 Inadequate shale inhibition can cause a restricted annulus, raising the ECD.
 Inadequate surfactant concentration can lead to bit balling and mud ringing,
restricting the annulus and raising the ECD.
 Poor drilling practices can increase the pressures on formations:
 High tripping speeds can cause high surge pressures.
 Excessive ROP can “weight up” the annulus with cuttings, increasing the hydrostatic pressure.
 Bringing the pumps on too rapidly can cause a pressure spike.
64 | P a g e
 Surging the hole when setting the string in the slips on connections can cause pressure
spikes of over 2 ppg.
 Long periods of sliding followed by rapid drill string rotation can overload the annulus with
cuttings and increase the hydrostatic pressure.
Classification of Losses
The correct treatment of lost circulation depends on the rate of mud loss and the type of loss zone
encountered. Five primary loss types occur in drilling operations:
Treatment Options: Example Recommendations only - engineering judgment based on

available information and experience may increase or decrease the estimated severity
consequences and subsequent treatments. The term “Producing Formation” is used to describe
a reservoir where it is desirable to use material that can be removed by acidizing or other
means to degrade the LCM. If a hydraulic fractured completion is to be used, this is not
necessary since the fracture will extend through any plugged induced-fractures.
Loss1 Producing Formation Permeable Zone Impermeable Zone
STEELSEAL 50 or 100 +
<10 bph BARACARB 25 & 50;
BARACARB 25 and/or
BARACARB 25 & 50 + N-
50;BaraShield 664 BaraShield 663
SEAL
+BaraLock 666.F;
STEELSEAL 100 +
BARACARB 150 +
BAROFIBRE O
STEELSEAL 400+ BARACARB ST
10 - 30 bph EZ-PLUG HYDRO-PLUG
150 & 600 + BAROFIBRE
DUO-SQUEEZE R O; BaraShield 663 + STOPPIT
BaraLock 666.F
Flex Plug OBM

>30 - 50 bph
BaraShield 665
DUOSQUEEZE R STOPPIT
DUOSQUEEZE R + BARAFLAKE C Flex Plug OBM
>50 - 200 bph DUO-SQUEEZE R + BARAFLAKE C ; STOPPIT + HYDRO-PLUG or Therma Tek RFP or
DUO-SQUEEZE R + BARAFLAKE C + Diamond Seal + BAROLIFT or Flex Plug OBM
BaraLock 666.M or C BaraLock 665.M or C;
BaraBlend 665 + BaraLock 665.M Gunk or Reverse
and/or C; Gunk
ThermaTek RFP (WBM)
>200 bph ThermaTek; ThermaTek RFP; ThermaTek RFP or

Low Fluid Loss "Acid Soluble" Cement High Fluid Loss Cement Thermatek (OBM);
Sentinel Cem
thixotropic cement
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Seepage Losses
Seepage losses usually begin slowly and in some cases can be difficult to identify. The loss may simply be
filtrate loss due to poor fluid loss control. Seepage losses may be economically acceptable if there are high
rig rates with a relatively low cost drilling fluid. If pressure control is critical, safety demands that the losses
be cured. These losses can usually be controlled or prevented with an appropriate LCM treatment alone.
Seepage losses may be treated with:
 BAROFIBRE / STEELSEAL / BARACARB pre-treatments of the mud system
 AQUAGEL GOLD SEAL additions to invert emulsion systems
 Pills containing high concentration of LCM, spotted frequently
 Spot LCM pills prior to tripping out of hole
 Increased AQUAGEL content of water-based muds (unless DRIL-N)
 LCM with a particle size distribution (PSD) matched to the sand pore sizes being drilled.
Partial Losses
Partial losses are more serious than seepage losses, and usually require significant LCM treatments or
changes to the current drilling parameters to cure or to reduce the losses. Often drilling must be slowed or
suspended because the drilling fluid cannot properly clean the hole. The cost of the mud and rig time
becomes important in deciding the response to partial losses. Logistics and the rig’s mud building
capabilities may be limited, and it may be necessary to take rig time to cure these losses.
Partial losses may be treated with:
 STEELSEAL additions have been shown to increase fracture initiation pressures. While it can be mixed
up to 100 ppb in water-based mud, best results are often seen when mixed with BARACARB and
BAROFIBRE O in a weight ratio of 1:1.5:0.5 which approximates an equal volume LCM mixture..
 Spot pills with a wide range of particle sizes sand a mixture of granular/fiber and flake LCM
 Engineered multi-modal composite solutions such as STOPPIT and DUO-SQUEEZE R.
Severe Losses
Severe losses can have a serious impact on drilling operations. Large volumes of expensive mud may be lost
in very short periods of time. This can result in a well control situation as the fluid level falls in the annulus
and hydrostatic pressure is reduced. Severe losses can also cause hole stability problems. While
experiencing severe losses the hole must be kept full to the equilibrium point with water or base oil. An
accurate record of all volumes and pills pumped must be kept so that hydrostatic head can be calculated.
Severe losses may be treated with:
 STOPPIT engineered multi-modal composite LCM at 80-12- ppb, This can be supplemented with
HYDRO-PLUG or Diamond Seal plus BAROLIFT or BaraLock 666. M or C.
 If solutions are designed using WellSET use a mixture of coarse materials with a wide size distribution
in as high a concentration as the rig equipment will allow to be pumped. Consider a mixture of
fiber/flakes/granular material. It is important to include some smaller material in the composite
formulation to plug the larger pores created when the coarse material packs into the fracture.
 BaraBlend 665 plus BaraLock 666.m and/or C provides a high fluid loss LCM supplemented with larger
reticulated foam.
 For the reservoir, use DUO-SQUEEZE R supplemented with BARAFLAKE C and/or BAROLIFT or
BAROLIFT E(or BaraLock 666.M or C).
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 STEELSEAL can be mixed up to 100 ppb in water-based mud..
 FLEXPLUG OBM spotted in or near the loss zone.
 TermaTek for either non-aqueous or water base fluids. ThermaTek RSP for water base fluids.
 Gunk or Reverse Gunk squeezes
 Cement/sodium silicate squeezes
 If invert emulsion is being used, a water-based LCM pill is more efficient than using a non-
aqueous base fluid.
Complete Losses
Complete lost circulation occurs when no returns come to surface. The fluid level in the wellbore may drop
out of sight. When a complete loss occurs, the annulus should be kept full with monitored volumes of
lighter mud and/or water or base oil. Determine the reduction in hydrostatic head and reduce the active
system to this calculated equivalent mud weight. The hole must be monitored very closely for possible
well control problems. While a risky operation, some wells are drilled to the interval TD without returns to
surface at all. This assumes that all cuttings are transported well away from the wellbore through
fractures, with no risk of a well control incident.
Total losses may be treated with the same materials and approach as used for severe losses.
In addition, engineering approaches may be required, including:
 Underbalance drilling
 Managed Pressure Drilling
 Mud Cap drilling
 Drill blind until a casing point can be reached
In a cross-flow situation with simultaneous kicking and lost circulation, some disagreement exists as to the
correct response. Some believe that curing the higher-risk problem of a kick should take priority and that a
barite plug2 should be used where possible. Others believe that curing the losses is the more important
task and that products like FLEXPLUG should be used. It is important to realize that if the decision is made
to cure losses first, then the potential exists for the LCM response to plug the drillstring and complicate
the task of killing the well.
1Refer to Well Blueprint Gunk Squeezes for further detail.
2Refer to Well Blueprint Barite Plugs for further detail.
Preventing Lost Circulation

Advanced planning can help prevent lost circulation. To successfully tackle the challenges of drilling
formations without incurring losses, consideration needs to be given to the potential causes of losses and
the location of potential loss zones. Baroid’s hydraulics software DFG can aid operators in determining the
correct drilling practices to be employed in each operation. The following points should be considered:
 Reduce Mechanical Pressures - In many cases, a reduction in the mechanical processes involved
in drilling a well can successfully minimize, if not cease lost circulation.
 Casing Points - Whenever possible, casing should be set in the geopressure transition zone to reduce
67 | P a g e
induced fractures.
 Pre-Treat Mud with LCM as a Bridging Agent - When excessive overbalance is unavoidable, pre-treating
the mud with bridging material can effectively bridge porous zones and minimize seepage losses. With
the correct particle size distribution, bridging materials can also slow down the filtrate invasion,
reducing wall cake build up.
The prevention of lost circulation is the best answer to this costly drilling problem. In developed drilling
areas the potential causes and locations of losses are often known and allow advanced planning. In many
wells the loss zones are not encountered when the bit is in newly drilled rock but instead are at or near
the last casing shoe. Typically this is the weakest exposed rock in the wellbore and has the lowest exposed
fracture gradient. Losses to previously drilled formations are almost always induced, and are a result of
hydrostatic overpressures caused by excessively high ECD, poor drilling/tripping practices, or unplanned
mud density increases. If it can be established from available evidence whether losses are due to porous,
cavernous or fractured formations, an appropriate treatment can be recommended. If a reduction of mud
weight or pump rate is not possible, or does not achieve the desired results, then some type of LCM must
be used to help seal the thief zone.
Prior to drilling, the rigsite drilling team should be fully aware of the potential loss zones to allow a
proactive approach to preventing or reducing the magnitude of loses. These will include controlling drilling
parameters and mud properties to minimize the potential for inducing losses.
Reduce Mechanical Pressures

A few of the numerous possible mechanical reduction procedures are shown below. In practice, these
methods cannot all be used simultaneously and some form of compromise is necessary.
 Control the ROP based on DFG calculations of the effective increase in annular mud weight from
cuttings loading. Exceeding the last LOT pressure increases the risk of losses.
 Agree on pre-set ECD limitations based upon DFG modeling.
 Choose the minimum practical mud weight to maximize the allowable annular pressure loss.
 Choose the minimum mud rheologies to reduce ECD, surge and swab pressures while allowing
adequate hole cleaning and formation stabilization.
 Maintain the minimum annular flow rate to allow adequate hole cleaning.
 Use good hole cleaning practices to avoid losses due to overloading of the annulus with cuttings:
o Use weighted/high viscosity sweeps to augment hole cleaning rather than viscosifying the
entire system.
o Use care when pumping sweeps; they can increase the hydrostatic pressure when
unloading the hole.
o Use pipe rotation to augment hole cleaning, but be aware that after periods of sliding, pipe
rotation may cause a marked increase in annular cuttings loading/hydrostatic pressure.
 Keep pipe movements slow to minimize surge and swab pressures.
 Reduce the pump rate by 15% when lowering the pipe and by 25% when rotating and lowering
the pipe to reduce surge pressures.
 Break circulation - slowly - several times before reaching bottom during a trip, especially after
logging.
 Run formation integrity tests (FIT) rather than a leak-off test (LOT).
 Do not exceed the calculated equivalent mud weight for kick tolerance.
 Avoid bit balling and sloughing shale. These cause increased pressure on formations if the annulus is
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overloaded or restricted.
 Control surge pressures while running casing by reducing the fluid density and the mud’s gel strengths
as low as practical (within the limits of barite sag) prior to tripping out for the casing. Control the casing
running speeds - base these speeds on DFG hydraulicscalculations so as not to exceed the existing
casing shoe’s LOT value with surge pressures. Ensure that the recommended casing running speed is
the maximum, not the average running speed.
 The final casing slack off generates the largest surge pressure. For this reason, the driller should slow
the casing down near the end of each joint to reduce the risk of breaking down the formation. A
major contributor to not losing returns while running casing is to have the drilling foreman or mud
engineer on the rig floor watching the running speed. An experienced, steady-handed driller who
understands the importance of controlling surge pressures is vital to the successful running and
cementing of the casing string.
Choose Deep, Strong Casing Points

Whenever possible, casing should be set in non-porous formations with high fracture gradients. By setting
casing as deep as possible, some formations with higher pore pressures may be drilled safely. A formation
of high matrix strength is recognized by one or more of the following:
 Reduction in penetration rates
 Mud Logging data
 MWD Data
Pre-Treat Mud with Lost Circulation Material as a Bridging Agent

When excessive overbalance is unavoidable, pre-treating the mud with bridging material can effectively
bridge porous zones and minimize seepage losses. With the correct particle size distribution, these
bridging materials can also slow down the filtrate invasion and help reduce wall cake build up.
Losses when running casing are common and can result in a poor cement job and inadequate zonal
isolation. The casing running speed should be based upon DFG hydraulic calculations to control surge and
swab pressures below the LOT/FIT value. Always slow the running speed as the bottom of the casing being
run passes through the existing shoe. Spotting an LCM pill below and across the shoe can strengthen the
shoe and reduce the risk of losses; ca. 20 ppb BAROFIBRE or STEELSEAL pills of a STEELSEAL/BARACARB/
BAROFIBRE O mix are recommended. The pill should be spotted across any weak zones below the shoe
and up to the shoe itself.
If mud or cement losses are likely during cementing or displacement, consider adding STEELSEAL to the
cement slurry. The cementing group has a number of successful case histories using this technique.
Treatments for Lost Circulation

There are numerous approaches to curing lost circulation, and many treatments have proven successful in
the field. One or more may be suitable for any given situation. The well interval has a major bearing on the
choice of the response to lost returns. Losses in the payzone may require the use of acid-soluble LCM to
reduce formation damage. Downhole tools and motors may restrict the concentrations of LCM which can
be pumped without plugging the tools, or they may not allow the use of certain LCM at all. Whenever
losses are encountered, the first approach should be to lessen the effective pressure on the loss zone by
reducing the flow rate and/or mud weight where possible.
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LCM Guidelines
 Cellulose fibrous material will absorb water and weaken the stability of an invert emulsion oil mud.
BAROFIBRE O is an exception to this rule since it contains a natural oil and is hydrophobic. Add oil
wetting surfactants as needed when adding cellulosic particulate to a non-aqueous mud.
 When pumping LCM pills through the bit, be careful to avoid blocking the jets.
 Remember to remove filter screens from mud pumps if pumping medium or coarse LCM through
open-ended drill pipe.
 For severe/total loss formations, run a treating sub (eg. PBL) in the BHA to allow pumping of very
large LCM with high concentrations.
Lost Circulation Checklist
1. To successfully fight lost circulation, prepare in advance.

o Research offset well data in the Wellsight Database.
o Plan for appropriate equipment, and sufficient materials.
o Ensure that drilling personnel are aware of the drilling conditions that cause losses
and what to do if losses occur. .
o Tailor procedures to each individual well, with potential lost circulation zones identified
beforehand.
2. Refer to available offset well recaps/reports and lithology columns

o Identify potential loss zones.
o Review previous LCM treatments - success or failure?
o Evaluate previous LCM used.
3. Draft a planned procedure for lost circulation. Standardize procedures for action to be taken in the
event of:
o Seepage Losses (< 1-10%)
o Partial Losses (10-50%)
o Severe Losses (50-100%)
o Complete Losses 100%/No returns)
4. Identify type, amount and storage place of all LCM on location

o Ensure materials are well marked and easily accessible.
o Discuss requirements of standby LCM treatments with rig and office personnel
o Confirm compatibility with MWD and downhole motors, etc.
o Prepare LCM pills and agitate prior to drilling a potential thief zone.
5. Identify all possible areas of surface loss

o Monitor mud loss/gain from processing equipment.
o Check gains/losses with equipment operating and not operating.
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6. Set up a communication network and instructions between:

o Drilling Foreman/Mud Engineer/Tool Pusher/Directional & MWD and Rig
Personnel
o Inform relevant personnel prior to LCM additions.
7. Maintain accurate records of all Lost Return responses

o Check inventory before and after lost returns to allow accurate records and billing.
o Record all fluid additions and losses accurately.
o Record success or failure of each response for well recap.
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Summary Table: LCM Particulate
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) Best Used in Which Fluid
Product Name Product Type Product Description Acid Solubility
(d10 - d50 - d90) Type?
BARACARB 5 sized-ground marble 2 - 7 - 18 100% All

Halliburton's family of acid soluble, sized ground marble with specific particle size
distributions. The name indicates the nominal d50 in microns of the particulate material.
Acid Soluble LCM

BARAFLAKE M Calcium Carbonate Flakes 542 - 1045 - 1563 100% All
Acid Soluble calcium carbonate flakes for use in reservoir section
BARAFLAKE C Calcium Carbonate Flakes 654 - 1577 - 2179 100% All
BARAPLUG 20 sized salt 6 - 13 - 39 100% All
BARAPLUG 50 sized salt 20 - 38 - 120 100% All
BARAPLUG 6/300 sized salt 50 - 137 - 230 100% All
N-SEAL mineral fiber Acid soluble fiber; one component of EZ-PLUG 143 - 2092 - 3692 100% All
Combination of reservoir-friendly lost circulation materials, dry-blended for easier handling
EZ-PLUG fibers and ground marble 6 - 211 - 3410 99% All
and addition through the hopper
Cellulosic-Based
BAROFIBRE SF natural cellulose fiber 5 - 37 - 113 60% All
A family of fiber lost circulation materials with specific particle size distributions. Grades
BAROFIBRE natural cellulose fiber 8 - 59 - 426 60% All
indicate a ranged difference in particle size distribution.
Partially Acid Soluble LCM
BAROFIBRE Coarse natural cellulose fiber 98 - 1247 - 2500 60% All

A natural fiber with an oil coating that makes it oleophylic, minimizing any effect on the
BAROFIBRE O hydrophobic, natural cellulose fiber 18 - 96 - 259 40%-50% SBM/OBM
electrical stability measurements in oil base fluids.
WALL-NUT Fine ground-walnut shells 309 - 617 - 1052 24% All
A family of fiber lost circulation materials with specific particle size distributions. Grades
WALL-NUT Medium ground-walnut shells 243 - 1408 - 1935 24% All
indicate a ranged difference in particle size distribution.
WALL-NUT Coarse ground-walnut shells 278 - 2323 - 3193 24% All
PLUG-GIT ground cedar fiber All
Family of ground wood fibers, sized to plug large natural fractures. 3175 - - 9525 30%-40%
PLUG-GIT H ground hardwood fiber All
BAROSEAL Classic cellulosic blend Combination of cellulosic, wood, and synthetic fibrous material 116 - 1147 - 2710 15%-27% All
Carbon-Based
STEELSEAL 25 resilient graphitic carbon 4 - 26 - 57 0% All

Non-Acid Soluble LCM
Halliburton's family of resilient, angular, dual-composition, carbon-based sized material with

STEELSEAL 100 resilient graphitic carbon specific particle size distributions. The name indicates the nominal d50 in microns of the 13 - 92 - 220 0% All
particulate material.
Engineered, Composite Solutions
Customized combination of particulate lost circulation materials with a unique formulation

STOPPIT proprietary blend and bimodal particle size distribution; gives the material increased “toughness”, allowing it 80-1390-2672 50% All
to resist changes in downhole pressure without any adverse effect to sealing performance.
Customized combination of particulate lost circulation materials with a bimodal particle size
DUO-SQUEEZE H proprietary blend distribution; designed for High-Fluid-Squeeze applications, but can be applied using all 95 - 171 - 574 <10% All
operational techniques (ex. sweep, spot & soak, etc.); not for use in the reservoir
Customized combination of particulate lost circulation materials and a swellable polymer;

HYDROPLUG proprietary blend 133 - 361 - 772 3% Fresh Water
dual acting material uses the swellable polymer to completely seal the fracture.
Customized combination of calcium carbonate based, particulate lost circulation materials

DUO-SQUEEZE R proprietary blend with a bimodal particle size distribution and a naturally swellable polymer that are all acid 66 - 189 - 818 100% All
soluble or breakable.
Premium Fine-Sized Granular Multi-Modal LCM Mesh Size (-30/325)

BaraShield-663 proprietary blend 44 - 170 - 538 33% All
Medium-Sized Granular Multi-Modal LCM Mesh Size (-18/325)

BaraShield-664 proprietary blend 55 - 233 - 721 33% All
Premium Granular, High-Fluid Loss LCM Contains Fine-Sized Reticulated Foam Mesh Size (-
BaraBlend-665 proprietary blend 40/325). D-values and mesh sizes are without 0.5% of 0.25-in foam. 74-233-343 33% Water/Base oil only
Engineered, Composite Solutions: Experimental Systems

Customized combination of lost circulation materials with a unique formulation and bimodal
particle size distribution; gives the material increased “resilience”, allowing it to resist
BDF-632 proprietary blend changes in downhole pressure without any adverse effect to sealing performance; 101 - 601 - 1336 <10% All
specifically designed for drilling depleted zones where fractures that are initiated will have a
very high fracture closure stress.
Customized combination of lost circulation materials for the reservoir with a unique
formulation and bimodal particle size distribution. This is a reformulation of DUO-SQUEEZE R,
BDF-657 proprietary blend 133-1217-2776 98% All
providing a much larger PSD along with an acid degradable fiber. This LCM is specifically
designed for drilling formations where acid solubility is required.
Customized combination of lost circulation materials with a unique formulation and bimodal
particle size distribution; gives the material increased “resilience”, allowing it to resist
BDF-680 proprietary blend changes in downhole pressure without any adverse effect to sealing performance; 166 - 916 - 1938 49% All
specifically designed for drilling depleted zones where fractures that are initiated will have a
very high fracture closure stress.
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Lost Circulation Decision Tree
Cementing LCM Flowchart
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Solids Control SOP Code: SC Revision Date: July 2015
Solids Control
Introduction
The contamination of drilling fluids with drill cutting is an unavoidable consequence of successful drilling
operations. If the drilling fluid does not carry cuttings and cavings to the surface, the rig is either not “making
hole” or will soon be stuck in the hole it is making. Prior to the use of mechanical equipment, dilution was
used to control solids in the mud. The term “dilution” is defined as the process of dumping a portion of the
active drilling fluid volume to a waste pit and then diluting the solids concentration in the remaining fluid by
adding base fluid.
Using solids control equipment to minimize dilution has been a standard practice for the drilling industry for
more than 60 years. Equipment and methods have changed over that time, but the fundamentals behind the
process are the same:
• Solids concentration matters - increasing solids content is detrimental.

• Economics matters - it costs less to mechanically remove solids than to dilute.
• Volume matters – the volume of waste generated is indicative of performance.
• Size matters – fine solids are the most detrimental and difficult to remove.
• Stokes’ law matters – viscosity and density affect gravity separations.
• Screen selection matters – screens make the only separation based on size.
• Footprint matters – the space available for equipment on rigs is always limited.
Increasing solids concentration in drill mud is a problem for the operator, the drilling contractor, and the
fluids provider. It is well proven that increasing solids content in a drilling fluid results in lower rate of
penetration (ROP). Other problems related to solids concentration are:
 High viscosity and gel strength

 High torque and drag
 Lost circulation due to higher equivalent circulating density (ECD)
 Abrasion and wear on pump fluid ends
 Production loss due to formation damage from filtrate or solids invasion
 Stuck pipe due to filtrate loss
 Poor cement jobs due to excessive filter cakes
 Excessive drilling waste
 Higher drilling fluid maintenance costs.
The importance of minimizing undesirable solids in drilling fluids cannot be overstated. Close monitoring and
maintaining a minimum of drilled solids have been determined to save both time and money. Savings come
from:
• Increased drilling rate - less days per well
• Increased bit life - fewer bits per well
• Increased life of pump parts
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• Reduced mud maintenance costs
• Reduced non-productive time
• Reduced incidence of stuck pipe
• Causes of Solids Control Problems
Solids are an unavoidable component of all drilling fluids. Solids may be added as commercially processed
materials or as a result of the drilling operation. Drilled solids include salts, silts, sand, carbonates and clays.
Accumulation of these solids can present problems in maintaining desired mud properties, especially viscosity
and mud weight, and can decrease the drilling rate, bit life and life of mud pump parts. Small amounts of
drilled solids incorporated into a drilling fluid cannot be avoided and are not generally considered to be
detrimental. However, if these small quantities are allowed to accumulate and continuously recirculate,
serious problems can develop.
Solids gradually decrease in size, as a result of bit regrinding, and mechanical breakage caused by surface
pumps and solids control equipment. The resulting smaller solids have an increased total surface area. This
means that although the actual solids content has not changed, much more fluid is required to coat the
exposed surfaces. When this occurs, there will be increases in viscosity, fluid loss, filter cake and gel
strengths. This leads to increased chemical costs and higher dilution rates. Eventually the solids become so
small that they cannot be removed by any means other than whole mud dilution. These fine solids can also
cause formation damage in producing formations, severely limiting the production and the profitability of the
well.
Chemical, as well as mechanical effects can result in solids control problems, especially when drilling reactive
shale formations.
Preventing and Curing Solids Control Problems

Preventing or curing solids control problems may include several methods:
• Chemical treatment
• Dilution
• Mechanical treatment
Chemical
Chemical treatment involves using flocculants to congregate and drop unwanted solids out of the mud.
However this type of treatment is not recommended for many mud systems because of adverse effects on
mud properties and possible hole stability problems.
Inhibitive water-based mud systems and invert emulsion systems can improve primary solids removal
because drilled shale and clay cuttings do not breakup and disperse within the fluid. This allows them to be
removed by mechanical or centrifugal means before they are recirculated.
In some cases, maintaining the pH of a fluid can have a dramatic effect on the solids content of the fluid.
Optimum pH will vary with mud type, but excessive pH tends to disperse certain formation clays making them
impossible to control except through dilution. Excessive chemical dispersant use can also cause solids control
problems by breaking up and dispersing some types of solids before they can be removed.
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Dilution
Dilution lessens the solids concentration without actually removing the solids. Mud weight and rheology
problems will reappear as more solids build up during drilling. Dilution is often expensive because:
• Increased consumption of products is required to maintain desired properties
• Large scale dilution often leads to discarding of large volumes of valuable drilling fluid due to lack of
storage space.
• In environmentally sensitive areas, extra expenses must be incurred in removal and clean-up of
discarded mud.
The mud maintenance costs associated with the dilution method are easily calculated and are often used as a
baseline for expenditures on solids control equipment. For example, if a fluids program calls for low gravity
solids (LGS) to be maintained at or below 5% by volume, and if 10 barrels of drill solids becomes entrained in
the mud, then the approximate volume of diluent that must be added is:
 Vsolids 
Vdiluent  
 % LGS 
Where :
Vdiluent  Volume of dilution in bbls
Vsolids  Volume of solids in bbls
% LGS  Volume Fraction of LGS desired in percent
Equation 1-1 Volume of Diluent

Mechanical
Treatment of solids build up by mechanical means is often the most practical and cost effective of the
methods available. Unwanted alterations of mud properties are avoided and more savings are realized due to
lower dilution. Generally speaking, the greater the unit cost of a mud, the greater the savings in using
mechanical treatments to prevent mud problems. The simplest way is to allow unwanted solids to settle out,
however this sometimes is not very efficient and may require large surface volumes. The key to effective mud
engineering is efficient and comprehensive solids removal equipment and technique.
One effective solids removal equipment system may consist of:
• Scalping shakers
• Linear motion high speed shakers
• Desander
• Desilter Mud cleaner
• Two centrifuges with the capability to run in solids removal and/or barite recovery modes
Today, shakers are used for multiple purposes described as follows:
 Scalping Shakers are used to remove coarse solids upstream of the high performance shakers
 Classifying Shakers are used to size the cuttings for annular injection
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 Drying Shakers are used for secondary recovery of the base fluids from the wet cuttings rejected by
the primary flowline shakers
 Primary Flowline Shakers are usually high performance linear motion shakers used to remove the
bulk of fine drill cuttings
 Cascade Shakers combine a scalper with a high performance shaker.
Oilfield shakers share common design elements and share a history of technological development. The need
for increased screening capacity and finer solids removal has driven the drilling industry through a series of
advances in vibratory motion that are listed chronologically below.
Unbalanced Elliptical Motion:

This motion is created by rotating a single eccentrically weighted shaft that is mounted above the center of
gravity of a shaker basket. This motion will not convey solids in one direction and requires a downward
sloping deck. Unbalanced elliptical motion shakers are still used today on workover rigs and as scalping
shakers, for example, the National Oilwell Model SSS (single standard shaker). Coarse screens (40 mesh or
below) are most commonly installed on downhill sloping shakers. Most of these shakers use 3 Hp motors to
drive belt driven eccentrics that rotate from 1000 to 1200 rpm. The motors can be hydraulic or electric.
Circular Motion:
This motion is created by rotating a single eccentrically weighted shaft that is mounted at the center of
gravity of a shaker basket, which usually had two decks or tandem decks. Circular motion will convey solids
toward the discharge end if the screens are horizontal, but will not convey uphill. With the introduction of
circular motion, finer screens could be run (120 mesh or sometimes finer on the top deck) and mud losses
were lowered considerably thanks to the horizontal screen orientation. The National Oilwell Model STS
(single tandem shaker) is an example. Most tandem shakers have 5 Hp motors. The motors can be hydraulic
or electric.
Linear Motion:
Linear motion shakers were introduced in the late 1970s. This motion is created using two eccentrically
weighted shafts (dual shaft canister motors) that counter rotate. The primary advantage of linear motion is
the ability to convey solids uphill. Layered screens capable of removing solids in the range of 70 microns can
be run on linear motion shakers. The benefits of linear motion are dryer solids discharge, less mud loss at the
shakers, more screening capacity, and better solids removal. Almost all linear motion shakers use electric
motors in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 Hp. Depending on whether the line frequency is 60 Hz or 50 Hz, the canister
motors rotate at roughly 1800 rpm or 1500 rpm. Interestingly enough, the motors will synchronize with each
other to create linear motion without the need for timing chains or belts.
Balanced Elliptical Motion and Dual Motion:

In the late 1990s, balanced elliptical motion entered the fray. It is a variation of linear motion where two
eccentric weights counter rotate obliquely to the screen to create elliptical motion that is close to linear and
conveys solids uphill. The primary advantage of balanced elliptical motion is that it conveys slower and can
produce dryer solids thanks to the longer retention time on the screen surface. Similar motions can be
created in a variety of ways. National Oilwell’s D285P-DM is a dual motion shaker that can be operated as a
linear motion shaker or in a motion similar to balanced elliptical.
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The number of shakers required will vary, but there should be enough to handle maximum flow rates
anticipated for the well.
Proper sequencing of the solids control equipment is a primary consideration for obtaining maximum
efficiency. Not all the pieces of equipment are relevant in every situation, but all utilized equipment must be
rigged up and maintained so that it operates at peak efficiency. Anything less may not be cost effective and
can even contribute to solids problems. Periodic analysis of equipment efficiency should be performed and
reported. Any problems with solids control equipment should be brought to the customer’s attention and
noted on daily mud reports.
Particle size distribution (PSD) of drilling fluids can indicate solids control problems due to deterioration and
buildup of fine solids.
Solids control equipment should be considered as a total removal system and therefore each individual piece
of equipment must be working efficiently for overall system efficiency. For optimum efficiency each piece of
the system must be a) Properly selected b) Properly sized c) Properly installed, and for continued
effectiveness they need to be d) Properly maintained by competently trained and motivated personnel.
1-2 The API 13-C (March 1996) Standard for Evaluation of System Efficiency is:
Data:
Base Fluid Added: Vbf = ___________bbl
Average Base Fluid Fraction: Fbf = ___________
Interval Length: L = ___________ft
Bit Diameter: D = ___________in
Washout as % increase in hole volume: W = ___________%
Average Drill Solids Concentration: Fds = ___________
Calculations:
Volume of Mud Built: Vmb = Vbf / Fbf ___________bbl
Volume of Drilled Solids: Vds = [(D2)*(1 + W/100)* (L)] / 1029.4 ___________bbl
Dilution Volume required if no solids were removed: Dt = Vds / Fds ___________bbl
Dilution Factor: DF = Vmb / Dt ___________
Solids Removal Performance: SP = (1 – DF) * 100 ___________%
1–3 Baroid Solids Control Equipment Evaluation
Data:
Mud Cost per Barrel (Mud Report): Cb = ___________$/bbl (Daily Mud Cost / bbl of Dilution for the day)
Fraction Drill Solids (Mud Report): Fds = ___________
Equipment Discharge rate: td = ___________sec/qt
Equipment Cost: Ce = ___________$/day
Calculations:
Barrels per Day of Discard: Vf = 514.2857 / td ___________bbl
Barrels of Dilution: Dt = Vf / Fds ___________bbl
Cost to treat and Dilute Solids: Ct = Dt * Cb ___________$
Savings by using the equipment: Cs = Ct – Ce ___________$/day
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High Performance Shakers
High performance shakers and new shaker screen designs have greatly improved the performance of a mud
system. Shakers remove most of the solids and discharge most of drilling waste (excluding spent fluids). Most
high performance shakers are either linear motion or dual motion. The benefits of using high performance
shakers are:
 Drilling waste is minimized (lower ROC)

 Whole mud loss at the shakers is minimized
 Dilution requirements are lowered
 Higher circulation rates are handled.
High performance shakers will only accept one of two types of screens:
 Pre-tensioned rigid panel shakers have rigid frames that are usually clamped to the screen deck, which
is flat or only slightly crowned
 Flexible hook strip style screens are tensioned during the installation process by using drawbars that
stretch the screen over a radius or crown that forms the screen deck.
Flexible screens will flutter when vibrated unless stretched over a radius to keep them in contact with the
screen deck. Pre-tensioned rigid screens have two advantages because they can be changed quicker, and give
dryer cuttings discharge. The crown on the deck of hook strip style shakers results in a horseshoe-shaped
distribution of fluid and increases ROC due to the proximity of the outside edges of the liquid pool to the
discharge point.
The mechanical design of a shaker will influence its performance, but the properties of the drilling fluid and
the design of the screens have a larger impact. The table below summarizes design features and operational
adjustments that can be made to optimize shaker performance.
Table 1-1 Shaker Design Features
Design Feature Description Effect
Screen Area The available surface area for  Pleated screens combined with elevated deck
installing screens is fixed by the angles may increase the liquid handling capacity of
shaker design. the shaker.
G-Force Canister motors have adjustable  Increasing the counterweight setting will increase
counterweights. the peak G-force, improving both solids conveyance
but may result in wetter cuttings due to shorter
Note: all the weights on both residence time.
motors must be set at the same  Decreasing the counterweight setting will increase
level. screen life at the expense of slower solids
conveyance and may result in drier cuttings due to
longer residence time.
Deck Angle Deck angle can be adjusted  The best angle is the lowest deck angle that can be
usually in the range of  5 run to maintain fluid coverage over the screening
degrees from horizontal. surface of 50% to 70%.
 Increasing the deck angle usually results in dryer
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solids and more liquid handling capacity.

 Increasing the deck angle may cause cutting
degradation.
 Deep “feed end’ fluid pools may allow fine solids to
short circuit to the sump by finding gaps between
screens or holes in screens.
 The increased pool depth on the feed end may push
more liquid through the screen.
 At high deck angles, deep pools may cause
“differential sticking” of the solids to the screen and
impede conveyance.
Frequency The frequency of vibrator motors  In the Western Hemisphere, 60 Hz is common and
is determined by the line results in motor rotation speeds of approximately
frequency of the electrical power 1800 rpm.
(unless a variable frequency  In the Eastern Hemisphere, 50 Hz is common and
drive supplies power to the results in nominal 1500 rpm.
vibrator motors).  G-force is lower at 50 Hz unless oversize
counterweights are installed to compensate.
Weir Height Weir height is the elevation at  Shakers with high weir heights may be difficult to
which fluid spills over a weir to install on smaller rigs due to flowline elevation
feed the shaker(s). restrictions.
G-Force and Basket Displacement
The peak acceleration that a shaker delivers to the screen deck is usually expressed in Gs and is often viewed
as means of evaluating one shaker versus another. Since counterweights are usually set at some level below
the maximum, it is often worthwhile to measure the peak G-force using a hand held accelerometer.
Alternately, the linear displacement of the basket can be observed (some vibrator companies have printed
magnetic decals for this purpose) to calculate the G-force. The relationship between G force and
displacement is given below.
 (motor )2 x (dbasket ) 
G peak  
 70414 
Where :
G peak  peak acceleration in "G's"
motor  speed of shaker motors in rpm
dbasket  basket displacment in inches
70414  conversion constant
Equation 1-4 Calculation of Shaker G-Force
Solids Removal in High Density Muds
In an unweighted mud, money is spent controlling or reducing mud weight. In a weighted system, a
significant amount of money is spent in keeping the density high. Solids control for weighted and unweighted
muds varies due to the cost of large scale dilution and the reduced efficiency of solids removal systems when
high density muds are in use. As the concentration of barite increases, the level of free liquid phase in the
system decreases, as does the mud's ability to accommodate drilled solids. As drilled solids are picked up and
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along with barite decrease in size and increase in surface area, rapid increases in viscosity and gel strength
occur. The essential purpose of the solids control equipment is to remove as many drilled solids as possible
before they degrade to fines and ultra-fines.
Shale Shakers: Barite that meets API specifications can contain particles as much as 3.0 % by weight greater
than 74 mm. Take an example of a 16 ppg mud that has 410 lb/bbl barite. At 3%, this would be 12.3 lb/bbl.
For a 2000 bbl circulating system, this indicates that 11.16 MT of barite would theoretically be removed by a
200 mesh shaker screen. Initial screen selection is obviously critical when drilling with high density muds.
Removal of the coarse end in barite will benefit mud properties and reduce wear on mechanical parts
however if the screens are initially chosen to allow these particles to circulate, the majority will break down
and then finer screens can be run. This method prevents a density drop and reduces costs associated with
barite replacement. Screens should initially be no finer than 150 mesh (105 mm) and the amount of barite
retained on the screen used in the sand content test will be a guide for when finer screens can be used.
Guidelines for Shale Shakers
1. Shakers should be operated with screens that will remove the maximum amount of drill solids without
excessive wet cuttings discharge or loss of whole mud over the shakers. See below information on 2.
Shaker Screens.
2. Operate shakers at the lowest deck angle that can be run to maintain fluid coverage over the screening
surface of 50% to 70% without loss of whole mud.
3. Check screen tension at least once a tour on hook strip shakers.
4. When circulation is interrupted for connections or surveys, wash screens with water (or base oil) and
inspect the screens.
5. A high pressure washer is more effective for cleaning screens and uses less fluid compared to use of a rig
hose.
6. Periodically probe the possum belly for build up solids and use a sparge pipe or rig vac to evacuate the
solids so they flow over a shaker. Dumping the possum belly into the sump is bad practice because solids
will end up in the sand trap or active system.
7. In the event of sand blinding, try installing multi-layer screens of a finer mesh.
8. If poor solids conveyance is caused by sticky clays, try a finer screen to attempt to reduce friction
between solids and screen.
9. Never bypass shakers to prevent mud loss, change the deck angle or install coarser screens to handle the
flow.
10. Check condition of decking rubbers every time screens are changed and replace any that are worn or
missing. Deck rubber condition is the most likely cause of poor screen life. (Note that National Oilwell
mudcleaners have screen gaskets instead of deck rubbers. This means that the deck rubbers are
effectively replaced every time screens are replaced.)
11. Keep fume hoods in place except when changing screens.
12. Avoid routine use of spray bars or excessive wash water to clean screens.
13. Never wash screens used for SBM or OBM with water.
14. If tandem shakers are in use, always run finer mesh screen on the lower deck.
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Maintenance and Installation Guidelines
1. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for maintenance and lubrication found in the IOM manual.
2. Pay particular attention to the lubrication type and schedule for canister style vibrator motors.
3. Do not use general purpose grease on vibrator motors.
4. Do not over grease any electric motor.
5. Replace deck rubbers if wear, buckling, or other damage is noticed.
Shaker Screens
Function of Shaker Screens
Shaker screens play a critical role in meeting Baroid’s goals. First, they are the only element in the mud
treatment process purposely changed to suit drilling conditions on each and every well. It is difficult and
costly to replace shale shakers or other process equipment, but screens can be readily changed to improve
performance. Second, screens generate the bulk of drilling waste (excluding spent fluids) generated while
drilling. Third, the shaker screens must handle the rig’s full circulation rate with a minimal loss of mud.
Fourth, screens are the only device on a rig that separate solids based on particle size or cutpoint. Mud
system performance depends on selecting screens to match drilling conditions and properly balance cutpoint
and capacity.
The purpose of shaker screens is as follows:
 Maximize the removal of drill cuttings

 Minimize the loss of whole mud and/or commercial mud additives
 Withstand the imposed fluid and cuttings loads without failing
 Handle 100% of the flow without excessive mud loss
 Maintain a definable cutpoint during the service life of the screen
 Deliver acceptable screen life
 Facilitate the safety and speed with which screens can be changed.
Background
The first shaker screens were single layer screens constructed of coarse wires woven in a square mesh known
as “market grade” (MG) wirecloths. As drilling circulation rates increased, the need for higher capacity
screens drove screen manufacturers to use “Tensile Bolting Cloth” (TBC) wire meshes. TBC wirecloths are
woven in a square mesh pattern using thinner wires than MG cloths. A TBC screen has larger openings than a
market grade screen of the same mesh count. Thinner wires will allow more fluid to pass through the screen,
but are also more fragile.
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OPENING SIZE OPENING SIZE

0.17 inch 0.19 inch
[4318 microns] [4750 microns]
1" 1"
[25400µ] [25400µ]
4 MESH SCREEN 4 MESH SCREEN

0.08 INCH WIRES 0.06 INCH WIRES
Figure 2-1 Effect of Wire Diameter on Opening Size
In the 1970s both oblong mesh and layered screens were introduced. In theory, a rectangular opening will
remove round particles just as effectively as a square mesh screen, but provides more open area for greater
fluid throughput. This theory requires that the rectangular opening be stable and not allow oversize particles
to squeeze through by “spreading” the wires. The marketing of rectangular mesh screens also introduced
many misconceptions about the way screen mesh is designated. For example, the B120 was woven with 80
wires in one direction and 40 wires in the other. Theoretically, a B120 would give the same cutpoint as an 80
mesh screen but was perceived as a much finer mesh.
0.17 inch [4318 micron]

Aspect Ratio = 2.5
Cutpoint = .17 Inch
[4318 microns]
0.42 inch
1.00 inch
[10668 micron]
1"
[25400µ]
4 X 2 OBLONG MESH
0.08 INCH WIRES
Figure 0-2 Illustration of Oblong Mesh
Layered screens or sandwich screens consist of two fine mesh screens over a coarse backup mesh. The
overlapping layers of fine wirecloth create an “equivalent” mesh and offer improved conductance compared
to square mesh screens. An additional benefit of layered screens is active de-blinding. The interaction
between layers of screen cloth tends to dislodge particles that may have wedged into the apertures in the
mesh. The de-blinding effect is most pronounced when the layers are loosely bonded to each other and
diminishes when the layers are closely bonded to metal or plastic perforated plates. In the late 1970s, linear
motion shakers were introduced to the drilling industry. Screens were specially designed to withstand the
aggressive vibration of linear motion. Metal backed and plastic backed screens are better able to withstand
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the high G forces and the pressure from flooded decks than non-reinforced screen assemblies. Derrick
Equipment patented a hook strip screen consisting of three layers of wire mesh bonded to a perforated metal
plate.
In the early 1990s, pleated screens were introduced. Pleating increases the available screen surface through
which liquid can flow. Linear motion shakers operating at high deck angles will have flooded screens that can
take advantage of pleated screens. A number of layered screens have since been introduced with high
conductance weaves such as the XR™ screens that utilize rectangular mesh with an aspect ratio over 2.5.
Another interesting development is the Magnum™ screen patented by Sweco in which polypropylene plastic
wires are woven into the stainless steel wirecloth to act as a rip stop. It also serves as a bonding agent when
the plastic is melted into multiple layer screen assemblies, eliminating the need for perforated plastic backup.
Development of BARAMESH™ by Baroid
Baroid’s BARAMESH screen cloth is designed to last longer, handle higher flow rates, resist blinding better,
and reject more solids than conventional wirecloth. BARAMESH is a proprietary weave with wire diameters
50% thicker than conventional shale shaker screens. Thicker wires resist abrasion of the top layer that causes
most screen failures.
BARAMESH™ screen assemblies are constructed of one or more layers of wirecloth. BARAMESH is woven with
rectangular openings having an aspect ratio of approximately 1.6:1. The 1.6:1 aspect ratio ensures maximum
flow capacity without degrading cutpoint integrity. In effect, BARAMESH combines the high conductance of a
high aspect ratio rectangular mesh with the solids removal capability of a square mesh.
The development of BARAMESH enables Baroid Surface Solutions to enhance the performance of mud
systems worldwide and meet Baroid’s goals such as:
 Better fluid performance by efficient solids removal

 Lower dilution and mud maintenance costs
 Higher shaker capacity and less mud loss due to screen flooding
 Less screen blinding from near size particles
 Longer screen life means fewer screens to dispose of, transport, and store.
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Table 2-1 Screen Properties for BARAMESHTM Screen
Equivalent Mesh Designator

Screen Baroid BARAMESHTM Screens
Property 84 110 140 175 210 250
D16* (microns) 120 110 95 75 70 70
D50* (microns) 195 160 125 100 88 75
D84* (microns) 220 180 150 120 110 83
Conductance
(kd/mm) 4.0 3.8 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.6
* Calculated Screen Separation Efficiency
Screen Manufacturers and Proprietary Weaves
There are relatively few manufacturers of screens for shale shakers. The table below is a quick reference of
the major manufacturers:
Table 2-2 Screen Manufacturers and Products

Parent Screen Manufacturer
Proprietary Screen
Company Mfg. Location(s)
Alumitek
 Pretensioned screens for VSM and
CPI Manufacturing
other rigid panels shakers.
CPI Pearland, Texas
V-Millennium
Broussard, Louisiana
 High capacity rectangular with flow
directors for hook strip style.
Pyramid
Derrick Equipment
Derrick Equipment Pyramid Plus™
Buffalo, New York  Pleated multilayer screens over
coarse mesh backup
Southwestern Wirecloth XR Mesh
Tulsa, Oklahoma  Oblong mesh with 2.5 aspect ratio
Magnum™
MI/Swaco SWECO,
 Layered screens with plastic
Florence, Kentucky
reinforcment woven into the wirecloth
Madison Filter
 Screens for VSM shakers
UK
CPI Manufacturing Alumitek
Halliburton Pearland, Texas  Pretensioned screens for VSM
shakers
Advanced Wirecloth Diamond Back
New Iberia, Louisiana  Multilayer plastic backed screens
Varco/Brandt Blue Hex Screen
Brandt  Flat pre-tensioned screen with
hexagonal perforated plate and rigid
frame
HCR™
Cagle Oilfield
Global Wirecloth  Rectangular mesh with high aspect
Tulsa, Oklahoma ratio and special weave for mesh
stability
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Screen Designation
In 1993, the American Petroleum Institute adopted API RP 13E “Recommended Practice for Shale Shaker
Screen Cloth Designation” in an attempt to place screen designation and selection on a sound scientific
footing. API RP 13E uses optical image analysis to assign an “equivalent mesh” based on the size and
distribution of apertures (openings) in the screen assembly. The drilling industry has failed to embrace API RP
13E, and the selection process has defaulted back to relying on the number printed on the screen box.
It is important to understand that the number printed on the screen box may or may not correlate to either
the actual cutpoint or the relative cutpoint of the screen, especially when comparing screens from different
manufacturers.
Guidelines for Shaker Screens
The guidelines below should be followed.
1. Select screens of oblong layered mesh design because they offer the best combination of high
conductance and fine particle removal.
2. Capacity is the first priority. Pick screens with the most non-blanked area. For the same mesh
combination, a perforated pattern of 1 inch squares in the metal or plastic screen backing will have
30% less available area for screening (or non-blanked area) than a 2 inch square pattern. The trade-off
is that 1 inch patterns may give better screen with heavy solids loading or high mud weights.
3. Be aware that square mesh screens and single layer screens are more likely to bind.
4. Do not select screens that require operation of linear motion shakers at the maximum upward deck
angle, because the pool of liquid at the feed end of the basket can differentially stick particles, impede
conveyance, grind cuttings, or allow mud to by-pass between the deck rubbers and the screens.
5. Use the same mesh screen in all the screen slots, unless the shaker has scalping deck.
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Screen Troubleshooting
Table 2-3 Troubleshooting Common Shaker Problems
Problem/ Symptom Possible Cause(s) Corrective Action

 Isolate shaker from well
 Shut down
Loose or torn screens
 Wash and inspect screens
 Retighten or replace screens
 Lower the deck angle if possible
Excessive deck angle
without mud loss
 Check shaker motor rotation is in
correct direction
 If linear motion or balanced elliptical
Motor rotation
motion, confirm both motors are
running and in the right direction
 Check condition of basket isolators
 Check condition of basket spings, air
bags, or rubber isolators
Basket isolation
Poor solids conveyance  Make sure shipping brackets are
removed
 If multiple shakers are in use and
circulation rate is low, one or more
shakers can be isolated and shut
down to force more fluid to the
Circulation rate
remaining shakers
 Linear motion shakers should have
2/3 of the screen surface area
covered with fluid
 Check condition of deck rubbers and
replace if necessary
Damaged or missing deck rubbers  Note that National Oilwell shakers
have rubber gaskets on the bottom of
each screen so that deck rubbers are
replaced with each screen change
 Install finer mesh screens or Baroid
Screen blinding Near size particle blinding from fine sand
BARAMESH
 Check all shakers for missing or
damage deck rubbers or gaps
High sand content or between screens
solids buildup in sand Cuttings bypassing screens  Reinstall or replace screens and
trap gaskets as required
 Make sure bypass gate is not cracked
open or leaking
 Install finer screens to provide a
Gumbo buildup on smoother conveying surface
Resistance to conveyance
screens  Lower deck angle
 Add spray bar wash
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Screen Nomenclature
Conductance
Following the lead of reservoir engineers, conductance is expressed in terms of kilodarcies/millimeter.
Conductance defines the ease with which fluid can flow through the screen per unit area.
Conductance can be thought of as the opposite of resistance. Higher conductance means lower
resistance, meaning the screen with the highest conductance number should handle the most fluid, all
other factors being the same.
Layered Screens
Layering two or more fine mesh wirecloths together is an effective way to create an “equivalent
mesh” that actively de-blinds. Layered screens offer improved conductance and finer cutpoints than
would be expected from the individual components due to the interference between layers. Layered
screens will improve conductance over single layer screens of the same equivalent mesh with some
sacrifice of cut point.
Median Cutpoint (d50)

The d50 is one means of expressing the ability of a screen to reject solids, and is defined as the
particle size that reports 50% to the underflow (pass) and 50% to the overflow (reject).
Mesh
Mesh is the number of openings per linear inch in a screen. In and of itself, mesh does not give any
real information about screen performance. It does not reveal the size of the opening or whether the
screen is woven with square or rectangular openings. In fact, with rectangular openings the mesh will
vary in the X and Y directions. Nonetheless, mesh is the term most often used to describe
commercially available square opening screens. For example, “30 mesh TBC wirecloth” or “40 mesh
US Standard Sieve” exactly specifies the screen.
Mesh Count
Mesh count is the term most often used to describe a rectangular mesh screen cloth. A 30 x 70 has 30
openings in the X direction and 70 openings in the Y direction. But again, mesh count does not relay
any information about opening size unless wire diameters are given.
Non-blanked Area (Useable Screen Area)

The non-blanked area is the net area expressed in square feet available on a screen panel through
which liquid can pass. The perforated plate or plastic backing can occlude up to 40% of the area on a
screen panel.
Open Area
Open area is usually expressed as a percentage and is define as the ratio of area of screen openings to
the total area of screen surface. As open area increases, the ease with which fluid can pass the screen
increases. Many in the industry feel that open area is a better indicator of screen capacity than the
conductance number discussed below.
Opening Size (or Aperture)

Opening size describes the open area between the wires and is often expressed in terms of the
diameter of a sphere that will pass between the wires. For example, a 200 US Standard Sieve has an
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opening size of 74 microns. Knowing the opening size or the distribution of opening sizes in a screen
will indicate the cutpoint of the screen.
Opening Shape
Opening shape is usually described as square or oblong and can be further defined by the aspect ratio.
An aspect ratio of 1:1 means the opening is square. An aspect of 1.6:1 means the opening is
rectangular with one side twice as long as the other. Opening shape is important for shale shaker
screens. Rectangular openings are much less susceptible to blinding than square openings. The
conductance of the screen generally increases with aspect ratio, but so will the cutpoint.
Transmittance
Conductance in combination with non-blanked screen area determines a screen’s “transmittance” or
liquid capacity.
Table 0-4 Baroid Screen Designators
Abbreviation Description
ALS Swaco ALS
ATL Brandt ATL & COBRA
BM BARAMESH
D48 Derrick Model 48
D58 Derrick Model 58
FSI Fluid Systems
G Generic Mesh
KEM Kemtron
LM3 Brandt/Sweco LM3
MTL Metal Backed Screen
N28 National Oilwell Rigid Panel
PLS Plastic Backed Screen
SMG Swaco Mongoose
TRI Triton Type Screen
V10 VSM 100
V30 VSM 300
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Table 0-5 Baroid Screen Conductance
Conventional Square Mesh Screen Open Size (mm) Open Size (in) Open Area (%)
Data Mesh
8x8 2464 0.0974 60.2
10 x 10 1950 0.0750 56.3
12 x 12 1524 0.0600 51.8
14 x 14 1295 0.0510 51.0
16 x 16 1130 0.0445 50.7
18 x 18 955 0.0376 45.8
20 x 20 863 0.0340 46.2
30 x 30 515 0.0203 37.1
40 x 40 381 0.0150 36.0
50 x 50 279 0.0110 30.3
60 x 60 234 0.0092 30.5
80 x 80 178 0.0070 31.4
100 x 100 140 0.0055 30.3
120 x 120 117 0.0046 30.5
150 x 150 104 0.0041 37.4
170 x 170 89 0.0035 35.1
200 x 200 74 0.0029 33.6
250 x 250 61 0.0024 36.0
325 x 325 44 0.0017 30.0
As can be seen from the above table, the new Baroid BARAMESH screens have significantly more
conductance than square mesh with comparable cut points. This is achieved through the use of an oblong
mesh design. With these screens the wires are actually thicker without reducing the overall free area. This
design reduces blinding and promotes a longer screen life making them an extremely attractive economical
and labor reducing choice.
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Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones are installed downstream of the shakers to remove the particles not captured by the shaker.
“Capture” is defined as the fraction of incoming suspended solids that report to the discarded stream of a
separator. Hydrocyclones and centrifuges work to remove solid particles from the mud system by using
centrifugal forces. The two most common hydrocyclones are the desander (can remove larger "sand" sized
particles of > 40 mm) and the desilter (used to remove "silt" sized particles of > 20 mm). With the use of 200
mesh (74 mm) shaker screens there is no need to run a desander.
The rate of separation of the solid from the liquid phase increases with particle diameter and density but
decreases with increasing mud viscosity. The use of shear thinning fluids are important for good solids control
as at the high shear rates created by the hydrocyclones, the particles will separate out faster.
There should be sufficient cones to process between 125 to 150% of the maximum anticipated flow rate. The
centrifugal pump must be sized correctly for the mud weight and flow rates to provide sufficient horsepower
to maintain the required head.
Hydrocyclone Operation
Fluid is fed tangentially, via a centrifugal pump, into the top of the cone at a constant head pressure of 75 ft.
Circular motion produces high centrifugal forces within the cone.
Solids in suspension are accelerated towards the wall of the cone and then move downwards. The solids
move to the bottom of the cone and are discharged from the cone.
Lighter, solids free, liquid moves upward in the cone and the overflow is returned to the system.
Balance the cones with water prior to the start of a well and when operating; ensure that a spray discharge is
maintained. A heavier discharge is not necessarily better than a lighter one. Hydrocyclones remove the fine
particles that increase viscosity and gel strengths. The finer the particle, the more surface area, therefore the
more liquid on the cuttings produces a lighter discharge from a correctly operating cone.
The performance of a hydrocyclone is affected by cone diameter, pressure, cone condition, and system
pipework. Desanders are not run with invert emulsion muds due to the high liquid content discharged with
the solids. Similarly, desilters are generally only run with invert emulsion muds when they are combined with
fine mesh screens to become a mud cleaner.
Installation Guidelines
1. Each hydrocyclone unit should be capable of processing 125% of the maximum anticipated circulation
rate.
2. Each hydrocyclone unit should have a dedicated feed pump that has been sized to deliver the proper
flow and head to the inlet manifold on the unit.
3. The overflow line should slope at roughly 45 degrees to prevent siphoning (siphoning effectively raises
the cutpoint of the cones). Alternately a siphon breaker can be installed if the overflow line must run
vertically. The overflow line should discharge about 2 inches to 4 inches above maximum mud level.
4. Make sure downstream compartment communicates with the pump suction compartment by an
underflow equalizer.
5. Allow adequate space to remove and install hydrocyclones.
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Operational Guidelines
1. Check pressure in inlet manifold regularly. The gauge should be isolated by a valve, and the valve
should be opened only when checking pressure.
2. Adjust underflow for spray discharge.
3. If drilling with OBM, SBM, or weighted WBM, desander and desilter should not be operated unless the
underflow is being screened using a mudcleaner.
4. Sometimes a worn impeller or other feed pump problems will result in inadequate head at the inlet
manifold. After locking out and tagging out the feed pump, try removing one or more cones and
blanking off the inlet and overflow ports on the manifold. This will increase the manifold pressure and
improve the performance of the remaining cones until pump problem can be remedied.
Field Troubleshooting
Table 0-2 Troubleshooting Hydrocyclones
Problem/ Symptom Possible Cause(s) Corrective Action

Insufficient inlet Feed pump  Check for plugged suction or discharge lines
manifold pressure  Reverse circulate pump to clean out suction
line
 Check pump rotation
 Check for broken valve stems that prevent
the butterfly from rotating when the handle
turns
 Check fluid routing and valves to make sure
correct pump is feeding the inlet, not the
overflow, manifold
 Shut down, lock out and tag out the feed
pump, remove one or more cones and
blanking off the inlet and overflow ports on
the manifold to increase the manifold
pressure until the pump can be repaired or
replaced.
Excessive fluid loss or Plugged overflow  Shut down unit by locking out and tagging out
“roping” underflow the feed pump. Inspect cone internals by
removing apex or bottom cone
High solids concentration in feed  Check operation of upstream solids control
or oversize particles in feed equipment
 Consult with mud engineer
Excessive manifold pressure  Check fluid routing and valves to make sure
correct pump is feeding the inlet, not the
overflow, manifold
No discharge from Apex too restricted or plugged  Shut down unit by locking out and tagging out
underflow the feed pump
 Inspect cone internals by removing apex or
bottom cone.
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Solids Removal Techniques in High Density Muds
Hydrocyclones: An efficient hydrocyclone can reduce the barite content of a mud by up to 60%. With 12.5
ppg mud, the rapid density drop will cause major problems and the cones will also become blocked. This will
only get worse as mud weight is increased. Barite will be preferentially removed and all but the biggest drilled
solids will be returned to the active system. The recirculated drilled solids will degrade to produce
undesirable increases in viscosity and gel strengths. The only efficient method of using hydrocyclones with 18
ppg mud is to dilute the slurry before it enters the cone which is not practical when using invert emulsions
and an expensive option with water-based muds. A centrifuge can be used to treat the diluted overflow and
can then sometimes make this approach viable for water-based muds. The centrifuge can be used to
concentrate the solids in the overflow and discard the dilution water. This approach is not viable with invert
emulsions because of the amount of invert base fluid that would be required .
Mud Cleaners
A mud cleaner is a hydrocyclone that processes the discharge over vibrating fine mesh screens. It is generally
only used for invert emulsion muds or for weighted muds as savings can be achieved by reducing barite and
invert emulsion losses. A mud cleaner is ideal for rigs that have poor shakers or when screen blinding occurs.
The disadvantage is that a mud cleaner return the finest particles to the active system and can therefore
sometimes not be economical. Mudcleaners are used for the following reasons:
1. Minimize waste by recovering much of the liquid phase that would be lost with unscreened hydrocyclone
underflow.
2. Improve solids control with weighted fluids by using properly selected screens that will recover barite
from the underflow and remove drill solids.
3. Improve solids control for non-aqueous fluids by recovering base fluids that would be uneconomical or
environmentally undesirable to discharge with hydrocyclone underflow.
From the standpoint of waste minimization, mudcleaners should

always be specified over conventional desanders and desilters.
Installation Guidelines
1. Make sure that hydrocyclone units can be safely accessed. This may require building a platform due to the
elevation of the hydrocyclones over the shaker.
2. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for maintenance and lubrication in the IOM manual,
particularly the lubrication type/schedule for vibrator motors.
3. Replace deck rubbers if wear, buckling, or other damage is noticed.
4. Each hydrocyclone unit should be capable of processing 125% of the maximum anticipated circulation
rate.
5. Each hydrocyclone unit should have a dedicated feed pump that has been sized to deliver the proper flow
and head to the inlet manifold on the unit.
6. The overflow line should slope at roughly 45 degrees to prevent siphoning (siphoning effectively raises
the cutpoint of the cones). Alternately, a siphon breaker can be installed if the overflow line must run
vertically. The overflow line should discharge about 2 inches to 4 inches above maximum mud level.
93 | P a g e
7. Make sure the downstream compartment receiving the underflow communicates with the pump suction
compartment by an underflow equalizer.
Operational Guidelines
1. Use mudcleaner screens with the finest cutpoint possible without excessively wet discharge.
2. Operate the deck at low deck angle to improve solids conveyance.
3. Check screen tension at least once a tour if screens are hook strip style.
4. In the event of sand blinding, try installing multi-layer screens of a finer mesh.
5. Check condition of decking rubbers every time screens are changed and replace any that are worn or
missing. Deck rubber condition is the most likely cause of poor screen life.
a. Note: National Oilwell mudcleaners have screen gaskets instead of deck rubbers. This means that
the deck rubbers are effectively replaced each time screens are replaced.
6. Avoid routine use of spray bars or excessive wash water to clean screens.
7. Never wash screens used for SBM or OBM with water.
8. Check pressure in inlet manifold regularly. The gauge should be isolated by a valve, and the valve should
be opened only when checking pressure.
9. Adjust cone apex for spray discharge.
Decanting Centrifuges
Removing or controlling the concentration of drill solids that fall in the 2 to 50 micron range requires the use
of centrifuges. Centrifuges have become increasingly important, not just for solids control but for other waste
management processes. Typical applications for the E&P industry are low gravity solids removal, closed loop
treatment systems, dewatering, waste minimization, pit closures, and the reclamation of valuable products
like barite, crude oil, or synthetic fluids.
Centrifuges offer high recovery rates, do not require intensive operator attention, and can be mobilized fairly
easily. The ability of centrifuges to separate suspended solids is dependent on both particle size or particle
density. The drawbacks cited for centrifuges include high capital costs, substantial power consumption, small
capacity for the size and weight, and the maintenance costs inherent with high speed machinery in an
abrasive service. The key to minimizing the drawbacks and maximizing the benefits lies in understanding how
operational parameters affect centrifuge performance.
Principles of Operation
A centrifuge can only separate suspended solids that settle. This means that dissolved solids, like salts and
colloidal size particles cannot be separated by centrifugal or gravity based separators. It is possible to remove
colloidal size particles that are flocculated chemically, which makes them non-colloidal.
Time and space are the two advantages offered by centrifuges over static clarifiers because centrifuges
create acceleration forces many times stronger than gravity. As shown in Equation 5-1, the centrifugal force
can be calculated and is the highest at the largest diameter in the bowl.
94 | P a g e
 ( RPMbowl ) 2 ( IDbowl ) 
G force  
 70414 
Where :
G force  maximum acceleration in "G's"
RPMbowl  rotation speed of the bowl in revolutions/minute
IDbowl  inner diameter of the bowl in inches
70414  conversion constant
Equation 0-1 G-force Calculation for Centrifuges
Stokes’ law defines the rate at which a particle will settle in a fluid if the solids concentration is dilute and
particle interaction does not impede settling. Calculating the actual settling velocity inside of a centrifuge is
more complex, but it is important to understand the relationships established by Stokes’ law in Equation 5-2.
 d 2 (  p  l ) 
 Vg  g
  
Where :
Vg  settling velocity due to G-force
d  particle diameter
 p  density of the particle
l  density of the liquid
g  acceleration or G-force
n  viscosity of the liquid
Equation 0-2 Stokes’ law
Centrifuge performance can be defined by five parameters by adding “residence time” to the variables
defined by Stokes’ law. The parameters are:
 Particle diameter (size)

 Density difference between the solids and slurry
 Viscosity of the slurry
 Acceleration force
 Residence time
Since particle diameter is squared in Stokes’ law, particle size has a larger impact than any other parameter. If
you double the particle size, the settling rate increases fourfold, which explains why chemical flocculation of
particles is an effective tool for improving the capture of solids in a centrifuge.
A decanting centrifuge is neither a perfect separator nor a good dryer because some solids report with the
centrate and the discharged solids contain liquid. Any effort to improve the dryness of the solids discharge
95 | P a g e
will compromise the quality of the liquid discharge. This is because both phases compete for residence time
within the centrifuge.
Mechanical Design Features
The heart of a decanting centrifuge is composed of a bowl, a conveyor, and a gear unit. Once assembled,
these components are called a “rotating assembly” or “RA.” The bowl has a cylinder section and a cone
section. An internal helical conveyor matches the contour of the bowl. A gearbox mechanically links the bowl
and conveyor so that they rotate in the same direction, but at slightly different speeds.
INTERNAL STATIONARY
CONVEYOR FEED PIPE
SOLIDS DISCHARGE LIQUID DISCHARGE

PINION SHAFT GEAR UNIT (HEAVY PHASE) BOWL (LIGHT PHASE)
Figure 0-1 Centrifuge Components and Feed Streams
Slurry is accelerated to bowl speed inside the conveyor hub. Once inside the bowl, the slurry forms a
cylindrical pool with an air core. The thickness of the pool of liquid from the air core to the bowl inner wall is
known as “pool depth.” The pool depth is adjusted by moving overflow weirs on the bowl head. The
geometry of the bowl in conjunction with the pool depth determines liquid residence time for any given feed
rate. For example, if the pool has a volume of 5 gallons and the feed rate is 10 gpm, then liquid residence
time is 30 seconds. As feed rate increases, liquid residence time decreases, meaning there is less time for
solids to settle and more solids will exit with the liquid.
The differential speed (rpm) or “delta” () between the bowl and the conveyor determines the solids
residence time within the bowl. Differential speed is created by using a mechanical gearbox in an unusual
manner. The gearbox housing rotates with the bowl, the output shaft is attached to the conveyor, and the
input shaft (or pinion shaft) is usually fixed so that it cannot turn. This causes the conveyor to turn at an rpm
slightly slower than or slightly faster than the bowl. Remember both the bowl and conveyor turn in the same
direction.
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 ( RPMbowl )  ( RPMpinion) 
  
 GearUnit Ratio 
Where :
  differential RPM between bowl and conveyor
RPMbowl  rotation speed of the bowl in revolutions/minute
RPMpinion  rotation speed of pinion shaft on the gear box
GearUnit Ratio  speed reduction ratio of the gearbox
Equation 0-3 Conveyor/Bowl Differential Speed Calculation
If the pinion shaft is fixed to a stationary object, the pinion rpm is zero and the differential speed never
varies. When process conditions dictate, a variable speed motor/brake is used to drive the pinion shaft at a
variable speed. The use of a backdrive changes the differential speed and thus alters the length of time that
solids are retained in the bowl as detailed in Equation 5-3 above.
The internal conveyor pushes settled solids toward the discharge ports on the bowl. Since the conical section
is only partially submerged into the pool, the non-submerged length acts like a beach upon which solids can
drain or dewater. Lower differential speeds allow solids to drain more completely, resulting in less liquid in
the solids discharge. Higher differential speeds minimize the time that the solids can drain and result in more
liquid in the solids discharge.
Pushing solids uphill against strong gravitational forces requires large torque loads to be delivered through
the gearbox to the conveyor shaft. The pinion shaft on the gearbox must be protected by a torque limiting
device to prevent mechanical damage to the centrifuge. High torque conditions can occur due to:
• Excessive solids loading from high feed rate

• Excessive solids loading from high solids concentrations in the feed
• High concentration of dense solids like barite
• High G forces from too high of a bowl speed
• Build up of dried or frozen solids in the bowl
Operating Guidelines
There are only four mechanical parameters that can be adjusted to control centrifuge performance:
 Bowl speed (rpm)

 Feed rate
 Pool depth
 Differential speed (rpm)
Each parameter affects either settling rate or residence time. Chemical dosage is an important fifth
parameter that applies only when flocculating drilling mud.
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Bowl speed determines the centrifugal force driving the separation. Higher G forces usually improve centrate
clarity and solids dryness. However, increasing speed can sometimes impede or prevent solids conveyance
because the conveyor may be unable to push the solids up the beach and out of the machine due to the
higher G-Force. This is usually first observed as diminished effluent clarity as the sludge blanket builds within
the pool. It is also worth noting that maintenance costs for rotating equipment are proportional to the cube
of operating speed. If the operating speed increases by a factor of two, maintenance costs can be expected to
increase eightfold. The best speed to run for any application is the lowest speed possible that meets the
process requirements.
All centrifuges have feed rate limitations that degrade the quality of the effluent, causing more solids to exit
with the liquid. If increasing flow rate is required by the process, other adjustments like raising the pool depth
or increasing the bowl speed may compensate for the loss of residence time. Since a centrifuge accelerates
fluid like a pump, increasing feed rate will increase the amperage draw of the unit. This is a useful crosscheck
when the operation of a flow meter is in doubt.
Pool depth is adjusted by means of movable weirs that determine where the centrate overflows the openings
in the large end of the bowl. Pool depth is an extremely sensitive process parameter and may require fine
adjustments as small as 1 mm to optimize performance. Raising the pool depth will increase liquid residence
time, resulting in better centrate clarity. The higher pool also decreases the length of the beach and
diminishes the time available for solids dewatering to take place, resulting in wetter solids discharge.
A backdrive allows adjustment of differential speed to optimize cake dryness and centrate clarity. Without a
backdrive, differential speed can only be adjusted by changing bowl rpm or the gear box ratio. Increasing the
differential rpm by adjusting the backdrive (or installing a gear box of lower ratio) will cause the solids to be
pushed up the beach at a faster rate, effectively diminishing the solids residence time and decreasing the
thickness of the sludge blanket inside the bowl. Increasing differential will result in wetter solids and cleaner
effluent. Decreasing differential will increase solids dryness due to the longer residence time on the beach,
but at the expense of centrate clarity because the sludge blanket in the pool will rise and more solids will exit
with the liquid.
Solids Removal Techniques in High Density Muds

Centrifuges: Although the feed rate for centrifuges is relatively low, these are the only real alternative for
solids control in high density muds. When the first centrifuge is run in barite recovery mode, the majority of
the barite is removed and can be fed back to the system. The deweighted overflow from the first centrifuge is
then fed into a second centrifuge via a small holding tank. The second is a high speed unit operating at > 2500
rpm and the discharge from it is a mixture of fine barite and low gravity solids. The solids are discharged and
the clean overflow is returned to the active system.
Guideline for Centrifuges
1. Shale shakers and possibly mudcleaners should be run upstream of a centrifuge so that large abrasive
particles are removed from the centrifuge feed.
2. When processing unweighted muds, the underflow (cake) is discarded to waste.
3. When processing weighted muds, the underflow is returned to the active system and the centrate
containing most of the viscosity-building colloidal particles is discarded (or sent to a dewatering unit).
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4. Centrifuge feed should be taken from a well-agitated area of the compartment immediately upstream
from the centrifuge discharge compartment.
5. When centrifuge underflow is returned to the mud it should be discharged into a well agitated area or
into a remixing hopper with jet nozzle.
6. When centrifuging weighted fluids, the feed should be diluted to minimize the overflow viscosity to
approximately 40 second Marsh funnel.
Low
equalizer
Fluid
Heavy return
solids out
Centrifuge Centrifuge
Centrifuge
feed tank
Fluid
return Solids
discard
Figure 0-3 Process Flow for Dual Centrifuges
99 | P a g e
Low
equalizer
Heavy
solids out
Centrifuge
Fluid
discarded
Figure 0-4 Process Flow for Reclaiming Weight Material
Low
equalizer
Fluid
return
Desilter Overflow
Desilter Centrifuge
underflow
Centrifuge
feed tank
Desilter Feed Solids

discard
Figure 0-5 Process Flow for Colloidal Solids Removal
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Centrifuge Selection
Fixed speed units are cheaper but do not allow the versatility that the variable speed offers. For expensive
water-based muds and for invert emulsion muds which are generally expensive but also have severe
legislative and environmental restraints imposed on them, it is important to ensure the solids being
discharged from the system are as dry as possible.
Water-Based Muds: For low weight muds it is preferred to use high volume units and if possible to run two in
parallel. With each unit running at 200 gpm and 2000 rpm, they combine to process a large percentage of the
circulating system.
For heavier muds, a barite recovery system should be evaluated.
Invert Emulsion Fluids: Due to economic or legislative limitations on the dumping and discharge of the fluid,
two units are almost always required for effective solids removal. These need to be arranged so that they can
be run in either series or parallel modes and at least one unit must be variable speed. A high speed unit is
required if running in barite recovery mode to process the overflow from the first unit to remove all the fines
and ultra-fines.
Positive Displacement Pumps

Baroid Progressive Cavity Pumps
Progressive cavity (PC) pumps are a third type of positive displacement pump that move liquids or slurries by
creating a progressing fluid cavity that pushes fluid as a pigtail shaped steel rotor turns within a rubber stator.
PC pumps are commonly used to feed decanting centrifuges and cuttings dryers. The pumping motion of a PC
pump is gentle and does not disperse clays or breakup polymers, which makes it a good choice for pumping
viscous or abrasive slurries.
These pumps are capable of supplying a flow of between 0 and 220 gpm. These pumps must be filled with
liquid before starting. The initial filling is not for priming purposes, but to provide the necessary lubrication of
the stator until the pump primes itself.
When the pump is stopped, sufficient liquid will normally be trapped in the rotor / stator assembly to provide
lubrication upon re-starting. If, however, the pump has been left standing for an appreciable time, moved to
a new location, or has been dismantled and re-assembled, it must be refilled with liquid and given a few turns
before starting. The pump is normally somewhat stiff to turn by hand owing to the close rotor / stator fit.
However, this stiffness disappears when the pump is running normally against pressure.
Always ensure the pump is not run against a closed inlet or outlet valve. Pressure relief valves should be
installed where there is the possibility of pressure build up. Depending upon the temperature of the fluids,
these pumps can become hot and due care is required. The pumps are designed not to exceed a sound
pressure level of 85 dB at 3 ft but in some instances they may be operating at 95 dB so sufficient hearing
protection should be worn.
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Weight-Material Sag SOP Code: WMS Revision Date: July 2015
Weight-Material Sag
Introduction
Weight-material sag (formally “Barite Sag”) is a naturally occurring physical phenomenon due to the effect of
gravity on particles suspended in a fluid often referred to as settling velocity and can be determined by the
application of settling equations. Weight-material sag is most often associated with drilling deviated high-
angle wells (> 30° from the vertical), but can be present during any drilling operation. It can present during
both dynamic (pumps-on) and static (pumps-off) conditions in any type of drilling fluid containing weighting
materials. There are many factors which influence the susceptibility of drilling fluids to weight-material sag
and will be discussed in the following sections.
Historically this phenomenon was not observed to exist until unexplained cement bonding issues were
discovered, where it was determined that mud channels in the cementing process were forming on the low
side of angled wells due to the accumulation of weight-materials in the form of sedimentation beds. Since
then there has been a significant number of studies conducted as to the cause of these sedimentation beds of
which were initially referred to as “Barite Sag” only due to the prolific use of Barite as a weighting agent at
the time. With the advent of new types of weight-materials this phenomenon is most accurately described as
weight-material sag as is currently used in the American Petroleum Institute (API) documentation.
Weight-material sag was first thought to be only a static phenomenon, but through the use of flow loop tests,
dynamic sag has been verified to exist under certain conditions that routinely occur during drilling operations.
The initial consensus to explain the occurrence of weight-material sag was focused only on the drilling mud
properties. However, it is now recognized that there are a multitude of causative factors to include not only
mud properties, but also drilling practices.
Numerous industry papers (https://www.onepetro.org/) have been written concerning Weight-material sag
and most if not all recognize that while the potential for a sag event cannot be eliminated, it can be
mitigated. Prevention of weight-material sag is the goal since curing an existing sag condition can be very
expensive and may lead to a well control event, lost circulation, or stuck-pipe. The judicious use of the
approved fluids program, conscientious monitoring of fluid properties, understanding/using best practices,
and training provide for an affirmative defense against the onset of weight-material sag.
Defined
To identify the occurrence of weight-material sag the API has defined it in Recommended Practice for Field
Testing Oil-based Drilling Fluids, API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 13B-2, Annex N as the following.
Weight-material sag is recognized by a significant (greater than 0.5 lb/gal) drilling fluid density
variation [increase between nominal and the observed maximum], lighter followed by heavier than
the nominal fluid density, measured when circulating bottoms up, usually where a weighted fluid has
remained uncirculated for a period of time in a directional well. It is recognized that sag is both a
static and a dynamic phenomenon and has the potential to occur when the drilling fluid is in motion.
The characteristic curve identifying a weight-material sag event can be produced by plotting surface return
densities in-accordance-with (IAW) API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 13B-2, Annex N, N.3 Surface Monitoring of
102 | P a g e
Weight-material Sag (see Figure #1) or can be monitored in real-time by the ECD plot if pressure-while-drilling
(PWD) tools or used (see Figure #2).
Surface Density Plot

Measured Density (ppg) Nominal Density (ppg)
D 13.00
e
n
s 12.00
i
t
y 11.00
P
P
10.00
G 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Depth ft. (MD) x 1000
Figure #1
103 | P a g e
The determination of a weight-material sag occurrence is a 0.5 ppg increase between the nominal density
and the maximum observed density while circulating bottoms-up after a period of static conditions with the
light followed by heavy fingerprint as shown. Under this definition, fluid density variations less than 0.5ppg
are not considered weighting material sag events.
X Plotted ECD (ppg), Y depth ft. (TVD), 1 simulated data, 2 PWD data for trip in hole
Figure #2
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Causes
The onset of weight-material sag, as with most drilling issues, is not attributed to just a single cause, but is
the convergence of several factors. As mentioned earlier, there are numerous causative factors leading to an
occurrence of weight-material sag and the causes for either dynamic sag or static sag are influenced by these
factors in differing ways. In simplified terms weight-material sag will occur when the forces acting on the
particles in the fluid are unable to suspend or lift the particles against the force of gravity.
Physics of weight-material sag
Being the weakest of the four natural forces, gravity is unrelenting and constantly present acting on the
weight-materials suspended in the drilling fluid. The forces acting against the force of gravity are the drag
and buoyancy properties exerted on the weight-material.
 Gravity acts on any object having mass and imparts an acceleration at the rate of 9.8 m/s2. This force
is always directed vertically downward regardless of the orientation of the wellbore.
 Drag is a force exerted on an object by the medium in which it is suspended acting in the opposite
direction from the movement of the object. The magnitude of the drag is determined by many factors
(Navier–Stokes equations) and includes the surface area of the object, viscosity of the medium, and
flow regimen (laminar or turbulent) to name a few.
 Buoyancy for the weight-material is an acceleration acting opposite to the force of gravity and as such
is directed vertically upward regardless of the orientation of the wellbore. The magnitude of the
buoyant force is the result of the difference between the weight of the material and the weight of the
displaced fluid.
As gravity acts on a particle of weight-material its velocity increases, as the velocity increases the forces of
drag increase while the buoyant force may or may not increase (explanation to follow). When the
combination of drag and buoyancy balance with the force of gravity the particle has reached its terminal
velocity, it does not stop it just isn’t accelerating further. To arrest this motion there needs to be an
intervening force, for dynamic conditions this is accomplished with the annular velocities coupled with
optimized viscous properties; for static conditions it is achieved through the rapid development of the gel
structure. Buoyancy will increase with depth in an oil-base fluid due to the increase in density as a result of
compression of the base fluid as the pressures increase. In a water-based fluid this compression is relatively
insignificant due to the low compressibility factor of water and the buoyancy is not increased due to
pressure; however it may decrease due to a temperature increase which will decrease the density.
Drag works to our benefit in static conditions, but works against us in dynamic conditions just as buoyancy
effects are desirable during dynamic and static conditions as it relates to the weight-material. It is detrimental
when it comes to the buoyancy of the base fluid in static conditions where the weight material has settled
(static weight-material sag). In the vertical and angled sections of the well, lighter fluid will travel up the
wellbore breaking fragile gels and diluting the drilling fluid as it moves up the well bore creating a self-
perpetuating sag event.
The previous paragraphs attempt to explain the mechanics of weight-material sag and the forces involved.
There are many other variables not discussed that also contribute to a sag condition and can be found in the
numerous papers written on the subject at the OnePetro web site.
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Dynamic weight-material sag
Dynamic weight-material sag for the purposes of this SOP is defined as a sag condition that occurs while
circulating (pumps-on). The four major factors influencing a dynamic sag occurrence are as follows.
 Annular velocities of drilling fluid

 Duration of sliding
 Viscous properties of the drilling Fluid
 Eccentricity of drill pipe in relation to the wellbore
 Drillpipe rotation speed
Static weight-material sag
Static weight-material sag for the purposes of this SOP is defined as a sag condition that occurs when the
circulating pumps are off or cycled on and off. This state frequently occurs while tripping, logging, and
running casing, the length of time the circulating pumps are off usually will determine how severe the event
will be if sag is occurring. The three major factors influencing static sag are as follows.
 Gel strength
 Length of time pumps are off
 Geometry of wellbore
Causative Factors
Some of the factors affecting the onset of weight-material sag are listed below.
 ROP
 Viscosity of drilling fluid (PV,YP, AV, LSYP)  Type of viscosifier used
 Gel strength and structure  Influx of formation fluids
 Drill pipe rotation speed  Downhole temperature
 Percent sliding vs rotary drilling  Downhole pressures
 Wellbore geometry  Cleaning efficiency
 Wellbore environment
 Operating conditions
 Dogleg severity
 Annular velocities
 Eccentricity of drill string
 Type of salt used for inhibition
 Size of weight-material
 Concentration of weight-material
 Concentration of drill cuttings
 Specific gravity of weight-material
 Base fluid used
 Oil water ratio
106 | P a g e
Weight-Material Sag SOP Code: WMS Revision Date: March 2015
The preceding list while extensive is not all inclusive, new studies are continuously identifying
additional factors and their contribution to weight-material sag in drilling operations. When a
sag condition occurs it is imperative that the cause first be determined prior to any corrective
action.
Prevention, Detection, and Remediation
Prevention
The prevention of a weight-material sag occurrence starts long before the spud-in. The
occurrence should be anticipated and planned for within the drilling fluids plan and the
properties of the fluid optimized for best performance. When off-set data indicates, the drilling
fluid can be tested in the laboratory for its susceptibility to sag under the planned drilling
conditions over a range of mud weights (MW) to identify the MW that is most likely to sag.
When approaching this MW while drilling, additional products can be added as necessary to
help prevent the onset of a sag event.
Following the approved drilling fluid plan and utilizing the management of change (MOC)
process will ensure the viscous properties are optimized for the well. Maintaining a minimum
annular velocity of 100 ft/min and limiting the amount of time while sliding coupled with a
thorough cleaning regimen incorporating drill string rotation above 100 RPM will limit the
severity and effects of dynamic sag. Analysis of experimental work shows a maximum
weighting material sag potential occurs at annular velocities at or near 30ft/min. Static weight-
material sag is best prevented by having a gel structure that sets quickly to an optimized
strength and is relatively flat over time. Some consideration should be given to the fragility of
the gel structure and will most likely be determined by the mud-weight window (difference
between pore pressures and fracture gradients) and the calculated ECD to break the gels.
When the gels are too fragile minor disturbances will initiate settling of the weight-material;
and when the gel is too robust the transition from static to flowing may impart an excessive
ECD in the well exceeding the fracture gradient.
There are certain practices that should be avoided if possible which can lead to an occurrence
of weight-material sag. These practices and how to avoid them are listed below.
1. Do not introduce new mud to the circulating volume prior to tripping unless it has been
pre-sheared or time is allocated to circulate the fluid for shearing purposes before
turning the pumps off.
2. Closely monitor dilution rates and add necessary products to maintain the approved
fluid properties while drilling.
3. Circulate one pill at a time and follow the API recommended best practices of three
bottoms-up to circulate the pill out.
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Well Control SOP Code: WC Revision Date: August 2015
4. When conditioning the drilling fluid in preparation for running casing and cementing
consider the effects on the susceptibility to sag and this conditioning should be part of
the drilling fluids plan and lab tested.
5. Do not rotate drill pipe at low rotation speed with pumps off to prevent stuck pipe
event. A thorough cleaning of the wellbore is the recommended practice.
6. When circulating maintain a minimum flow rate of at least 100 ft/min.
7. Limit the amount of time while sliding between cleaning cycles which should include
rotating the drill pipe at or above 100 RPM.
The Hershel-Bulkley/Yield-Power Law model better correlates with lab measured sag
coefficients, since it more accurately describes fluid behavior at low shear rate. A fluid Tau0
(yield stress) of 7 to 8 lbs. /100 ft2 will normally be enough to reduce the sag potential in field
muds to acceptable levels. Use of the Low Shear Rate Yield Point (LSRYP), defined as LSRYP =
2*3rpm – 6 rpm, is usually a good alternative method for predicting fluid yield stress for oil-
based/synthetic-based invert emulsions, but is a poor predictor of fluid yield stress in water-
based muds and brines.
Check the mud rheology at elevated temperatures (e.g. 120°F/150°F) to obtain an indication of
downhole rheology. Testing with a special apparatus called the Dynamic High Angle Sag Tester
(DHAST) simulates downhole conditions and shows whether a fluid requires special additive
treatments to improve suspension properties. DHAST tests have shown that decreasing the
oil/water ratio decreases sag tendency. It is important to maintain uniform mud weight
throughout the circulating system. Efforts should be made to treat and equalize any imbalance
as quickly as possible. If the equivalent circulating density (ECD) is close to the fracture
gradient, this could require circulating until density is homogeneous prior to resuming drilling
operations.
Detection
There are currently five different methods to monitor weight-material sag as recommended by
API, RP, 13B-2. All five tests are outlined in API, RP, 13B-2, Annex N. Four of these methods are
based on direct measurement and one method is based on hydraulics calculations (modeling).
All five methods can be applied at the well site and are as follows.
1. Surface monitoring of weight-material sag
2. Field sag monitoring based on downhole density (PWD)
3. Dynamic weight-material sag test—VSST method
4. Rheological measurements of drilling fluids exhibiting weight-material sag
5. Field sag monitoring based on critical wall shear stress
When monitoring downhole pressures (PWD) for weight-material sag it should be recognized
that other events can cause variations in downhole densities that are not considered a sag
event and are as follows.
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1. Changes in pump rate

2. Changes in downhole densities due to pressure and temperature
3. Changes in drill pipe rotational speed
4. Circulating a weighted pill
Mitigation
The process of curing a weight-material sag event can be time consuming and expensive. Once
a weight-material sag event is detected the most critical factor in curing the sag event is to first
identify what has caused the event. This can be achieved by reviewing the drilling parameters
preceding the sag event, rheological testing to determine if the fluid properties have changed,
and testing the drilling fluid for the susceptibility to sag.
When indications dictate a change in the drilling fluid properties to mitigate a sag occurrence
the MOC process should be followed to reduce the chance of inducing any unintended
consequences. Baroid has an extensive inventory of products that can alleviate the occurrence
of a sag event covering most if not all situations.
In the past, the most effective treatment to prevent barite sag was to ensure sufficient gels and
low end rheology. In water-based muds this was achieved with several products, including
AQUAGEL™ and AQUAGEL™ GOLD SEAL, and polymers such as BARAZAN® PLUS. In oil-based
and synthetic muds the use of low end rheological modifiers such as RM-63™ in conjunction
with GELTONE® and SUSPENTONE™ (a suspension agent for invert emulsions) was used
successfully to prevent barite sag.
References
1. API, Recommended Practice for Field Testing Oil-based Drilling Fluids (RECOMMENDED
PRACTICE 13B-2, FIFTH EDITION, APRIL 2014, ERRATA 1, AUGUST 2014)
2. API, Rheology and Hydraulics of Oil-well Fluids (RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 13D SIXTH
EDITION, MAY 2010)
3. Figure #2, API RP 13 B-2 Annex N, N 4.3.2
4. Zamora M., MECHANISMS, MEASUREMENT AND MITIGATION OF BARITE SAG,
Presented at the Offshore Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition in Ravenna, Italy,
March 25-27, 2009.
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Well Control
Introduction
Controlling formation pressures is one of the most important functions of a drilling fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure exerted by a drilling fluid column is commonly considered the preferred
method for controlling formation pressures. It is important to predict abnormal pressures
during pre-well planning stages, so that provision can be made for the appropriate drilling fluid
type and products as well as essential equipment such as surface blowout preventers, mud
monitoring equipment, de-gassers, and mud mixing systems. Each of these items and the
actions listed below are essential for developing an efficient, flexible drilling plan.
• Geologic structure maps and cross sections.
• Type of formations, the expected formation pressure gradients, and a review of the fracture
gradient history of the area to be drilled.
• Planning sessions with those who generated the prospect, so they can explain the expected
geology and pressures.
• The type of rig and equipment needed to drill the well.
• A preliminary meeting, prior to spud, between the operators drilling group and service
companies to discuss expected well services.
Causes and Detection of Abnormal Pressure

Formation fluids (gas, oil, and/or water) must be trapped in the with a seal for abnormal
pressures to exist. These abnormal pressures are confined in closed formations where they are
caused by the fluid bearing some of the weight of the overlying rock. If escape routes are
available and fluids can move to the surface, then only normal pressures can exist. If there is a
seal that prevents the movement of formation water upward, then abnormal pressures can be
present. Reasons for abnormal pressures include:
• Tectonic movement
• Rapid formation deposition
• Reservoir structure
• Re-pressuring of shallow reservoirs
• Paleo-pressures
• Clay diagenesis
• Salt domes and salt deposition
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Tectonic Movement
When formations in the earth’s crust move against one another, abnormal pressures can
develop. When excess pressure is released, this is often seen as faulting. Formation fluids can
be trapped during periods of such movement, and volume changes in the fluid zones can either
decrease (back to normal pressure) or increase (abnormal pressure).
Rapid Deposition
Silts and sands may be deposited rapidly in a basin due to the action of rivers or other forms of
land mass erosion. The water in pore spaces becomes trapped by the rapid deposition, and the
fluid is forced to support part of the increasing overburden as deposition continues. These
formations are often described in the literature as turbidites.
Reservoir Structure
Abnormal pressure due to reservoir structure is where a permeable formation, such as a sand
lens, lies at an angle less than horizontal. If the formation is not level with respect to the
surface, then the depths at which its top is encountered varies. This means that its pressure
gradients are different at different point. Higher pressures gradients will be noted at higher
points along of these reservoirs because the same formation pressure is encountered at
shallower depths.
Re-pressuring of Shallow Reservoirs

A shallow formation may develop communication with a deeper formation through faulting or
as a result of a drilling operation. A pressure that may have been normal at its original depth is
now seen as abnormal in a shallower formation.
Paleo-Pressures
Paleo pressures occur when a formation surrounded by impermeable barriers is uplifted intact
to a shallower depth. This causes the pressure gradient in the uplifted formation to increase
because the same formation pressure is now at a shallower depth relative to the surface.
Clay Diagenesis
The chemical change and resulting release of water from montmorillonite under conditions of
high temperature is called clay diagenesis. If water from montmorillonite undergoing diagenesis
becomes trapped and can migrate no further, abnormal pressures will develop.
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Salt domes and salt deposition

Rock salt has two unusual properties:
• Impermeable to fluids
• Ability to dissolve and re-crystallize in a different shape
Formations directly under rock salt contain abnormal pressures because fluids trying to escape
those formations as a result of compacting forces were trapped by the salt. Often under the
wings of salt domes, the underlying formations are highly fractured and pressures seep through
the fractures.
Preventing Well Control Situations

One of the basic and very important functions of a drilling fluid is to prevent formation fluids
from entering the wellbore. In order to do this, the pressure exerted by the fluid column must
be greater than, or equal to, the pressure exerted by the formation fluid. Logically, it follows
that when the formation pressure exceeds the pressure exerted by the mud column, an influx
of formation fluid (gas as a liquid or water) enters the wellbore and potential exists for a
blowout.
Pressure Balance
Maintaining a pressure balance while drilling a well can be delicate and complex, an
overbalance by the fluid column can result in loss of returns, decreased drilling rates,
differential sticking, and possible formation damage. An underbalance can result in a well
control situation that can lead to fire or injury, and is a very costly problem to the operator.
The pressure balance consists of:
• Over burden pressure.
• Formation fluid pressure.
• Static fluid column pressure.
• Equivalent circulating density.
• Pressure surge and swab due to pipe movement.
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Overburden Pressure
Overburden pressure is simply the weight of the earth above any given point expressed in
pounds per square inch of area. Normal overburden pressure is considered to be 1.0-1.05
pounds per square inch (psi) per foot of depth, but actual overburden pressures vary in
different areas of the world.
Formation Fluid Pressure

As layer upon layer of sediments are deposited from a marine environment, the grains of the
sediments at the lower layers will normally compact and support the weight of the upper
layers. As the compacted water associated with the sediments is squeezed out, it will find its
way back to the surface or sea bottom. The only pressure on this fluid is from its own weight
(hydrostatic pressure). If in some way an impermeable barrier is placed in the path of water
normally expelled, it will no longer be free to migrate as overburden is added. Since water is
essentially incompressible, the sediment will not be able to compact and the water will begin to
support part of the weight of the overburden.
Static Pressure of a Drilling Fluid Column

The static pressure exerted by a column of fluid, its hydrostatic pressure, is a function of the
height of the column and the density of the fluid. It is the weight of the fluid in the column
above any given point expressed as pressure in pounds per square inch. For oil-based and
synthetic-based drilling fluids, the effects of temperature and pressure can affect their
downhole density. There are calculation methods to accurately predict the downhole density
of these fluids, and this density is commonly referred to as the equivalent static density (ESD).
Water-based drilling fluids are considered incompressible, and so no corrections for
temperature and pressure effects need to be made.
Equivalent Circulating Density of a Drilling Fluid Column

Movement of a fluid column requires energy. In a circulating system, this energy is consumed
to as frictional pressure losses within the circulating system. The circulating pressure losses at
any point annulus must be added to the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid. This is a more
accurate measure of the actual pressure exerted on the bottom of the hole during circulation.
The total pressure is expressed in mud density units and is called equivalent circulating density
(ECD).
Pressure Surges Due to Pipe Movement

Any movement of a fluid in a static column, whether by a pump or movement of a drill string,
causes additional pressure on the walls of the wellbore. In the case of pipe movement, the
induced pressure could be negative (swab), and the resulting ECD is less than the original fluid
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density. With downward movement of the drill string through a static fluid, the induced
pressure is positive (surge) and the resulting ECD is greater than the original fluid density.
Detection of an Underbalanced Condition

When the pressure of a formation exceeds the fluid column pressure, a well control situation
can result. A blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids. If an influx of formation fluids
reaches a blowout condition, well control specialists are sometimes called in to remedy the
situation.
A kick is the result of a short duration underbalanced condition. Formation pressure is balanced
through changes in fluid ECD or ESD before the formation fluid influx reaches blowout
proportions.
The key to successful kick control is early detection. Kick detection and control equipment is
usually, but must be used at the appropriate time.
There are several indications that a kick has occurred. Regardless of the operation in progress,
some or all of these indicators will be evident:
• The first indication of a kick when drilling is a drilling break (or reverse drilling break).
• An increase in return flow rate with no corresponding increase in pump rate.
• An increase in pit volume.
• A circulating pressure decrease that results from an underbalanced mud column in the
annulus.
• A reduction in return mud weight when the intruding fluid reaches the surface.
If flow comes from the wellbore only while making a connection, this indicates the equivalent
circulating density (ECD) is enough to provide a small overbalance while pumping. That extra
margin disappears when the mud is static and its density is referred to as the equivalent static
density (ESD).
Any increases in mud pit volume that are not anticipated (eg, no dilution, water hoses running,
etc.) should be considered as signs of extra pressure downhole pushing drilling fluid upward.
After resuming circulation, a loss in pump pressure can occur as the annular mud column
becomes lighter than that inside the drill string. The loss can become greater after successive
connections, each of which allows more formation fluid into the wellbore, and indicates that a
formation influx is steadily occurring over time.
A reduction in mud weight will eventually be seen at the flowline. Well kicks during a trip
provide the greatest potential danger. The most effective blowout control procedures require
that the bit be near the bottom of the hole. A common practice when pulling drill pipe out of
the hole is to stop every three to five stands and fill the hole with enough mud to replace the
displacement volume of the drill pipe withdrawn. The hole not requiring the appropriate
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volume of mud to fill is an indication that formation fluid is entering the open hole from some
exposed zone.
Drilling Conditions
Well control processes can only begin after a kick has been recognized. The pressure balance is
initially restored by shutting the well in. This balances the formation pressure by confining it to
the annular space and inside the drill string.
The desired result is to exert the additional pressure required with the mud column rather than
by confining it with surface equipment. This involves replacing the combination of formation
fluid and mud in the hole with whole mud of sufficient density to balance the formation fluid
pressure. The replacement has to be accomplished while maintaining sufficient back pressure
with the surface choke equipment to slightly overbalance formation pressure. The objective is
to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure sufficient to prevent further influx of formation
fluids while the replacement is accomplished.
Circulating bottoms up prior to coming out of the hole should be standard practice for all trips
and after any unexpected drilling breaks. The well should be checked for flow periodically on
trips, particularly if there is any reason to suspect that swabbing might have occurred.
A ready supply of weighting material sufficient to increase the system density to a value
exceeding the maximum anticipated mud weight for an interval should be maintained on
location at all times. A supply of mud products sufficient for replacing the entire system, should
loss of returns be experienced should also be maintained at the rig site.
Pit volume totalizer equipment should be maintained on the rig along with a trip tank that has
both electronic and mechanical systems for measuring fluid volumes during tripping
procedures. The fluid density should be checked at both the flow line and suction pit every half
hour while circulating. The section from the well plan detailing mud weight vs. depth should be
posted both in the rig dog house and the mud pit area. Well control drills must be conducted
for all rig crews at least once per week and the B.O.P. and degassing equipment must be tested
according to regulations.
Kick Killing Procedures

Differences in well control procedures arise from the methods used to monitor bottom hole
pressure and maintain back pressure on the well. The following well control procedures
presume that the drilling rig is equipped with an adjustable choke. There are essentially three
(3) methods that can be used to kill a wellbore influx:
 Wait and weight method
 Drillers’ method
 Weight and circulate (concurrent) method
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Wait and Weight Method

The most commonly used well control technique is the wait and weight method. This method is
so named because after the shut in pressures have stabilized, the required mud weight can be
calculated, and the heavier fluid is then pumped down at the same time the kick fluid is brought
to the surface. This method may also be called the Engineer's Method or the One Circulation
Method.
The steps in the Wait and Weight method include:
• Read and record shut in pressures, pit gain, time and date.
• Calculate the required kill mud weight and weight up the surface mud system to this weight.
• Calculate the strokes, barrels, or minutes required to displace the drill string with kill weight
mud.
• Calculate the initial and final circulating pressure values.
• Mathematically develop a table listing of the strokes, barrels, or minutes to displace the drill
string versus the total pressure decrease, which is initial circulating pressure less final
circulating pressure.
• Graphically plot back up initial and final circulating pressures.
Note: Kill rates should be taken every day using at least two kill rate speeds per pump including
back up pump.
Once the pump has been brought up to kill rate speed, go to drill pipe gauge. The drill pipe
gauge must read the initial circulating pressure value.
Follow the drill pipe pressure schedule while the drill string is being displaced with kill weight
mud.
When kill weight mud reaches the bit, the drill pipe gauge must read the final circulating
pressure value.
Maintain the final circulating pressure until kill weight mud reaches the surface.
When the kill weight mud reaches the surface, stop the pump and close the choke. All shut in
pressures should read zero. Open the choke and visually check for flow.
Drillers Method
In the second kill method, the influx is pumped out of the wellbore after recording the shut-in
pressures and pit volume increase, but before weighting up the drilling fluid. Once the influx
has been pumped out of the well, the well is shut-in and the surface mud system is weighted up
to the required kill weight. This procedure is also called the two-circulation method. It allows
the quickest removal of intruding fluid from the hole, but subjects the wellbore to greater
stress than the wait and weight method.
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Note: Most kicks require a one pound per gallon or less weight increase, so this method is
feasible in most cases.
The steps in the Drillers Method are:
• Calculate kill weight mud and initial circulating pressure.
• Hold the casing pressure constant at minimum value by manipulating the choke and bring the
pump up to kill rate speed.
• Once the pump has been brought up to kill rate speed, use the drill pipe gauge. The drill pipe
gauge must read the initial circulating pressure value.
• Maintain initial circulating pressure until the kick is out of the hole.
• Once kick is out of the hole, stop the pump and close the choke.
• Weight up the surface mud system to kill weight.
• Hold the casing pressure constant and bring the pump up to kill rate speed.
• Continue holding the casing pressure constant while the drill string is being displaced with kill
weight mud.
• Once kill weight mud reaches the bit, observe and record the final circulating pressure on the
drill pipe pressure gauge.
• Maintain the recorded final circulating pressure until kill weight mud reaches the surface.
When the kill weight mud reaches the surface, stop the pumps and close the choke. All shut
in pressures should read zero. Open the choke and visually check for flow.
Weight and Circulate (Concurrent) Method

A third method requires weighting up the surface system while circulating out the influx. Once
kill weight mud has reached the bit, final circulating pressure is maintained on the drill pipe
gauge until the influx is out of the wellbore and kill weight mud is returning to the surface.
The steps in the Concurrent Method are:
• Calculate the kill weight mud value, initial and and final circulating pressure values.
• Calculate the mud weight required to balance formation pressure. Note: A safety factor
should be added for a trip. A safety margin of 0.2 to 0.5 pounds per gallon additional mud
weight is usually sufficient.
• Calculate the strokes, barrels, or minutes required to displace capacity of the drill string.
• Calculate the hydrostatic pressure increase for 0.1 lb/gal increase in mud weight.
• Based on a 0.1 lb/gal increase per drill string capacity displacement, calculate the number of
capacity displacements needed to place kill weight mud at the bit.
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• Calculate the minimum drill pipe pressure for every 0.1 lb/gal increase that is pumped to the
bit. Start by subtracting the hydrostatic pressure increase that was calculated in step 4 from
the initial circulating pressure and continue for every drill string capacity displacement.
• Set up a table listing the density increments, drill string displacements, and minimum drill
pipe pressure values.
Example: Density Increments Drill String Drill Pipe Pressure

Displacements (minimum)
Follow the table listing until the kill weight mud reaches the bit.
When the kill weight mud reaches the bit, the drill pipe gauge must read final circulating
pressure.
Hold final circulating pressure value until kill weight mud reaches the surface.
When the kill weight mud reaches the surface, stop the pump and close the choke. All shut in
pressure must read zero. Open the choke and visually check for flow.
Well control drills must be held weekly, and the entire crew must participate so that every crew
member knows exactly what is expected of him in the event of a well control situation. Slow
pump rates must be taken and recorded at the earliest opportunity on each tour.
Drilling fluid density must be maintained at a value that will provide a safety margin of at least
the drilling annular pressure loss above expected formation pressures. Adequate supplies of
barite must be maintained on the rig at all times.
All pit volume totalizer and flow sensors should be accurately calibrated and maintained so that
they can be counted on to provide an early warning in the event of a kick.
All personnel must be aware that when a formation containing gas is penetrated, regardless of
the mud weight, a substantial increase in background gas will be experienced. This is due to the
fact that the gas contained in the pore space of the formation rocks will expand as it is
circulated up the annulus. It will be twice its original volume when it gets to half the depth that
it was penetrated. It will continue to expand at this rate until it reaches the surface. Thus, what
started out as a small volume of gas at total depth can end up being a very significant volume of
gas at the surface.
Wellbore Breathing / Wellbore Ballooning

The phenomenon called wellbore breathing or wellbore ballooning, occurs mostly in deepwater
drilling operations and can resemble a well control situation, but in reality is not. So it is helpful
to understand what wellbore breathing really entails. In a zone where adjacent formation
layers are poorly cemented, excess pressure from pumping can open up the planes in the
weakly-cemented zones and push fluid into the fractures. These volumes can be as high as 50
bbl (8 cu m). Initially this pushing of fluid into the formation can resemble a lost circulation
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event. However, when the pumps are shut off, the pressure in the formation in question will
push all or most of the invading fluid back into the wellbore, thus resembling a well control
situation. If, when the pumps are shut off, the well flows for a short period of time and then
ceases to flow, wellbore breathing / ballooning should be suspected, especially in deepwater
drilling locations where the overburden is reduced due to the lengthy seawater column. If there
is any question what is really happening, a bottoms up circulation should be performed to
verify that no influx of formation fluids has occurred.
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Wellbore Stability SOP Code: WMS Revision Date: July 2015
Wellbore Stability
Introduction
In drilling operations, wellbore stability describes the state of interaction between the drilled
formation rock and the drilling fluid. In stable wellbores, the drilling fluid and formation appear
to be in some state of equilibrium, and there is little sign of any instability. Approximately 80%
of instability problems occur in shales, which is why these formations are the focus of attention.
In unstable wellbores, there can be signs of non-equilibrium present while drilling and tripping
out of the hole. Such signs can include:
 Tight hole and/or formation creep

 Incidents of high rotating torque and / or drag while moving the drillpipe
 Cavings having large diameters and odd shapes
 Tripping out of the hole taking significantly longer-than-normal time to do so
 Significant enlargement / washout of certain hole sections
 Elliptically-shaped boreholes seen on caliper logs
 Incidents of wellbore breathing (ballooning) in deepwater wells
 Bedding plane slippage and collapse
 Fracture initiation in the wellbore wall, which can lead to lost circulation
 Few hole problems experienced while drilling a well to Total Depth, but very difficult
trips out of the hole that can last as long as 3 days.
Causes of Wellbore Instability
Wellbore stability can be categorized into 3 basic types:
 Chemical, where drilling fluid chemistry and formation pore water chemistry are
involved
 Mechanical, where rock instability results from inadequate mud weight / ECD or from
repeated reversals in wellbore pressure
 Chemomechanical, where both of the above types are involved at the same time.

All of these types of instability can occur in shales, which are naturally weak rocks. During the
process of diagenesis, some (but not all) pore water has been squeezed out of the shale matrix.
Hence when shale comes into contact with water during the drilling process it has the naturally
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affinity to take up water in the matrix restore local pore pressure. Any increase in local pore
pressure has consequences for rock strength.
Chemically-Induced Wellbore Instability
Chemically–induced wellbore stability can occur when drilling fluid filtrate is forced under
pressure into the drilled formation. If the formation is a shale that has a strong affinity for
water, it will imbibe filtrate from a water-based drilling fluid, something we cannot stop but can
slow down with filtration control and wellbore sealing agents. If the drilling fluid is an invert
emulsion, we can manipulate the water phase salinity of the emulsion to keep the shale stable.
One consequence of fluid entry into a rock is to make the rock weaker. The real strength of a
rock depends on its matrix stress (strength) and the local pore pressure. For a shale at a known
depth of burial, any increase in pore pressure will reduce the matrix stress. And for wellbore
stability, any reduction in matrix stress increases the likelihood over time that the shale will
become destabilized. Sands do not normally exhibit this behavior, as the in-situ strength of
sands is usually much greater than that of shales.
Formations that have high contents of reactive clays (smectite, illite, illite/smectite mixed
layers) can absorb filtrate from the drilling fluid, which will hydrate the clays. We can use
inhibition agents (salts, certain polymers, and precipitating agents to reduce the ability of the
shales to absorb filtrate. A consequence of shale hydration is the buildup of local pore pressure
at the wellbore wall, or hoop, that can slough in the hole when pressures against the wellbore
wall are reduced. Usually such destabilization is seen at the shakers in the form of large chunks
of soft, mushy clays. In rock mechanics language, this kind of failure is called ‘circumferential
tensile failure’.
Usually invert emulsions provide superior wellbore stability to exposed shales. Because of the
presence of a semi-permeable membrane at the wellbore wall, movement of water from the
invert emulsion into the shale can be regulated, as can the reverse, and exposed shales can
remain stable for long exposure times. In this case, the lower chemical activity in the water
phase of the invert emulsion can actually cause water molecules in the shale pore to migrate to
the annulus, thereby reducing local pore pressure in the shale. According to rock stress theory,
any reduction in local pore pressure in a shale will make it stronger as the rock matrix stress
must increase. The downside of this, which can happen but has rarely been documented in the
drilling literature, is that the unimpeded migration of water from a shale can lead to excessive
rock embrittlement and ultimately failure.
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Mechanically-Induced Wellbore Instability
Mechanically-induced wellbore instability usually occurs when the mud weight / ECD is
insufficient to resist the formation earth stresses that want to push the wellbore wall into the
annulus. In these cases, an increase in fluid density is usually sufficient to slow down or
eliminate signs of wellbore instability. The opposite can occur as well: having too much density
in the annulus can lead to initiation of fractures in the wellbore hoop. These fractures can
quickly decrease the wellbore hoop strength and lead to wellbore failure. If the annular
pressures are not reduced, the initiated fractures can then be propagated further into the
wellbore wall, leading to lost circulation events.
Pressure fluctuations in the wellbore can also lead to wellbore instability, especially in highly-
laminated or fractured shale formations. Any ECD pressure in the wellbore while drilling can be
transmitted through the fractures or between the poorly-cemented laminated layers in the
wellbore wall, thereby ‘charging’ the formation. As long as ECD levels remain constant the
pressure in the wellbore wall remains constant. However, when wellbore pressures are
reduced, as when the mud pumps are turned off and ECD reverts to Equivalent Static Density
(ECD), the bulk of the excess pressure in the charged wellbore wall returns to the annulus,
bringing any weak rock grains or small pieces into the wellbore wall. Any pressure cycles that
follow find more facile pressure entry into the fractures and the process repeats, and over time
begins to accelerate. Left unchecked, the pressure cycles can lead to wellbore failure.
A third example of mechanically-induced wellbore instability can be seen when fractured or

poorly-cemented bedding planes are penetrated. If the weak planes lies on the high side of the
wellbore hoop, they can fall into the hole and quickly cause pack-offs and/or stuck pipe.
Unfortunately there is no drilling fluid ‘glue’ developed yet that can penetrate and quickly
strengthen any weak planes. The only recourse to do to avoid the problem is to change the
wellpath so that we do not drill along the bedding planes but perpendicular to them.
Chemomechanical Wellbore Instability
This kind of integrated wellbore instability is usually a result of fluid filtrate invading a shale
formation, thereby weakening it. A weaker formation is less resistant to hole collapse unless
the fluid density / ECD is increased to provide extra support at the wellbore wall. Usually shale
intervals exposed to drilling fluids, especially water-based drilling fluids, for lengthy periods of
time will eventually fail. Multiple combinations of failure types discussed in the chemical and
mechanical failure sections can be obtained to describe other types of chemomechanical
wellbore stability.
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Wellbore Stability Modeling
Identifying the correct mud density or ECD to keep a wellbore stable can be done with software
such as Baroid’s Geomechanics software. A good deal of information is required, and the
screenshot from Baroid’s Geomechanics software in Fig. 1 can help to show the complexity the
modeling involves.
Fig. 1 – A schematic of the complexity involved in wellbore stability modeling.
Currently DFG Geomechanics can handle 3 basic modeling types:

 Elastic modeling
 Chemo-elastic modeling (the elastic model coupled with fluid chemical data)
 Thermo-elastic modeling (the elastic modeling coupled with mud and rock temperature
data)
Usually the elastic model is sufficient for determination of the Safe Drilling Window for most
drilling cases.
Key input items for the elastic model generally fall into 3 areas:
1. Rock mechanical properties
a. Rock cohesive strength
b. Rock internal friction angle
c. Rock tensile strength
d. Rock permeability
e. Rock Poisson’s ratio
2. Earth stress state
a. Overburden stress gradient
b. Max. horizontal stress gradient
c. Min. horizontal stress gradient
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d. Pore pressure gradient

e. Direction of max. horizontal stress
3. Drilling information
a. True Vertical Depth and Measured Depth
b. Current Mud Weight or ECD
c. Hole angle
d. Hole azimuth
e. Leak-off Test (LOT) data, if available
f. Hole diameter
With knowledge of the values of the parameters listed above, or with good estimates of the
unknown ones, the software can predict what the minimum fluid density should be to prevent
hole collapse and what maximum density can be used to initiate fractures. Between the
minimum and maximum densities given by the modeling lies the Safe Drilling Window. An
example of the window for a particular depth is seen in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 – Safe Drilling Window for a particular depth.
In the software output, the mud density / ECD to prevent hole collapse (greenline) is 12.0
lbm/gal, and the fracture initiation pressure (in red) is 21.3 lbm/gal. Pore pressure for this
particular case (blue line) was given to be 9.8 lbm/gal. As long as the drilling mud weight ESD
and/or ECD remain between 12 and 21.3 lbm/gal, the hole is predicted to remain stable.
In other cases, the mud weight requirements to maintain stability in the drilling plane can be
plotted as functions of both hole angle and azimuth. We normally call these kinds of plots polar
charts. In using polar charts, the hole angle is read radially starting from the center (0°
deviation) outwards to the edge (90° deviation). From these charts, if we know the hole angle
and azimuth, we can directly read the mud density required to prevent hole collapse and
prevent initiation of fractures. Key input data is listed on the right hand side and fluid densities
for this case are predicted in kg/cu m. The red arrows indicate the direction of the maximum
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horizontal stress and the blue arrows indicate the direction of the minimum horizontal stress.
Both SI and Field units can be used interchangeably in the software input pages.
An example of a polar chart for prediction of hole collapse pressure is seen below in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 – A polar chart for prediction of hole collapse pressure.
A second polar chart can be done to predict the fracture intiation pressure as functions of hole
angle and azimuth.
A variation of the polar chart in Fig. 3 is seen in Fig. 4. Here a field Leak-Off Test (LOT) result
showed a maximum density of 1700 kg/cu m under the last casing shoe. Because the LOT
indicates the maximum pressure the hole can take before fluid is lost, the areas in density in
the polar chart are now colored black in Fig. 4 to indicate the hole angles/hole azimuth
combinations that are now ‘off limits’.
Fig. 4 – A polar chart for prediction of hole collapse pressure with LOT data included.
Training in the geomechanics and in the DFG Geomechanics module can be arranged for groups
up to 10 individuals. Consult your supervisor to arrange a training class.
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Unconventional Resource (UCR) Drilling Plays

In today’s UCR drilling plays, shale is now the reservoir. Drilling these shales and keeping them
stable is a challenge. Typical UCR shales can be described as:
 Highly laminated or naturally-fractured

 Low water content
 Chemically unreactive
 Having bedding planes that are unstable
 Some fractures are normal (perpendicular) to the bedding planes
 Fractures can have a ‘tortuous’ path
 Weaker than intact rock of the same lithology due to the fracture networks.
With the presence of fractures in UCR shale plays, there exists a natural conduit through which
limited amounts of drilling fluid and pressure can be transmitted. It is the transfer of pressure
from the wellbore while drilling to the fracture network that causes so many problems for
tripping, especially after long intervals are drilled. In Fig. 5, a general diagram helps to explain
the situation.
Fig. 5 – A typical UCR fractured formation before penetration with a bit.
Here the presence of fractures both horizontal and near-vertical are shown. While the
fractures in this drawing appear to be linear, they are not always like this in the field. When
these formations are penetrated the ECD of the drilling fluid is then transmitted a short
distance into the wall. While drilling ahead at the same level of ECD the pressure in the fracture
network is maintained and the rock can appear to be stable. However, when pressure in the
annulus is reduced, as when mud pumps are off and/or during trips out of the hole, the
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pressure reverts to ESD, and these pressure reversals can push small amounts of unstable rock
at the wellbore wall into the annulus. Repeated pressure reversals serve to open wider any
fracture mouths exposed, and make succeeding pressure penetrations into the shale more
facile with time. Additionally, rock lying immediately above any zones where rock has fallen
into the wellbore can become unstable as they have lost their bottom support. Large volumes
of cavings, usually tabular, having right angles (like bricks) and of large-size, can begin to fall in
the hole. Sufficient accumulation of collapsed rock in the low side of the annulus can later
cause pack-offs, stuck pipe, and tripping problems.
These problems appear at first glance to be mechanical in nature. But often changes in drilling
fluid density alone do not serve to stabilize the wellbore. ECD and ESD must be taken into
consideration to minimize pressure swings, as the root causes of the instability problem in
these types of shales are both mechanical and hydraulic in nature. Often drilling practices can
make the instability problems worse:
 Excessive pump rates
 Excessive drillpipe rotation speeds, especially narrow annuli
 Heavy use of backreaming
 Surge and swab events
Care should be taken at the rigsite to minimize or eliminate the occurrence of any of these
drilling practices that can make the wellbore more unstable with time.
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Standard Operating Procedures

Revised as of August 2016

Causes of Anhydrite/Gypsum Contamination

Preventing and Curing Anhydrite/Gypsum Contamination

Drilling Conditions Contaminant Contaminant Method of Possible Course of

Anhydrite/ CaSO4 Formation Ca+2 High Yield Treat with

Gypsum CaSO4 • Commercial titration High Fluid Ca+2(mg/L)

Ca+2 Gypsum High gels or

Thick filter cake Ca+2 (epm) x 0.0188 = lb/bbl Na2CO3

pH decrease Break over to a gypsum mud

 Simultaneous kicking and lost circulation.

Objectives of Setting Barite Plugs

Barite Plug Design

Oil Mud Application

Oil-Based Mud Procedure

Oil-based mud slurries can be mixed as follows:

Formulations for oil-base muds:

Base Oil (bbls) 0.582 0.547 0.513

Barite (lbs) 597 650 700

Water-Based Mud Application

Formulation for one barrel of a 20 lbs/gal barite slurry is:

Fresh water 0.56 bbls

Caustic soda 0.25 lbs

Barite 656 lbs

SAPP 0.7 lbs

Fresh water 0.56 bbls

Caustic soda 1.0 lbs

Barite 656 lbs

QUIK-THIN™ Thinner 8 lbs

Procedures to Prevent Balling

Balling Reduction by Mud Composition

WBM HPWBM OBM HPOBM

BARASILC™ BOREMAX® ENVIROMUL™ ACCOLADE

EZ-MUD™ HYDRO-GUARD® INVERMUL® ENCORE

CON DET™ Pill (Detergent)

SAPP or QUIK-THIN™ Pill (Dispersant)

Primary issues associated with drilling depleted sands are:

Drilling Through Depleted Sands

Causes of Differential Sticking

Preventing and Curing Differential Sticking

Filter Cake Quality

Materials and Systems

Preventing Differentially Stuck Pipe

Freeing Differentially Stuck Pipe

• Reduction of Differential Pressure/U-Tubing

Reduction of Differential Pressure

DRIL-N Fluid Systems

Minimize Formation Damage

Formation Damage Mechanisms Considered When Designing/Selecting DRIL-N Fluids

DRIL-N Fluid Design Goals

Successful bridging requires an optimum concentration:

Reservoir Sensitivity Study

DRILL-N Fluid Systems Offered

BARADRIL-N Sized calcium carbonate

BRINEDRIL-N High density brine based

COREDRIL-N All oil drilling/coring

MAXDRIL-N Mixed metal silicate

QUIKDRIL-N Modified polymer with LSRV

SHEARDRIL-N Clay free, modified polymer

SOLUDRIL-N Sized salt

NOTE: Many of these systems are now only rarely utilized.

High Performance Water Base DRILL-N Fluid Systems

BARADRIL-N® Reservoir Drilling Fluid System

BRINEDRIL-N® Brine-Based DRIL-N Fluid System