IPM IDPT

Well Engineering Module

Formation Pressures

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Formation Pressures
• Lecture Contents
• Lecture Objectives
• Introduction
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Pore pressure
• Overburden pressure
• Formation fracture gradient
• Causes of abnormal pressure
• Geopressure predication

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Formation Pressures

• Lecture Objectives;
• At the end of this course YOU will be able to:
• Define various formation pressures including:
• Hydrostatic pressure,
• Overburden pressure,
• Pore pressure,
• Formation fracture gradient.
• Use various techniques and methods to compute them,
• Understand how these pressures were generated,
• Describe some of the prediction techniques.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Formation Pressures - Introduction

• The Study of Formation Pressures (Overburden, Pore

and Fracture Gradients) will assist in the Following:
• Casing Design
• Avoidance of Stuck Pipe
• Well Control
• ROP
• Mud Weight Design
• Problems in Overpressure Zones

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Formation Pressures - Introduction
• Graphic Presentation of Various Pressures:

0-

500 -

1000 -

1500 -

2000 -
Depth (m)

O
2500 -

ve
Por

rb
ur
M

3000 -

de
Fr
e

ud
Gra

n
ac

G
Gr

tu

ra
re
3500 -
dien

ad

di
en
Gr
ie

t
nt
t

ad

4000 -
ien
t

4500 -
0 250 500 1000 1250
Pressure (kg/cm2)

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Hydrostatic Pressure

• Definition
• Hydrostatic Pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by
column of fluid
• This pressure is function of average fluid density and the
vertical height or depth of fluid column
• Mathematically it is expressed as:

HP = Hydrostatic pressure. (psi),

HP = g .ρf . D g = Gravitational acceleration,
ρf = Average fluid density. (ppg),
D = True vertical depth. (ft)

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Hydrostatic Pressure
• Definition
• Also it is expressed as:
• HP (psi) = 0.052 (psi/ft) x TVD (ft) x MW (ppg), or
• HP (Kg/cm2) = (TVD (m) x MW (kg/l)) / 10
• 0.052 psi/ft is a constant and obtained by:

1 ft
1 ft

1 ft

144 sq in

Container = 7.48 gal/ft3 / 144 in2 = 0.052 psi/ft

IDPT Formation Pressures
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 Hydrostatic Gradient

• Definition
• Hydrostatic pressure gradient is given by:
• HG = HP / D

• It is the change in pressure exerted by a column of 1 ft TVD

• By converting wellbore pressure to gradient relative to to a

fixed datum (seabed or msl)
• It is possible to compare pore, fracture, overburden pressure, MW
and ECD on the same basis,

• Also gradient assists in plotting of these pressures.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Formation Pressures – Back to
Graphics
• Graphic Presentation of Various Pressures:

0-

500 -

1000 -

1500 -

2000 -
Depth (m)

O
2500 -

ve
Por

rb
ur
M

3000 -

de
Fr
e

ud
Gra

n
ac

G
Gr

tu

ra
re
3500 -
dien

ad

di
en
Gr
ie

t
nt
t

ad

4000 -
ien
t

4500 -
0 250 500 1000 1250
Pressure (kg/cm2)

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Pore Pressure
Pore Pressure is defined as the pressure acting on the fluids in
the pore spaces of the rock. It is related to fluid salinity.
• Normal Pore Pressure:
• Normal pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of a column of formation fluid extending
from the surface to the subsurface formation,
• The magnitude of normal pore pressure varies
with concentration of dissolved salts, type of fluid,
gas present and temperature gradient.
• Normal pore pressure gradient varies from 0.433
psi/ft to 0.465 psi/ft. Or from 8.33 ppg to 8.9 ppg.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Pore Pressure
• Normal pore pressure

The formation fluid

finds a clear path
from surface to bottom,
thereby transmitting
hydrostatic pressure

ρf

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Pore Pressure

• Definition
• Abnormal Pore Pressure:
• It is defined as any pore pressure that is greater than the
hydrostatic pressure of the formation water occupying the pore
space.
• The causes of abnormal pressure is attributed to the combination
of various geological, geochemical, geothermal and mechanical
events.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Pore Pressure

• Definition
• Subnormal Pore Pressure:
• It is defined as any pore pressure that is less than the
corresponding pore fluid hydrostatic pressure at a given depth,
• Occurs less frequent than abnormal pressures. Might have natural
causes related to the stratigraphic, tectonic and geochemical
history of an area.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Pore Pressure

• Definition
• In general:

Abnormal Pore Pressure

Increasing
gradient Normal Pore Pressure 0.433 psi/ft to 0.465 psi/ft

Subnormal Pore Pressure

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Overburden Pressure
Definition
• Overburden Pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by
the total weight of overlying formations above the point of
interest,
• It is function of:
• Matrix density,
• Porosity,
• Connate fluids.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Overburden Pressure
• Theory:

σov

ρf

ρma

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Equivalent Density
Definition
• The Equivalent Density is a convenient way to express the
density a complex column of material made of fluid & rock,
by comparing it to a single fluid column in a static condition
and open to the atmosphere.
• The equivalent density should always be referenced at a
specific depth

This is how we can also define the overburden pressure as being:

• the hydrostatic pressure exerted by all materials overlying the
depth of interest. or
• the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a fluid column of density:
ρb = Formation bulk density (ppg).

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Overburden Pressure
• Computations:
• Overburden pressure and gradient are given by:

σ ov = 0 . 052 . ρ b . D σov= Overburden pressure (psi),

ρb = Formation bulk density (ppg).

σovg = 0.433 [(1 − θ ) ρ ma + (θ . ρ f ) ]

σovg = overburden gradient. (psi/ft),
Θ = porosity expressed as fraction,
ρma = matrix density.(g/cc),
ρf = formation fluid density. (g/cc).

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 Overburden Pressure

• Computations
• A list of typical matrix and fluid density is included below:

• Substance Density (g/cc)

Sandstone 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
Anhydrite 2.98
Halite 2.03
Gypsum 2.35
Clay 2.7 - 2.8
Freshwater 1.0
Seawater 1.03 -1.06
Oil 0.6 - 0.7
Gas 0.015

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Equivalent Density Exercise
Po = atm

What is the Equivalent Density?

10.5 ppg
7000’
mud
EMW = 11.4 ppg

8.33 pgg
300’
water

12.7 ppg 1700’

cement

16.7 ppg 1000’

cement

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Overburden pressure Exercise
Calculate the overburden gradient & the Equivalent Mud
Weight for the following:
•Average Formation, density = 2.65 gm/cc
•Formation water = 1.074 gm/cc
•Porosity = 15%

• σovg = 0.433 x [(1 – 0.15)x2.65 + (0.15 x 1.074)]

= 1.04 psi/ft
• 20 ppg EMW

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Overburden Vertical & Horizontal
Stress
The overburden
will generate

a vertical stress
VERTICAL STRESS
OF OVERBURDEN
+
a horizontal
stress
HORIZONTAL STRESS
12.5 ppg 12.5 ppg
OF OVERBURDEN

14.0
ppg

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 State of Stress Underground

• Stress is expressed by defining three axes,one is usually vertical, so others

are horizontal: sv, sH, sh

σ2

σ1

σ3

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
• Definition;
• It is defined as the pressure at which formation break down
occurs
• Accurate prediction of fracture gradient is essential to optimize
well design
• At well planning stage it can be estimated from the offset well
data
• If no data is available, then other empirical methods are used
for example:
• Matthews & Kelly (1967)
• Eaton (1969)
• Daines (1982)

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
• Example of Computing Equations:

• Eaton Method:

σ ov Pf   γ  Pf
FG =  −    +
 D D  
 1 −γ 
 D

FG = Fracture gradient, psi/ft

σov = Overburden pressure, psi,
D = Well depth, ft,
Pf = Pore pressure, psi
γ = Poisson's Ratio, dimensionless.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
Least principle stress must be overcome to initiate fracture
AND
Fracture orientation is normally 90° to the direction of least principal
stress
SV
SH Must be overcome
for this vertical
fracture to occur
SH SH

SV Must be overcome for this

Horizontal Fracture to
occur
IDPT Formation Pressures
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 Fracture Gradient
• Definition
• Breakdown Mechanism:

Maximum Principle Stress

σV

σH
Minimum Horizontal Stress
σH

The Resulting Fracture in The Rock

σH

σH
Minimum Horizontal Stress

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 Fracture Gradient

• Formation Strength Testing:

• Purpose:
• To investigate cement strength around the shoe
• To approximate fracture gradient
• To investigate wellbore capability to withstand pressure
below the shoe,
• To collect regional information on the formation strength for
optimization of well design on future wells.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
• 2 Methods
• Leak Off Test (LOT)
• Pumping fluid at a controlled slow rate to increase pressure against
the formation face and thus create an injection path into the rock
which indicates the formation breakdown pressure expressed in
equivalent ppg.

• Formation Integrity Test (FIT)

• Pressuring up the fluid column to a predetermined limit that will show
an equivalent ppg up to which the fluid will not leak off into or
breakdown the formation.
• Note: an FIT will not give information to calculate correct MAASP or
Kick Tolerance.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
• Leak-off Test Procedure:
• Drill 5 to 10 ft below the last casing shoe,
• Circulate to condition mud (MW in = MW out),
• POOH to above last casing shoe,
• Connect cement unit to either drillstring or Kill line,
• Test surface lines,
• Close Pipe Rams,
• Start pumping at slow rate (i.e. 1/4 BPM) (A),
• While pumping, observe the pressure build-up until it deviates (B),
• Record pressure. (B), (C) and Bbls pumped.
• Bleed-off and record return.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Fracture Gradient
• Leak-off Test Procedure:

Bleed-off
C
B

LOT ( pressure )
FG = ρ m +
0 . 052 * D
Pressure

B -C: Mud Penetrating the formation

B: Leak-off pressure is reached

A-B: Linear Increase – No Injection

A BBLS
IDPT Formation Pressures
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 Back to EMW
Po = 2000 psi

10.5 ppg
7000’
mud EMW?

8.33 pgg
300’
water EMW = 15.3 ppg
12.7 ppg 1700’
cement

16.7 ppg 1000’

cement

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 EMW from LOT
LOT = 2000 psi

EMW?
10.5 ppg
mud EMW = 14.3 ppg

Expressed as a gradient?
EMW = 0.746 psi/ft

10000’

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
• Depositional Related Effects:

• Undercompaction:

• The process whereby abnormal pore pressure is developed

due to disruption of the balance between rate of
sedimentation of the clays and the rate of expulsion of the
pore fluids as the clay compact with burial,

• If the fluids cannot escape due to the decrease of pores

permeability, abnormal pore pressure will result.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure

• Depositional Related Effects:

• Deposition of Evaporites:

• The occurrence of evaporite deposits can cause high

abnormal pressure which approach the overburden
gradient,

• Halite is totally impermeable to fluids and behaves

plastically thereby exerting pressure equal to the
overburden gradient loads in all direction.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
• Diagenetic Processes:
• Diagenesis is defined as the alteration of sediments and their
minerals during post depositional compaction.
• Example - Clay Diagenesis:
• With increasing pressure and temperature, sediments undergo a
process of chemical and physical changes,
• The diagenetic changes occur in shale by which abnormal
pressure may be generated.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
• Tectonic Related Effects:
• Tectonic activity can result in the development of
abnormal pore pressure as a result of variety of
mechanisms, these mechanisms are outlined below:
• Folding:
• Folding is produced by tectonic compression of a
geological basin. This compression results in high
pressure.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure

• Tectonic Related Effects:

• Faulting:
• The development of fault may lead to abnormal pressure by
any of the following:
• There is commonly an increase in the rate and volume of
sedimentation across a fault on a downthrown block,
• This may introduce a seal against permeable formation
thereby preventing fluid expulsion,
• Non-sealing fault my transmit fluids from deeper formation to
a shallower zone, resulting in abnormal pressures in the
shallow zone.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
• Tectonic Related Effects:
• Faulting:

Hydrostatic Pressure Sands

Hydrostatic Pressure
Sands

Abnormally Pressure
Sands

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Causes of Abnormal Pressure

• Tectonic Related Effects:

• Salt Diapirism:
• It is defined as the piercement of a formation by a plastic, mobile,
less dense formation. It moves upward forming salt dome.

Salt Dome

Oil Pool

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 Geopressure Predictions

• Prediction Methods;
• Some of these Methods are as follows:
• Seismic Data,
• Drilling Rate,
• Sloughing Shale,
• Shale Density,
• Gas Units in Mud,
• Chloride Content Indication,
• Temperature Indication,
• Wireline Logs.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Seismic Data:
• This technique is conducted prior to drilling operations
and it relies on the normal formation compaction with
respect to hole depth,
• The more compactions are the higher will be the velocity
of sound. Such change in velocity is further converted to
abnormal pressures,
• After the well has been drilled, a confirmation survey is
run such as Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP).

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Drilling Rate (ROP):
• It is a very useful tool in the detection of changes in pore
pressure,
• It is also effected by:
• Lithology changes,
• Bottomhole cleaning,
• Differential pressure
• Bit weight,
• Rotary speed,
• Fluid properties,
• Bit type.

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Drilling Rate:
• Differential pressure:

P2 - Hydrostatic Pressure
P2 P2
P1 - Pore Pressure

( P2 - P1 ) Differential Pressure

P1 P1
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 Geopressure Predictions
• Drilling Rate:

• D Exponent (Jordan & Shirley equation);

R R = ROP . (ft/hr),
log N = Rotary Speed . (RPM),
60 N
d = W = WOB. (lbs),
12 W D = Bit diameter. (inches),
log d = Drilling exponent, dimensionless
10 6 D dc = Corrected drilling exponent, unitless
d1 = Formation fluid density.(ppg),
 d1  d2 = Mud weight. (ppg).
dc = d  
 d2

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Sloughing Shale:
• Maybe the result of the following hole conditions;
• Formation pressure is higher than hydrostatic pressure,
• Hydration or swelling of shale,
• Erosion caused by fluid circulation, surge pressure or pipe
movement.
• Some time it is a combination of more than one,
• This phenomena is watched carefully when ROP is
increased and sloughing shale are noted,
• Could be easily seen at shale shakers.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Shale Density:
• Normal trend for the density of compacted shales is to increase
with depth,
• If this trend is reversed it is assumed that the pore pressure is
increased.

No
rm
al
v
Depth, ft

alu
es

Shale density

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Gas in Mud:
• Gas may enter the mud as a result of the following:
• Connection Gas: associated with swabbing on connections,
• Trip Gas: associated with swabbing following round trips with
drillstring,
• Back Ground Gas: Gas in shale or sand released from cuttings while
drilling,
• Influx. (Kick)

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Mud Properties:
• Measurement of mud properties in and out of the hole could
provide first warning of gas or chloride content change,
• Gas will decrease mud weight,
• Chloride content will cause flocculation in the mud system and
hence will result in an increase in YP and PV. And hence,
attention should be given if such problem takes place.

IDPT Formation Pressures

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 Geopressure Predictions
• Temperature Indication:
• Continuous measurement of flowline temperature will possibly
indicate an entrance into overpressure zone,
• As the formation is compacted, thermal conductivity is increased
which indicates that an overpressure zone has been entered,
• Not applicable in offshore (C.P or Riser).
• Other factors could cause an increase in temperature namely:
• Increase in circulation rate,
• Change in solids content in mud,
• Increase in bit torque.

IDPT Formation Pressures

IPM
 Formation Pressures
• Now YOU should be able to:
• Define various formation pressures including:,
• Hydrostatic pressure,
• Overburden pressure,
• Pore pressure,
• Formation fracture gradient,
• Use various techniques and methods to compute them,
• Understand how these pressures were generated,
• Describe some of the prediction techniques.

IDPT Formation Pressures

IPM