4 K I I I I I ui I I I I

i1TiTi I iTiTil5il
third edition

ogy and systems devel

acteristics,the per
oncentration required, and area ene
costs.
This Handbook describes the many types of evaporators and
operatingoptions which are available through the experience and
manufacturingcapabilitiesof companies within the APV Group.

CCWI'ENTS
EVWORATORS
types and design
EWWRATORS
sdtction
EXXUEERING CONVERSIONS
ETIME IN FILM EVAPORATION
BUYI'E TYPE EVAPORATORS
CONTROLS
automation/colorgraphics
EVAPORATORS TO 3A SANITARY STANDARDS
ES IN MVR EVAPORATOR TECHNOLOGY
" R X S MIR CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS
SOF EVAPORATION
RW&EDEVAPORATORS
m I E S OF SATURATED STEAM
&"ture
tables

3
10

16
17

20
24

26

28
34
40
42
43

EVlXPORATORS
types and design
In the evaporation process, concentration of a product is accomplished by boiling out
a solvent, generally water, so that the end product may be recovered at the optimum
solids content consistent with desired product quality and operating economics. It
is a unit operation that is used extensively in processing foods, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, fruit juices, dairy products, paper and pulp, and both malt and grain
beverages. It also is a unit operation which, with the possible exception of distillation,
is the most energy intensive.
While the design criteria for evaporators are the same regardless of the industry
involved, the question always arises as to whether evaporation is being carried out
in the equipment best suited to the duty and whether the equipment is arranged for
the most efficient and economical use. As a result, many types of evaporators and
many variations in processing techniques have been developed to take into account
different product characteristics and operating parameters.
TYPES OF EVAPORATORS

The more comFon types of evaporators include:

1 batch pan
6
2 natural circulation
7
3 rising film tubular
8
4 falling film tubular
5 rising/falling film tubular

forced circulation
wiped film
plate equivalents of
tubular evaporators

batch pan
Next to natural solar evaporation, the batch pan as shown in Fig. 1 is one of the
oldest methods of concentration. It is somewhat outdated in todays technology but
still is used in a few limited applications
such as the concentration of jams and
FIG 1
JACKETED
jellies where whole fruit is present and in
BATCH PAN
processing some pharmaceutical products.
Up until the early 1960s,it also enjoyed wide
use in the concentration of corn syrups.
With a batch pan evaporator, product
residence time normally is many hours.
Therefore, it is essential to boil at low
temperatures and high vacuum when
a heat sensitive or thermodegradable
product is involved. The batch pan is
either jacketed or has internal coils or
heaters. Heat transfer areas normally
are quite small due to vessel shapes,

UM

FALLING FILM
TUBULAR

OUT

UUM

FIG 5

TUBULAR

OUT

_VAPOR

CIRCULAT,ON

CIRCUVITION PUMPGIVING
HIGH LIOUOR VELOCITIES
OVER HEATING SURFACE

falling film tubular

Following development of the rising film principle, it took almost a further half century for a
falling film evaporation technique to be perfected
(Fig. 4). The main problem was one of designing
an adequate system for the even distribution of
liquid to each of the tubes. Distribution in its
forerunner, the rising film evaporator, was easy
as the bottom bonnet of the calandria always
was pumped full of liquid, thus allowing equal
flow to each tube.
While each manufacturer has his own technique, falling film distribution generally is based
around use of a perforated plate positioned above
the top tube plate of the calandria. Spreading of
liquid to each tube sometimes is f u r t h e r
enhanced by generating flash vapor at this point.
The falling film evaporator does have the advantage that the film is 'going with gravity' instead
of against it. This results in a thinner, faster
moving film and gives rise to even shorter product contact time and a further improvement in
the value of HTC.
The rising film unit normally needs a driving
force or temperature difference across the heating surface of at least 25F to establish a well
developed film whereas the falling film evaporator does not have a driving force limitation.
This permits a greater number of evaporator
effects to be used within the same overall operating limits, Le., if steam is available at 2.5 psig
corresponding to 220F and the last effect boiling
temperature is l2O0F,the total available A T is
equal to 100F. This would limit a rising film
evaporator to four effects, each with a A T of
25F. It would be feasible, meanwhile, to have as
many as ten or more effects using the falling
film technique.
rising/falling film tubular
As illustrated by Fig. 5, the rising/falling film
evaporator has the advantages of the ease of
liquid distribution of the rising film unit coupled
with lower head room requirements. The tube
bundle is approximately half the height of either
a rising or falling film evaporator and the vapor/
liquid separator is positioned at the bottom of
the calandria.
5

forced circulation
The forced circulation evaporator (Fig. 6) was developed for processing liquors
which are susceptible to scaling or crystallizing. Liquid is circulated at a high rate
through the heat exchanger, boiling being prevented within the unit by virtue of a
hydrostatic head maintained above the top tube plate. As the liquid enters the
separator where the absolute pressure is slightly less than in the tube bundle, the
liquid flashes to form a vapor.
The main applications for a forced circulation evaporator are in the concentration
of inversely soluble materials, crystallizing duties, and in the concentration of thermally degradable materials which result in the deposition of solids. In all cases, the
temperature rise across the tube bundle is kept as low as possible, generally in the
region of 33F. This results in a recirculation ratio as high as 200 to 330 Ibs. of liquor
per pound of water evaporated. These high recirculation rates result in high liquor
velocities through the tubes which help to minimize the build up of deposits or
crystals along the heating surface. Forced circulation evaporators normally are
more expensive than film evaporators because of the need for large bore circulating
pipework and large recirculating pumps generally of the axial flow type. Operating
costs of such a unit also are considerably higher.
wiped film
The wiped or Bgitated thin film evaporator
depicted in Fig. 7 has limited applications
and is confined mainly to the concentration
of very viscous materials and the stripping of
solvents down to very low levels. Feed is introduced at the top of the evaporator and is
spread by wiper blades on to the vertical cylindrical surface inside the unit. Evaporation of
the solvent takes place as the thin film moves
down the evaporator wall. The heating medium normally is high pressure steam or oil. A
high temperature heating medium generally
is necessary in order to obtain a reasonable
evaporation rate since the heat transfer surface available is relatively small as a direct
result of its cylindrical configuration.
The wiped film evaporator is very satisfactory for its limited applications. However, in
addition to its small surface area, it also has
the disadvantage of requiring moving parts
such as the wiper blades which, together with
the bearings of the rotating shaft, need periodic maintenance. Capital costs in terms of
dollars per pound of solvent evaporated also
are very high.
6

FIG 8

R IS ING/FA L L ING FILM

PLAT E EVA PO RAT0 R

STEAM

ER

JOINT GASKETS

DISCHARGE TO SEPARATOR

PLATE EVAPORATORS

The plate equivalent of the tubular evaporator is available in four configurations rising/falling film, falling film, Paravap and Paraflash plate evaporators. All have
been developed by APV to handle the concentration of products which have varying
characteristics.
Plate type evaporators now have been sold commercially for nearly 30 years and
during that tirpe, over 1600 units manufactured by APV have been installed for
concentrating hundreds of different products.
rising/falling film plate
The original plate type evaporator, the rising/falling film plate system basically is
a flexible, multi-duty unit engineered for medium production runs of heat sensitive
products under sanitary conditions and at the lowest possible capital investment.
Operating on a single pass rising and falling film principle, as shown in the Fig.
8 exploded view, the evaporator consists of a series of gasketed plate processing units
within a compact frame. As a thin layer of feed liquor passes over the rising and
falling film section in each evaporation unit, it is vaporized on contact with adjacent
steam heated plates and is discharged with its vapor to a vapor/liquid separator. All
evaporation is accomplished in a matter of seconds within the plate pack. The
product then is extracted and the vapor passed to a condenser, the next evaporator
effect or a mechanical compressor. Product quality is given maximum protection
against thermal degradation by means of high heat transfer rates, low liquid holding
volume, and minimum exposure to high temperatures.
The plate evaporator has a number of advantages over its tubular counterpart.
Since it is designed to be erected on a single level with minimum headroom requirements, in many cases it will fit within an existing building with overhead restrictions
as low as E' or 13'. It also can be arranged as single or multiple effects without
extensive building modifications or structural steel supports and can handle
expanded duties by the addition of more plate units. Systems are available for
evaporation rates to 35,000 Ibs/hr with efficient in-place cleaning of all stainless
steel product contact surfaces.

STEAM

iT7"""

PRODUCT
SECTION

FEE

PROD1
FROM
SEPAF

VAPOR AI
PRODUCl
SEPARATI

CONDENSATE
OUTLET

'

vFd

FIG. 9
FALLING FILM
PLATE EVAPORATOR

FINAL PRODUCT
TO SEPARATOR

falling film plate

The success of the rising/falling film plate evaporator prompted the development of
the falling film plate system. This design has several advantages over its predecessor
including even lower residence times and higher evaporation capabilities. While the
rising/falling film plate unit is restricted to a maximum of 30,000 to 35,000 lbs/hr
of water removal, the falling film plate evaporator with its larger vapor ports can
accommodate 55,000 to 60,000 lbs per hour of evaporation. One of its unique design
features as illustrated in Fig. 9 is that each side of the plate may be used independently
of the other, thus permitting two pass operation within the same frame for even
shorter residence time and improved product quality.
Paravap
Especially designed to concentrate foaming liquids or those with high solids content or non-Newtonian viscosity characteristics, the APV Paravap replaces the
wiped film evaporator in many cases. It successfully concentrates corn syrups and
soap to better than 97-9896total
solids or strips hexane and other
FIG 10
VACUUM
PARAVAP
solvents from vegetable oils and
similar products. Fig. 10 shows this
type of unit in a simple schematic.
Note that a key element in the
system is a plate heat exchanger
(Fig. 11).While specifically designed
for liquidlliquid applications, it
has been found that if a fluid is
allowed to vaporize within the plate
pack, the small plate gap and corrugated plate pattern create high
vapor velocities (Fig. E).This
causes atomization of the liquid
PRODUCT

within the high velocity vapor stream, resulting in a greater liquid surface area for
mass transfer and enabling low residual solvent concentrations to be realized.
Although the final product may be extremely viscous after separation from the
vapor, the apparent viscosity within the plate pack is very low since only droplets
are being transported in the vapor.

Paraflash
Similar to its tubular counterpart, the APV Paraflash (Fig. 13) is a suppressed
boiling forced circulation evaporator mainly used for concentrating products subject to fouling that is too excessive for a film evaporator. While this system uses
a plate heat exchanger, vaporization is not allowed to take place within the exchanger itself. Boiling is suppressed either by a liquid static head above the heat exchanger or by the use of an orifice piece in the discharge line. From a heat transfer
standpoint, the forced circulation
Paraflash is far more efficient
than a tubular unit but suffers from
a smaller equivalent diameter when
large crystal sizes are present.
VACUUM

FIG. 13
SUPPRESSED BOILING
PARAFLASH EVAPORATOR

FIG. 14 Single effect R56 Paraflash concentrates

brewers yeast from 13% to 30% total solids

evaporators
selection

In choosing the evaporator best suited to the duty on hand, the following factors
should be weighed:
1)The evaporator with the highest heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) generally is
the falling film type. Higher HTCs lead to smaller surface areas, resulting in minimum capital cost. Wherever possible, therefore, a film evaporator should be considered first.
While the biggest single disadvantage of the film evaporator is its susceptibility
to scale build-up on the heat transfer surface, its lower cost offsets this inconvenience
on mildly scaling duties, particularly when high evaporative capacities are involved.
A typical example of this is spin bath liquors. This solution which results from the
production of rayon and cellulose is comprised mainly of sulphuric acid, sodium
sulphate and water plus various impurities such as zinc sulphate. Scale builds up
over a period of about one week and the evaporator then is boiled out.
In food related industries where the nature of most products is heat sensitive, it
generally is desirable or necessary to clean out an evaporator at least once per day
for sanitary reasons. In the chemical field, however, a minimum run of a week
normally is required and, in many cases, an evaporator will run for months.
2) For evaporation capacities up to about 60,000 lbs/hr of water removal, the
possibility of using either a plate or tubular system should be considered. The
capital investment is relatively close but the lower cost of installing a plate evaporator together with its compactness, expandability and reduced building requirements generally makes it extremely attractive.Above 60,000lbs/hr evaporation, the
choice lies among various types of tubular evaporators. Available configurations are
multi-effect or mechanical vapor recompression.
3) In many cases, the choice of evaporator is determined by the necessary materials
of construction (Fig. 15).An example would be a sulfuric acid evaporator where for
product concentrations up to 50%,the heating surface normally would be graphite.
This immediately indicates use of a tubular evaporator as opposed to a plate unit.
With satisfactory temperature and concentration conditions, Incoloy and Hastelloy
could be employed using either a tube or plate but would be much more expensive
than graphite. Separators and piping would be either a fiber filled phenolic resin or
rubber lined carbon steel. Sulfuric acid between 50% and 72% concentration again
would normally use graphite as the heating surface providing temperatures are kept
below 230/240"F, but piping and vessels would be lead lined steel, tantiron or cast
lead. For construction reasons, agraphite tube bundle has to be arranged as a rising
film or forced circulation evaporator with the vaporAiquid separator positioned at
the top.
10

,
I

FIG 15

4) More than one evaporator may be used to concentrate a particular product. For
example, there may be a main or bulk evaporator followed by a finishing unit. The
main evaporator would be used to remove the majority of the water or solvent to a
point where the liquid concentration gives rise to restrictions. Among these are
boiling point elevation which reduces the overall temperature difference of a multieffect or MVR evaporator, product viscosity resulting in low HTCs, or saturated
liquor resulting in crystallization. A forced circulation crystallizing evaporator very
often is the last product stage of a multi-effect evaporator.
Consider the example of concentrating a solution from 4%to 60% total solids, a
15:l concentration ratio. At the 40% total solids level, the viscosity is too high for a
film evaporator and the product has to be processed in a Paravap or wiped film unit.
However, in concentrating from 4% to 40% or a 10:l ratio, 90%of the feed has been
evaporated in the initial evaporator. The finishing unit now has to concentrate only
from 40%to 60%or a 1.5:l ratio. This means that 96.43%of the total evaporation has
been achieved in a multi-effect or mechanical vapor recompression bulk evaporator at high thermal economy and probably while obtaining good HTCs. Only
3.57%of the duty is confined to a small single effect evaporator which handles the
most difficult part of the concentration.
5) When the requirement is for a crystallizing evaporator, there never is any doubt
that the stage where crystallization takes place has to be a forced circulation evaporator and, in most cases, a tubular unit. However, when the problem is not one of
crystallization but ageneral scalingof the heat transfer surface instead, the Paraflash
is much more efficient. As shown in Fig. 16, the circulation rate through the plate is
11

HEAT DUTY BTU/HR

ELEMENT
TOTAL SURFACE
FT*
O F
FLUID TEMP IN
FLUID TEMP OUT " F
SERVICE TEMP
"F
RECIRC RATE
GPM
PSI
TOTAL AP
BHP ABSORBED

i
~

1
~

1j
I

ji
~

5x106
1%" OD, 16 SWG. 25' TUBE
2620
160
161.08
190
10,975
16 9
107 7

5x106
APV R10 PLATE
2622
160
170
190
1610
10.8
10 1

considerably less than through a tube and results in much lower horsepower
requirements.
If crystals are formed and are too large for a plate evaporator to handle, the
designer has to determine whether the tubular forced circulation unit should be a
single or multiple pass configuration. Normally, forced circulation tubulars are
designed with tube velocities of 6 to 8 ft/ second or higher to minimize fouling. In the
Fig. 17 comparison between single and three pass configurations, three pass units
are shown to have lower circulation rates directly resulting in higher temperature
rises, lower log mean temperature differences and, therefore, greater surface area.
Even though the circulation rate is less, the pressure drop on the three pass versus
one pass is more due to greater overall tube length. This results in larger absorbed
horsepower. It generally is concluded, therefore, that a single pass arrangement is
less expensive from both the capital and operating cost standpoints.
6) Estimation of HTCs from physical properties is easier and more reliable for
forced circulation units than for film evaporators. As a general rule, HTCs used for
the latter are determined by experience or test work.
FIG 17 COMPARISON SINGLE AND TRIPLE PASS CALANDRIA

12

EVAPORATION CONFIGURATION AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

With recent downward adjustments in the price of oil there is a tendency to think
of the energy crisis as being a thing of the past. However, the upward price revisions
of 1974 and 1979 will be repeated in the future. Despite great improvements in oilfinding technology and large increases in spending for exploration, annual oil discoveries are only 40'%of what they were 25 years ago. World oil consumption outpaces
new findings by 5 billion barrels a year and easily recovered oil no longer exists.
The natural gas situation is a bit more promising, but with theadvent of complete
deregulation its price will be subject to market fluctuations. Steam generation from
coal represents a minority of installed capacity. Furthermore, as oil supplies diminish,
these alternative energies will become more costly. The present cost of raising
steam, typically $5.00 to $7.00 per 1000pounds generated, inevitably will rise. Indeed
the time may come when there will be very little steam at all.
To brighten this forecast, engineers can help cut energy consumption even when
evaporation requirements seem to become greater every year. This can be done by:
1) installing a greater number of steam effects to an evaporator
2) making use whenever possible of steam thermocompression or mechanical
vapor recompression
3) making sure that the feed to an evaporator is preheated to the boiling point in
the most efficient manner
4) using low grade heat from the evaporator whenever possible
5) insulating equipment to keep losses to a minimum
Some of these points are illustrated by the Fig. 18schematic of a three effect evaporator with s t e m thermocompression that uses evaporator condensate and intereffect vapor for feed preheating. Note that even this vapor has been used efficiently
in prior effects and that condenser water also may be used if the feed temperature
is low. Fig. 19,meanwhile, outlines a four effect evaporator with thermocompression
and the use of a slightly different technique with a spray heating loop.
While a greater number of effects increases initial capital investment, savings in
operating costs will justify the expenditure if evaporation capacities are large enough
and the operating period long enough. A thermocompressor generally adds the
equivalent of one or more effectsat relatively little capital cost although the surface
area in the effects between thermocompressor suction and discharge must be
increased. The HTC of these effects generally is very good so the increase in surface
area is minimized. Care should be taken, however, to design with a low AT across
the thermocompressor to ensure high entrainment ratios of vapor to steam.
It is also important when using a steam thermocompressor not to have a high
boiling point elevation in those effects. This will cut down the ATavailable for heat
transfer. Thermocompressors are somewhat inflexible and do not operate well outside
of their design conditions. They should not be used when the product may foul the
evaporator surface and cause the design pressures and pressure boost across the
thermocompressor to rise. Under these conditions, the amount of vapor entrained is
reduced and a fall off in evaporator capacity results.
Effective preheating of the feed also can reduce energy consumption considerably.
The capital cost of preheaters is fairly small with the plate heat exchangers being
particularly effective due to their capability for realizing a very close temperature
approach to the heating medium whether it be condenser water, waste evaporator
condensate or inter-effect vapor.

13

FIG 18 3-EFFECT STEAM JET RECOMPRESSION

-HIGH

FIG 19 4-EFFECT THERMOCOMPRESSION

14

PRESSURE
STEAM

FIG 70

MECHANICAL RECOMPRESSION EVAPORATOR

5 TO 10% FLOW

ENTHALPY '169 B T U L B

While all of these features reduce energy consumption, there still are better
methods available. In less than a decade and probably within the next five years, the
majority of new large capacity evaporators installed, particularly for bulk duties,
will be of the mechanical vapor recompression (MVR)type. The mechanical vapor
compressor can be driven by electricity from coal, hydro power or nuclear power
even when all the gas and oil has been exhausted or is too expensive to use.
Briefly examining the thermodynamics involved with MVR, the Fig. 20 schematic
shows an evaporator with a liquid boiling point of 212F (atmospheric pressure). All
of the water vapor that is boiled off passes to a compressor. In order to keep the
energy input to the system as low as possible, the pressure boost across thecompressor is limited.,In the majority of cases, this pressure boost will correspond to a
saturated temperature rise in the region of 15F or less.
In this example, there is a pressure boost of 4.5 psi across the compressor.Assuming
that there is a pressure loss of 0.5 psi in the system, the effective pressure on the
steam side of the evaporator is 18.7 psia. This compressed water vapor condenses
and gives up its latent heat, thus vaporizing more water from the liquid that is being
concentrated. The latent heat of vaporization of water at atmospheric pressure is
970 Btu/hr. Note that it only requires a theoretical energy input of 18BtuAb to raise
the water vapor from 14.7 to 19.2 psia. The theoretical steam economy, therefore, is
970/18=54.When compressor efficiency is taken into account, this figure is brought
down to between 32 and 35 which is another way of saying that the MVR system is
equivalent to a 32-35 effect steam evaporator. Related to energy costs of 4 cents per
KW hr for electricity for the compressor drive and $6.00 per 1000 lbs of steam for a
conventional steam evaporator, the MVR system then becomes the economic equivalent of just under a 19 effect evaporator.
The MVR has another definite advantage over steam. The condensate is available
at high temperature and is ideal for evaporator feed preheating, particularly if the
condensate rate is as high as 90% of the feed rate, i.e., a 10:l concentration ratio
within the evaporator. There are many such evaporators in operation where the sole
energy input to the system is through the compressor with steam requirements
limited to approximately 15 minutes during start up.
While Fig. 20 illustrates an evaporator system that uses a compressor, it will be
shown that the use of a turbo fan in place of the centrifugal compressor not only
yields lower boost but also provides more surface area and better operating
economics.
15

engineering
conversions
to convert from
HEAT CAPACITY

to

multiply by

Calories/(Gram)("C)

Calories/(Gram) (Mole)("C)
Btu/( Pound) (OF)

Molecular Weight
1.o

DENSITY

Gram/MilliIiter
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY

Kilocalorie/
(Hr)(m)("C)
Watt/( m) ("C)

Pounds/Gallon
Pounds/Cubic Ft.

Btu/(Hr)(Ft) (OF)

8.33
62.42

0.6719
0.5778

VISCOSITY

Centistokes
Dynamic Viscosity
Pound-Mass/( Ft) (Sec)
Kinematic Viscosity
CmYSec

Centipoise

Specific Gravity

Centipoise

1488.2

Centistokes

100

PRESSURE

KiloPascal
Bar
Inches Hg Absolute
Atmosphere
Torr
mm Hg

psi
psia

0.14504
14.504
0.4912
14.696
0.01908
0.01908

ENTHALPY

Calorie/Gram

Btu/Pound-Mass

1.8

WORWENERGY

(Kilowatt)( Hr)
(Horsepower)(Hr)
Calorie

Btu

3412.1
2544.4
0.003968

Btu/( Hr)(Ft2)("F)

0.2048
1761.1

HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT

Kilocalorie/
(Hr)(m2)(OC)
Watt/(cm2)(C)

16

residence time
in film evapora~on
Since many pharmaceutical, food and dairy products are extremely heat sensitive,
optimum quality is obtained when processing times and temperatures are kept as
low as possible during concentration of the products. The most critical portion of
the process occurs during the brief time that the product is in contact with a heat
transfer surface which is hotter than the product itself. To protect against possible
thermal degradation, the timekemperature relationship therefore must be considered in selecting the type and operating principle of
the evaporator to be used.
For this heat sensitive type of application, film
evaporators have been found to be ideal for two
reasons. First of all, the product forms a thin film
only on the heat transfer surface rather than occupying the entire volume. Residence time within the
heat exchanger thus is greatly reduced. Secondly,
a film evaporator can operate with as low as a six
degree F steay-to-producttemperature difference.
With both the product and heating surfaces close
to the same temperature, localized hot spots are
minimized.
As previously described, there are rising film
and falling film evaporators as well as combination
rising/falling film designs. Both tubular and plate con
tions are available.
RISING FILM EVAPORATORS

In a rising film design, liquid feed enters the bottom of the heat
exchanger and when evaporation begins, vapor bubbles are formed. As the product
continues up either the tubular or plate channels and the evaporation process continues, vapor occupies an increasing amount of the channel. Eventually, the entire
center of the channel is filled with vapor while the liquid forms a film on the heat
transfer surface.
The effect of gravity on a rising film evaporator is twofold. It acts to keep the
liquid from rising in the channel. Further, the weight of the liquid and vapor in the
channel pressurizes the fluid at the bottom and with the increased pressure comes
an increase in the boiling point. A rising film evaporator therefore requires a larger
minimum ATthan does a falling film unit.
The majority of the liquid residence time occurs in the lower portion of the
channel before there is sufficient vapor to form a film. If the liquid is not preheated
above the boiling point, there will be no vapor and since a liquid pool will fill the
entire area, the residence time will increase.

17

FALLING FILM EVAPORATORS

As liquid enters the top of a falling film evaporator, a liquid film formed by gravity
flows down the heat transfer surface. During evaporation, vapor fills the center of
the channel and as the momentum of the vapor accelerates the downward movement,
the film becomes thinner. Since the vapor is working with gravity, a falling film
evaporator produces thinner films and shorter residence times than a rising film
evaporator for any given set of conditions.
TUBULAR AND
PLATE FILM EVAPORATORS

When compared to tubular designs, plate evaporators offer improved residence time
since they carry less volume within the heat exchanger. In addition, the height of a
plate evaporator is less than that of a tubular system.
ESTIMATING
RESIDENCE TIME

It is difficult to estimate the residence

time in film evaporators, especially rising
film units. Correlations, however, are
available to estimate the volume of the
channel occupiet by liquid. Formula 1is
recommended for vacuum systems.
For falling film evaporators, the film
thickness without vapor shearingcan be
calculated by formula 2.
Since the film is thin, this can be converted to liquid volume fraction in a tubular evaporator by formula 3.
For a falling film plate evaporator, formula 4 is used. As liquid travels down
the plate and evaporation starts, vapors (3)
will accelerate the liquid. To account for
this action, the rising film correlation is
used when the film thickness falls below
that of a falling film evaporator. In practice, the film thickness may be less than (4)
estimated by either method becausegravity and vapor momentum will act on the
fluid at the same time.
Once the volume fraction is known,
the liquid residence time is calculated by
formula 5. In order to account for changing liquid and vapor rates, the volume
fraction is calculated at several intervals
along the channel length. Evaporation is

4m
d

RL=

RL=

2m
7

t=-R,AL
q,

(a) two stages

(b) three stages

(c) plate gap .3"assumed

assumed to be constant along with channel length except for flash due to high feed
temperature.
The table shows a comparison of contact times for typical four effect evaporators
handling 80 GPM of feed. The tubular designs are based on 2"diameter by 30 feet.
Designs using different tube lengths, incidentally, do not change the values for a
rising film tubular system.
The given values represent total contact time on the evaporator surface which is
the most crucial part of the processing time. Total residence time would include
contact in the preheater and separator as well as additional residence within interconnecting pipi?g.
While there is noexperimental data
available to verify these numbers,
experience with falling film plate and
tubular evaporators shows that the
values are reasonable. It has been
noted that formula 2 predicts film
thicknesses that are too high as the
product viscosity rises so, in actuality,
4th effect falling film residence times
probably are somewhat shorter than
charted.
SUMMARY

Film evaporators offer the dual advantages of low residence time and low
temperature difference which help
assure a high product quality when
concentrating heat sensitive products.
In comparing the different types of
film evaporators that are available,
falling film designs provide the lowest
possible A T and the falling film plate
evaporator provides the shortest residence time.
19

plate type evaporators

Toeffectively concentrate an increasing variety of products which differ by industry
in such characteristics as physical properties, stability, or precipitation of solid
matter, equipment manufacturers have engineered a full range of evaporation systems. Included among these are a number of plate type evaporators.
Plate evaporators initially were developed and introduced by APV in 1957 to
provide an alternative to the tubular systems that had been in use for half a century.
The differences and advantages were many. The plate evaporator, for example,
offers full accessibility to the heat transfer surfaces. It also provides flexible capacity
merely by adding more plate units, shorter product residence time resulting in a
superior quality concentrate, a more compact design with low headroom requirements, and low installation cost.
These APV plate evaporation systems are made in four arrangements-rising/
falling film, falling film, Paravap, and Paraflash-and may be sized for use in new
product development or for production at pilot plant or full scale operating levels.
rising/falling film plate
The principle of operation for the risinglfalling film plate evaporator (RFFPE)involves
the use of a nurqber of plate packs or units, each consisting of two steam plates and
two product plates. As shown in Fig. 1,these are hung in a frame which resembles
that of a plate heat exchanger. The first product passage is a rising pass and the
second, a falling pass. The steam plates, meanwhile, are arranged alternately between
each product passage.
The product to be evaporated is fed through two parallel feed ports and is equally
distributed to each of the rising film annuli. Normally, the feed liquor is introduced
at a temperature slightly higher than the evaporation temperature in the plate
annuli, and the ensuing flash distributes the feed liquor across the width of the
plate. Rising film boiling occurs as heat is transferred from the adjacent steam
passage with the vapors that are produced helping togenerate a thin, rapidly moving
turbulent liquid film.
During operation, the vapor and partially concentrated liquid mixture rises to the
top of the first product pass and transfers through a slot above one of the adjacent
steam passages. The mixture enters the falling film annulus where gravity further
assists the film movement and completes the evaporation process. The rapid movement of the thin film is the key to producinglow residence time within the evaporator
as well as superior heat transfer coefficients. At the base of the falling film annulus,
a rectangular duct connects all of the plate units and transfers the evaporated liquor
and generated vapor into a separating device. Steam and condensate ports connect
to all the steam annuli (Fig. 2).
The plate evaporator is designed to operate at pressures extending from 10 psig to
full vacuum when using any number of effects. However, the maximum pressure
differential normally experienced between adjacent annuli during single effect operation is 15 psig. This, and the fact that the pressure differential always is from the

2o

steam side to the product side, considerably reduces design requirements for supporting the plates. The operating pressures are equivalent to a water vapor saturation
temperature range of 245F downwards and thus are compatible with the use of
nitrile or butyl rubber gaskets for sealing the plate pack.
Most rising/falling f i h plate evaporators are used for duties in the
food, juice and dairy industries
where the low residence time and
100 to 200F operating range temperatures are essential for the production of quality concentrate. An
increasing number of plate evaporators, however, are being operated
successfully in both pharmaceutical and chemical plants on such
products as antibiotics and inorganic acids. These evaporators are
available a s multi-effect and/or
FIG. 1 Risindfallina- film .plate evaporator in final
stages of f a b r ~ t i o n .
multistage systems to allow relatively high concentration ratios to be carried out in a single pass, non-recirculatory
flow.
The rising/falling film plate evaporator should be given consideration for various
applications that
require operating temperatures between 80-210F
w have a capacity range of 1000-35,000lbs/hr water removal
w have a need for future capacity increase since evaporator capabilities can be
extended by adding plate units or by the addition of extra effects
w require the evaporator to be installed in an area that has limited headroom
w where product quality demands a low timekemperature relationship
where suspended solid level is low and feed can be passed through 50 mesh
screen

21

A Junior version of the evaporator is

available for pilot plant and test work
and for low capacity production. If necessary, this can be in multi-effect/multistage arrangements such as the system
illustrated by Fig. 3.
falling film plate
Incorporating all the advantages of the
original rff plate evaporator system with
the added benefits of shorter residence
time and larger evaporation capabilities,
the falling film plate evaporator has
gained wide acceptance for the concenFIG. 3 Three-effect, four-stage Junior
tration of heat sensitive products. With
its larger vapor ports, evaporation capacities are typically up to 50-60,000lbskr.
The falling film plate evaporator consists of gasketed plate units (each with a
product and a steam plate) compressed
within a frame that is ducted to a separator. The number of plate units used is
determined by the duty to be handled.
As shown in Fig. 4,one of the important innovations in this type of evaporator is the patented feed distribution
system. Feed liquor first is introduced
FIG. 4 Typical product and steam plate unit
through an orifice (1)into a chamber (2)
for falling film plate evaporator.
above the product plate where mild flashing occurs. This vaporfliquid mixture then passes through a single product transfer
hole (3) into a flash chamber (4)which extends across the top of the adjacent steam
plate. More flash vapor results as pressure is further reduced and the mixture
passes in both directions into the falling film plate annulus through a row of small
distribution holes (5).These assure an even film flow down the product plate surface
where evaporation occurs. A unique feature is the ability to operate the system
either in parallel or in series, giving a two-stage capability to each frame. This is
particularly advantageous if product recirculation is not desirable.
In the two-stage method of operation, feed enters the left side of the evaporator
and passes down the left half of the product plate where it is heated by steam coming
from the steam sections. After the partially concentrated product is discharged to
the separator, it is pumped to the right side of the product plate where concentration
is completed. The final concentrate is extracted while vapor is discharged to a
subsequent evaporator effect or to a condenser.
Paravap
The operating principle of the Paravap represents an application of the thin film,
turbulent path evaporation process and in many cases, replaces the wiped or agitated
film evaporator. Since it has no mechanical moving parts within the heat transfer

22

FIG. 5 Single effect R86 Paravap

FIG. 7 Single effect, forced circulation
Paraflash

area, costly maintenance repairs common to wiped film systems are eliminated. It
is especially designed to concentrate liquids with high solids contents or non-Newtonian viscosity characteristics.
With feed liquor and the heating medium of steam, hot water
or hot oil directed into alternate passages within a plate heat
exchanger, boiling begins as the liquid contacts the heated
plates. The small plate gap and high velocity flow pattern
(Fig. 6) atomizes the feed and provides a greater liquid
FIG, 6
surface area for mass transfer. Since the vapor carries
the feed in the form of minute particles, the apparent viscosity
within the heat exchanger plate pack is very low. The final
product, however, may be extremely viscous after separation from the vapor.
Advantages include low residence time to minimize thermal degradation, low
rates of fouling, and economical operation.
Typical applications: concentrating soap to final product consistency; concentrating apple puree from 25 to 40"brix, grape puree to 50"brix, cherry puree to 60"brix,
fruit juices to 95% solids, and sugar or corn syrup solutions to over 97%; solvent
stripping duties such as hexane from oil.
PRODilCT

OR COOLlNG
LIOUIO

Paraflash
Operating under a suppressed boiling, forced circulation principle, the APV Paraflash
is used to concentrate products subject to fouling too excessive for film evaporators.
Unlike the Paravap, vaporization does not occur within the heat exchanger plate
pack. Instead, liquor flashes as it enters a separator, crystallization takes place, and
a suspended slurry results. Suppressed boiling combined with high liquid velocities
deters scaling on the heat transfer surface, minimizes cleaning downtime, and
promotes longer production runs.
The Paraflash can be used in single or multiple effects for such products as grape
juice (tartrate crystals), coffee, wheat starch, distillery effluent, and brewer's yeast
(suspended solids).
23

process controls
microprocessor automation/colorgraphics
As food and chemical processing methods have become more complex, techniques
for controlling process equipment and systems have kept pace. The popular trend is
toward full automation through the use of microprocessor based electronic monitor/
control systems. However, the ready availability of sophisticated controls does not
necessarily mean that all process control must go that route. Since process and
control should be mated for optimum productivity and cost effectiveness, only the
amount of control necessary for a given application should be used. This may
involve any of three approaches-manual, analog, or microprocessor automation.
manual control

The simplest method of control is that which involves a dedicated operator who
monitors system variables and makes the adjustments required to return the process
to standard or specification.
When the volume of material being processed is small or when the cost of labor is
not a significant factor in the cost of production, manual control of evaporation has
proved to be satisfactory. Various components such as pumps and valves are activated
in proper sequence by the operator via pushbutton or selector switch. Control of
system variables, i.e., steam flow, steam pressure, feed flow, temperature, and product
concentration, can be maintained to specification either by the operator or by selfacting controllers.
analog control

Providing semi-automation, analog loops assume control of evaporation once the

operator has sequentially selected on/off or openklose modes and has determined
the desired set point for any number of variables. Thereafter, evaporator functions
automatically are monitored and adjusted as necessary to maintain equilibrium.
While alarms may be incorporated for variables not within standard, the operator
then is relied upon to re-establish equilibrium.
microprocessor control

For optimum processing with increased productivity and the elimination of product
variances due to human error, evaporator systems may be operated under completely
automated microprocessor control. Available monitorkontrol micro systems start
with the compact, yet powerful, ACCOS 3 MLC which can control up to 108 items
and extend through the larger ACCOS 2S+.The latter can individually handle up to
756 functions or, when interconnected with additional units and a supervisory
controller, form a network encompassing more than 3000 items. These include start
up procedures, calculation and adjustment of product values and equipment settings,
routine or emergency shutdown procedures, automatic CIP, and other monitoring or
actions. Systems are programmed in plain English so that plant engineers and
operating personnel may write or make modifications without involving automation
specialists.
Colorgraphic displays also are available to provide a color visualization of the
current state of process equipment for the operator in an unmistakable fashion.

24

Typical colorgraphics present high resolution displays in vividcolors to helpoperators

constantly monitor the statusof equipment
operation.

an ACCOS 2S+ process

control system

25

tubular evaporators
to&sanitarystamdards
As many small processors band together to form centrally located cooperatives, a
corresponding change is occurring in the equipment that is required to handle large
scale concentration of liquid food and dairy products in an efficient, economical
manner. Plate type evaporators with their water removal limitations of typically
60,000 lbs/hr are being replaced by tubular systems of double or triple that capacity.
To meet the processing needs of these large food and dairy cooperatives, the
design and fabrication of tubular evaporators have been brought into compliance
with the legal standards established by various official regulatory groups for sanitary
operations.
The tubular evaporator system consists primarily of three components:
a vertical heating tube bundle which is housed within an insulated steam
jacket or calandria
a distribution device which allows even liquid flow over the tube circumference and, therefore, prevents dry spots on the heat transfer surface
a separator to efficiently extract liquid droplets from the vapor steam and
thereby minimize carry-over of product
To these are added basic feed tanks, preheaters, ductwork, product and CIP piping,
and necessary pumps.
manufacturingto 3A
While tubular evaporators designed for
chemical processing duties generally are
manufactured of carbon or pickled stainless steel, the very nature of the products
handled in the dairy and food fields necessitates the use of highly polished stainless steel for all product contact surfaces.
The basic evaporator effect, for example, consists of a shell, a top and bottom
tube sheet, and a bundle of 2 diameter
seamless seal welded heat transfer tubes
numbering anywhere from 100 to 1000or
more depending upon the requirements
of the evaporation duty. This is topped
by a feed distribution system and a cover
or bonnet that clamps to the calandria.
Beneath this unit is the product sump or
discharge area and adjacent, the vapor/
liquid separator.
As shown in the Fig. 1cutaway drawing, feed is charged t o t h e system

26

INLETGASKET

GASKET

FIG. 1
Cutaway of tubular
evaporator calandria
and
. -vauor/liauid
-r
.
separator.

~%VTION

PLATE

through an inlet at the top of the bonnet and floods the surface of the distribution
system. As the liquid flows through many small holes, it spreads evenly across the
entire face of the top tube sheet which is mounted about one inch below and eventually moves into each of the heat transfer tubes that extend the full height of the
calandria.
Since there are many product contact surfaces in this portion of the evaporator
(the inside of the feed inlet piping, both top and bottom of the distribution plate, the
top of the tube sheet, and the interiors of all tubes), the 304 stainless steel used is
polished to a #4/150-180-or-340grit. APV finishes thus match and very often exceed
3A standards which call for a surface finish equivalent to 150grit. Furthermore, the
one inch riser which is added perpendicularly to the tube sheet to form a product
reservoir is fabricated with a minimum l/'' radius polished fillet weld. This eliminates
any possibility of pockets in which product may collect. Gaskets sealing the perimeter
of both the distribution and tube sheet plates are made of dairy grade neoprene.
While the evaporator shell normally is fabricated of 304 stainless, polishing is not
required since there are no product contact areas.
At the bottom of the evaporator effect, all areas come in contact with product and,
consequently, are of polished stainless. This includes the underside of the bottom
tube sheet, the product sump, ductwork leading to the adjacent separator and the
interior of the separator itself. When sight glasses, manways, nozzles and light
glasses are added, interior welds are ground and polished smooth and flush while
the components themselves are mounted at a minimum 3" angle to allow for proper
drainage. Finally, downstream ductwork between vessels is sloped from 3" to 5"
away from the product contact surfaces. In effect, nothing is installed at less than
a 90" angle so that possible product traps are eliminated and the entire system is
both cleanable and drainable.
27

advancesin RlvIt
evaporator technology
In recent years, mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) technology has been introduced and widely accepted as an effective approach to powering medium to large
capacity evaporators for both chemical and sanitary applications. While experience
has shown that the higher capital cost of this equipment relative to that of steam
driven evaporation systems has been offset by significant energy savings, advances
in MVR technology now have reduced energy requirements even further.
MVR defined
Simply stated, with mechanical recompression the water vapor boiled off in the
evaporator is passed to an electrically powered compressor and is compressed through
1-3psi. This raises the temperature of the vapor which then is used as the heating
medium. The difference in enthalpy between the vapors on the heating and process
sides is comparatively small with a resultant reduction in energy consumption and,
depending upon regional steam and power costs, an operating cost equivalent to at
least an 8-30effect evaporator. Theoretical thermal efficiency may exceed that of a
60-effectsteam evaporator.
Typically, Figure l a shows a single effect steam evaporator operating at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia) with vapor being produced at 212F and sent to a condenser. The heat source for this system is steam at 17.2 psia, condensing at 220F.
In Figure lb, the same evaporator is shown operating with mechanical vapor
recompression. In this case, the vapor at 2l2"F, 14.7 psia, is sent to a compressor
where its pressure is raised to 17.2 psia. It then is charged to the steam side of the
evaporator as the heating medium, condensing at 220F. Savings are realized in two
areas: no steam is required for evaporation although nominal amounts are required
for startup and compressor seals, and since the vapor from the evaporator is not sent
to a condenser, cooling water requirements are dramatically reduced.
It will be shown later that excess vapor is produced due to the inefficiencies in the
compression cycle. This excess vapor is used to compensate for vent and radiation
losses and at times, as an assist to preheating.
TABLE 1 SATURATED A T AT
development of MVR evaporators

VARIOUS COMPRESSION RATIOS, "F

To a large extent, the design of MVR evaporators has been dictated by the capabilities of the compressors available at the time.
The primary limitation has been the compression ratio (discharge pressure divided
by suction pressure) that can be achieved
since this determines the temperature difference available for the evaporator. For
example, if an evaporator is run at 212F
and atmosDheric Dressure and a comwession ratio of 1.4 isAused, the steam prlssurs at the discharge of the compressor is
1.4 x 14.7 psia or 20.58 psia. Since water vapor at 20.58 psia condenses at 229.5'F,

28

FIG. 1A SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

CONDENSER

I
FEED
STEAM
CONDENSATE

PRODUCT

the allowable temperature difference AT for the evaporator is 17.5"F before losses
are considered. Table 1 shows the total temperature differences for a number
of conditions.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

The relatively high volume of vapor encountered in evaporators requires the use of centrifugal compressors in
most cases. Initially, centrifugal compressors on steam
were limited to a compression ratio of 1.4 which in turn
limited the available temperature difference to between 13
and 17.5"Fdepending on boiling temperature. Only film
evaporators could use MVR since there was not sufficient
temperature difference to consider forced circulation
designs. Furthermore, products having significant boiling 800 HP centrifugal compre5sor
is carefully moved into position
point elevation were excluded from this technique.
Two trends developed in recent years, however, have increased MVR capabilities
and applications.
First of all, improved design allows centrifugal compressors to run at higher
speeds, increasing compression ratios approximately to 2.0 to 1.Consequently, a AT
of 27 to 36F now can be obtained and thus, MVR can be used with forced circulation
systems and for the evaporation of products with boiling point elevations.
Secondly, advances in evaporator design allow the operation of film evaporators
with a lower AT, thereby minimizing energy requirements. For some products, film
evaporators can be calculated with a AT (excluding losses) in the range of 6F.

29

FIG 2 MULTIPLE
EFFECT MVR, CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR WITH FINISHER

SLPERHEATER

t *-

COMPRESSOR

CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR

FIG. 3 SINGLE EFFECT MVR EVAPORATOR WITH CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR AND ROTARY BLOWER DRIVEN FINISHER

FINISHER

By increasing the A T available and decreasing the A T required, it also became

possible to design multiple effect MVR evaporators. Figure 2 illustrates a double
effect MVR system with a forced circulation finisher operating across all effects.
With this arrangement, the flow to the compressor is reduced and the finisher,
operating at the higher concentration, takes advantage of the full AT available.
FANS

The next development in MVR design was an apparent reversal of prior advances.
As the required AT across a film evaporator decreased, it became possible to
provide that A T by using a fan. This produces a compression ratio on the order of
1.2 to 1, providing approximately 7 or 8F A T (before losses) for evaporation. The
MVR system previously discussed and shown in Figure 2 is typical of fan use. It
should be noted that the fan MVR technique can be used only on single effect film
evaporators handling product without significant boiling point. Where the heat
transfer coefficient of the product is low, it sometimes is better to make use of the
higher A T available from a centrifugal compressor.
Where fans can be used, however; the horsepower requirement usually is less
than in centrifugal compressor designs. Furthermore, fans do not require that the
inlet vapor be superheated. Instead, this is done either by a separate heat exchanger
using steam or by recycling some of the compressor discharge vapor to the compressor
suction.
It is, incidentally, a common practice to use a fan evaporator to concentrate a
product up to a point where a larger A T is required and then to switch to a small
steam or MVR finishing evaporator for final concentration.

30

OTHER DESIGNS

Rotary blowers are low capacity positive compressors which occasionally are used
with small MVR evaporators of up to approximately 15,000 lbs/hr capacity. This
generally is a finishing type evaporator.
In some cases, two compressors will be arranged in series as is shown in Figure
3. Here, the bulk of the evaporation is done in a single effect MVR system having a
centrifugal compressor. Some of the compressor discharge vapor then is further
compressed in a blower in order to operate a finishing evaporator.
estimating compressor power requirements

To calculate estimated power requirements for an MVR compressor, power and A T

values for both centrifugal compressors and fans have been plotted in Figures 4 and
5 respectively. These values compare reasonably well with installed MVR systems.

BOILING
TEMP. 130F
CR

AT

HP

BOILING
TEMP. 170F
CR

AT

HP

BOILING
TEMP. 212'F

CR

AT

HP

1.3 10.00 9.3s 1.3 11.65 10.01 1.3 13.53 10.67

1.4 12.91 12.1E 1.4 15.03 12.99 1.4 17.47 13.85

1.6 18.21 17.3@ 1.6 21.23 18.54 1.6 24.69 19.76
1.8 22.98 22.15 1.8 26.81 23.63 1.8 31.20 25.18

2.0 27.31 26.57 2.0 31.89 28.34 2.0 37.16 30.20

HORSEPOWER PER 10WIHR COMPRESSORINLET FLOW

2.2 31.30 30.69 2.2 36.57 32.74 2.2 41.31 34.88

14
13
12
LL

11

10

FIG. 5 HORSEPOWER VS A T FOR FANS

FANS
BOILING
TEMP. 130F

BOILING
TEMP. 17OoF
CR

AT

3.59 2.99

1.1

6.91 5.79

1.2

CR

AT

1.1

1.2

HP

HP

BOILING
TEMP. 212F
CR

AT

HP

4.173.19

1.1

4.85 3.41

8.04 6.18

1.2

9.34 6.60

1.3 10.00 8.43

1

1.3 11.65 9.00

1.3 13.53 9.60

HORSEPOWER PER 1WMtiHR FLOW

NOTE: Vapor assumed to be superheated 10F

by external steam.

31

TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF TYPICAL MVR DESIGNS (APPROXIMATE)

boiling temperature - 130" F
evaporation rate - 60,00O#/hr

HP/1000 #/HR VAPOR FLOW

5.79

TOTAL HORSEPOWER

374.4

EQUIVALENT BTU

17.38
521.4

26.57
531.4

884,133

1,326,963

1,352.413

EQUIVALENT STEAM #/HR

870

1315

1347

EQUIVALENT STEAM ECONOMY

69

45.6

44.5

AVERAGE A T PER EFFECT

BEFORE LOSSES, OF

6.9

NOTE

9.1

9.1

I n this example, the f a n horsepower is lower than either of the centrifugal designs, b u t the lower AT
required t h e g r e a t e r t h e surfacearea

Table 2, meanwhile, compares

the power requirements for different MVR designs. Note that
it is possible to calculate an
equivalent steam economy by
converting horsepower to Btu/
h r and multiplying by 2545.
This value then is divided by the
latent heat to arrive at the equivalent steam used.

TABLE 3 PROPERTIES OF WATER VAPOR

thermodynamics of MVR

To fully comprehend the potential of MVR evaporation, it is

important that the thermody1.7568
I 1.7442 I 1.7596 I
namics of this technique be
examined. This analysisinvolves Table 3 as well as the steam and MVR evaporator
schematics shown in Figures l a and lb.
The first two columns of Table 3 give the properties of saturated water vapor at
14.7 psia, 212F and at 17.2 psia, 220F. These values can be used to estimate the
energy requirements for an evaporator operating at these conditions.
Looking first at the steam evaporator shown in Figure l a , water at 17.2 psia, 220F
has an enthalpy (heat content) of 188.2 BtuAb while steam at the same conditions
has an enthalpy of 1153.4 Btu/lb. The differencebetween the vapor and liquid is the
latent heat or 965.2 Btu/lb. In other words, in order to produce one pound of steam
at 220F, 17.2 psia, from water at 220F, 17.2 psia, the addition of 965.2 Btu/lb of
energy is required.
32

llM6

In the case of the MVR evaporator, however, the vapor at 17.2 psia, &>
220F (enthalpy 1153.4 Btu/lb) is 4$ 11534
c
produced from vapor at 2l2"F, 14.7
psia (enthalpy 1150.5 Btdlb). Theo- :11505
retically, only 2.9 Btu/lb of energy
must be added.
The compressor, a fan in this
case, operates under the requirement that the entropy of the discharge vapor be at least as high as
S-ENTROPY BTUiLB F
the entropy of the inlet vapor. Since
inefficiencies in the compression
FIG. 6 ENTHALPY/ENTROPY DIAGRAM
cvcle will result in an exit entropy
above that of the inlet entropy,the temperature of the existing vapor and energy
input to the compressor must be increased.
Figure 6 is an enthalpy/entropy diagram for water vapor. The vapor at 14.7 psia,
2l2"F, is shown at point A. During compressions the entropy remains constant
(ideally) or increases (actually). With typical efficiencies for this duty, the discharge
temperature may be expected to rise to 243F where the enthalpy is 1164.6 Btu/lb.
The energy input from the compressor is 14.1Btu/lb.
In order to cool the vapor to its condensing temperature of 220"F, 11.2 BtuAb of heat
is removed. This can be done by introducing condensate at 220F from the steam
side of the evaporator. The 11.2 Btu/lb of heat removed from the vapor is absorbed
into the condensate, some of which will vaporize and give off what is known as
'excess vapor: For every pound of vapor cooled, 11.2 Btu of heat is absorbed in the
condensate which requires 965.2 Btu/lb to boil. Therefore, for each pound of vapor
leaving the compressor, 11.21965.2 or 0.0116 pounds of excess vapor are available.
This excess vapor is used in several ways. Since there is a slight difference in
latent heat between the steam and vapor, slightly more steam is required than the
vapor generated. Other excess vapor is used to cover losses due to radiation and
venting, is made available in some instances for preheating, or is sent to a condenser.
It is significant to note that the condenser on an MVR evaporator is responsible only
for vent and excess vapors. This results in a much lower cooling requirement than
is necessary for steam evaporators.
It is possible to calculate an equivalent steam economy for an MVR system. In this
example, for every pound of water evaporated, 970.3 Btu is absorbed. The compressor
supplies 14.1 Btu but with motor and gear losses, probably requires 14.5 Btu of
energy. The equivalent economy (970.3114.5) is 67 to 1. Since one horsepower is
equivalent to 2545 Btu/hr, the compressor in the example requires 14.512545 or
0.0057 HP per l b k r of evaporation.
It should be noted that pressure losses through the evaporator which must be
absorbed by the compressor have not been considered in this example. These losses
would be taken into account either by higher compressor horsepower or by lower A T
over the heat transfer surface.

33

evaporatorsfor
chenzical applications
The APV range of evaporators covers many duties in the concentration of chemicals
with both film and forced circulation systems being available as required.
Film evaporators are used when there is little or no risk of fouling of the heating
surfaces. Where such a risk is present, forced circulation units are recommended.
All designs are suitable for multi-effect evaporation. At low concentrations, mechanical vapor recompression should be employed.
After selecting the type of evaporator required for a particular duty, the most
important factor deciding its suitability is the materials of construction. In general
non-metallic surfaces are employed but in certain special cases, at low concentrations
and temperatures and in the presence of inhibiting ions, conventional materials
such as standard grades of stainless steel or copper can be used. Higher grades of
stainless steel are suitable under some conditions and titanium has been successfully
employed with anodic protection.
APV evaporators are constructed from various standard corrosion-resistant materials according to the characteristics of the feed solution and the temperature of
operation. As an example, concentration of a sulfuric acid solution of up to 50%at
302F (150C)would call for main plant items of filament wound fiberglass reinforced
epoxy resin and heating and cooling surfaces of impervious graphite. If the sulfuric
acid solution is between 50 and 80%with temperatures up to 230F (llO"C), main
plant items should be lead-lined mild steel protected with refractories or carbon
tiles. Heat transfer surfaces again would be of impervious graphite.
TYPICALAPPLICATIONS
sulfuric acid nickel sulfate

During the electrolytic refining of copper, impurities build up in the electrolyte

causing an increase in electrical resistance and ultimately giving contamination of
the refined copper. One of the major elements involved is nickel, frequently introduced
with the copper scrap used in the manufacture of the anodes.
Nickel may be removed by evaporating the electrolyte after separation of copper
from solution by electro-winning until the sulfuric acid in the liquor reaches 70
percent w/w. At this concentration, virtually all the nickel is precipitated as nickel
sulfate crystals which may be separated and sold. The recovered acid is returned to
the electrolyte.
Due to the high b.p.e. (boiling point elevations) of the liquor and the high cost of
materials to withstand the 70 percent acid, evaporation is usually done in two
stages. The first stage concentrates the acid up to 45-50 percent total solids, at
which point filament wound fiberglass reinforced epoxy resin and graphite materials
may be used, while the second stage requires materials such as homogeneously leadlined mild steel and silicon iron. Graphite heating surfaces are used in both cases.

34

Single effect forced

circulation sulfuric acid
evaporator is constructed
from lead, graphite, silicon
iron and Keebush plastic.

The bulk of the evaporation is carried out in the first stage and the evaporator at this
point may be in a single or multiple effect configuration depending upon the capacity
involved.
Although nickel sulfate is precipitated only in the final stages of concentration, it
usually is necessary to employ forced circulation throughout because the accumulation of calcium in the electrolyte leads to calcium sulfate scaling on the heating
surfaces of the system. Even with forced circulation, there is an accumulation of
scale but it may be removed by washing at regular intervals. Mechanical descaling
is rarely, if ever, required even though severe scaling may occur on tubular heaters
used for heating the same electrolyte.
The methods just described are proven evaporation applications in a hydrometallurgical duty and although the information refers to the extraction of nickel from
electrolyte, a similar process may be used for other serious contaminants. Other
processes under consideration involve the leaching of ores with acid that must be
recycled for water removal at some stage to maintain the material balance in the
circuit.
titanium sulfate

The production of titanium dioxide pigments involves reaction between sulfuric

acid and the ore which contains iron, titanium sulfate and other compounds.
After pretreatment which includes the crystallization of iron as ferrous sulfate,
the liquor is heated and hydrolyzed to precipitate titanium dioxide. Prior to this
operation, the concentration of liquor has to be adjusted by the evaporation of water.
It is essential that this process takes place in an evaporator with short heat contact
times in order to avoid the premature hydrolysis that occurs with prolonged heating

35

and subsequently causes fouling of the heat surface and blockage of the tubes.
Although the liquor contains a high proportion of sulfuric acid, the presence of
other ions in solution may inhibit corrosion so that copper often can be used for heat
transfer surfaces. In some applications where minimal pickup is required for special
products, graphite is employed. The remainder of the equipment is manufactured
from filament-wound fiberglass reinforced epoxy resin which is completely resistant
to the liquors involved.
Generally, single or multiple effect rising film evaporators are used for this duty,
the number of effects being determined by throughput and by assessing the cost of
operation against the increase in capital required for additional equipment.
In some cases, it is economically attractive to operate the evaporator as a single
effect unit at atmospheric pressure using the vapor given off for preheating. The
liquor is discharged at a temperature in excess of 212F ( l O O O C ) , reducing the subsequent thermal load at the hydrolysis stage.
spin bath and coagulating bath liquors

Some synthetic fibers or films such as rayon and cellophane are produced from
cellulose. In the process, the cellulose is extracted in alkaline solutions containing
sulfur compounds. This liquor is neutralized by injection into sulfuric acid under
controlled conditions and the cellulose is deposited as a fiber or film of the required
form and thickness.
Water accumulates in the liquor from various sources, particularly from the
chemical reaction between the acid and alkali, and must be removed to maintain the
volume and concentration in the bath. While it is most convenient to use an evaporator for this purpose, careful design is necessary to prevent fouling on the vapor side.
The liquors are corrosive because of the sulfuric acid present and exhibit a tendency
to scale due to the sulfur based materials. In addition, various volatile compounds
are present. In general, rising film evaporators are recommended for this duty in
either single or multiple effect depending upon the capacity required. Materials of
construction are filament-wound fiberglass reinforced epoxy resin for all contact
parts with impervious graphite for heat transfer surfaces.
In addition to water, sodium sulfate accumulates in the liquor due to reaction
between the acid and alkali. It may be removed as Glaubers salt by flash evaporation
at a high vacuum in a specially designed crystallization system. Again, corrosion
resistant materials are used because of the sulfuric acid content.
strong acids

During many organic reactions, sulfuric acid is present in large quantities to act as
a dehydrating agent, absorbing water and thereby maintaining the reaction rate. To
permit continuous operation and prevent the rejection of diluted acid, it is necessary
to remove the water from the acid.
This evaporation process is complicated by the presence of many intermediate
and residual organic products which have a high tar content and can cause serious
scaling on the heating surfaces. Therefore, forced circulation systems operating
under vacuum generally are applied. After discharge from the vapor/liquor separator
into a settling vessel, liquor is circulated through the appropriate calandria by
means of glandless recirculation pumps.

36

APV rising/falling film tubular evaporator

concentrated 1500 Ibs/hr of phosphoric
acid from 5% to 50'71.Fabricated of
corrosion resistant plastics and Karbate

The capacities required sometimes can justify multiple effect evaporation although
this is not always favored due to difficulties in design with the high boiling point
elevation involved, the low steam cost prevailing in some refineries, and a desire to
employ the simplest possible system.
caustic soda

Mercerizing is a process during which the surface of cotton is polished by the

removal of loose fibers. As the cloth is immersed in a 50 percent sodium hydroxide
solution, loose fibers are washed away and the solution is diluted to 15-20percent.
Following evaporation of the weak liquor to 30 percent, flake caustic is added to reestablish a 50 percent concentration.
Since steam is needed in the dyeing and calendaring phases of cotton processing,
it is best that evaporation be done with the first effect at atmospheric pressure. The
process thus lends itself to the use of rising film and/or falling film plate evaporators
which also make possible the use of low level structures.
electrolytic cell liquors

In the diaphragm cell process, liquors produced at 10 percent sodium hydroxide and
15 percent sodium chloride require crystallization of the salt and concentration to 50
37

percent sodium hydroxide. Required liquid flow and evaporation rates necessitate
the use of multi-effect evaporation. Care must be taken to minimize sodium chloride
solubility and therefore, maximize crystal yield. Special attention must be paid to
solubility/temperature/concentrations.
phosphoric acid

,Phosphoric acid can be produced by the digestion of phosphate rock (calcium phosphate and fluoride among others) in sulfuric acid, better known as the wet process
acid. Since calcium sulfate normally is a constituent, scaling must be considered.
Phosphate rock varies in composition and in general, periodic cleaning is required
even in forced circulation evaporators.
Sulfuric acid plants often are located along coastal areas and a further problem in
concentration stems from the use of sea water in the direct contact condensers.
With silica present in the phosphate rock, fluorine reacts to form hydrofluorosilicic
acid (HzSiFs)which in turn, forms a sodium salt from the NaC1. Sodium fluorosilicic
can block the condensers.
ammonium nitrates

This material has several significant properties:

a) low viscosity which allows it to be concentrated to 99+ percent w/w when it is
prilled.
b) above 95 percent, ammonium nitrate has an enormous boiling point elevation
which requires exceedingly high steam pressures for heating. This presents
considerable mechanical problems.
c) any organic impurity has the potential for explosion-such that extra low
carbon stainless steels must be used for heat transfer surfaces and the use of
mineral oils for heating is excluded.
The type of evaporator best suited for ammonium nitrate depends upon the initial
and final concentrations. For the range below 70 percent and up to 80-85 percent,
rising film multi-effect evaporator units have been used successfully. For 80-96
percent concentrations, conventional falling film systems have been employed. Above
96 percent, however, falling film with a heated air sweep would be used due to partial
pressure conditions. In areas of relatively low humidity, 99+ percent water to water
can be achieved.
ammonium sulfate

Ammonium sulfate is used in battery spacer plate production and also has been
crystallized. In this process, small but regular sized crystals are mixed with a PVC
type plastic and dissolved out of the final sheet which then is used as spacer plate.
Stainless steel has been successfully employed as the material of construction.
barium salts

The production of barium salt involves the use of sodium sulfide, a material which
closely resembles caustic soda in both physical and corrosive properties. It generally
is concentrated in a high vacuum crystallizer for the production of barium hydroxide
with rubber lined mild steel being used as the material of construction due to
corrosion considerations. With liquid temperatures below 72F, two hydratesmono and penta-can be produced on separate flakers.
38

Ready for dissembly and

shipping, this APV Paraflash
evaporator will concentrate
a potassium hydroxide solution
from 15-40'X total solids at
an evaporation rate of 3200
Itd h r . The system incorporates
an R405 Paraflow equipped
with Incoloy plates and is
expandable to double its
original capacity.

hydrochloric acid/chloride salts

APV evaporators have been applied to steel pickling liquors. In the past, sulfuric acid
was used incorporating crude ferrous sulphate cooler crystallizers and neutralizers.
Now, hydrochloric acid is used, giving faster pickling times and a better steel finish.
glycerine

Sweet water glycerine containing no NaCl has been handled in simple stainless steel
film evaporators by salt and oleo chemical producers. For sodium chloride bearing
liquors as in spent lye for industrial detergent and soap manufacture, cupronickel
alloys must be used.
When the glycerine is contaminated with salt, the special application of forced
circulation crystallizers has been employed for the recovery of the glycerine liquor
and separation of the NaCl salts.
methylene chloride

Methylene chloride is used as a cleaner during the manufacture of printed circuit

boards. Since any residual moisture or other contaminants can have an adverse
effect on the life of the circuit boards, the APV Paraflash evaporator has been used
to concentrate the methylene chloride for return to the wash process.

39

economies
of evaporation
Although concentration of liquids by evaporation is an energy intensive process,
operating costs often are reduced by using a multiple effect evaporator. Total energy
savings, however, must be weighed against the increased capital cost for each evaporator effect that is added.
multiple effect evaporation

When evaporating water, the general rule of thumb is to use 1000 Btu/hr per pound
of water removed. In a multiple effect system, however, water vapor from the first
effect becomes the heating medium for evaporation at reduced pressure in a subsequent effect. Since one pound of steam generally will evaporate one pound of water
vapor for every effect installed, approximately four pounds of water will be boiled off
for each pound of steam used in a typical four effect system as shown in Fig. 19 on
page 14. Such an evaporator thus requires only 250 Btu/hr for each pound of water
evaporated. The number of effects used depends upon the available overall temperature difference within the system. Increasing the effects from four to eight would
further reduce energy use by half. For multiple effect evaporators, therefore, steam
usage in Btu/hr can be approximated by multiplying by 1000 the amount of water
removed in lbs/hr and dividing by the number of effects in use.
Other economic factors involve cooling water and electricity. Since three to six
gallons of condenser cooling water are needed for every pound of steam applied to the
first effect, the cost of the cooling water used and of treated make-up water must be
considered. Added energy also is required for pumping, particularly when water is
supplied from a cooling tower. The remaining factor, energy for circulating and
transfer pumps, is fairly constant regardless of the type of evaporator used.
multiple effect evaporation with TVR

Thermo vapor recompression (TVR) generally is used to increase steam efficiency

in a multi-effect evaporator. As shown in Fig. 1, 3rd effect vapor is split with one
stream being recompressed to the steam side pressure with high pressure steam as
the motivating force. This compressed steam combines with vapor from the boiling
side and mixes in the venturi to form a medium pressure steam. Basically, one half
of the 3rd effect vapor is reused to raise six effect steam efficiency to that of a nine
effect system. While this requires added surface in the first three effects, the therSTEAM
I

FEED t

40

OVER FLOW

FIG. 1 MULTIPLE EFFECT TVR EVAPORATOR

WITH THERMAL COMPRESSION ACROSS THREE EFFECTS

mocompressor and ducting modifications, these added costs normally are much less
than that of an additional three effects.
evaporation by mechanical vapor recompression

Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) is used for medium and large duties where
maximum energy efficiency is required. As previously mentioned, this form of evaporation uses
as the heating medium water vapor compressed
to a higher pressure and temperature. This precludes the need for most external sources of
energy. Depending upon the temperature difference required across the evaporator, a typical system (Fig. 2) consumes as little as 10 to 30 Btu of
energy per pound of water evaporated and is far
more cost efficient than multiple effect evaporators even when factoring electrical energy to
power the compressor. Cooling water needs are
insignificant and electrical power for pumps seldom exceeds normal standards.
On the other hand, MVR evaporators require
low temperature differences and, therefore, large
heat transfer surface areas. This, combined with
compressor costs, results in a high capital investment. Even so, recent cost reductions for compressors and heat transfer surface now make
MVR systems very cost competitive.
FIG. 2 Tubular MVR stillage evaporator

cost comparison

Table A presents a comparison of energy and capital equipment costs for multieffect evaporators, those with TVR units, and MVR systems. Note that cooling
water has been excluded as too small a cost in the overall project while steam
consumption includes preheating feed from ambient to boiling temperature based
on 75%water removal.

st?2t

per hour

Electric
Cost per hour

12,200 Ibs/hr
$915 0

5,800 Ibs/hr
$43.50

70 KW

70 KW

$ 4.20

$ 4.20

1,50OIbs/hr
$11.25

250 KW
$15.00

Energy cost per hour

$95.70

$47.70

$26.25

Energy cost per year

$574,200

$286,200

$157.500

Capital equipment cost

$500,000

$750,000

$775,000

Annualized cost
of capital employed

$125,940

$188,910

$195,207

Total annual cost

$700,140

$475,110

$352.707

41

paekaged evaporators
For evaporation systems of small to moderate size, it often can be economical to
fabricate and supply separators, heat exchangers, tanks, pumps and other components as fully preassembled packages or as major modules which are quickly reassembled at the job site.
Figure 1 pictures two single effect Paraflash systems for the recovery of 1, 1, 1
trichloroethylene. These are fully preassembled on a carbon steel skid and include
all piping and controls. All that is required for
operation is hook up to utilities, Le., steam,
cooling water, instrument air, and electricity.
The system dimensions are 10'9" by 11'10" by
14'3" high.
The Figure 2 photo illustrates a typical rising/falling film plate evaporator designed for
the concentration of a heat sensitive food product. This prepackaged evaporator is arranged
as a single effect with thermal vapor recompression and has a vacuum system t h a t
enables the feed liquor to boil at 75F. Capacity
is 1500 Ibs/hr of water removal and system
dimensions are 6 ' 6 by 17'6"by 15'9" high. Again,
all necessary pumps, piping, wiring and controls were provided.
A slightly different concept was used in fabricating a two stage Paravap system for the
stripping of isopropyl alcohol and water from
a fabric softener. While this system was preassembled at the factory as is shown by Figure 3,
dimensions of 12'0" by 22'6" by 14'6" high precluded shipment as a single unit. Rather, the
evaporator was broken down into major components to facilitate transport and matchmarked to simplify installation.
Both of these approaches to packaged evaporation systems have proved to be beneficial
in a number of ways. Factory fabrication and
pre-installation of wiring and piping tends to
be more efficient and economical than field
work while erection time is reduced considerably. This results in significant savings in local
labor costs.
42

propertiesof
saturaked &eam
temperature tables

Absolute
Pressure
PSlA

Vacuum
In Ha

Specific
Volumes
FVIlb

Latent
Heat
Btullb

32
32.018
33
34

0.08859
0.08865
0.09223
0.09600

29.741
29.741
29.734
29.726

3304.7
3302.4
3180.7
3061.9

1075.5
1075.5
1074.9
1074.4

35
36
37
38
39

0,09991
0.10395
0.10815
0.1 1249
0.11698

29.718
29.710
29.701
29.692
29.683

2948.1
2839.0
2734.4
2634.2
2538.0

1073.8
1073.2
1072.7
1072.1
1071.5

45
46
47
48
49

0.14744
0.15314
0.15904
0.16514
0.17144

29.621
29.610
29.597
29.585
29.572

2037.8
1965.7
1896.5
1830.0
1766.2

1068.1
1067.6
1067.0
1066.4
1065.9

50
51
52
53
54

0.17796
0.i 8469
0.19165
0.19883
0.20625

29.559.
29.545
29.531
29.516
29.501

1704.8
1645.9
1589.2
1534.8
1482.4

1065.3
1064.7
1064.2
1063.6
1063.1

55
56
57
58
59

0.21392
0.22183
0.23000
0.23843
0.24713

29.486
29.470
29.453
29.436
29.418

1432.0
1383.6
1337.0
1292.2
1249.1

1062.5
1061.9
1061.4
1060.8
1060.2

60
61
62
63
64

0.2561 1
0.26538
0.27494
0.28480
0.29497

29.400
29.381
29.362
29.341
29.321

1207.6
1167.6
1 129.2
1092.1
1056.5

1059.7
1059.1
1058.5
1058.0
1057.4

Temp.
F

43

Latent
Heat
Btullb

Absolute
Pressure
PSlA

Vacuum
In Hg

Specific
Volumes
Ft3Ilb

65
66
67
68
69

0.30545
0.31626
0.32740
0.33889
0.35073

29.299
29.277
29.255
29.231
29.207

1022.1
989.0
957.2
926.5
896.9

1056.9
1056.3
1055.7
1055.2
1054.6

70
71
72
73
74

0.36292
0.37549
0.38844
0.40177
0.41550

29.182
29.157
29.130
29.103
29.075

868.4
840.9
814.3
788.8
764.1

1054.0
1053.5
1052.9
1052.4
1051.8

75
76
77
78
79

0.42964
0.44420
0.45919
0.47461
0.49049

29.047
29.017
28.986
28.955
28.923

740.3
717.4
695.2
673.9
653.2

1051.2
1050.7
1050.1
1049.5
1049.0

80
81
82
83
84

0.50683
0.52364
0.54093
0.55872
0.57702

28.889
28.855
28.820
28.784
28.746

633.3
614.1
595.6
577.6
560.3

1048.4
1047.8
1047.3
1046.7
1046.1

0.59583
0.6151a
0.63507
0.65551
0.67653

28.708
28.669
28.628
28.587
28.544

543.6
527.5
51 1.9
496.8
432.2

1045.6
1045.0
1044.4
1043.9
1043.3

90
91
92
93
94

0.69813
0.72032
0.74313
0.76655
0.79062

28.500
28.455
28.408
28.361
28.312

468.1
454.5
441.3
428.6
416.3

1042.7
1042.2
1041.6
1041.0
1040.5

95
96
97
98
99

0.81534
0.84072
0.86679
0.89356
0.92103

28.261
28.210
28.157
28.102
28.046

404.4
392.9
381.7
370.9
360.5

1039.9
1039.3
1038.8
1038.2
1037.6

0.94924
0.97818
1.00789
1.03838
1.06965

27.989
27.930
27.869
27.807
27.743

350.4
340.6
331.1
322.0
313.1

1037.1
1036.5
1035.9
1035.4
1034.8

109

1.10174
1.1347
1.1684
1.2030
1 .ma5

27.678
27.611
27.542
27.417
27.400

304.5
296.1a
288.11
280.30
272.72

1034.2
1033.6
1033.1
1032.5
1031.9

110
111
112
113
114

1.2750
1.3123
1.3505
1.3898
1.4299

27.325
27.249
27.172
27.092
27.001

265.39
258.28
251.38
244.70
238.22

1031.4
1030.8
1030.2
1029.6
1029.1

Temp.
F

100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
i oa

Absolute
Pressure
PSlA

Vacuum
In H a

Specific
Volumes
Ft3Ilb

Latent
Heat
Btullb

115
116
117
118
119

1.4711
1.5133
1.5566
1.6009
1.6463

26.926
26.840
26.752
26.662
26.569

231.94
225.85
219.94
214.21
208.66

1028.5
1027.9
1027.3
1026.8
1026.2

120
121
122
123
124

1.6927
1.7403
1.7891
1.8390
1.8901

26.475
26.378
26.279
26.177
26.073

203.26
198.03
192.95
188.03
183.24

1025.6
1025.0
1024.5
1023.9
1023.3

125
126
127
128
129

1.9428
1.9959
2.0507
2.1068
2.1 642

25.966
25.858
25.746
25.632
25.515

178.60
174.09
169.72
165.47
161.34

1022.7
1022.2
1021.6
1021.0
1020.4

130
131
132
133
134

2.2230
2.2830
2.3445
2.4074
2.4717

25.395
25.273
25.148
25.020
24.889

157.33
153.44
149.66
145.98
142.41

1019.8
1019.3
1018.7
1018.1
1017.5

135
136
137
138
139

2.5375
2.6047
2.6735
2.7438
2.8157

24.755
24.618
24.478
24.335
24.188

138.94
135.57
132.29
129.11
126.01

1016.9
1016.4
1015.8
1015.2
1014.6

140
141
142
143
144

2.8892
2.9643
3.041 1
3.1195
3.1997

24.039
23.886
23.730
23.570
23.407

123.00
120.07
117.22
114.45
111.76

1014.0
1013.4
1012.9
1012.3
1011.7

145
146
147
148
149

3.2816
3.3653
3.4508
3.5381
3.6273

23.240
23.069
22.895
22.718
22.536

109.14
106.59
104.11
101.70
99.35

1011.1
1010.5
1009.9
1009.3
1008.7

3.7184
3.81 14
3.9065
4.0035
4.1025

22.351 .
22.161
21.968
21.770
21.569

97.07
94.84
92.68
90.57
88.52

1008.2
1007.6
1007.0
1006.4
1005.8

155
156
157
158
159

4.2036
4.3068
4.4122
4.5197
4.6294

21.363
21.153
20.938
20.719
20.496

86.52
84.57
82.68
80.83
79.04

1005.2
1004.6
1004.0
1003.4
1002.8

160
161
162
163
164

4.7414
4.8556
4.9722
5.091 1
5.2124

20.678
20.035
19.798
19.556
19.309

77.29
75.58
73.92
72.30
70.72

1002.2
1001.6
1001.0
1000.4
999.8

Temp.
"F

150
151
152
153
154

45

Vacuum
In Hg

165
166
167
168
169

5.3361
5.4623
5.591 1
5.7223
5.8562

19.057
18.800
18.538
18.271
17.998

69.18
67.68
66.22
64.80
63.41

999.2
998.6
998.0
997.4
996.8

170
171
172
173
174

5.9926
6 1318
6.2736
6.4182
6.5656

17.720
17.437
17.148
16.854
16.554

62.06
60.74
59.45
58.19
56.97

996.2
995.6
995.0
994.4
993.8

175
176
177
178
179

6.7159
6.8690
7.0250
7.1840
7.3460

16.248
15.936
15.618
15.295
14.965

55.77
54.61
53.47
52.36
51.28

993.2
992.6
992.0
991.4
990.8

185
186
187
188
189

8.384
8.568
8.756
8.947
9.141

12.851
12.477
12.094
11.705
11.310

45.313
44.400
43.508
42.638
41.787

987.1
986.5
985.9
985.3
984.7

190
191
192
193
194

9.340
9.541
9.747
9.956
10.168

10.905
10.496
10.076
9.651
9.219

40.957
40.146
39.354
38.580
37.824

984.1
983.5
982.8
982.2
981.6

195
196
197
198
199

10.385
10.605
10.830
11.058
11.290

8.777
8.329
7.871
7.407
6.935

37.086
36.364
35.659
34.970
34.297

981 .O
980.4
979.7
979.1
978.5

200
201
202
203
204

11.526
11.766
12.01 1
12.259
12.512

6.454
5.966
5.467
4.962
4.447

33.639
32.996
32.367
31.752
31.151

977.9
977.2
976.6
976.0
975.4

205
206
207
208
209

12.770
13.031
13.297
13.568
13.843

3.921
3.390
2.848
2.297
1.737

30.564
29.989
29.428
28.878
28.341

974.7
974.1
973.5
972.8
972.2

210
21 1
212

14.123
14.407
14.696

1.167
0.588
0.000

27.816
27.302
26.799

971.6
970.9
970.3

46

Specific
Volumes
Ft31lb

Latent
Heat
Btullb

Absolute
Pressure
PSlA

Temp.
"F

Temp.
"F

212
213
214
215
216

Absolute
Pressure
PSlA

14.696
14.990
15.289
15.592
15.901

Specific
Volume
Ft31lb

Latent
Heat
Btullb

26.799
26.307
25.826
25.355
24.894

970.3
969.7
969.0
968.4
967.8

228
232
236

954.8

240
244
248
252
256

24.968
26.826
28.796
30.883
33.091

16.321
15.260
14.281
13.375
12.538

952.1
949.5
946.8
944.1
941.4

260
264
268
272
276

35.427
37.894
40.500
43.249
46.147

11.762
11.042
10.375
9.755
9.180

938.6
935.9
933.1

280
284
288
292
296

49.200
52.414
55.795
59.350
63.084

8.6439
8.1 453
7 6807
7.2475
6 8433

360
364
368
372
376

927.5
924.6
921.7
918.8
915.9
913.0
910.0
907.0
904.0
0
9

308
312
316
320
324
328
332
336

930.3

89.643
94.826
100.245
105.907
111.820

4.9138
4.6595
4.4208
4.1966
3.9859

894.8
891.6
888.5
885.3
882.1

117.992
124.430
131.142
138.138
145.424

3.7878
3.6013
3.4258
3.2603
3.1044

878.8
875.5
872.2
868.9
865.5

153.010
160.903
169.113
177.648
186.517

2.9573
2.8184
2.6873
2.5633
2.4462

862.1
858.6
855.1
851.6
848.1

195.729
205.294
215.220
225.516
236.193

2.3353
2.2304
2.1311
2.0369
1.9477

844.5
840.8
837.2
833.4
829.7
4/

APV Crepaco Inc.

Executive and International Headquarters

9525 West Bryn Mawr Ave., Rosemont (Chicago),IL 60018

(708)678-4300 Fax: (708)678-4407
Engineering and Manufacturing
395 Fillmore Ave., Tonawanda, NY 14150/(716)692-3000
100 South CP Ave., Lake Mills, WI 53551 /(414) 648-8311
1303 Samuelson Rd., Rockford, IL 61109/(815)397-5000
165 John L. Dietsch Sq., Attleboro Falls, MA 02763/(508) 695-7014
Regional Sales Offices:
Los Angeles (Cerritos),CA/(213) 926-9700 Rosemont (Chicago), IL/(708) 678-4300
Montvale, NJ/(201) 930-0001 Nashville, TN/(615) 255-0342
Dallas (Irving),TX/(214) 257-3455
Sales Offices:
Minneapolis, MN Charlotte, NC
Salt Lake City, UT Seattle, WA

Mt. Laurel, NJ

Columbus OH

In Canada:
APV Canada, Inc. - Toronto (416)850-1852 Montreal (514)737-0006
Vancouver (604) 420-4344
International Offices:
Tokyo, Japan Torreon, Mexico Taipei, Taiwan
1190