Science Prep PDF

CSE GS Notes
Science & Technology
Polygenicinheritanceisusedtorefertotheinheritanceofquantitativetraits,traitswhichareinfluencedbymultiple
genes,notjustone.Inadditiontoinvolvingmultiplegenes,polygenicinheritancealsolooksattheroleofenvironment
insomeone'sdevelopment.Oneeasilyunderstoodexampleofpolygenicinheritanceisheight.Peoplearenotjustshort
or tall; they have a variety of heights which run along a spectrum. Furthermore, height is also influenced by
environment; someone born with tall genes could become short due to malnutrition or illness, for example, while
someonebornwithshortgenescouldbecometallthroughgenetictherapy
SolarPanels:basicelementpuresilicon;Whensiliconisstrippedofallimpurities,itmakesaidealneutralplatformfor
thetransmissionofelectrons;Solarpanelsarecreatedbycombiningsiliconwithotherelementsthatdohavepositive
or negative charges eg: P; When the negative plates of solar cells are pointed at a properangle to the sun, photons
bombardthesilicon/phosphorusatoms.Eventually,the9thelectron,whichwantstobefreeanyway,isknockedoffthe
outerring.Thiselectrondoesn'tremainfreeforlong,sincethepositivesilicon/boronplatedrawsitintotheopenspot
onitsownouterband.Asthesun'sphotonsbreakoffmoreelectrons,electricityisgenerated.
Nitrile gloves are a type of disposable glove made of synthetic rubber. They contain no latex proteins and offer
excellentresistancetowearandtears.
Nitrileglovesaremorepunctureresistantthanmanyothertypesofrubberglovesandcanbeusedtooffersuperior
resistancetomanytypesofchemicals.
oftenconsideredtobeoneofthethestrongesttypesofdisposablegloveandaregenerallysafeforpeoplewhoare
allergictolatex.
popularfortheirhighdegreeofflexibilityandsuperiorsolventresistance.
resistanttomanyoils&someacids=>makesagoodchoiceformanymanufacturingenvironments.
usedintheemergencymedicalservicefields,suchasbyparamedics.
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Cybernetictheoryhasfourcomponents:variety,circularity,processandobservation.
Varietyrelatestotheinformationandcommunication/controltheoriesandemphasizeschoices.
Circularityignoresconceptsofhierarchyinsystems,favoringamorelevelplayingfield.
Processlooksatfeedbackloopsandinvolvesregulationswithinsystems.
Observationinvolvesdecisionmakingandhowwecomputeconclusions.
DNAfingerprintingisawayofidentifyingaspecificindividual;alsoknownasgeneticfingerprintingorDNAprofiling
usedbothforidentifyingpaternityormaternityandforidentifyingcriminalsorvictims.
discussionofusingitasasortofpersonalidentifieraswell,althoughviabilityofthisisdebatable.
DNAfingerprintingusesaspecifictypeofDNAsequence,knownasamicrosatellite,tomakeidentificationmuch
easier.
Microsatellites are short pieces of DNA which repeat many times in a given person's DNA. In a given area,
microsatellites tend to be highly variable, making them ideal for DNA fingerprinting. By comparing a number of
microsatellitesinagivenarea,onecanidentifyapersonrelativelyeasily.
sections of DNA used in DNA fingerprinting, although highly variable, are passed down from parents to their
children
usefulinthecaseofidentifyingvictimsbecauseevenincaseswherethebodymaybedisfiguredpastidentification,
andteethorotheridentifyingfeaturesmaybedestroyed,allittakesisasinglecellforpositiveidentification
(c) Divya Mittal , Not to be used for any commercial purpose
CSE GS Notes
Stemcellresearch
is a relatively new technology that takes primitive human cells and develops them into most any of the 220
varietiesofcellsinthehumanbody,includingbloodcellsandbraincells.
Somescientistsandresearchershavegreathopeforthisresearchanditsabilitytouncovertreatmentsandpossibly
evencuresforsomeoftheworstdiseasesincludingheartdisease,diabetes,andneurodegenerativediseaseslike
Alzheimer'sandParkinson's.
givesrisetofearofhumancloningandseriousconcernsovertheethicsofconductingscientificresearchon,which
includesthedestructionof,humanembryos.
Types:Humanstemcellsprimarilycomefromembryosoradulttissue.Embryonicstemcellscanbecreatedsolely
forthepurposeofstemcellresearchortheycanbetheleftoverfromotherprocesses,suchasfromIVF.
Adult stem cells can be harvested from adult tissue with minor, if any, harm to the adult. Embryonic stem cells,
however,aresaidtobegenerallyeasiertoextractthantheadultstemcells,andembryonicstemcellsaresaidto
havemoreusesthantheiradultcounterparts.
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Plasmons are density waves of electrons, created when light hits the surface of a metal under precise
circumstances.Thesedensitywavesaregeneratedatopticalfrequencies,andareverysmallandrapid.Theycan
theoretically encode a lot of information, more than what's possible for conventional electronics. Plamonics is
thoughttoembodythestrongestpointsofbothopticalandelectronicdatatransfer,allowingthefasttransmission
ofinformationoververysmallwires.
Plasmonics,sometimescalled"lightonawire,"wouldallowthetransmissionofdataatopticalfrequenciesalong
thesurfaceofatinymetalwire,despitethefactthatthedatatravelsintheformofelectrondensitydistributions
ratherthanphotons.
mainlimitationtoplasmonicstodayisthatplasmonstendtodissipateafteronlyafewmillimeters,makingthem
tooshortlivedtoserveasabasisforcomputerchips
Forsendingdataoverlongerdistances,techneedsimprovementneedmaterialwithalowrefractiveindex,ideally
negative.nonaturalmaterialwithve;sonanostructuredmaterialsmustbeusedtofabricateeffectiveplasmonic
devices.hence,plasmonicsisfrequentlyassociatedwithnanotech
Plasmonicwiresmayactashighbandwidthfreewaysacrossthebusiestareasofthesiliconchip
used in biosensors: When a particular protein or DNA molecule rests on the surface of a plasmoncarrying
metallicmaterial,itleavesitscharacteristicsignatureintheangleatwhichitreflectstheenergy.
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Plasmonics
Carbonfiber
isthecommonnameusedtorefertoplastic(typicallyepoxy)reinforcedbyagraphitetextile.
isknownalternativelyascarbonfiberreinforcedplasticorcarbonfibercomposite.
Expensivebuthighweighttostrengthratio;verydifficulttobreak;
Introducing carbon nanotubes into the fiber is currently in research stages, and may offer improved ratios of 10
timesorgreateraspaceagematerial
employedinhighqualitycars,boats,bicycles,andplanes,includingpopularFormulaOneracecars.
oldbridgesmaybesparedfromdestructionandrebuildingthroughsimplecarbonfiberreinforcements,whichare
comparativelycheaper.
Gforcereferstoeithertheforceofgravityonaparticularcelestialbodyortheforceofaccelerationanywhere.Gforce
ismeasureding'swhere1g=9.8m/s2
CSE GS Notes
Magnetron:Typicallyusedinmicrowaveovens,amagnetronisatubethatutilizeselectricalandmagneticcurrentsin
ordertocreateanintenseheatoutput.
Wormholeisahypotheticalspacetimetopology,a"shortcut"thatwouldallowtravelbetweentwopointsatapparently
fasterthanlightspeeds.Inreality,movementthroughawormholewouldnotbefasterthanlight,butrathermovingat
normalspeedthroughfoldedspace.
Kevlarisanextremelystrongmaterialthatderivesitsstrengthfromitsweave.Itiswovenliketinyspiderwebs.islight,
it is the premium choice for bulletproof vests. use in shelters for protection against tornadoes. can deflect large
materialsatspeedsofupto250mph
Composite materials for construction, engineering, and other similar applications are formed by combining two or
more materials in such a way that the constituents of the composite materials are still distinguishable, and not fully
blended.Eg:concrete;usetwoconstituents:abinderormatrixandareinforcement
GenomicDNA
is the DNA that holds the complete set of genetic data for an organism. spans 46 chromosomes; providing a
completesetofgeneticinformationincludingcodingDNAwhichleadstotheexpressionofgenetictraits,andnon
codingDNAwhichdoesnothavethisfunction.
The genomic DNA of humans has been sequenced as part of the Human Genome Project, with the goal of
eventuallylearningaboutthespecificfunctionsofvariousareasofthegenome.
Beingabletolocatespecificgenesandotherinformationcouldbeusefulfordiagnosisandeventualtreatmentof
geneticconditions.
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AgeostationaryorbitisoneinwhichthespeedatwhichasatelliteorbitstheEarthcoincideswiththespeedthatthe
Earthturnsandatthesamelatitude,specificallyzero,thelatitudeoftheequator.Geostationaryobjectsinorbitmust
beatacertaindistanceabovetheEarthtoremaininthesamepositionrelativetotheEarth'ssurface.
SincetheonlygeostationaryorbitfortheEarthisinaplanewiththeequatorat35,786kilometers,thereisonlyone
circlearoundtheworldwheretheseconditionsoccur.Thismeansthatgeostationary'realestate'isfinite.
AgeosynchronousorbitisoneinwhichthesatelliteissynchronizedwiththeEarth'srotation,buttheorbitistiltedwith
respecttotheplaneoftheequator.Asatelliteinageosynchronousorbitwillwanderupanddowninlatitude,although
itwillstayoverthesamelineoflongitude.geostationaryorbitisasubsetofallpossiblegeosynchronousorbits.
LowearthorbitisonlyslightlyabovetheEarth,byouterspacestandards,2002000km(1241240miles)inaltitude.
Below 124 miles, orbits rapidly degrade, causing surface impact, and above 1,240 miles or even less, the Earth's
radiationbeltsdamage electronicequipment,necessitatingspecialshielding. Theregionfrom1,243milesaltitudeto
geostationaryorbitisknownasMediumEarthOrbit.Lowearthorbit,mediumearthorbit,andgeostationaryorbitare
known as LEO, MEO, and GSO respectively. Eg: International Space Station, fluctuates between 320 km and 347 km
abovethesurface.makingabout17orbitsperday;MostproposalsforspacehotelsareplacedinLEO
Humoralimmunityisatypeofimmunitywhichisconferredthroughthereleaseofantibodieswhichareusedtotarget
cells for destruction by the body when these cells are viewed as potentially dangerous. This type of immunity is a
complementtocellularimmunity,inwhichcellsreleasetoxinstokillunwantedinvaders,orattacktheinvadersdirectly
tokillthem.
CSE GS Notes
CentralDogmaofmolecularbiology
isthatinformationinbiologicalsystemsonlyflowsinonedirection:fromDNAtoRNAtoproteins
DNAistranscribedtoRNAwhichistranslatedtoprotein.ProteinisneverbacktranslatedtoRNAorDNA;andexcept
forretroviruses,DNAisnevercreatedfromRNA.Furthermore,DNAisneverdirectlytranslatedtoprotein.
DNAisthelongtermhardcopyofthegeneticmaterial;bywayofanalogyitissimilarto
informationstoredonacomputer'sharddiskdrive.DNAisverystableandinert
RNA is a temporary intermediary between DNA and the protein making factories, the
ribosomes. RNA could be compared to information stored in a cache. It is unstable and
lackssecondarystructure.SomeRNAhasenzymaticactivity.
Proteinscouldbeviewedastheprogramsofthecell(tocompleteouranalogy).Theyare
thephysicalrepresentationoftheabstractinformationcontainedwithinthegenome.Proteinsvarygreatlyintheir
activityandhalflife.proteinstheycomeinallshapesandsizes.Forexample,collagenisaubiquitousproteinthat
makesupalmostallofyourbodiesmainstructuraltissue
isamechanismofevolutionthatoccursbyrandomchanceratherthannaturalselection.
In genetic drift, a population experiences a change in the frequency of a given allele, prompted by random luck
ratherthananeedforadaptation.Thisdiffersfromnaturalselection,inwhichallelicfrequencyisalteredbasedon
thefittestgenessurvivingtoreproduceandtheweakergenesdyingoff.
Geneticdrifttendstobeaphenomenonamongstsmallerpopulations,whilenaturalselectionholdsswayinlarger
populations.
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Geneticdrift
Bioavailability is a term used by several branches of scientific study to describe the way chemicals are absorbed by
humans and other animals. A bioavailability measurement of a medication, when it reaches circulation in the body,
describesaspectslikeabsorbencyandhalflife.Itcanevaluatemedicationdeliveryaswell.
Atransgenicorganismisanorganismwhichhasbeenmodifiedwithgeneticmaterialfromanotherspecies.Thegenetic
modificationisaccomplishedbyinsertingDNAintoanembryowiththeassistanceofavirus,aplasmid,oragenegun.
The embryo is allowed to develop, and the mature organism will express the DNA which has been inserted into its
genome. Transgenic organisms can also pass the modification on to future generations by breeding with other
membersofthesamespecies.Uses:developmentofgeneticallymodifiedcrops;sometimesarerenderedsterilesothat
theycannotinterbreed,forthepurposeofprotectingpatentsandtopreventtransgenicorganismsfromcrossbreeding
with wild relatives; used in scientific research eg transgenic mice; Mice can be modified with human DNA for the
purposeoftestingmedicaltreatmentsandseeinghowtheymightbehaveinahuman.
StringTheory,sometimescalledtheTheoryofEverything,isthoughtbysometobetheunifyingfieldtheoryEinstein
sought before his death. String theory is the first mathematically sound theory that reconciles the world of the
infinitesimallysmall,withtheworldweknowatlarge.ItunitesEinsteinsTheoryofRelativitywithquantumphysicsand
offersapotentialexplanationfortheBigBang.thestrengthofstringtheoryisthatitaccountsforallfourknownforces
in one elegant theory. These fundamental forces are gravity; the strong and weak nuclear forces; and
electromagnetism.
CSE GS Notes
Bioleaching
uses bacterial microorganisms to extract precious metals, such as gold, from ore in which it is embedded. As an
alternativetosmeltingorroasting,minersusebioleachingwhentherearelowerconcentrationsofmetalinoreand
theyneedanefficient,environmentallyresponsiblemethod.Thebacteriafeedsonnutrientsinminerals,thereby
separatingthemetalthatleavestheorganism'ssystem;thenthemetalcanbecollectedinasolution.
usedtorecovercopper,zinc,lead,arsenic,antimony,nickel,molybdenum,gold,silver,andcobalt.
Bioleachingcaninvolvenumerousferrousironandsulfuroxidizingbacteria,includingAcidithiobacillusferrooxidans
andAcidithiobacillus(formerlyknownasThiobacillus).
Asageneralprinciple,Fe3+ionsareusedtooxidizetheore.Thisstepisentirelyindependentofmicrobes.Therole
of the bacteria is the further oxidation of the ore, but more importantly also the regeneration of the chemical
oxidantFe3+fromFe2+
Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum) were able to
mobilizeCuandSnby65%,andAl,Ni,Pb,andZnbymorethan95%.
Ads: Economical (simpler and therefore cheaper to operate), Envirofriendly > less emissions and hence higher
profitbydecreasingcostofabatement
Disads: process is very slow compared to smelting> less profits;Toxic chemicals aresometimes produced in the
process.SulfuricacidandH+ionswhichhavebeenformedcanleakintothegroundturningitacidic
alsoknownasageomagneticstorm,isadisturbanceintheEarth'smagneticfieldcausedbycoronalmassejections
(CMEs)orsolarflaresfromtheSun.
Amagneticstormusuallybeginsbetween24and36hoursafterthesolarevent,whenashockwaveofsolarwind
reachestheEarth'sionosphere.thentypicallylasts24to48hours,thoughsomemaylastaslongasdays.
The effects of a magnetic storm include disruption of communications and navigation systems, intense auroras,
damagetosatellites,andduringthemostextremestorms,inducedcurrentsinpowerlinesandpipelinesthatresult
inpoweroutagesandcorrosion.
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Magneticstorm,
RecombinantDNA(rDNA)
is a type of DNA that is artificially created by inserting a strand or more of DNA into a different set of DNA.
RecombinantDNAisusedingeneticmodificationtocreatecompletelyneworganismsbyaddingartificialbitsor
bitsofDNAfromotherorganismstoanexistingcreature.
usedtointroduceveryspecificfeaturesintocrops,bacteria,andanimals,usuallytomakethemmorebeneficialto
humans,althoughsometimessimplyasademonstrationofatechnique,orsometimesasanartisticstatement.
uses:to make cropsdroughtresistant,to createnewvaccines, suchas the newest HepatitisBvaccine,tomake
cropsnaturallypestresistant,andtheinfamousGloFish,whichwerezebrafishthatweremadefluorescent.
DifferentTypesofRecombinantDNATechnology
1. bacterialtransformation itinvolves encouraging aspecially prepared bacterialcellto takeinapieceofforeign
DNA and incorporate it directly into the bacterial genome. E. coli are often used as the hosts for this method,
becausetheyareeasytogrowandreproducequickly.
2. Nonbacterialtransformationalmostidenticaltobacterialtransformation,exceptthatbacteriaarenotusedas
hostcells.iscommonlyusedineukaryoticcells,likeyeastorplantcells.Thistypeoftransformationcanbedoneby
shootingDNAfragmentsattachedtotinypelletsdirectlyintocellnuclei,orbyinjectingDNAintocellnucleiwith
microscopicneedles
CSE GS Notes
3. phage introduction, which involves using specific types of viruses, called phages, to inject foreign DNA into host
cells. Viruses can carry either singlestranded or doublestranded DNA, so they can be used to replace single
strandedDNAatspecificlocations.
Nanorobotsaretheoreticalmicroscopicdevicesmeasuredonthescaleofnanometers.
Nanomedicine'snanorobotsaresotinythattheycaneasilytraversethehumanbody.Scientistsreporttheexterior
ofananorobotwilllikelybeconstructedofcarbonatomsinadiamondoidstructurebecauseofitsinertproperties
andstrength.Supersmoothsurfaceswilllessenthelikelihoodoftriggeringthebody'simmunesystem,allowingthe
nanorobotstogoabouttheirbusinessunimpeded.Glucoseornaturalbodysugarsandoxygenmightbeasource
forpropulsion,andthenanorobotwillhaveotherbiochemicalormolecularpartsdependingonitstask.
Molecular nanotechnology (MNT), the umbrella science of nanomedicine, envisions nanorobots manufactured in
nanofactoriesnolargerthantheaveragedesktopprinter.Thenanofactorieswouldusenanoscaletoolscapableof
constructingnanorobotstoexactingspecifications.
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Biological magnification, or biomagnifications/bioamplification, explains why a substance appears in higher

concentrations in organisms higher in a given food chain than in organisms lower in a food chain. This happens coz
creatureshighupinthefoodchainfeedoncreaturesthatarelowerinthefoodchainandabsorbthesubstancesfrom
theorganismstheyconsumeinadditiontothesubstancestheydirectlyabsorbfromtheenvironment.Biomagnification
ofDDThasbeenstudiedcozofdetrimentaleffectontheenvironmentandonhumanandanimalhealth
Somaticmutationisageneticmutationwhichoccursinasomaticcellafterconception.Thesemutationscanleadtoa
varietyofmedicalissues.
canbeidentifiedbyexaminingthegeneticmaterialinaquestionablecellandcomparingittoacellfromelsewhere
inthebody;theDNAinthetwocellswillbedifferent,despitethefactthatitisnotsupposedtobe
Therearetwotypesofcells:somaticcellsandgermcells.Germcellseventuallygiverisetogametes,whilesomatic
cellsgiverisetoeverythingelse.Ifasomaticmutationoccursinutero,allofthecellsdescendedfromthesomatic
cell will carry the mutation. This results in a situation called genetic mosaicism, in which some of the cells in
someone'sbodyhaveDNAwhichisdifferentfromothercells.
Somaticmutationscannotbeinherited,becausetheydonotinvolvethegermcells.
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Parabensareagroupofchemicalcompoundswhicharewidelyusedaspreservatives,especiallyincosmetics.
arealsoutilizedbythepharmaceuticalindustry,andtheysometimesappearasfoodadditivesaswell.
controversy,duetoconsumerconcernsabouttheirsafety,someproductsparabenfree
areestersofparahydroxybenzoicacidconcentrationofparabensincosmeticsisverylow,oftenlessthan1%;
Healthconcernsprimarilyfocusedontheirpotentialtoactlikeestrogencompoundsinthebody
Butylparabenisusedasanantifungalpreservativeinvariouscosmeticproducts.
Green engineering is the process and design of products that conserve natural resources, and impact the natural
environmentaslittleaspossible.Thetermisoftenappliedtohousing,butitcanbeusedforautomobiles,lightsorany
othersortofsystemordevicethatrequiresengineering,andincorporatessoundenvironmentalprinciples.
Biophotonsareweakemissionsoflightradiatedfromthecellsofalllivingthings.Plants,animalsandhumansgenerate
upto100photonspersecond,per1sq.centimeterofsurfacearea.Proponentsofalternativemedicineseeapossible
connectionbetweenbiophotonsandnaturalhealingtechniques.
CSE GS Notes
Molecularnanotechnology("MNT")isananticipatedmanufacturingtechnologythatwouldallowprecisecontroland
positionalassemblyofmoleculesizedbuildingblocksthroughtheuseofnanoscalemanipulatorarms.Ifwehadmany
millions or billions of such molecularscale arms, we could program them to work together to create macroscale
productsbuiltfromindividualmoleculesa"bottomupmanufacturing"technique,asopposedtotheusualtechnique
ofcuttingawaymaterialuntilyouhaveacompletedcomponentorproduct"topdownmanufacturing".
Rigormortisisaconditionthatbeginstodevelopinthebodyafterdeathtakesplace.Essentially,theactionofrigor
mortisistobeginaprocesswherethemusclesinthebodybegintostiffen.Inmostsituations,thecorpsewillbeginto
undergotheprocessofrigormortisatroughlythreehoursafterdeathtakesplaceandwillcontinuetoexperiencethe
musclestiffeningforanywherefromthirtysixtoseventytwohours.
AfurlongisaunitofmeasureintheUKandtheUS,translatestoaneighthofamile,660feet,or220yards
Cryogenicsisthestudyoftheproductionofextremelycoldtemperatures.Cryogenicshasawidenumberofpotential
and actual applications, ranging from tempering metals so that they will be more durable to improving the tone of
musicalinstruments.
When metals are frozen cryogenically, the strength of their molecular structure can increase, causing the metal
itselftobestrongerandmoredurable.Manyhighendmetalproductsmaybesubjectedtocryogenicsaspartof
thetemperingprocess.
alsousedinthepreparationofspecializedmedications,andinpreservationofawiderangeofmaterials.
Cryogenicfuelsarealsopopularforrocketsandshuttles.
cryogenic preservation known as cryonics Humans and other animals can be deep frozen under controlled
conditionsinthehopesthatmedicaladvanceswillallowthemtoberesuscitatedatsomepointinthefuture
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Coldfusionisablankettermforanynuclearfusionreactionthatoccurssubstantiallybelownormaltemperatures,but
ismostoftenusedtodescribealowtemperaturereactionthatcanbeachievedusingrelativelynormalexperimental
conditions.Deuterium(ahydrogenisotope)ismostoftenlookedatasthebestpotentialsourceofcoldfusionbased
energy.Itisreadilyavailable,haslittlewaste,andproducesgreatamountsofenergy
Neodymium magnets are the greatest of the rareearth magnets. Neodymium is the most powerful permanent
magneticmaterialofwhichwearecurrentlyaware.Affordable;usedquitefrequentlyinindustryandamonghobbyists
anddabblers.Forexample,everycomputerharddrivehasasmallneodymiummagnetwhichhelpsdirecttheneedle
thatreadsdata.Theycanalsobefoundinhighendspeakersandscienceclassroomsaroundtheworld.downsides
magneticfieldlosessomeintensitywhentemperaturesaretoohigh;
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a technology that utilizes lasers to determine the distance to an object or
surface. It is used in a variety of industries, including atmospheric physics, geology, forestry, oceanography, and law
enforcement.LIDARissimilartoradar,butitincorporateslaserpulsesratherthanradiowaves.canalsobeusedfor
creating three dimensional topographical maps and surveys of geographical regions; can also be used to analyze the
ocean floor and to determine canopy heights and biomass measurements. It also hasapplications in seismology and
hasbeenusedinstudiesofuplift,faultlines,andothergeologicalfeatures.
UsesofRadar
1. Detectionandsearchradar:suchasthe"earlywarningradar,"whichisusedforlongrangedetectionofobjects,
andTargetAcquisition (TA)RadarSystems,usedtolocatesurfacetoairmissiles(SAM).Thesetypesofradarare
frequentlyusedinthemilitaryandincoastalsurveillance,aswellasfordetectingcarspeedduringhighwaypatrol
2. Missileguidancesystemsareradarusedtolocatethetargetofamissile.Thisisoftenpresentinmilitaryaircraft.
CSE GS Notes
3. Radarforbiologicalresearch:birdandinsectradarareusedfrequentlybyscientiststotrackthemigrationpatterns
ofanimals.totrackthepresenceofbirds,especiallyvultures,nearlaunchingpads.
4. Airtrafficcontrolandnavigationradar:usedbyairportstoensurethesafetyofplanes,thistypeofradardetects
theproximityofanaircraftandidentifiestheidentityandaltitudeoftheplane.
5. Weathersensingradarsystems:mostlyusedtomeasureandlocateprecipitation;measurewinddirection&speed
ELISAmethodisatestwhichisusedinimmunologyandotherscientificfieldstodetectantibodiesandantigens.ELISA
standsforenzymelinkedimmunosorbentassay,whichreferstothefactthatantibodiescoupledtoenzymesareused
to determine the results of the test. ELISA uses enzymes which react with antibodies to form colored products. The
developmentofcolorinanELISAtestindicatesapositiveresult.testisusedtodetectthepresenceofantibodiesto
infectiousdiseasessuchasHIV,hepatitis,andothers.
Smartgridisanelectricalgridwhichhasbeendigitizedsothatavarietyofdigitalmeasurescanbeusedtocontroland
operate the grid. The goal of installing a smart grid is to meet energy demands intelligently, promoting energy
efficiencyinadditiontocreatingamorereliablesourceofenergywhichisalsolessexpensive.
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Seafloor spreading is a constant geologic phenomenon and a primary driver of continental drift. The process begins
whenthecrustisheatedfrombeneathbyupwellinginthemantle,sometimescalledamantleplume.Thecrustalong
thelengthoftheriftisheatedbytheunderlyingmantle,becomingmoreplasticandlessdense.Thecrustrises,creating
abroaddomeandwideningtherift.
LODscore(standsforlogarithmoftheodds)isarepresentationofthelikelihoodofalinkagebetweentwogenetic
traits.IftheLODscoreishigh,itmeansthatthetraitsarecloselylinked,andthereforeusuallyinheritedtogether.Asa
generalrule,iftheLODscoreis3orhigher,itmeansthatthereisahighprobabilityofgeneticlinkage
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Opticalcamouflageisahypotheticaltypeofactivecamouflagecurrentlyonlyinaveryprimitivestageofdevelopment.
The idea is relatively straightforward: to create the illusion of invisibility by covering an object with something that
projectsthescenedirectlybehindthatobject.Creatingcompleteopticalcamouflageacrossthevisiblelightspectrum
would require a coating or suit covered in tiny cameras and projectors, programmed to gather visual data from a
multitude of different angles and project the gathered images outwards in an equally large number of different
directionstogivetheillusionofinvisibilityfromallangles.
Ariftvalleyisageographicfeaturecausedwhenonearmofatriplejunctionbetweentectonicplates"fails"(i.e.,stops
spreading) and leaves a remnant canyonlike structure. largest rift valley in the world is the Great Rift Valley in East
Africa.Alloftheworld'slargestfreshwaterlakesareinriftvalleys,includingLakeBaikalinRussia(theworld'slargest
lakebyvolume,holding20%oftheworld'sfreshwater),LakeTanganyikainAfrica(secondlargestlake),LakeSuperior
intheUnitedStates(thirdlargest),andanumberofothers.Someriftvalleysarestillgeologicallyactive,butmostare
dormant.
Quantum dot is a particle having an approximate size of one nanometer which has the display properties of a
semiconductor.
Working:keytothequantumdotisintheelectrons.Electronsoccupyoneoftwobandsinamaterialscrystal.By
providingtheproperstimuli,anelectron,orperhapsmorethanone,canbeencouragedtomovefromonebandto
theother.Asitmovesfromonebandtotheother,itcreatesahole,whichispositivelycharged.Together,thehole
andtheelectronarereferredtoasanexciton.Normally,electronandtheholeintheexcitonkeeptheirdistance
fromeachother.However,ifthecrystalisreducedinsize,itcrowdsthisgap.Oncethathappens,itchangesthe
crystals ability to absorb and emit energy. At this point, the quantum dot is created. Different colors can be
obtainedbyreducingorincreasingthesizeofthequantumdot.
CSE GS Notes
Applications:MultiplequantumdotscanbeusedasLEDsinsigndisplays,cellstainingforlifescienceobservation,
even inks that can aid in spotting counterfeits. Another security application that could soon be realized is
luminescentdust,whichcouldbeusedtotracktrespassersinrestrictedareas.mayalsobeusedtotransmitdata
DifferentTypesofWastewaterTreatmentTechnology
1. Aerobic wastewater treatment technology involves the use of good bacteria. The bacteria destroy harmful
microorganismsandintheprocessgiveoffbothcarbondioxideandwateraswasteproducts.
2. Microfiltrationorsyntheticmembranesbased:essentiallyfilterswhicharedesignedsmallenoughtocatcheven
minusculemicroorganisms,thusremovingthemfromthewater.Multipletimesdonetoensureproperfiltration.
generallyusedincombinationwithdecontaminatingchemicalslikeClwhichareremovedlater
3. Denitrificationusesmethanoltopurifywaterbyencouragingthegrowthofcertainbacteriawhichgiveoffcarbon.
Thecarbonthenneutralizesorremovesnitratesfromthewater.Nitratescanbeharmfulforhumanconsumption
andhavebeenlinkedtoahostofhealthproblems,likecancer.
4. Ozone based: A generator produces ozone containing bubbles that are percolated throughout the water
continuouslyoverasetperiodoftime,thusneutralizinganddecontaminatingit.
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Bioprinting is a new area of research and engineering that involves printing devices that deposit biological material.
Thelongtermgoalisthatthetechnologycouldbeusedtocreatereplacementorgansorevenentireorganismsfrom
rawbiologicalmaterials.
GeothermaldrillingisaprocesswherebyheatistakenfromtheEarthandusedinaproductivewayforenergyneeds.
The heat can be used directly for some needs such as space heating, but the true value for the mass market comes
fromthatheat'sabilitytobeconvertedtootherforms.Electricalgenerationisoneofthemostcommonreasonsfor
geothermaldrillingonanindustrialscale.
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Forebayisahumanmadepoolofwaterinfrontofalargerbodyofwaterwhichmaybenaturalorengineered.
actasabufferzoneduringfloodingandstormsurges;
trapsedimentanddebris.Thiskeepsthelargerbodyofwatercleanerandclearer;
actasanaturalhabitattofish,waterfowl,aquaticplants,andothermembersofthenaturalworld;
canalsobeusedinwetlandsmanagementandrestoration,inwhichcasethegoalisusuallytomaintainorrestorea
wetlandforfloodcontrolandenvironmentalreasonswiththeassistanceoftheforebay.
Genomics is the study of the collective genetic material in an organism. This scientific discipline is focused on
sequencingtheDNAinanorganismtoformacompletepicture,andthenidentifyingspecificgenesinthatsequence
whichcouldbeofinterest.
Proteomics is the study of all the proteins that make up an organism. Proteomics doesn't just study the proteins
themselves,butalsothewaytheyinteract,thechangesthattheyundergo,andtheeffectsthattheyhavewithinthe
organism.Thesizeandcomplexityofthehumanproteomeispartofwhatmakesproteomicsaverycomplexscience.
there a huge number of proteins in the human proteome, about 400,000; these proteins also occur in different
locationswithinthebodyatdifferentstagesinaperson'slife,andcanchangewithinasinglecell
Opticalcomputingisacomputingtechnologyintheresearchandtheorystage.Theideawouldbetomakeacomputer
thatreliesentirelyonlight(photons)insteadofelectricity(electrons)todocomputing.
Theappealofopticalcomputersislimited,becausewithshortdistances,theyrequiremorepowerthanelectronic
computerstodothesamecomputation.primarilyuseslaserstosendsignals.
CSE GS Notes
couldproducecomputerstensofthousandsoftimesfasterthantoday'scomputers,becauselightcantravelthat
much faster than electric current; could be used in large supercomputers to send data more efficiently than
electronics.
Planet X is a hypothetical planet that has been searched for throughout the years by many astronomers. While
searchingforPlanetX,astronomersfoundPluto,andXenaorEris,allclassifiednowasdwarfplanets
Smartdust is a term used to describe groups of very small robots which may be used for monitoring and detection.
Currently,thescaleofsmartdustisrathersmall,withsinglesensorsthesizeofadeckofplayingcards,butthehopeis
toeventuallyhaverobotsassmallasaspeckofdust.Individualsensorsofsmartdustareoftenreferredtoasmotes
becauseoftheirsmallsize.ThesedevicesarealsoknownasMEMS,whichstandsformicroelectromechanicalsensors.
mayeventuallybeusedtomonitortrafficandbetterdirectit,toaccompanysoldiersandalertthemtoanypoisonsor
dangerous biological substances in the air, to follow people around and track their activities, to track defects in
productsastheycomeoffofanassemblyline,andeventoenterhumanbodiesandcheckforphysiologicalproblems.
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DNAelectrophoresisisamethodusedtosortDNAmoleculesbylength.PiecesofDNAaresuspendedinatrayofgel
andsubjectedtoanelectricfield,whichcausesthemtomigratetowardoneendofthetray.TheDNAseparatesout
intobands,withthedistancefromtheelectrodecorrespondingtolengthofthestrand.Thetechniqueplaysarolein
identifyinggenesfordiagnosingdiseaseandforotherformsofgeneticresearch.
Carbonsequestrationreferstoeffortstocaptureexcesscarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere,condenseit,andstoreit
insomebenignway.
Carboncaptureandstorage(CCSD)technologiesareimplementedinsomelimitedwayinmanyfossilfuelpower
plants.technologyforcapturingisaheadofthetechnologyforstoring,whichisjuststartingtobeexplored
mostprimitiveformwouldbetosimplyplantmoretrees.moresophisticatedversionartificialphotosynthesis;
AfterCO2isgathered,ithastobedisposedof.Currentapproachesinvolveinjectingitintothegroundorpumping
itto1000mdeepwatersatthebottomofthesea,whereitformslarge"lakes"thattaketimetodissipate
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cyborgisanorganismwithbothartificialandorganiccomponents.
Althoughtheaverageprosthesisdoesnotfallwithinthedefinitionofcyborgtechnology,aprostheticdevicewhich
employs sensors to replicate a persons natural gait, such as a CLeg system, is considered a modernday cyborg
application.
development of RFID tag prolific cyborg application microchip implanted in a human being or animal to
potentiallystoreinformation.
controversial application involves the utilization of insects and animals in the military for tactical combat
purposes.Eg: DARPA, has begun to explore the possibility of implanting insects with pupal data sensors for
surveillancepurposes,aswellasimplantingsharkswithsimilarcyborgsensorstodetectexplosivesunderwater.
Biopolymerisanyorganicpolymer.Biopolymershavebeenaroundforbillionsofyearslongerthansyntheticpolymers
likeplastics.Wellknownbiopolymersincludestarch,proteinsandpeptides,DNA,andRNA.
Bioinformaticsisafieldwhichusescomputerstostoreandanalyzemolecularbiologicalinformation.
Using this information in a digital format, bioinformatics can then solve problems of molecular biology, predict
structures,andevensimulatemacromolecules.
MainbranchesincludeGenomics,Proteomics,Computeraideddrugdesigning,biodatabase,dataminingetc
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CSE GS Notes
most wellknown application of bioinformatics is sequence analysis. In sequence analysis, DNA sequences of
various organisms are stored in databases for easy retrieval and comparison. The wellreported Human Genome
Projectisanexampleofsequenceanalysisbioinformatics.
otherapplications:predictingentireproteinstrands,learninghowgenesexpressthemselvesinvariousspecies,and
buildingcomplexmodelsofentirecells.
Positronemissionisabyproductofatypeofradioactivedecayknownasbetaplusdecay.
positronemissiontomography(PET):isotopesknowntoproducepositronemissionsareintroducedtothebody
andfollowedastheymovethroughthebodyandproducegammarays.Isotopeswithshorthalfliveswhichwill
notcausedamagetothebodyareselectedsothatthePETscanwillnotbedangerous,andtheimagingstudymay
becombinedwithotherimagingtechniquessuchasMRItogetacompletepicture
PETscansallowdoctorstoimagefunctionsofthebody,perhapsmostnotablyinthebrain.
Thescanisnotinvasive,providinganappealingalternativetosurgery
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Biomimetics,sometimesknownasbionicsorbiomimicry,istheartoftakingnaturaladaptivestrategiesusedbyplants
or animals and translating them into engineering designs that can be used to implement products or tools. Some
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) simulate various aspects of insects used in flying and clinging to walls. Radar and
sonar allegedly imitate the echolocation faculties of bats. An artificial pacemaker mimics a collection of organic
pacemakercellslocatednexttotheheart.
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Xerox copier, generically known as a photocopier, essentially works on the principles of static electricity. Document
viewedasnothingmorethanblackorwhitespaces.Beneaththetransparentglasstrayliesaflatbeltorrounddrum
calledaphotoreceptor.Thesurfaceofthisphotoreceptorismadefromspecialmaterialswhichcanbenegativelyand
positivelychargedindifferentareasatthesametime;"paints"thephotoreceptordrumorbeltwithstaticelectricity,
creatingapatchofpositivelychargedimagesofletterssurroundedbynegativelychargedareasthatwillremainwhite.
Nanobes are bizarre filamentary structures found in some rocks. Nanobes must not be confused with nanobacteria,
anothertypeofsupersmallcontroversialpossibleclassoflife.Thedifferenceisthatnanobacteriaaresaidtohavecell
walls,whereasnanobesarewalllessfilamentarystructures.
Trihalomethanesareagroupofchemicalsthatincludechloroformandstructurallyrelatedcompounds.Someareused
industriallyasrefrigerantsandsolvents.Thetermisgenerallyappliedtoasubsetofthesecompoundsthatarepossible
carcinogenicbyproductsofthechlorinationofwater.
Electronic microscope is a scientific instrument that uses a beam of highly charged electrons to examine objects at
closerange.worksthesamewayastheopticalmicroscope.Theonlydifferenceistheelectronmicroscopedoesn'tuse
light; instead a beam of focused electrons are used to create the image of the specimen. This also gives scientists
informationabouttheobject'sstructureandcomposition.
Artificial Photosynthesis: Researchers relied on the HondaFujishima effect, which was discovered in 1953 and uses
titaniumdioxideasaphotocatalyst.Aphotocatalystacceleratesprocessesrelatingtolightand,inthiscase,energy.
producedtwodifferentresults:photoelectrochemicalcellsanddyesensitizedsolarcells.
Photoelectrochemical cells, also referred to as PECs, use the electric current of water to create hydrogen and
oxygeninaprocesscalledelectrolysis.Electricitycanthenbestoredinthehydrogen,whichisanenergycarrier,
andtheenergycanbeusedlater,suchasinbatteries.
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CSE GS Notes
dyesensitizedsolarcell,alsocalledaGraetzelcell.cellsuseasemiconductortocollectenergy,usuallysilicon.In
dyesensitizedcells,thesemiconductorisusedtotransportthecollectedenergy,andthephotoelectrons,orenergy
particles,areseparatedandharnessedusingspecialdyes.
nootropiccoinedtodescribeasubstancethatpositivelyaffectedbrainfunction.Althoughnootropicsarefrequently
referredtoassmartdrugs,notallofthesesubstancesaresynthesizedchemicaldrugs.Somenootropicsarevitamins,
minerals,orherbsthatenhancecognition.
Heliostats are scientific instruments that use a mirror to reflect the light of the sun in a specific direction. Since the
positionofthesuninrelationtotheEarthchangesthroughouttheday,mostheliostatshavesomesortofmechanism
builtintotrackthismovement.
Scramjet(SupersonicCombustionRamjet)usesatmosphericoxygenasanoxidizer,bypassingtheneedforanonboard
oxidizercompletely.Alargescoopatthefrontofthecrafttakesinair,whileonboardsystemsisolateoxygenfromthe
air,compressit,andintroduceittoastreamoffuelwhichthenusestheoxygentocombustandproducethrust.Fora
scramjettointakesufficientoxygenforselfsustainingflight,itmustalreadybemovingatsupersonicspeeds.Forthis
reason,ascramjetmustbecoupledtoaconventionalrocketatthebeginningofitsflight.
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Heatislandeffect,alsoreferredtoastheurbanheatislandeffect,isaneffectwheretheaveragetemperatureofan
areaishigherthannearbyruralareas.Theprimarycauseoftheheatislandeffectistheconversionofspaceintoan
urban environment that absorbs more sunlight and stores it in large thermal masses. A secondary cause of the heat
islandeffectiswasteheatgeneratedbymassiveusesofenergy.Theheatislandeffecthasanimpactnotonlyonthe
cityitself,butalsoonnearbyareasdownwind,whichgenerallyseebetween10%and30%moreannualrainfallthan
areasupwind.
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leastcompressiblematerialknown,withabulkmodulusof491gigapascals(GPa)isaggregateddiamondnanorods.get
theirstrengthfromthefamoussp2bond;areevendenserthanpurediamond;
Epigeneticsisatermwhichisusedtodescribesituationsinwhichgenesexpressthemselvesdifferently,althoughthe
underlyingDNAisthesame.Forexample,ifacalicocatiscloned,theclonewillnotlookphysicallyidentical,despitethe
factthattheirgeneticcodeisthesame.Thisisbecausetheexpressionofgenesisinfluencedbyepigenetics.
SupercontinentcycleisageologiccyclewheretheEarth'scontinentsalternativelymergeintoasinglesupercontinent,
splitintonumerouscontinents,thenmergeagain.Thecycleisestimatedtobe300500millionyearslong.Previous
supercontinentshaveincludedPangaea,whichformed250millionyearsago,Gondwanaland,whichformedabout600
millionyearsagoetc
Krmn line is the international definition for the edge of space. It is located 100 km (62 miles) above the Earth's
surface,aroundwheretheAuroraBorealisforms.
Gulf Stream is an ocean current that runs through the Atlantic Ocean. Although it starts out extremely warm in its
southernreaches,temperaturedropsandsalinityincreasesasitflowsnorth.Evenwiththedropintemperature,the
GulfStreamisbelievedtoincreasethetemperaturesofthecoastalregionsofScotland,Ireland,England,andNorway.
Renownedforitssizeandwarmingcapabilities,theGulfStreamisalsonotableforitsincrediblespeed.
Genegunisadeviceusedinbiolistictransfection,aprocessusedtointroducegeneticmaterialtocellsthroughtheuse
oftinyDNAcoatedparticlesfiredathighvelocityintoaclusterofcells.Genegunsareusedinlaboratorysettingsto
conductresearch,developnewproducts,andtagsamplesofmaterials.
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CSE GS Notes
genegunorabiolisticparticledeliverysystem,isadeviceforinjectingcellswithgeneticinformation.Thepayload
isanelementalparticleofaheavymetalcoatedwithplasmidDNA.Thistechniqueisoftensimplyreferredtoas
bioballisticsorbiolistics.
Usingagenegun,aresearchercanintroducenewDNAtoforceacelltoproduceproteinsitwasn'tmakingbefore.
Genegunshavebeenusedextensivelyinthegeneticmodificationofcropstointroducegeneswhichmakecrops
more resistant to drought, increase the nutritional value of crops, or allow herbicides to be used safely around
crops.Genegunshavealsobeenusedexperimentallytodelivergeneticvaccines,andtointroduceDNAintoanimal
cellsforthepurposeoftaggingthemformicroscopyorforgeneticengineeringofsuchcells.
Flywheelsareawayofstoringenergyintherotationalmomentum(kineticenergy)oflargewheelssealedinavacuum.
They are used as a way of storing and releasing large amounts of electrical energy, and although their method of
storageisnonchemical,arraysofflywheelsaresometimescalledbatteries.
Yellowcake, known as U3O8 to chemists, is a product obtained by treating uranium ore. Raw uranium ore does not
usuallycontainveryhighconcentrationsofthisusefulmineral,soitmustberefinedtopurifyitandconcentratethe
uranium.Theproductionofyellowcakeisonestepintherefineryprocess.
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Orogeny is a mountainbuilding event caused by extreme volcanism (as in the Deccan Traps) or movement of the
tectonic plates, large slabs of rock that make up the Earth's crust. The plates float on top of a plastic, superheated
mantle,madeofpartiallymeltedrock.Asthematerialinthemantlecirculates,thetectonicplatesslowlymovearound
ontop,creatingdifferentcontinentalarrangementsovertensorhundredsofmillionsofyears.
OneofthemostfamousandrecognizableistheHimalayanorogeny,whichoccurredaround55millionyearsago,when
the subcontinent of India collided with the Eurasian Plate while moving north. These two plates pressing together
causedthecreationofgreatmountainrangesattheboundary,knowntodayastheHimalayas
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Proteinengineeringisamethodthatcanbeusedtodevelopnewtypesofproteins.Thisfieldofscienceisrelatively
new,andoriginalwaysofcombiningproteinelementscontinuetobestudiedanddiscoveredbyresearchers.Thistype
ofengineeringallowsmaterialswithspecificstrengthsorfeaturestobedeveloped.
Geneflowisthetransferofalleles,variousformsofagenecodingforspecifictraits,betweendistinctpopulationsof
individuals. This can increase genetic diversity in some cases, and decrease it in others, depending on the
circumstances. It occurs both within populations of the same species and populations of different species, in some
cases.
radiativeforcing:Inthecontextofclimatechange,amorespecificdefinitionofradiativeforcingagreeduponby
theIPCCistheextenttowhichafactoralterstheenergybalanceinthetroposphere.
Earth receives energy from the Sun, mostly in the form of light, some of which is absorbed and warms the planet,
causingittoradiateenergyintheformofheat,orinfraredradiation,andresultinginabalancebetweenincomingand
outgoingenergy.Variousfactorsaffecttheamountofsunlightabsorbedandtherateatwhichenergyisradiatedbythe
Earth.Whenthesefactorsremainconstantoveraperiod,theenergyflowscanbeexpectedtosettleintoequilibriumat
a particular average annual temperature, with the same amount of energy going out as coming in. If any of these
factorschange,itmightresultinamismatchbetweenincomingandoutgoingenergy,leadingtoanoverallincreaseor
decreaseinglobalaveragetemperatures.Ageneraldefinitionofradiativeforcingisthedegreeofchange,positiveor
negative,tothisbalance,anditisnormallyexpressedinWattspersquaremeter(W/m2).
Conjugated antibodies are laboratorymanufactured compounds made up of antibodies combined with dyes,
chemicals,orproteins.Theseantibodycombinationsareusedforresearch,testing,andmedicaltreatment.
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CSE GS Notes
A synoptic chart provides information about climate conditions across a large area, big enough to encompass most
majorweathersystems.SuchchartsareusefulnotjustformeteorologyonEarth,butalsofordepictionsofmagnetic
fieldsandotherphenomenaontheSunandothercelestialbodies.
Stemcelldifferentiationisaprocesswhereanunspecializedstemcelldevelopsintoaparticulartypeoftissue,likea
matureredbloodcell.Thisoccursatallstagesoflife,fromveryearlyembryonicdevelopmentintoadulthood,asthe
bodyneedsaconstantsupplyofnewspecializedcellstofunction.
Severalfactorsareinvolvedincellulardifferentiation,incenvironmental&biologicaltriggersforvariouscelltypes
Thenumberofdifferentkindsofcellsastemcellcanmatureintoarereflectedbyitspotency.
totipotentcellcandevelopintoanykindofcellatmaturity.Suchcellsarefoundintheearlyblastocystphasesof
embryonicdevelopment,wheneverycellneedstobeabletogiverisetoavarietyofcellsforanembryotodevelop
Asembryonicdevelopmentprogresses,thestemcellsbecomepluripotentinnature,withtheabilitytodivergeinto
avarietyofcelltypes,butnotall.
A genome map is a visual diagram that represents an organisms complete genetic structure. Many people confuse
genomewithgenes,butthedifferenceisthatthegenesarejustonepartofthegenome,whichistheentirestructure
consistingofothercomponentssuchasthedeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)andribonucleicacid(RNA).
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Gene targeting is the use of genetic recombination technology to alter genetic sequences in embryonic stem cells.
Afterascientistaltersthegenome,itispossibletointroducethecellstoadevelopingembryoinaprocedurecalled
embryonicinjection.
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Aflooddamoperatesaspartofafloodcontrolsystemtoprotectcommunitiesfromuncontrolledfloodwaters.Such
damsdonotcreatereservoirstostorewaterforuseinthefuture,nordotheygeneratehydroelectricpower.Theycan
beinstalledbygovernmentagenciesandcommunities,andaresubjecttoregulationforsafety.
In genetics, certain gene mutations are capable of causing disease. Sometimes, everybody with a mutation displays
symptoms of that disease, and sometimes, only some of the people carrying the mutation display symptoms. The
proportionofpeoplewhoshowsymptomsfromthemutationiscalledthepenetranceofthegene.
Gneissisacommontypeofsurfacerockcomposedofdifferentmineralsandisclassifiedasmetamorphic.Oneofthe
mostcommonfeaturesofgneissrockisthatithasabandedorstripedinternalstructure,whichisusuallytheresultof
alternatinglayersofdarkandlightsilicatecompoundsthatmakeitup.
Dimethylol dimethyl hydantoin (DMDM hydantoin), is a common preservative ingredient found in cosmetics
production,constructionmaterials,andhouseholdproducts.Thechemicalcompoundistypicallyaddedtoproductsin
minute quantities as an antimicrobial agent. Certain consumer advocates fear that when combined with other
chemicals,thesubstancemaycausecancer.
Gene silencing is the process of "turning off" a gene, thereby preventing it from expressing in the form of protein
productionorotherformsofexpression.Thisprocesshappensnaturallyinmanycasesforthepurposeofregulatingthe
expression of genes and preventing potential damage from viruses. Gene silencing is also an important laboratory
technique,asdisablingageneisahighlyeffectivewayofdeterminingthepurposeofthatgene.
Geneexpressionoccurswhendeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)isconvertedtoribonucleicacid(RNA)throughaprocess
calledtranscription.TheRNAisthenconvertedtoproteins,theprimaryfunctionalunitsincellsthatareinvolvedin
almostallcellularprocesses,throughaprocesscalledtranslation.
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CSE GS Notes
Genesilencingcanoccuratatranscriptionaloraposttranscriptionallevel,meaningthatitcaninterferewiththe
processoftranscriptionorwithsomelaterprocessthatleadstogeneexpression.Thegeneitselfisnotaffected,
butthevariousstepsthatleaduptoexpressionarenotallowedtoruntocompletion.
One transcriptional gene silencing process is referred to as DNA methylation. Methylation involves attaching a
methyl group to certain points on a nucleic acid strand and can, based on the circumstances, have a variety of
differenteffects,someofwhichpreventtranscription.
RNA interference, or RNAi, is a common method of posttranscriptional gene silencing. In RNAi, small RNA
moleculesenterintoaproteincomplexthatcleavesspecificRNAstrands,preventingthemfrombeingtranslatedto
protein,therebypreventinggeneexpression.
Red biotechnology is a branch of biotechnology that deals specifically with human health care and methods of
treatment through the development of medicines such as antibiotics. The field can also involve research into the
manipulationofgenesthroughgermlineengineeringattheembryonicstageorgenetherapyinadultpatients.
Blue biotechnology is confined to the marine environment, while green biotechnology is focused on agricultural
applications. White biotechnology has an industrial base that involves organic enzymes and the processes that they
facilitate,andgraybiotechnologyhasasimilarbasis,wherecellsandnaturalorganismsareusedtocreatesynthetic
compounds.
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Longshoredriftistheanaturalprocessdescribingacurrentthatoftenmovesmostlyparalleltoabeach'sshoreline.
mainproblemwithlongshoredriftrelatestotheremovalofsandfromoneplaceandthedepositionofitinanother.
oneofthemostcommonpracticesistobuildawallthatextendsfromtheshorelineintotheoceanatanangleof90
degreesinrelationtotheshoreline.Thishelpsbreakupthecurrentandstopsthedriftfromtakingplace.
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Geosynthetics are manufactured polymeric products used with materials such as stone or soil as part of manmade
projects, such as buildings or roads. These products or materials can be used, often in conjunction with natural
materials, for a vast variety of purposes. Geotextiles, for instance, can be used to separate or filter soil, and
geomembranesareoftenusedasimpermeablelinersforpondsorothermanmadebodiesofwater.
Adeepspaceprobeisaspacecraftdronethatmakesaonewaytripintodeepspacetocollectscientificinformation
and broadcast it back to Earth. examples include the Pioneer and Voyager spacecrafts. Lithiumthionyl chloride
batteriesarecommonlyusedindeepspacemissionsaswellasroverslikethoselandedonMars.Thebatterieshavea
verylargestoragecapacity.
Probiotic bacteria, often called friendly bacteria, are living microorganisms similar to those found in the human
digestive tract. They naturally occur in some foods and beverages, such as fermented cheese and certain types of
yogurt,andcanbeproducedseparatelyasdietarysupplements.Probioticbacteriaarealsousedincomplementaryand
alternativemedicinetoaidwithdigestivedisorders.B.acidophilus,lacticacidbacteriatypicallyfoundindairyproducts,
couldprolonglifebypreventingfoulinginthelargeintestine.
Western blot antibodies are large Yshaped proteins, or immunoglobulins, produced to use in the Western blot
immunoassay,atesttodetectanassociatedproteininatissueculture.
A quantum well is used to confine electrons at specific energy levels. Quantum wells consist of an extremely thin
semiconductor with a small band gap, resting between material with a larger band gap. They are extremely small,
usuallybetween1and20nanometers.Theyaremostoftenusedinlaserdiodesandinfraredimaging.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an imaging technology in which electron beams pass through very thinly
sectionedspecimens.Astheelectronsaretransmittedthroughthespecimenandinteractwithitsstructure,animage
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CSE GS Notes
resolvesthatismagnifiedandfocusedontoanimagingmedium,suchasphotographicfilmorafluorescentscreen,or
capturedbyaspecialCCDcamera.
Aquantumwireisacableorawire,oftensimilarinfunctiontocopperwire,butmadewithnanotubesofaspecific
element,usuallycarbon.Quantumwiresareusuallyconductors,butmayalsobemadeasinsulatorsorsemiconductors.
Thesewiresareidealforelectricalwiringfunctionsandforuseonspacecraftsbecausetheyaresmallerandlighterthan
theirmetalcounterparts.
Biometricstechnologyisusedtotakemeasurementsofthehumanbody,generallyfocusingonthingsthatcanserveto
uniquelyidentifyindividuals.usedinthefieldsoflawenforcementandsecurity.fingerprints,geneticsignatureoreye
structure.Othertypesmeasurelessphysiologicallyunique,butstillverydistinctive,aspects,suchasvoiceorgait.
Nanocomposite is a manmade material designed for enhanced performance in any number of unique applications:
structural, functional or cosmetic. As with other composites, the nanocomposite includes a base medium, or matrix,
composedofplastic,metalorceramiccombinedwithnanoparticlesinsuspension.
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Powdersusedinfingerprintdustingcanvarybutaregenerallymineralbasedwithalowreactivity.
Ridgesinhumanskinareresponsiblefortheexistenceoffingerprints.Naturaloilsintheskinmakethefingerpads
act somewhat like a stamp when they touch a surface. These oils create an outline of the unique ridges on
whatever surface a person touches, resulting in a fingerprint. Fingerprint dusting powder sticks to the oils,
highlightingthepatternoftheridgesandrevealingthefingerprint.
Fingerprintliftingistheprocessofsecuringcopiesoffingerprintsthatareleftatacrimescene.
Acommonlyusedstrategyinliftinglatentprintsinvolvesusingcyanoacrylateester
placingtheobjectintoacontrolledenvironment.Asthecyanoacrylateesterisheated,itbeginstoreleasefumes.
Over a period of several hours, exposure to the fumes will cause the prints to become readily visible, making it
easiertophotographtheprintsbeforeanyattemptstocopytheprintsontoanothermediumaremade.
Powdersworkwellonsmoothsurfaces,whiletheuseofcyanoacrylateesterorevenproductslikesilvernitrate
aremoreeffectivewithsurfacesthatareribbedorotherwisenotsmooth.
Tectonicplates
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Fingerprintdustingisaprocedureusedbypoliceofficersatcrimescenesinanattempttoidentifysuspects.Dusting
powder over commonly touched surfaces, or surfaces that are particularly relevant to the crime, in order to find
fingerprintsmighthelpofficersfigureoutwhoisresponsibleforacrime.
arelarge,disconnectedchunksoftheEarth'scrust,floatingonthemantlebelow,composedofsoftmagma.
varygreatlyinthicknessdependingonwhethertheyareoceanic(about5km)orcontinental(about50km).
Continental crust generally consists of lighter rocks, while oceanic crust consists of heavier rocks. => when an
oceanictectonicplatecollideswithcontinental,itcertaintoslipunder,orbesubductedby,thecontinentalplate.
3maintypesofplateboundaries,describedintermsofthewaythattectonicplatesmoverelativetoeachother
1. transformboundaries,whereplatesgrindparalleltoeachother,
2. divergentboundaries,whereplatesaremovingapart,and
3. convergentboundaries,whereplatespressintoandsometimesundereachother.
These plate boundaries result in faults, rift valleys, oceanic ridges, oceanic trenches, mountains, island arcs,
subductionzones,volcanoes,andothergeologicphenomena.
"Nanofabrication" refers to the fabrication of structures with feature sizes measured in the nanometers, especially
below20nanometersonaside.Currenttechnologymostlypermitsnanofabricationonlyinatwodimensionalsense.
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CSE GS Notes
A major subset of current nanofabrication are the technologies that fall under the purview of nanolithography,
whichbasicallyjustmeans"nanoscalewriting"andimpliesa2dimensionalresult.
In anticipation of running up against physical limits with photolithography, computer companies have invested
billionsofdollarsinresearchfornextgenerationlithographytechniques.Theseincludexraylithography(feature
sizes of 15 nm), double patterning (using a lowerresolution approach but patterning the same surface twice),
electronbeamdirectwritelithography(EBDW),extremeultravioletlithography,nanoimprintlithography,scanning
probelithography(whichcanmanipulateindividualatoms),andatomicforcemicroscopenanolithography.
Moreadvancedapproachestonanofabricationaremolecularselfassembly,whichhasbeendemonstratedinthe
labhundredsoftimes,orpositionalmechanosynthesis,whichisattheearliestresearchstages.Bothareattempts
totakenanofabricationintothe3Drealm,whichwouldtrulyunlockitstechnologicalpower.
Reversegeneticsisanapproachtogeneticsresearchwhichtakesanunknowngeneticsequenceandattemptstofigure
out the phenotype with which it is associated. This is in contrast with classical genetics, in which researchers take a
knownphenotype,suchasstripesonacat,andtrytodeterminewhichgeneorgenescausethephenotypetoappear.
Labonachipdevices
more formally known as "Micro Total Analysis Systems" (TAS) are microfluidicsbased systems which integrate
multiplelaboratorytypecapabilitiesonasinglechiponlyafewcentimetersinsize.
usesarerealtimepolymerasechainreactions(usedtoamplifysmallDNAstrandsintomoremanageablesamples),
immunoassays, which diagnose diseases based on antigen/antibody presence, dielectrophoresis, used to detect
certaincelltypes,andbloodsamplepreparation,suchastheextractionofDNAfromredbloodcells.
LabonachipresearchcanbeconsideredasubsetofMEMS(microelectromechanicalsystems)
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Genetherapyisawayofinsertinggenesintoapatient'scellsandreplacingthepreexistingalleles,orgenevariants,to
performsometherapeuticfunction.Ithasbeenusedthusfarprimarilytoreplacemutantdefectivegenes,oralleles,
withnormalalleles,butcouldintheorybeusedtoeditthehumangenomearbitrarily.Ifgenetherapywereappliedto
reproductivecellsinthegonads(thegermline),thesegeneticchangeswouldbeheritable.Thisprocesshasneverbeen
performed,butithasaname:germlinegeneticengineering.
Rare Earth hypothesis claims that the Earth is rare, and that few planets can support complex life. The Rare Earth
hypothesisstandsincontrasttotheprincipleofmediocrity,whichassumesthattheEarthmustbeatypicalplanet,as
thereshouldbenothingspecialabouthumanityortheEarth.
Nanopaperisacuttingedgevarietyofpaperwithastrengthof214megapascals(MPa),greaterthan130MPaofcast
ironandapproachingthatofstructuralsteel(250MPa).Typicalpaperhasastrengthof1MPa.Thecellulosefibersin
nanopaperwereproducedbymakingasludgeofcellulose,similartothewaynormalpaperismade,butthenfurther
breaking it down using enzymes, mechanical grinding, and chemical treatment with carboxymethanol. The result are
fibers1000timessmallerthanthefibersintypicalpaper.
JunkDNAisDNAwhichdoesnotappeartohaveanydiscerniblefunction.However,thetermjunkisabitmisleading,
asresearchonjunkDNAhassuggestedthatitmayactuallyplayanimportantroleintheevolutionaryhistoryandlives
ofmanyorganisms.Ratherthanjunk,thisDNAmayinfactbestoredforacriticalreason,andresearchershavestarted
exploring it. Some people refer it as noncoding DNA, referencing the fact that it does not code proteins which
express in the host organism's phenotype. Whatever you call it, the percentage of junk DNA in the genome is often
quitehigh.Inhumanseg:95%ofthegenomeiscomposedofnoncodingDNA.
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InternationalSpaceStation(ISS)
isaresearchfacilityinlowEarthorbit,orbitingatanaltitudebetween320km(199mi)to345km(214mi).
When completed in late 2011, the ISS will consist of sixteen pressurised modules (like small rooms) with a
combinedvolumeofaround1,000cubicmetres
hasbeencontinuouslystaffedsince2November2000;expectedtoremaininoperationuntilatleast2020
serves as a research laboratory that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments in
biology,humanbiology,physics,astronomyandmeteorology
Operated as a joint project between the five participant space agencies NASA, Russian Federal Space Agency
(RKA),theJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency(JAXA),theCanadianSpaceAgency(CSA),andESA
Somemodulesare:Zarya(1st),Kibo,Destiny,Unity,Harmony,Tranquility,Columbus,Leonardo(latest,2011)
largestroboticarmontheISS,Canadarm2weighs1,800kilogramsandisusedtodockandmanipulatespacecraft
andmodulesontheUSOS,andholdcrewmembersandequipmentduringEVA's.
Photovoltaic(PV)arrayspowertheISS;stationusesrechargeablenickelhydrogenbatteries(NiH2)forcontinuous
powerduringthe35minutesofevery90minuteorbitthatitiseclipsedbytheEarth.
ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provides or controls atmospheric pressure, fire
detectionandsuppression,oxygenlevels,wastemanagementandwatersupply.
Spacedebrisobjectsaretrackedremotelyfromtheground,andthestationcrewcanbenotifiedofmanyobjects
with sufficient size to cause damage on impact. This allows for a Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre (DAM) to be
conducted,whichusesthrusterstoalterthestation'sorbitalaltitude,avoidingdebris
HorizontalGeneTransfer
or lateral gene transfer; genetic material is transmitted between organisms that arenotparent and offspring.
Instead,thetwoorganismsareusuallyunrelated,andareoftenofdifferentspecies.
most common way in which singlecelled organisms, bacteria in particular, acquire new genetic material. allows
bacterialspeciestomaintaindiversity.threewaysinwhichbacteriacanexchangegeneticmaterialhorizontally.
TransformationisaprocessinwhichbacteriaingestnakedDNAorRNAmoleculesandexpressthemwithinthecell.
Intransduction,geneticmaterialistransferredbybacteriophages,whicharevirusesthatinfectbacteria.
bacterialconjugation,inwhichgeneticmaterial,oftenplasmids,istransferredviaintercellularcontact.
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Islandgigantismisabiologicalphenomenonwhereanimalsthatliveonisolatedislandstendtogrowlargerbecauseof
alackofpredatorsandcompetitionwhichwouldotherwisebepresentonthemainland.Ratherthanbeingcausedbya
novelselectionpressure,asisthoughttobethecasewiththecomplementaryphenomenonofislanddwarfism,island
gigantismiscausedbytheremovalofconstraints.Theresultareorganismsthatswelltoponderoussizes.Therearethe
famousGiantTortoises,foundontheSeychellesandGalpagosIslands.
Petroleumispredominantlycomprisedofvarioushydrocarbonsingas,liquid,orsolidstates.Crudeoilandnaturalgas
aremembersofthisgroup.Onehydrocarbonincrudeoilisparaffin,whichiscommonlyknowninfoodpreservation.
During the refining process, various temperatures yield different products, and the temperature at which the wax
beginstoemergeinthefueloroilisknownasthecloudpoint.
SuperEarthisatypeofextrasolarplanet(exoplanet)moremassivethantheEarthbutlessmassivethanagasgiantlike
Jupiter or Saturn. The concept is relatively new (2003). Scientific papers variously define a SuperEarth as a planet
betweenoneandtenEarthmasses,orasaplanetbetween5and10Earthmasses
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SETI, or the Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence, is a project which aims to detect extraterrestrial intelligent life.
SETI primarily uses radio telescopes to search for extraterrestrial signals, although optical telescopes and other
methodshavebeenproposed.
Casimireffectreferstothetinyattractiveforcethatappearsbetweentwounchargedplatesinavacuum.ThisCasimir
forceisonlymeasurablewhentheplatesareextremelyclosetogether.Casimireffectreferstothetinyattractiveforce
that appears between two uncharged plates in a vacuum. This Casimir force is only measurable when the plates are
extremelyclosetogether
fumaroleisaholeintheEarth'scrustwhichventsgases.Fumarolesareusuallyfoundaroundareasofvolcanicactivity,
althoughtheycanappearanywhere.Ifenoughgroundwaterispresent,theventmayturnintoahotspring,creatinga
supplyofbubblingnaturallyhotwaterwhichisheatedbytheescapinggases.
Swarmroboticsisanapproachtoroboticsthatemphasizesmanysimplerobotsinsteadofasinglecomplexrobot.A
robotswarmhasmuchincommonwithanantcolonyorswarmofbees.Noindividualinthegroupisveryintelligentor
complex, but combined, they can perform difficult tasks. Swarm robotics has been an experimental field, but many
practicalapplicationshavebeenproposed.
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humiditymapisamapwhichprovideshumidityvaluesforaregion,usuallyexpressedintermsofrelativehumidity.
Suchmapscanbeusefulinawidevarietyofapplications.Theyareoftengeneratedbygovernmentagencies,although
weatherforecastingcompaniesandprivateorganizationsmayalsogeneratetheirownhumiditymaps.
Anarcticfrontisaboundarybetweenanarcticairmassandapolarairmass.Thisboundarytendstoexistmoreorless
continuallyinnorthernlatitudes,althoughitwillchangelocationasseasonalweatherpatternsareexpressed.
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Molecularmedicineinvolvesapplyingknowledgeaboutthemolecularbasisofdiseaseandhownewclinicalpractices
canbebroughttobear.Itincludespractices,suchasinterventionsonthecellularand/orDNAlevelincludinggenetic
and cellular therapies, and incorporating new understanding, such as those that have grown out of studying the
posttranslationalmodificationofproteins.Itoftenmakesreferencetosuchspecialtiesasgenomics,proteomics, and
bioinformatics.
transgene is a section of genetic material from one organism which appears in the DNA of another organism.
Depending on a number of factors, the transgene may fail to express, may express in a way different from that
observedintheoriginalorganism,ormayexpressintheneworganisminexactlythesamewayitdidintheoriginal
one.Ageneisidentifiedasatransgenewhenithasbeensequencedinonespeciesandlateridentifiedinanother.
Siderealtimereferstothelengthofdaysandothermeasurementsoftimewithrespecttostarsotherthanoursun.
Whereasasolardaylasts24hours,asiderealdayisaboutfourminutesshorter.Ineverydaylife,solartimeisalways
used,butastronomersoftenfinditusefultousesiderealtimewhenexpressingtheapparentmovementofstarsinthe
sky,asobservedfromearth
Inthenucleus,genesaresectionsofDNAthatcodeforspecificproteinsinthecell.Thisisreferredtoasthegenetic
code.AlloftheDNAisnotincludedaspartofthegeneticcode.TherearelengthsofDNA,calledintrons,whichdonot
codeforproteins.ThepartsoftheDNAformthegeneticcodearecalledexons.
Jatropha is a genus of plants, trees, and shrubs native to South America and the Caribbean uses: ranging from
compoundswhichcanbeusedasvegetabledyestooilswhichcanbeutilizedintheproductionofbiofuelsespbiodiesel
Tribology, a science that studies how friction and lubrication work together, has been used since ancient times. By
understandingfrictionandlubrication,atribologistisbetterabletoreducethecorrosionofnumerousmachinesand
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CSE GS Notes
products.Therearefourthingsthatatribologistmuststudytopreventwearandtear:abrasion,erosion,corrosionand
adhesion.
MEMS stands for Micro ElectroMechanical Systems, referring to functional machine systems with components
measuredinmicrometers.MEMSisoftenviewedasasteppingstonebetweenconventionalmacroscalemachineryand
futuristicnanomachinery.
modernMEMSfabricationtechniquesarelargelybaseduponthesametechnologyusedtomanufactureintegrated
circuits,thatis,filmdepositiontechniqueswhichemployphotolithography.
Most often mentioned in conjunction with MEMS is the idea of a "labonachip," a device that processes tiny
samplesofachemicalandreturnsusefulresults.
MEMS are fabricated in one of two ways: either throughsurface micromachining, in which successive layers of
material are deposited on a surface and then etched to shape, or through bulk micromachining, where the
substrateitselfisetchedtoproduceafinalproduct.
Surface micromachining is most common because it builds on the advances of integrated circuits.Various
microscalegears,pumps,sensors,pipes,andactuatorshavebeenfabricated
ExamplesofmoderndayMEMSuseincludeinkjetprinters,accelerometersinautomobiles,pressuresensors,high
precisionoptics,microfluidics,monitoringofindividualneurons,controlsystems,andmicroscopy.
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Eugenicsisasocialmovementwhichinvolvesmanipulatinghumangeneticinheritancetobringoutthetraitswhichare
believedtobebest.Eugenicshasbeenusedhistoricallyasanargumentformandatorysterilizationandavarietyof
other policies which have been targeted at the lesser members of the society with the goal of eliminating their
geneticheritagefromthegenepool.
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Activegalacticnucleusisasmallregion,betweenabout1and100lightyearsindiameter,atthecenterofagalaxythat
emitsprodigiousamountsofradiationoversomeoralloftheelectromagneticspectrum,fromtheshortestgammarays
tothelongestradiowaves.Activegalacticnucleiareamongthemostenergeticphenomenaintheuniverse,beating
outevensupernovaeintermsofluminosity.
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a method of achieving nuclear fusion by quickly compressing and heating a
material.Thisprocessisusuallydonewithhighpoweredlasers,whichareallfocusedontoasmallpellettorapidlyheat
itup.Theintenseheatingvaporizesthematerialinsidethepellet,creatingashockwavewhichishotanddenseenough
to cause the material to fuse. The basic ingredients of an ICF pellet are deuterium and tritium. The fusion reaction
between deuterium and tritium is much easier to achieve than any other reaction, and so a powerproducing
deuterium/tritiumreactoristheprimarygoalofmodernfusionresearch.
Cosmic dust is a substance which is found throughout the Universe. It consists of small grains of material and
aggregatesofsuchgrains,withacompositionwhichcanvaryradically,dependingonthecircumstancesinwhichthe
dustisformed.
Nutrigenomicsisacombinationofnutritionandgenomics.describesafieldwhichisconcernedwiththerelationship
between diet and gene expression. Nutrigenomic research investigates questions such as how food influences gene
expression,andhowgenesinfluencethewayindividualsabsorbandmetabolizedifferenttypesofnutrients.
Lagrangepointsarestablegravitationalpointsinspacewhereanobjectcouldbeplacedanditwouldremainatafixed
position with respect to a body orbiting the Sun, such as the Earth. Every orbiting planet has five Lagrange points.
Earth's Lagrange points are called L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5. Lagrange points often feature in discussions about space or
sciencefictionbecausetheywouldbeideallocationstobuildspacestations.
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CSE GS Notes
Photonicsisabroadfieldofstudythatinvolvestheresearchandapplicationoflightinallofitsmanyforms.Thefieldis
notonlyinterestedinthevisiblelightspectrum;ultravioletlightandinfraredlightareveryimportantaswell.Thefield
of photonics was originally aimed at applying light to tasks that could previously only be solved through electronics,
suchastelecommunications.Themodernfieldseekstocontinuethisendeavorandtoexpanduponitbysearchingfor
any and all applications for light. Photonics draws from and contributes to several other fields, such as quantum
electronicsandmodernoptics.
usedinmanydifferentindustries,rangingfromconsumerelectronicstorobotics.
BarcodescannersandDVDreadersarebothlightbasedtechnologies.
Inmedicine,lightintheformoflasersisusedforeyesightcorrectionandtattooremovalaswell.
Militaryapplicationsincludethedetectionofinfraredlighttoexposeheatsourcesinthedark.Someapplicationsof
photonicsareusedentirelyforentertainment;theseincludelasershowsandholographicart.
XSeed4000isthelargestbuildingeverfullyenvisionedanddesigned.Itis4kmtall(13,123feet),witha6kmbase.X
Seed4000wasdesignedbyTaiseiConstructionCorporation
W54NuclearWarhead:isthesmallestnuclearwarheadtobedeployedbytheUnitedStatesandthesmallestknown
nuclear warhead in general. It is similar in size to a computer printer, with a diameter of 27 cm, about 40cm , and
weighingslightlyover23kg
tokamakischaracterizedbytheuseoftheplasmacurrenttogeneratethehelicalcomponentofthemagneticfield
necessary for stable equilibria. This can be compared to another toroidal magnetic confinement device, the
stellarator, in which all of the confining magnetic fields are produced by external coils and there is a negligible
currentflowingthroughtheplasma.
Whydoughnutshaped?Thedistinctiveshapeofthefusionreactorisnecessarybecauseofaparticularpropertyof
adoughnutthatasphere(forexample)doesnothave.Essentialytheproblemisthehairyballtheorem.Ifasphere
hashairgrowingoutofitthenitisimpossibletocombitsothatnohairsticksup.Howeverahairydoughnutcanbe
socombed.Thisisimportantbecauseafusionreactorisahairydoughnutwiththehairbeingthemagneticfield
lines.Astrandofhairthatisstandingonendwouldbeaninstabilityinthereactor.
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Atokamakisatoroidal(doughnutshaped)magneticplasmaconfinementdevice,theleadingcandidateforproducing
magneticfusionenergy.
FarnsworthHirsch fusor is a device for generating nuclear fusion reactions. FarnsworthHirsch fusors use strong
electric fields to contain the fusion plasma, unlike the more common tokamak design, which uses magnetic fields.
Farnsworthfusorsaregenerallyquitesimpletobuild,andnumerousamateurshavebuilttheirown,oftenfromspare
parts.basicprinciplebehindtheFarnsworthfusor,inertialelectrostaticconfinement(IEC),wasfirstnoticedintelevision
vacuumtubes.
Higgs particles, also known as the Higgs Boson, are units that have been theorized in particle physics but, as of yet,
havenotbeenproventoexist.TheyaresometimesreferredtoastheGodParticlebecausetheyarethoughttobeall
aroundus,yetnearlyundetectable.ThesearesomeofthesametraitspeopleassociatewithGod,thusthereasonfor
the name. Higgs particles are thought to exist in a field known as the Higgs field. In general, Higgs particles could
explainwhatgivesmattertomass,andthuscomposestheuniverse.
Oneofthechallengesofcancertreatmentishowtodestroymalignanttumorswithoutdamaginghealthycells.Anew
methodthatshowsgreatpromiseforaccomplishingthisemploystheuseofasuicidegene.Asuicidegeneisagene
whichwillcauseacelltokillitselfthroughapoptosis,orprogrammedcelldeath(PCD).PCDisaseriesofbiochemical
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CSE GS Notes
events which cause the cell membrane to dissolve, the cell to shrink, and the nucleus and DNA to fragment. The
processalsoprovidesforthebodyscleanupofthecellulardebris.
2methodsofsuicidegenetherapy:Genedirectedenzymeprodrugtherapy,virusdirectedenzymeprodrug
Genedirected enzymeprodrug therapy (GDEPT) uses a gene taken from the cancer cell and then modified with
othergenestoformenzymesthatareharmlesstohealthycells.Thisforeignenzymeisinsertedintothetumorcells
whereitreleasesaprodrug,whichisasmallmoleculeharmlesstohealthycells,butdestructivetocancerouscells.
Themodifiedsuicidegeneconvertsthenontoxicprodrugintoacytotoxicsubstance.
virusdirectedenzymeprodrugtherapy:usesavirus,suchaherpessimplexorcoldvirus,asthecarrier,orvector,
todeliverthemodifiedgenestothecancercells.AstudybeingconductedbyMethodistNeurologicalInstitutein
Texaswillbeusingherpesvirustodeliverthesuicidegenestobraintumors.ThepatientswillbegivenValtrex,a
drugusedtotreattheherpesvirus.Thesuicidegenesareexpectedtobreakdownthetumorcellstosuchadegree,
thanwhenthedrugtreatstheherpescarrier,thecellshouldbedestroyed.
Suicidegenetherapyisnotnecessarilyexpectedtocompletelyeliminatetheneedforchemotherapyandradiation
treatment for all cancerous tumors. The damage inflicted upon the tumor cells, however, makes them more
susceptible to the chemo or radiation. This approach has already proven effective against prostate and bladder
cancers.Theapplicationofsuicidegenetherapyisbeingexpandedtoseveralotherformsofcanceraswell.
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"Mitochondrial Eve" is the name given by scientists to the woman who is the matrilineal most recent common
ancestor of all living humans. That means that all living humans have mitochondrial DNA derived from hers.
MitochondrialEveisthoughttobeawomanthatlivedineasternAfricaabout140,000yearsago.
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gravitationallensisanastronomicalphenomenonobservedwhenamassiveobject,likeaclusterofgalaxiesorablack
hole,bendslightfromaverydistantlightsource,suchasaquasar(youngandbrightgalaxy).Thisoccursduetothe
gravitational warping of spacetime first described by Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity. Gravitational
lensingcancausedistantquasarstoappearinlocationswheretheydon'treallyexist.
Tacticalnuclearweaponsarerelativelylowyieldnuclearweaponsintendedtobeusedonthebattlefieldinwar.Thisis
incontrasttostrategicnuclearweapons,whicharedesignedtotargetlargecitiesandmilitaryfacilities.
AugmentedReality(AR)referstocomputerresearchthataimstoproduceinformationsystemsthatmergerealworld
informationseamlesslywithdigitalinformation.
The science of genetics focuses on genes as the units of heredity, and how that information is transmitted. At an
entirely different level, genomics focuses on the entire genome of an organism, which comprises all of its genetic
information. Thefieldofgenomicsisdividedintoseveralcategories,includingfunctionalandcomparativegenomics.
While functional genomics is concerned mainly with how genes and the genome function in a given organism,
comparativegenomicsfocusesoncomparinggenomesfromdifferentspecies.
Atsunami,ortidalwave,iscreatedwhenasubstantialvolumeofwaterintheoceansisdisplaced,resultinginawave
front which eventually reaches human coastal settlements. A tsunami can be caused by an earthquake, volcanic
eruption, landslide or meteorite impact, though earthquakes are by far the most common cause. While a normal
tsunamitakenaloneisaquiteimpressive,uniqueevents(massivelandslidesorasteroidimpacts)cantriggertsunamis
solargeanddifferentfromtheirsmallercounterpartsthattheyhavebeencalledsupertsunamis,ormegatsunamis,for
thepurposeofclassifyingthemseparately.
Waste vegetable oil (WVO) is vegetable oil which is left over from other uses, most typically uses in the restaurant
industry,suchasdeepfryers.ThereareanumberofapplicationsforWVO,rangingfromrenderingitforuseinanimal
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feedtoprocessingitsothatitcanbeusedinalternativefuelvehicles.processthevegetableoilforuseincosmetics,
animalfood,andotherproducts.
Ocean thermal energy conversion, sometimes referred to as OTEC, is a form of renewable energy that utilizes the
differenceinoceantemperatureatvariousdepthsandconvertsittoaheatengine.Theheatengineconvertsthisheat
energytoamechanicaloutput.
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3typesofOTECsystemsincludeclosed,open,andhybrid.
Theclosedcyclesystemusesaliquidthathasaverylowboilingpointtomoveaturbinetocreateelectricity.Thisis
accomplishedbysendingwarmoceansurfacewaterthroughaheatexchangerwherethefluidisvaporized.When
the vapor expands, it moves the generator. Cold ocean water, drawn at much deeper depth, is sent through a
differentheatexchanger,whichthenreducesthevaporbacktoliquidform.
Anopencyclesystemuseswaterfromtheoceanthatistheclosesttotheequator,sinceitistypicallythewarmest.
Warmoceanwaterthatisplacedinsideofalowpressurecontainerwillbegintoboil.Asthesteamexpandsand
leavesthelowpressurecontainer,thesaltremains.Thesteampowersalowpressureenginethatisattachedtoa
devicethatcreateselectricity.Itisturnedbacktoliquidformbyexposingittocoldtemperaturescreatedbyocean
waterfromalowerdepth.
Thehybridsystemcombinescomponentsofthefirsttwomethods.Warmoceanwaterispulledintoacontainer
whereitisturnedintosteam.Thesteamthenturnsalowboilingpointliquidintovapor,whichpowersaturbineto
createelectricity.
Scanningtunnelingmicroscope(STM)isaninnovativetypeofmicroscopewhich,insteadofusingreflectinglightlike
conventionalopticalmicroscopes,usesquantumtunnelingbetweenasampleandaprobetiptoimagethesurface.The
resolutionsachievedbyanSTMcanbeashighas0.1nmlateralresolutionand0.01nmdepthresolution.Thisisafew
timeshigherthantheresolutionsachievableusingthebestelectronmicroscopes.
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SpaceShipTwo is a space plane developed in a joint venture between the Virgin Group and Scaled Composites. It is
designedforsuborbitalcommercialflights,withpassengersbookingflightsofatwoandahalfhourdurationsothat
they get a chance to experience space, albeit briefly: around six minutes of weightlessness are in store for the
passengersaboutSpaceShipTwo.
SpaceShipOneisa3passengerspaceplanedevelopedbytheCaliforniacompanyScaledCompositesin2003.In2004,it
achieved world fame by flying the world's first privately funded spaceflights and winning the $10 million US Dollars
(USD)AnsariXPrizeforitscreators.hasachievedmultiplesuborbitalspaceflights
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a highenergy particle accelerator. passes through both France and Switzerland. The
LargeHadronCollideristheworld'smostpowerfulparticleaccelerator,andiscapableofcollidingprotonsatenergies
uptofourteentrillionelectronvolts,aswellasheavierparticles,suchasironnuclei.Itishopedthattheexperiments
doneattheLargeHadronCollidermayhelpresolvefundamentalphysicsquestions,suchasthenatureofmass,andthe
existenceofextradimensions.
Particlesareinjectedintothetunnelathighspeedsinoppositedirections,andarethenacceleratedbypowerful
magneticfields.Keepingtheparticlesinabeam,whiletheyarecirculatingaroundthetunnelatclosetolightspeed,
isquitedifficult;large,superconductingmagnetsareneededtoprovidethe necessaryforce.Whentwoparticles
collide,thekineticenergyoftheparticlesgoesintocreatingapanoplyofexotic,shortlivedcollisionproducts.
Large Hadron Collider incorporates six different detectors, with the goal of discovering what these new particles
are,andhowtheybehave.ManyparticlephysicstheoriespredictthattheLargeHadronColliderwillbepowerful
enoughtocreatenewparticles,suchastheHiggsboson,orsupersymmetricpartnerstocommonparticles.
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ITER,earlierInternationalThermonuclearExperimentalReactor
The project is a consortium of seven national and supranational parties: the European Union (EU), India, Japan,
People'sRepublicofChina,Russia,SouthKorea,andtheUS.
objectofITERistoproduceasustainedfusionreaction,onethatgenerates500megawattsforupto1000seconds.
ITERisisexpectedtobecompletedby2018andoperatefor20additionalyears.Ifsuccessful,itcouldbethefirst
fusionpowerplantthatproducesmorepowerthanitconsumes,thoughtheheatgeneratedinitscorewillnotbe
usedforelectricitygenerationitspurposeisonlyexperimental.
ITERisatokamakdesign.Thetorusiswrappedwithpowerfulmagneticcoils,trappingaplasma(ionizedgas)within.
Thisplasmaisheateduptogreattemperaturesover100milliondegreesKelvinusingohmicheating;thesame
mechanismthatheatsupawireifithasexcessiveelectriccurrentrunningthroughit.Ataroundthistemperature,
thenucleibegintofuse,releasingenergy.
Magnetic confinement fusion is an approach to nuclear fusion that involves suspending a plasma (ionized gas) in a
magnetic field and raising its temperature and pressure to great levels. Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear energy
produced when light atomic nuclei hydrogen, deuterium, tritium, or helium are fused together at great
temperaturesandpressures.
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Nanotechnologyenergy:producedthroughthenanofabricationofcertainpowerproducingdevices.Fuelcellbatteries
madeupofnanometercomponentscanpowerautomobilesandotherequipment,suchascomputers.Thedvlpmtof
nanotechtopowervehiclesandothermachinesisinpartaresponsetothegrowingscarcityoffossilfuels
Geneticalgorithmisanytypeofsoftwarethatusesvariationandselectiontoproduceanevolutionarilytunedoutput.
Thatoutputmaybeaprogram,avalue,orevenapicture.Thegeneticalgorithmneedsaprocessforgeneratingnew
variantsandfeedback,orfitnesscriteria,inordertodeterminewhichvariantstodiscardandwhichtouse.
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Diamondoid mechanosynthesis (DMS) refers to the hypothetical mechanical synthesis of stable chemical structures
using covalently bonded carbon, otherwise known as diamond. Mechanical synthesis (mechanosynthesis) contrasts
withchemicalsynthesisisthatthesynthesis(creationofanewchemicalorstructurefromtwosmallerprecursors)is
performed using mechanical forces alone rather than combining the chemicals in a test tube randomly.
Mechanosynthesis is a technology in the early research phases. Though mechanosynthesis has been demonstrated
severaltimes,provingitsphysicalviability,ithasprimarilybeenperformedwithsilicon,notcarbon,andonlyonavery
limitedscale
Nuclearlightbulbisthenicknameforaspecifictypeofnuclearpoweredrocketengineorenergysource.Inanuclear
lightbulb, the coolant/propellant is separated from the nuclear fuel by a quartz wall. Although the reactor reaches
temperatures of approximately 25,000C, most of the radiation is in the hard ultraviolet range, which quartz is
practicallytransparentto.
Seasteading is the concept of homesteading on the high seas, where the only laws that apply are those by home
nationswhichcontinuetoapplytocitizensoutofthecountry(notmany).Seasteadingisfavoredbylibertarians,who
seekacountrywithminimalgovernment,andothersseekingtopioneernewterritoryandcreatenewnations.Since
oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface, some have suggested it prudent to attempt to colonize some of that area
beforeattemptingcoloniesontheMoonorMars.
Inrobotics,anexoskeleton,alsoknownasapoweredexoskeleton,isapoweredsuitthatisusedtomagnifyhuman
strengthand/orspeed.Formedicalcare,researchersatseveraluniversitiesinJapanhavedesignedsoftexoskeletons
designedtohelpmedicalcaretakerscarrytheoldorinfirm.HAL5(HybridAssistiveLimb)ismarketedasbeingcapable
ofenhancingtheliftingcapacityoftheuserbyfivefold.
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MarsReconnaissanceOrbiterisaUSspacecraftbuiltbyLockheedMartinforthepurposeoforbitingMars,mappingits
surfaceingreatdetail,andstudyingtheMartianclimate,weather,atmosphere,andgeology.
1among5otherspacecraftonororbitingMars.Others:MarsGlobalSurveyor,MarsExpress,MarsOdyssey,and
twoMarsExplorationRovers.MarsExpressESA,othersNASA
entered into a long, elliptical orbit, and used the technique of aerobraking intentionally dipping low into the
atmospheretoslowitselfdownandachieveamoresuitableorbit(250316km)forobservations
2 most interesting discoveries have been a few signs of the past presence of liquid water and the discovery of
large,darkholes,thoughttobecaveentrances.
signatureinstrument,HiRISE(HighResolutionImagingScienceExperiment)camera,iscapableoftakingphotosof
theMartiansurfacetoaresolutionof0.3mperpixel.HiRISE'sdatahasallowedforthecreationofaGoogleMars.
SHARAD,theShallowSubsurfaceRadar,isanotherinstrumentdesignedtolookunderthesurfaceofMarsusing
radarwaves.Itcanresolveundergroundfeaturesupto1kmdeepataresolutionof7m.
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BoththeExplorerandSpiritRovercanmoveacrossMarsbecauseofheavydutywheels
Theypossessotherinstrumentslikepanoramiccameras,spectrometers,whichhelptoidentifydifferenttypesof
materials, magnets, and microscopic imagers. As Sprit Rover and Explorer collect information, this is transmitted
backtoNASAscientistssoitcanbeanalyzed.
primarymissionistogiveadetailedaccountofMars'surface.Understandingthemakeupofthesurfacecangive
moreevidencetowardstheoriesaboutthecreationofthesolarsystem.
O:receivespowerfromsolarpanels&usesrechargeableLiionbatteriestopowerduringtheevenings
Outfitted with two cameras: a panoramic camera to examine the local landscape, and a navigational camera to
assistindrivingthevehicle.AminiatureThermalEmissionSpectrometer,orMiniTES,isabletogetacloseuplook
atrockandsoilanddeterminehowitwasformed.
O:investigatedtheEagleCrater,EnduranceCrater,ErebusCraterandVictoriaCrateramongotherareas.
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SpiritRoverisrobotonexplorationtoMars,andithasatwinrobotcalledOpportunity.beganthisworkin2003,when
theywerelaunched,andespeciallyin2004,whentheylandedwithintwoweeksofeachotheronMarssurface.
Carboncapandtradeisasystembywhichgovernmentscanseektolimitthecarbonemissionsproduced.Itsetsan
overallgoalofreducingcertainemissions,especiallycarbon,byallowingindividualcompaniestoonlyemitsomuchina
givenyear.Thosewhogobeyondthatamountmaybefined,orfaceothergovernmentimposedsanctions,butthey
wouldalsobeabletobuycreditsfromotherswhoarenotusingtheirentireallotments
ChandraXrayObservatoryisaspacetelescopedesignedtodetectxraysourcesinouter space.ItispartofNASA's
GreatObservatoriesprogram,whichincludestheHubbleSpaceTelescope,SpitzerSpaceTelescope,andtheCompton
GammaRayObservatory.
Chandrahaslookedintothecentersofnumeroussupernovarelics(planetarynebulae)anddiscoveredthecompact
objectsthatremain,whichareblackholesorneutronstars.IthasobservedxrayemissionsfromSagittariusA*,a
supermassiveblackholeatthecenteroftheMilkyWaygalaxy.
Chandrasatellite,inahighlyeccentricorbitaveraging10,000kmabovethesurface
Byobservingcollisionsbetweengalacticsuperclusters,Chandrahashelpedverifytheexistenceofsocalled"dark
matter"invisiblematterthatisonlyobservedindirectly,throughitsgravitationalinfluenceonvisiblematter.
Ithasobservedxrayemissionsfrommaterialinprotoplanetarydiscsorbitingfarawaystars,observationsthatgive
usinsightintohowoursolarsystemformed.
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Riparian zone is an area around a stream or another watercourse which has distinctive vegetation and other
characteristics which separate it from the land beyond the riparian zone. Riparian zones contribute a number of
important things to the natural environment, with many conservation groups promoting the maintenance and
restorationofriparianzonesforthebenefitoftheenvironmentintheirregions.
Stalagmiteisatypeofrockformationwhichappearsincaves.Itisconsideredatypeofspeleothem.stalagmiteforms
when mineralized water drips from the ceiling of a cave to the floor. stalagmites are made from calcium carbonate,
becausetheyappearinlimestonecaves,althoughothermineralsmayappearinastalagmiteaswell.
Dendrochronology is a science which involves the study of growth ring patterns in trees, and using these growth
patternstoestablishachronologyofdates.
Reliesonthefactthatlivingtreescreatedistinctivelayersknownasgrowthringsforeachyearoflife,andthateach
growthringwillvaryincompositionandappearancedependingontheconditionsatthetimeofthegrowth.During
droughtyears,forexample,agrowthringmightbeextremelyslender,reflectingthefactthatthetreedidn'tgrow
verymuch.Intemperateyears,agrowthringmightbefat,reflectingidealgrowingconditionsforthetree.
Bylookingatthepatternofringsinacrosssectionoftreetrunk,ascientistcanlearnabouttheweatherconditions
that the tree witnessed. By analyzing isotopes and minerals from each growth ring, it is even possible to learn
aboutvolcaniceruptionsandothermajoreventsinthearea.
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Greenbelt is a swath of land around a city which is protected from development and construction. The land in a
greenbelt may be used in various ways, ranging from farming to the construction of urban wetlands. Greenbelts are
typically established through mandate in the form of a city plan, restrictive covenant, or land use designation, and
many communities have placed a priority on the installation of greenbelts, encouraging people to think about the
naturalenvironmentwhileengagingincityplanning.
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Fjordisageologicfeaturecausedbyglaciation,withdistinctiveexamplesoffjordsbeingfoundinNorway,Greenland,
Chile,partsofAlaskaandCanada,theArctic,andNewZealand.Afjordiscausedbyfloodingofaglacialvalleywithsea
water,andtypicallyoccursonWesternshoreswithhighlydurablerockwhichresistserosionbyotherforces,leaving
thebasicfjordshapeintactoverthecenturies.Norwayinparticularisknownforitsfjords,whichareapopulartourist
attractionandsummerretreatforNorwegians.
Thermal pollution refers to an increase of temperature in a body of water due to human or environmental causes.
Whileadegreeortwoofdifferencemaysoundminor,warmingofanaquaticormarineenvironmentevenbyasmall
amountcanresultindevastatingalterationstothehabitatsoffish,insects,plants,andanimals.Thereareseveralmain
causes of thermal pollution, each contributing to what some environmental experts call a possible environmental
catastrophe.Oneofthemajorcausesofthermalpollutionisindustrialuseofwaterasacoolant.
Photochemicalsmogisauniquetypeofairpollutionwhichiscausedbyreactionsbetweensunlightandpollutantslike
hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide. Although photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be extremely harmful,
leading to irritations of the respiratory tract and eyes. In regions of the world with high concentrations of
photochemicalsmog,elevatedratesofdeathandrespiratoryillnesseshavebeenobserved.
Eutrophicationreferstoanincreaseofnutrientsinabodyofwater.Althougheutrophicationisanaturalprocess,when
it is accelerated it is an issue for concern. Many human activities have led to widespread eutrophication in rivers,
streams,lakes,andoceansaroundtheworld.Ifleftunchecked,eutrophicationbecomesaproblem,severelyimpacting
waterqualityandbiodiversity.
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Eutrophication can be rapidly accelerated by human activities, in which case it is known as nutrient pollution.
Fertilizerandmanurerunofffromfarmsisaleadingcauseofeutrophicationaroundtheworld.Asthesenutrientsenter
thewatersupply,theyencourageanexplosionofplantlifeandalgae,aneventsometimescalledanalgaebloom.The
plantlifedramaticallyreducestheamountofavailableoxygeninthewater,ultimatelychokingoutanimalspeciesand
creatingasocalleddeadzone.
BiodiversityhotspotisaregionoftheEarthwhichisextremelybiologicallydiverseandalsounderseverethreatdueto
habitat loss, climate change, or extensive species loss. Around 25 sites worldwide are recognized as biodiversity
hotspots,
BiologistshaveorganizedallthelifeonEarthintofourlevelsofcomplexityandinteraction.Inthisschema,speciesof
organismslivein"communities"wheretheycompeteforfoodandhabitat.Atthenextlevel,communitiesinteractinan
"ecosystem."Theecosystemincludesweatherandgeologyoftheareainadditiontoplantsandanimals.Forexamplea
specific forest qualifies as an ecosystem. Then, taken together, those ecosystems that share major characteristics of
terraincreateabiome.Abiomeisunitedbytemperature,precipitation,soiltype,vegetation,latitude,andelevation.
AtthemostmacroscopiclevelreignsthebiosphereofourEarththatcontainsallthelifeweknowexistsintheuniverse.
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The major biomes are divided into terrestrial (ground) and aquatic (water) biomes. The aquatic biome can be
categorized as both Marine and Freshwater biomes. Sometimes freshwater lakes, rivers, streams, and underground
aquifers belong to the surrounding terrestrial biome. The terrestrial biomes are Tundra, Tropical Forest, Grasslands
(also called Prairie or Steppe), Taiga (Boreal or Coniferous Forest), Savannah, Desert, and Temperate (Deciduous)
Forest.Somebiologistsdefinemorethanseventerrestrialbiomes,addingChaparral,Mountain,Island,orTropicalDry
Forest.Otherbiomesarefurthersubdivided,suchasdeepocean,openocean,andshallowoceanMarinebiome,orthe
hotandcoldDeserts.
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jetstreamisariverofwindthatblowshorizontallythroughtheupperlayersofthetroposphere,generallyfromwestto
east,atanaltitudeof20,00050,000feet(6,1009,144meters),orabout7miles(11kilometers)up.
Midoceanridgeistheworld'slongestmountainrange,althoughitissubmerged.Itisacontinuousoceanridgethat
stretches through all the world's oceans, including the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Ocean. It exists
alongtheboundaryoftectonicplates.Infact,theonlyreasonthatthemidoceanridgeexistsisduetoweaknessesin
theEarth'scrustatplateinterfaceswhichpermitvolcanicactivity.Thevolcanicactivitygeneratesmagma,whichcools
toformthiscontinuoussubmarinemountainrange.
Estuaryisawaterfeaturewherefreshandsaltwatermix.Becauseanestuaryrequiresfreeandopenaccesstothesea,
estuaries always occur along coastlines, although in some cases they can extend several miles inland. The unique
natural environment of an estuary hosts numerous animal and plant species, and tends to be a profitable place for
humanstosettleaswell,sinceanestuarycanmakeanexcellentlocationforaharbor.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists itself as the oldest global
environmental organization. Since its inception in the 1940s, IUCN has led the world in environmental research and
conservation efforts. In 1948, the director of the UNESCO founded the group to give global environmental issues a
centralscientificbase.Thegoaloftheorganizationincludeshelpinglocalcommunitiesunderstandthecrisesintheir
ownecosystems,toencourageconservationontheclosestlevel.Theytrytomaintainthebalancebetweennecessary
developmentandthepreservationofthenaturalworld.
Troposphericductingoccurswhenaradiosignalisreflectedoffofthetroposphereandcontinuesonapaththatallows
the signal to travel much farther than it normally would. This occurs when the temperature in the atmosphere
experiences a shift called an inversion. When a temperature inversion occurs, radio waves that would normally
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continueintospacebeyondtheEarthsatmosphereareinsteadreflectedandcontinuetofollowthecurvatureofthe
planet
Solargainreferstotheincreaseintemperaturethatoccurswhentheenergyfromthesunpassesthroughwindowsor
doors.Itisessentiallyatypeofgreenhouseeffect.Itraisesthetemperature inanareainthesamewaythataglass
greenhouseprotectsplantsandflowersfromthecold.Dependingontheclimateortheseasons,itcanbebeneficialor
detrimental. New technologies and building materials can manage solar heat gain to maximize the comfort and
minimizetheenergycostsofhomesandoffices.
Wetland mitigation, also known as wetland mitigation banking, is the act of restoring, enhancing, establishing or
preserving a wetland environment. Typically, such mitigation projects are undertaken to protect streams and other
sources of water from harmful chemicals. For example, a wetland project in an urban area may catch runoff from
streets. In a rural area, wetland mitigation projects may catch field runoff, such as chemicals and fertilizers that are
knowntobeharmfultotheaquaticenvironment.
Tropospheric ozone is simply ozone that is located closer to the ground or at ground levels where it can come into
contactwithpeopleorobjects.Whilestratosphericozoneisgenerallyconsideredtobeagoodthingthathelpsprotect
the planet from harmful ultraviolet radiation, tropospheric ozone is often considered very harmful. Generally, it is
thoughtofasapollutant.
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Factorsforformnincludetheburningoffossilfuels,particularlyfromautomobiles,powerplants,andmanufacturers.
Together, those emissions, typically nitrogen oxides, combine in the lower atmosphere where they interact with
sunlight and hydrocarbons. Once those come together, ozone is often a natural result of some very unnatural
processes.
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Biogeochemicalcyclesisthecollectivenameforthecyclicalprocessingofcertainsubstancesthroughlivingandnon
livingmatterinEarth'sbiological,geological,andchemicalsystems.Relativelyrare,biogeochemicalcyclesoccuronlyin
atomswhichcanbefoundinbothorganicandinorganicsubstances.Themostcommonbiogeochemicalcyclesarethe
nitrogenandthecarboncycle,followedbytheoxygenandthehydrologic,orwater,cycle.
Chemicalnutrients,likenitrogenandphosphorususedinfertilizers,accidentallyreleasedintotheoceanalsocontribute
tomarinepollution.Theseoftenmakeitintobodiesofwaterbecauseofagriculturalrunoff.Excessamountsofthese
types of nutrients can cause excessivealgaegrowth. This process, known aseutrophication, can often lead to less
oxygeninthewater.
Transgenic plants are those that have been genetically engineered to contain gene sequences that do not naturally
occurwithin theirspecies.Thesegene sequencescancomefromplantsofadifferentspecies,andareintroducedin
ordertotrytochangesomefundamentalcharacteristicsoftheplant.Someplantsthatmostcommonlyundergothis
process are food crops, which can ideally be made more efficient and more productive by the introduction of new
geneticmaterial.Egresistancestodiseaseandpests,higheryield,higherqualityfruits,vegetables,orflowers,andan
increasedtolerancetoweatherconditions;
Adaptiveradiationiswhenonespeciesbranchesouttooccupymultiplenicheswithinanenvironmentandeventually
evolves into multiple species. Species are most successful at adaptive radiation after a mass extinction or when
colonizing a previously uninhabited island. In both of these cases, niches that normally would be occupied by
competingspeciesareleftfreeforanewspeciestoexploit.Oneofthemostfamousexamplesofadaptiveradiationis
theevolutionoffinchesontheGalapagosIslands.Itisbelievedthatthesesmall,seedeatingbirdsarrivedafewmillion
years ago. In the absence of other small birds, the parent species evolved different beak shapes in order to eat the
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CSE GS Notes
differentfoodsavailableontheislands.Finchesevolvedtohavebeaksthathelpedthemeatinsects,grubsandflowers,
andonespeciesevenevolvedtohaveabeakthatmadeitpossibletofashionanduseatooltocatchbugs.
Pleomorphism is a phenomenon that has to do with plant life. Specifically, a pleomorphic event has to do with the
developmentoftwoormorestructuralformsduringalifecycle.Bacteriaisunderstoodtohavetheabilitytochangeits
shapedramaticallyduringthelifecycle,aswellaschangeormorphintoaseriesofdifferentformsthatcontinue to
shiftinshapeforthedurationofthecycle.
Amudvolcano,sometimesalsocalledagasoilvolcano,isgeologicalformationcreatedbytheextrusionofpressurized
gases and mud from below the Earth's crust. Just likeigneousvolcanoes, mud volcanoes can vary in size, and the
strengthoftheireruptionsisalsoquitediverse.Azerbaijanisfamousforitsmudvolcanoes.Theyarelikesteamvents
for the planet: they erupt with pressurized gases, hot water, and various sediments. Many of them also contain
petroleumproducts,whichcancausethevolcanotoflare.
Buildingintegratedphotovoltaics(BIPV) usesphotovoltaic panelsin the place of traditional building materials in

building structures such as roofs, windows, and facades. Photovoltaic panels generatesolar powerby converting
sunlight to electricity. This renewable, nonpolluting source of energy makes buildingintegrated photovoltaics an
integral part of sustainable architecture. Photovoltaic panels are designed into many new construction projects, but
theycanalsobefittedonpreexistingbuildings.
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Thetermresurrectionecologyisusedtodescribetwodistinctareasofpractice.Thefirstisthehatchingofdormant
eggsofastilllivingspeciesatapreviousstageofitsevolution.Thesecondistheactofbringingasubspeciesbackfrom
extinctionbyintroducing arelatedsubspeciesintotheoriginalenvironment, andlettingitevolvenaturally.Firstone
hasreceivedmoreattention.Scientistsfinddormanteggsinanumberofsustainingenvironments:extremecold,lake
beds,andevensmallsealedpocketsinrockformations.Theseeggs,sofaronlyofinsectsandplankton,arebrought
backtolifeandhatchedinincubators.
Acryovolcanoisanicyvolcanofoundonicybodies,especiallymoons,intheoutersolarsystem.Cryovolcanoeshave
beenobserveddirectlyonNeptune'smoonTriton,duringaVoyagerIIflybyin1989,andonSaturn'smoonEnceladus,
by theCassiniprobe on 27 November 2005. Instead of erupting molten rock, as in a conventional volcano,
cryovolcanoes erupt volatiles (low boiling point elements or compounds), like water, ammonia, carbon
dioxide,nitrogen, or methane, accompanied by gasdriven solid fragments. This is called cryomagma. A cryovolcano
producesplumesthatmaybeahundredormoredegreeshotterthanthefrozensurfacematter.Exposedtothecold
andvacuumofspace,theplumesquicklysolidify,becomingairbornedust.Asthegravityisweakonmanyicemoons,
the plume may completely escape the moon's gravity well, go into an orbit, or crash back down on the surface in
anotherarea.
CLOUDS:Thereareessentiallytwokindsofclouds,layeredcloudsandconvectiveclouds.Layeredcloudsareclouds
thatappearhighinthesky.Convectivecloudsarethekindthatareclosertotheearth.
1. ThenamecumuluscomesfromLatinandmeans"pile"or"heap."Acumuluscloudformationismarkedbyvertical
developmentofthecloudaswellasclearlydefinededges.Thesearethetypesofcloudsthatlooklikepuffyballsof
cotton.Cumuluscloudsoftenappearduringfairweather.However,theycanbeprecursorstosevereweather.
2. Astratuscloudformationisauniformlayerofcloudsthathaveaconsistentbase.Stratuscloudsoftenbringlight,
steadyprecipitationsuchasdrizzlingrain.Thesecloudsoftenappeartobeflat,featureless,andhazy.Theyarelow
tothegroundandoftengrayincolor.
3. Nimbuscloudsareprecipitationproducingclouds.Thenimbuscategoryisoftencombinedwithothercategoriesto
indicatestormconditions.Acumulonimbuscloud,foranexamplewiththesuffix,isaprecipitatingcumuluscloud.
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4. Cirrus clouds form the highest in the sky. A cirrus cloud formation will appear in the coldest region of the
troposphere.Theyappearfromthegroundtobemadeoflong,thinstrands.Sometimesdescribedaswispy.
Downcyclinginvolvesrepurposingamaterialintoanewproductoflesserquality.Thiscanincludevaryinggradesof
plastic,paperproducts,andothermaterials.
AstrobiologyisthestudyofthepotentialforlifebeyondtheconfinesofplanetEarth.Itincorporatesseveralscientific
disciplines, includingbiology, chemistry, astrology, andgeology. Several colleges and universities have astrobiology
programs,forpeoplewhowishtofocusonthestudyofthisbranchofthesciences
Phytoremediation is a form of environmental cleanup which involves the use of plants and fungi. Many plants are
capableofuptakingpollutantsandstoringthem,meaningthatpeoplecanplanttreesorplantsandthenremovethem
aftertheyhavepulledthepollutantsoutofthesoil.Plantscanalsobeusedtocontrolthespreadofpollution.Some
plants will actively metabolize pollutants, breaking them down into harmless substances, while others stimulate the
growthofmicrobeswhichcanmetabolizepollutants.
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Biomonitoringisafieldofscientificresearchwhichanalyzesthetissuesofhumansoranimalstodetectandmeasure
the subject's exposure to both natural and synthetic, or manmade, chemicals. Both natural and synthetic chemicals
leave their impact on the body in one way or another through "markers." These markers can either be the actual
chemical which remains in the body's tissues, or the byproducts of its breakdown. Biomonitoring measures what
remainsinthebody'stissuesafterexposuretothesechemicals.
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TheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN)haspublishedacomprehensive
list that concerns the conservation status of animal andplant species. The IUCN red list, as it is often known, is
considered the largest database of conservation information in the world. The maintenance of the list is a complex
process,involvingtheworkofseveralorganizationsandrequiringconstantnewresearchtoupdatestatus.
ElNioisaweatherphenomenoncharacterizedbyabnormallyhighsurfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacificOcean,
andweakertradewinds,whichhavebeenknowntocauseaglobalrippleeffectofturbulentandunusualweather.The
effectiscausedinlargepartbytheweakeningoftradewinds,whichnormallypushthewarmersurfacewaterofthe
Pacificwestward.Asthesewindsgrowweaker,theyallowwarmsurfacewatertochangecourseandebbeastward.As
seaandskyencouragedifferentbehaviorinoneanother,jetstreamschangecourse,causingstormsystemstoshowup
in locations they normally don't. This weather condition can often cause fishing populations to die off, as they are
unable to cope with drastic changes in sea temperature. It also tends to make hurricane season around Central and
NorthAmericalessfierce.
An inversion is a situation in which the layers of the atmosphere do not act normally, inhibiting normal weather
processesandoftentrappingsmog,smoke,andcloudsclosetotheground.Themostcommonformofinversionisa
temperature inversion, although inversions can take other forms as well. In normal conditions, hot air close to the
ground slowly rises upwards, pushing through a layer of cooler air. When a temperature inversion occurs, cooler air
gathersneartheground,withalayerofhotairpressingdownontopofit.Thisforcesclouds,smog,andpollutiontobe
trapped near the ground, because they cannot waft upwards, and a temperature inversion can sometimes break
explosively,withseverethunderstormsortornadoes.
Species adaptation is the way in which organisms change or evolve to meet the needs of their environment. These
changestypicallyinvolvebehavior,bodyparts,orbodycoverings.Adaptingtotheirhabitatisgenerallygearedtoward
protectingthespeciesfrompredators,findingwaystoattractorcaptureprey,andattractingamate.
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Coralbleaching is a phenomenon in which corals lose their distinctive color because they expel the onecelled
organismswhichlivewiththeminasymbioticrelationship.Ifacoralisfullybleached,itwillturnentirelywhite,andit
willdieunlessthestressonthecoralisreduced,allowingthesymbioticorganismstoreturntothecoral.Itiscausedby
stress to coral. Coral is in fact a very delicate organism, adapted to survive in nutrientpoor waters, but it does not
tolerate environmental changes well. A healthycoral reefcan sustain a wide assortment of organisms, promoting
biodiversity, and if the corals die off, the creatures which surround the reef may die off as well. Therefore, coral
bleachingisn'tjustathreattocoral,buttomarinehealthingeneral
Electroceptionisthebiologicalabilityeithertocreateortodetectelectriccharges.Itisfoundmostfrequentlyinocean
animalsbecauseofthesuperiorabilityofwatertoconductelectricity.Electroceptionisusedtoincreasetheanimal's
awareness of its surrounding environment and sometimes to detect prey. In electric eels, it is even used as a high
voltageweapon.
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A keystone species is an organism that plays a significant role in its environment. Like the keystone in an arch, this
speciesholdstheecosystemtogether.Ifremoved,thestructuresitsupportswillcollapse.Theinfluenceexertedbythe
organismsisdisproportionatetotheiroverallnumbersinthenaturalenvironment.Manyspeciesconsideredkeystones
in their environments are predators. While predator populations tend to be small, they are critical members of
theecosystemsthey live in. Predators keep prey numbers within reasonable limits, reducing the risk that prey will
overruntheenvironment.
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La Nia is an extreme phase of a climate cycle that occurs naturally. The climate cycle involved is a coupled ocean
atmosphericoccurrenceresultingfromtheinteractionbetweentheatmosphereandthesurfaceoftheocean.Known
astheSouthernoscillation,thisclimatecycleincludesElNioononeextremeandLaNiaontheother.LaNiaisthe
coldphaseofthecycle.ALaNiapatternexistswhenunusuallycoolseasurfacetemperaturesoccurintheeasternand
central tropical Pacific Ocean around the equator in the area between the International Date Line and the coast of
SouthAmerica.
Taken together, La Nia and El Nio generally are viewed by scientists as among the most powerful of weather
phenomenaontheplanet,becausetheycanaffecttheclimateovermorethanhalftheEarth.Onaverage,thiscycleof
cold surface ocean temperatures occurs every three to five years and, typically, lasts about nine to 12 months. Cold
episodesareimportantbecausetheydisrupttheusualpatternsofatmosphericcirculationandtropicalprecipitation.
Theeffectofdisruptionofthesepatternsistoenhancethenormalclimatethatprevailsinaffectedregionsofearth.
DuringaLaNia,forexample,anareasuchasthePacificNorthwestintheUnitedStates,wherethereusuallyisawet
winter,wouldhaveawinterthatiswetterthannormal.Ontheotherhand,themorearidclimatesofthesouthwestern
U.S.wouldbedrierthannormal.LaNiaalsoaffectstheintensityandpositionofthejetstreams;this,inturn,affects
boththetrackandintensityofstorms.
SouthernoscillationorElNiopertainstothetemperatureoftheoceanandtheatmosphere.Itiscommonlyreferred
toasElNioorLaNiadependingontheweatherpattern.Thistypicallyhappenseveryfiveyearsbutitcanalsooccur
every three to seven years. The changing of temperatures during a southern oscillation can affect the weather all
aroundtheworld.Floodsordraughtscanalsooccurduringtheseweatherpatterns.
ElNioisawarmingofthecentraltropicalpacificoceanwaters.Typically,coolernortheasterlywindscombinedwith
warmoceansurfacewaterproducesaverageweatherconditionsbutwhenthereislittletonocoolingeffectandthe
surfaceoceanwaterisallowedtoheatup,itisconsideredanelNioevent.Thiscancausesubstantialrainsinsome
areas,whiledroughtsinother.LaNiaoccurswhencoolernorthernwindsmixwithcoolersurfaceoceanwaters.
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Asouthernoscillationcanlastfromafewmonthstoafewyears.Expertscansometimespredictwhentheoscillations
willoccur.Whenthereisariseorfallinthesurfacepressureortradewindschangecourse,thiscanindicateachangein
weatherpatterns.Forexample,ifthesewindscarrywarmeroceanwatertoaspecificarea,anotherareamaysuffer
becauseitwillalsotaketherainfallwithit.Thisleavestoomuchraininsomeareasanddroughtconditionsinothers.
Alivingfossilisanorganismwhichrepresentstheoneofthefew,ifnottheonly,survivingmembersofataxonomic
group,withnocloselivingrelatives.OnewellknownexampleofalivingfossilisGinkgoBiloba.
Nuclear winter: The detonation of large numbers of nuclear weapons could trigger a dramatic change in the global
climate,causingextremecoldandpotentiallyresultinginserioustroubleforthelivingorganisms.Mostofthestudies
onnuclearwinterpointoutthatamassivenumberofnuclearweaponswouldneedtobedetonatedtotriggerclimate
changeon this scale; something along the lines of half of the known nuclear devices on Earth. It has also been
suggested that the detonations would need to be fairly close together, creating a steady stream of material which
wouldworkitswayupintotheatmosphere.
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The RoHS is an acronym for the Restriction on Hazardous Substances, a guideline first established by the European
Unionin2002.In2007,theRoHSbecomeslawinallcountriesbelongingtotheEUandwillrestricttheuseanddisposal
ofproductscontainingmercury,cadmium,hexavalentchromium,polybrominatedbiphenyls,polybrominateddiphenyl
ethers,andmostimportantlylead.OnepurposeoftheRoHSistoeliminatetoxicsubstancesfromunprotectedwaste
areaswheretheycanpollutedrinkingwaterandairsupply.
Malware is an abbreviated term used to describe a "malicious software" program. Malware includes things like
spywareoradwareprograms,suchastrackingcookies,whichareusedtomonitoryoursurfinghabits.Italsoincludes
moresinisteritems,suchaskeyloggers,Trojanhorses,worms,andviruses.
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MobilecomputingembracesahostofportabletechnologiesthatmakesInternetaccessonthegonotonlypossible,
butintegraltoeverydaylife.Fromnotebookcomputerstopersonaldigitalassistants(PDAs)liketheBlackberryand
iPhone,tostandardcellphones,mobilecomputinghasbecomeanindispensablewayoflife.
AccessinternetthruWiFiorcellularbroadband.
Anotherserviceassociatedwithmobilecomputingiscloudcomputing,ortheabilitytousewebsiteservicesfrom
mobilecomputers.Cloudcomputingprovidesaccesstoanetworklikeenvironmentwithvariousapplicationsand
virtually unlimited resources so that field representatives, for instance, can utilize website resources rather than
beingsuppliedwithweighty,expensivemachinespackedwithcompanysoftwareanddata.
Mobile computing also provides access to a companys virtual private network (VPN) by tunneling through the
Internet.
Torrents are specialized files utilized in peertopeer (P2P) network environments. P2P is a network of personal
computersthatcommunicatewithoneanotherbyrunningproprietaryP2Psoftware.UnlikedownloadsofftheWeb,
torrents do not point to a single source on a P2P network when requesting files. Instead, torrents contain specific
informationthatmultiplecomputersinthenetworkcanreadtosendvariouspartsoftherequestedfilesimultaneously
andenmasse.
ATabletPCisacrossbetweenanotebookPCandapersonaldigitalassistant(PDA).It'saflatpanelportablePCinthe
formofaslate.Auserinputsdataeitherbytappingthescreenwithastylus,orusingthestylustowritedirectlyonto
thescreen.ThetabletPCcanwirelesslyconnecttotheInternetandotherPCsandisintendedtoprovidethepowerof
anotebookinhandheldform.
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Ethical hacking, often performed by white hats or skilled computer experts, is the use of programming skills to
determinevulnerabilitiesincomputersystems.Whilethenonethicalhackerorblackhatexploitsthesevulnerabilities
for mischief, personal gain or other reasons, the ethical hacker evaluates them, points them out, and may suggest
changestosystemsthatmakethemlesslikelytobepenetratedbyblackhats.Whitehatscanworkinavarietyofways.
Many companies utilize ethical hacking services from consultants or fulltime employees to keep their systems and
informationassecureaspossible.
digitaldividereferstothegapbetweenpeoplewhopossessregularaccesstotechnologyandthosewhodonothave
thisaccess.
An optical mouse uses camera technology and digital processing to compare and track the position of the mouse,
ratherthanaballandrollersusedonoldermice.
helpsgiveusersmorepreciseperformancewithoutthemaintenanceandcleaningneededonoldermice.
Insideeachopticalmouseisasmall camerathat takesmore thanathousandsnapshotpictureseverysecond.A

smallLED(lightemittingdiode)provideslightunderneaththemouse,helpingtohighlightslightdifferencesinthe
surfaceunderneaththemouse.Thosedifferencesarereflected backintothecamera,wheredigitalprocessingis
usedtocomparethepicturesanddeterminethespeedanddirectionofmovement.
mouseballrequiredcleaningtoscrapeaccumulatedgrimeoftheballortherollersinside.
Astherearenomovingpartsinopticalmice,almostnomaintenanceorregularcleaningisrequired.
digitalprocessingoftenresultsinsmoother,moreaccurateperformancethanpriortechnologies.
don'trequireamousepadandcanbeusedonmanysurfaces,includingthosenotentirelyflat
DifferentTypesofMemoryCards
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1. SecureDigitalCard(SDcard)SDcardsareusedinmanysmallportabledevicessuchasdigitalvideocamcorders,
digitalcameras,handheldcomputers,audioplayersandmobilephones.
2. MiniSD Card: was developed to meet the demands of the mobile phone market. The MiniSD Card provides the
samebenefitsastheSDCard,butissmallerthantheoriginalSDCard.foundinmanynewermobilephoneswith
featuressuchasbuiltindigitalcameras,downloadingandgames,basicallythemobilephoneswheretheminiSD
canmeettherequirementsforincreaseddatastorage.
3. MicroSD:MainlyusedinmobilephonesandothersmallhandhelddevicestheMicroSDformatiscurrentlyavailable
incapacitiesupto4GB,anditroughly1/4ththesizeoftheSDcardat15mmW11mmW0.7mm.TheMicroSDcard
isalsothesmallestmemorycardavailable.
SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory, and it is a fast method of delivering computing capacity.
SDRAMcanrunat133Mhz,whichismuchfasterthanearlierRAMtechnologies.SDRAMisveryprotectiveofitsdata
bits,storingthemeachinaseparatecapacitor.Thebenefitofthisistheavoidanceofcorruptionandthemaintenance
of"pristine"data.
phishingscamisanidentitytheftscamthatarrivesviaemail
Spyware refers to programs that use your Internet connection to send information from your personal computer to
someothercomputer,normallywithoutyourknowledgeorpermission.Mostoftenthisinformationisarecordofyour
ongoingbrowsinghabits,downloads,oritcouldbemorepersonaldatalikeyournameandaddress.
Dark fiber is a term used to describe fiber optic cable that is not being used at the time. The amount of dark fiber,
particularlyintheUnitedStates,isveryhigh.Darkfiberiscontrastedwithactivefiberopticcable,oftenreferredtoas
litcable.
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LeetspeakorleetisasubstitutionciphercreatedbycomputerusersbyreplacingLatinletterswithvariouscodesthat
aremeanttoimplythesamething.
The Google Slap is a term used unaffectionately by mainly small businesses that rely on AdWords accounts through
Google to drum up business for their sites. However, if Google finds or determines that the page that potential
customers visit when they click on the ad is not related, is poor in quality, or even loads too slowly, they may take
punitiveactionintheformofaGoogleSlap
VPN,orvirtualprivatenetwork,isacatchallphraseforavarietyofnetworkingschemesthatallowbusinessestouse
publicInternetlinestocreateavirtualnetwork.
The VPN can operate between branches, regional centers and field representatives via a set of software and
hardwareprotocolsthatauthenticateusersandencrypttraffic.
It is a network used by companies to connect users at different locations to the company intranet, a private
networkthatonlycompanyemployeesorotherauthorizedindividualscanaccess.
Remoteaccessandsitetositearetwotypesofnetworkscommonlyinuse.
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Encrypted tunneling: utilizes SSL (Secure Socket Layer) encryption to authenticate users and send information
betweentheremoteclient(s)andserver(s).
IPSecurity(IPsec):encryptsIPpacketslikeSSL,butcanalsoencryptUDP(userdatagramprotocol)traffic,onelayer
deeper in the network model. UDP traffic accounts for only a small percentage of network traffic, but is used in
somekeyapplicationslikestreamingmedia,andVoiceoverIP(VoIP).
PointtopointProtocol(PTPP):Microsoft'sVPNprotocol,notconsideredassecureassomeothers,includingIPsec.
Other VPN models include "trusted VPNs," which rely on the third party services of an established network
provider.
A VPN differs from a WAN (wide area network) in that the latter uses leased network lines, thus restricting all
traffic to corporate business only. This is effective but costly, particularly when the network must span large
distances
Some companies use intranets or extranets to facilitate 'private' communication. These protocols involve
passwordprotected pages or sites that, ideally, only employees and authorized personnel can access. However,
connectionsbetweenremoteusersandhostserversarenotalwaysencrypted,andintranetsandextranetsarenot
technicallyprivatenetworks.ThealternateanswerisaVPN.
A VPN is expandable, much more costeffective than a traditional WAN, connects field operators, international
offices,affiliatedpartnersorclients,andimprovesproductivity.
AssumingcareistakentobuildasecureVPN,itisahighlybeneficialstepthatcanbeatremendousassettoany
companywithnetworkingneeds.
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AfewtypesofVPNsecurityinclude:
Disadvantages
OnedisadvantageofaVPNisthefactthat deploymentrequiresahighlevelofknowledgeandunderstandingof
suchfactorsaspublicnetworksecurity.VPNsecurityrequirespasswordanddataencryption.
AnothersignificantdisadvantageoftheVPNisthatitsavailabilityandperformancearedifficulttocontrol.Typically,
VPNspeedsaremuchslowerthanthoseexperiencedwithatraditionalconnection.
VPNtechnologiesfromdifferentcreatorsmayworkpoorlytogether.
One of the VPN's weakest links may, in some cases, be its users. When a remote telecommuter or an employee
connectstohisorhercorporateofficeusingaVPNfromalaptoporhomecomputer,securitythreatsmayresult.
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CSE GS Notes
FlamingistheoftendeliberateactofpostingorwritingmessagesonInternetbulletinboardsandmessagegroupsthat
havetheintentofinsultingorcreatingdissentwithinagroup.AnInternetflameisoftenfilledwithcoarselanguageand
personalinsults.
Sometimes, people called Internet trolls intentionally practice flaming to provoke a group of people. This may be
merelyforthepurposeofannoyingagroup,ormaybeanattackaimedatagroupofpeoplewhohaveaninterestnot
sharedbytheflamer.
Cyberbullyingisameansofharassmentthatmakesuseofonlinetoolstoaccomplishthepurpose.Thecyberbullymay
postembarrassingimages,information,orgossipaboutanotherindividualonvarioussocialnetworkingsitesaswellas
email,instantmessaging,andmessageboardsorforums.
LTEisunderdevelopmenttoenablewirelessprovidersusingbothtypesofnetworkstotransitionfrom3Gtechnology
tofourthgeneration(4G)networksandequipment.Forconsumers,LTEwillenableexistingapplicationstorunfaster,
plusmakeavailablenewmobilephoneapplications.Enhancedvideoandpresentationmobilephoneapplicationsmay
be included.LTE uses radio waves to allow more data to be transferred over the same bandwidth used by 3G
equipment.Asaresult,serviceprovidersshouldbeabletogetmoredatatransferoutoftheirexistingcellsandpossibly
lower the cost to run their networks. Since LTE connects to existing networks, providers can plan for a seamless
transition,thencontinuetouselegacyCDMAandGSMnetworksasbackups.
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Cognitive computing refers to the development of computer systems modeled after the human brain. Cognitive
computing integrates technology and biology in an attempt to reengineer the brain, one of the most efficient and
effectivecomputersonEarth.
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Noob is an alternate spelling of newbie, which refers to an inexperienced person, particularly in the gaming
communitybutalsoinotheronlinevenues.
Point of sale (POS) software is software that retailers use to calculate sales and operate the cash drawer; it is the
computerizedcashregister.
RSSorReallySimpleSyndicationisausefultoolforkeepingupdatedonyourfavoritewebsites.RSSmakesuseofan
XML code that constantly scans the content of a website for updates and then broadcasts those updates to all
subscribersthroughafeed.
Clustercomputingisaformofcomputinginwhichagroupofcomputersarelinkedtogethersothattheycanactlikea
singleentity.Thereareanumberofreasonsforpeopletouseclustercomputersforcomputingtasks,rangingfroman
inabilitytoaffordasinglecomputerwiththecomputingcapabilityofaclustertoadesiretoensurethatacomputing
systemisalwaysavailable.
MicrobloggingisanetworkingservicethatallowsmobileusersofcellphonesandotherInternetconnecteddevicesto
stayabreastofactivitieswithinagroupbyreceivingfrequentpublishedupdates,typicallyof140charactersorless.
Internet robots are known by many names bots, spiders, web bots, robots, and crawlers. What all bots have in
commonisthattheyaresoftwareapplicationsorscripts.Wheretheydifferisinthetasksthattheyperform.They're
purpose or benefit is simple: to quickly complete jobs, especially repetitive ones. Bots are most commonly used in
indexingonasearchengine.
faviconisacustomiconassociatedwithawebpageorwebsitethatappearsnexttothehttpaddressintheURLwindow
ofabrowser.Thefaviconwillalsooccupyopentabsintabenabledbrowsers,andwilldisplaynexttobookmarkedlinks
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CSE GS Notes
Vlogging,shortfor"videoblogging",isbloggingthroughthemediumofvideo.
Programs that tap into a computer network with the purpose of intercepting data traveling between two network
machinesarecalledsniffingsoftware.Thistypeofsoftwareprogramcanbeusedtointerceptandinterpretdataona
computerornetwork,includingbrowserpasswords,chatprograms,usersettingsandnetworktraffic.
SSLorSecureSocketsLayerisasecurityprotocolcreatedbyNetscapethathasbecomeaninternationalstandardon
theInternetforexchangingsensitiveinformationbetweenawebsiteandthecomputercommunicatingwithit,referred
toastheclient.
Multihoming is a situation that describes a single computer host that makes use of several IP addresses associated
withvariousconnectednetworks.Withinthisscenario,themultihomedcomputerhostisphysicallylinkedtoavariety
ofdataconnectionsorports.protectedfromtheoccurrenceofanetworkfailure.
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1. multihomingcanhelptodistributetheloadbalanceofdatatransmissionsreceivedandsentbythecomputerhost
2. redundancythatisinherenttomultihomingmeanslessincidencesofdowntimeduetonetworkfailure.
3. multihoming provides an additional tool to keep network connectivity alive and well in the event of natural
disastersorothereventsthatwouldnormallyrenderahostinoperativeforanextendedperiodoftime.
MultihomingisoftenemployedinsituationswhereaccesstotheInternetiscriticaltotheoperationofabusiness
relatedeffort.
For example, multihoming will be included as part of the disaster recovery initiatives that many financial
institutionshaveinplace.Bycreatingnetworkredundancy,itispossibleforbanks,brokers,andinvestmentfirmsto
remain accessible to customers even when some type of unanticipated event has crippled the primary network
interface.
Tetheringisaprocessinvolvingtheestablishmentofaconnectionbetweenacellphoneorothermobiledeviceanda
computer.Theconnectionmaybecreatedbyusingacabletotetherthecellphonetothecomputer,orsometypeof
wirelessconnectionmayprovidethelink.
Cybersquatting is the act of registering domain names, especially those connected with celebrities or recognizable
trademarks,withtheintentionofresellingthemataninflatedprice.
invisiblewebisthehiddenareaoftheInternetthatisnotsearchedautomaticallybysearchengines.Itisinformation
thatisfreelyavailableontheInternet,butthatwillnotberetrievedbynormalsearchrequests.Theinformationthatis
hiddenontheinvisiblewebtakesalittlemoreworktofind.
Databases are created using spiders. These are computer programs that search around the web looking for
information.
Lossy compression is a type of data compression in which actual information is lost. This means that after
reconstructingthedatafromtheinformationavailable,onewindsupwithsomethinglessthanwasintheoriginalfile.
Generally,thegoalistouselossycompressionsuchthatthereisnotmuchobservablelossinthefinalproduct,while
savingenormouslyonfilesizeoverlosslesscompression.
Evergreen content refers to informational or reference material that never goes out of date, therefore desirable to
websiteslookingtobuildalastingreadership.Goodevergreenmaterialisneededoverandoverbythegeneralpublic,
creatingabuiltinguaranteeofcontinuinghits.
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CSE GS Notes
InternetCorporationforAssignedNamesandNumbers(ICANN)isanonprofitcorporationtaskedwithmanagingthe
logistics of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and domain names. Every computer than connects to the Internet must
haveauniqueaddressinordertoissuerequestsandreceiveinformationwithintheInternet.Whenauserlogsonto
the Internet, the Internet Service Provider (ISP) assigns an IP address. ISPs are assigned blocks of proprietary IP
addressesfortheiruse.TheIPstheyassigntotheircustomersarepulledfromtheseblocks.
Generictopleveldomain(gTLD)referstothoseInternetdomainswithgeneraladdressextensions.Forexample,.com,
.net, .edu, .gov and .mil all belong to the category known as gTLD. The other category of Internet domain names is
country code toplevel domain (ccTLD). This category applies a country code for the extension, such as .us for the
UnitedStates,.frforFranceand.ukfortheUnitedKingdom.
ACAPTCHA,orCompletelyAutomatedPublicTuringtesttotellComputersandHumansApart,isusedtokeepbots
and other automated programs from signing up for offers, collecting or signing up for email addresses, violating
privacy,tryingtocrackpasswords,orsendingoutspamtounsuspectingemailrecipients.ACAPTCHAworksbyissuinga
challenge to the person or entity attempting to gain access. A CAPTCHA challenge is usually a simple visual test or
puzzlethatasightedhumancancompletewithoutmuchdifficulty,butthatanautomatedprogramcannotunderstand.
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Internetprotocol(IP)addressblocking,morecommonlyknownasIPblocking,isawayforanInternetserverorother
program that communicates online to prevent contact with another system. One of the most common uses for IP
blockingistopreventacomputerthatisaknownsecuritythreatfrommakingcontactwithaserver,therebyprotecting
theserverfromanymaliciousactions.OtherusesforIPblockingincludepreventingtrackingcookiesorwebsitesfrom
seeinguseractions,andrestrictinginformationfrombeingaccessibletoanetwork.
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(MIST): Entity integrity is one of the primary rules of effective database construction. It refers to the process of
enforcingaprimarykeyforeachtableinadatabase,wherethekeymustbeeitheraroworacombinationofrowsthat
areuniquenonnullvalues.Bymaintainingentityintegrity,eachrecordineachtableofadatabasecanbespecifically
identifiedviatheprimarykey.Thispreventsduplicaterecordsandotherissuesthatwouldindirectlycompromisethe
integrityofthedatabase.Intheabsenceofentityintegrity,theentriesinadatabasecanaccidentallyoverlap,asthere
willbenowaytopluckaspecificentryfromthetable.
BluesnarfingisahackingattackthatusesaBluetoothconnectiontoaccessamobiledevice.Itisamuchmoreserious
attackthanbluejacking,whichismoreofapracticaljokethatdoesnotalteranydata.Bluesnarfingallowsthehackerto
takecompletecontrolofthedeviceandaccessmanyofthefunctionsandallofthedatainthedevice.Thehackeris
able to make calls and texts, listen to conversations and remove all information without the phones owner being
alerted
AWPAkeyispartoftheWiFiProtectedAccessschemeofwirelessInternetsecurity.WPAanditssuccessor,WPA2,
usepresharedkeystofacilitateverystrongencryptionsecurityforwirelessdatatransmission.Thesekeysareusedto
mutually authenticate communications between wireless devices, usually using a hubandspoke model that sends
communications from many devices through a wireless network router, which then communicates with the Internet
usingawiredconnection.
DNShijackingisaprocessbywhichInternetusersmayberedirectedtoadifferentwebsitethantheyareattemptingto
reach.Thedomainnamesystem(DNS)isasetofprotocolsusedtoallowuserstoconnecttovariouswebsitesonthe
Internet.Whenausertypesinaparticularwebaddress,aDNSservertranslatesthataddressintoanInternetprotocol
(IP)addressanddirectstheuser tothepropersite.DNShijackingchanges thisprocess,however,sothat the useris
directedtoanIPaddressotherthantheproperone.
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Cobrowsing is a browserbased technology, or technology that works exclusively with Internet browsers, that allows
twoormorecomputerstoviewthesameInternetpageatthesametime.Thisdiffersfromscreensharingprograms
that send a large amount of screenshots to emulate movement, because cobrowsing actually synchronizes the
computerstoworktogetherandshowthesameWebpages.Nosoftwareisneededtocobrowse;thecomputersonly
need to be connected. This is useful for technology support or presentations but can also be used by hackers to
infiltratecomputersandinvadeprivacy.
IBM'sWatsonisacomputerbuilttotackletheperniciousproblemofopenquestionanswering.computerdevelopers
havelongbeenfrustratedattheinabilityofartificialintelligencetoproperlyunderstandcontextrecognitionandthe
complex relationships involved in human communication and language. Watson was designed specifically to try and
defeatthislongstandingprobleminauniqueway:developerscouldtestitscapabilitiesbyhavingitplaythepopular
Americangameshow,Jeopardy!.In2011,thecomputersuccessfullydefeatedbothchampionsKenJenningsandBrad
Rutterinatwogameseries.
In computer science, a hashmap or hash table is a form of structuring data so that each piece of data is linked to a
unique identification number or symbol. This allows easy retrieval, especially from a large database containing
thousandsofentries.
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MetataggingistheprocessofplacingspecificpiecesofinformationintothelanguagethatcreatesaWebpage.Many
typesofmetaelementsmaybeplacedwithinthelanguageofapage.Searchenginesusethemetaelementdatato
gleaninformationaboutindividualWebpages.UsingtheprocessofmetataggingallowstheWebpagedeveloperto
placeadditionalinformationwithinthelanguagethatcreatesthepagebutdoesnotappearonthepageitself.
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A chat bot is a computer program that is designed to engage in conversation with a human partner. This type of
software is intended to convince its interlocutors that it is an active participant in the conversation and that real
meaning is being exchanged. Modern chat bots can often fool users for some period of time and many have good
results in passing the Turing test. This test features a conversation between a human and a computer program. A
programwhoseoutputcannotbedistinguishedfromhumanconversationcanbeconsideredtohavepassedthetest.
SEOAnalysis:Asearchengineoptimization(SEO)analysisisareportthatdetailshowawebsiteownercanimprovehis
orherrankingonpopularsearchengines.
phlog.Thistermmayrefertoaphotoblog.
Despiteitsname,Ghostscriptisnotascript.ItisasuiteofsoftwareprogramsthatcaninterpretthePostscriptlanguage
created by Adobe Systems Inc. Through these programs, a user can convert Postscript language files into different
raster image processing (RIP) formats for printing and display, or interpret a Postscript file for a printer that doesn't
havePostscriptcapabilitiesbuiltin.
Alsoknownascrowdsourcedcapitalandcrowdfinancing,crowdfundingisthecooperationofagrouptoputforward
money or other resources in order to help other people achieve something. Basically, an idea is presented by an
individualorcompany,andpeopledonateorinvestmoneytohelpthatindividualorcompanymaketheideaareality.
Anorphanfileisafileonacomputerthathasbeenrenderedobsoletebecausetheapplicationorfileitislinkedwith
hasbeenmovedordeleted.Themostcommonreasonforanorphanfiletobepresentonanoperatingsystemisan
incompleteprogramuninstallation,aswhensomeonesimplydeletesaprograminsteadofrunningtheuninstallutility.
Thisleavesprogramfilesbehindontheharddrive,althoughtheyhavenopurposebecausetheprogramisnolongerin
use.
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CSE GS Notes
Aconsumertoconsumerwebsite,alsoknownasapeertopeerwebsiteorC2Cwebsite,facilitatesthesaleortransfer
of goods and services between individuals. While some of the participants in a consumertoconsumer website also
haveotherbusinessvenues,suchasanecommercewebsiteforbrickandmortarstore,theymayuseaC2Cwebsiteto
expandtheircustomerbase.
FarmVille,whichwaslaunchedinJune2009,isagamedevelopedbyZyngaandusedasanapplicationonthewebsite
Facebook.Itisasimulationofsomeoftheaspectsofarealfarm,includingtakingcareofanimalsandplantsaswellas
puttingupbuildingsanddecorations.WiththehelpofFarmVillecoinsanddollarscombinedwiththeworkofthethe
playerandneighbors,thefarmcancontinuetoexpandandprosper.
Adictionaryattackisanattempttoliterallyuseeverywordinthedictionaryasameansofidentifyingthepassword
associatedwithanencryptedmessageortogaincontrolofabusinessnetworkorevenanemailaccount.
Hacktivismisatypeofsocialorpoliticalactivismthatcentersaroundtheactofhackingintocomputersystemsforthe
express purpose of gaining access to proprietary information or disrupting that system so that it cannot perform
efficiently.Unlikehackingthatisdonefornoparticularreason,hactivismusuallyhasanunderlyingmotivethatiseither
aimedatdiscreditinganopposingpartyorcollectingdatathatcaninturnbeusedtopromotetheidealsofthehacker
ratherthanthoseofthepartythatexperiencesthehacking.
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A denial of service (DoS) attack is an attempt to make a website or another Internet resource unavailable to users.
Denialofserviceattacksmaybeverycostly,asbusinesseslosemoneyandcustomerseveryhourtheyareunavailable;
they are generally illegal, and they also violate the Internet Architecture Board's proper use policy. The traditional
denialofserviceattackisexecutedbyfloodingthetargetedserverwithdummyrequests,overloadingitandpreventing
itfromhandlinglegitimatetraffic;othertypesofattacksincludeseveringthenetworkconnectionentirely,crashingthe
server,orshuttingdowntheserviceforoneparticularpersonorgroup.
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Spamdexingisaformofsearchenginemanipulationwhichisdesignedtopushasiteupinsearchresults,ensuringthat
people land on that site when they search for specific things. While search engine optimization requires a certain
amount of search engine manipulation to ensure that sites rank high in search results, spamdexing is typically more
offensive,andthematerialislessrelevanttothesearchthanthesearchermightdesire.Becausemanypeoplebecome
frustratedbyconstantlyfindingspamsiteswhentheylookforlegitimatecontent,mostsearchengineshavetoolsin
placetodefeatspamdexing.
Thequbitis anexample ofaquantumbit. Inquantum computing,thequbitservesasthecounterparttothe binary
digit, which is normally known as a bit. A binary digit serves as the most basic unit of information in a classical
computer. In like manner, the qubit serves as the most basic unit of information in a quantum computer. With a
quantumcomputer,thesequantumbitsorqubitsareessentiallyphotonorelectronparticlesthatcarryapolarization
orchargethatiseitherpositiveornegative.
Thefunctionofthequbitisgovernedbytwoprinciplesthatarebasictotheideaofquantumphysics.Oneofthese
principles is superposition. In terms of the qubit, superposition has to do with how the qubit performs within a
magneticfield.Ifthequbitorelectronparticleisrotatingorspinninginalignmentwiththefield,thisisknownasa
spinupstate.Shouldthequbitrotateorspininoppositiontothefield,thisisknownasaspindownstate.Usingan
influxofenergycanchangethespinofthequbitandthusmakeitpossibletomanipulatetheutilityofeachqubit
containedwithinthefield.
Asecondprinciplethathasanimpactonthefunctionofaqubitisentanglement.Thisprinciplehastodowiththe
waythatindividualqubitsinteractwithoneanother.Essentially,onceaconnectionofsometypeismadebetween
qubits,theconnectionremainsinplace.Thisleadstotheformationofqubitpairs.Thepaircontainsaqubitthatis
inaspinupstate,whilethesecondqubitisinaspindownstate.Theinterestingthingaboutthisphenomenonis
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CSE GS Notes
that there may be great distances between the two qubits in the pair, yet they still react to one another as
opposites.
War dialing is a practice that involves calling large volumes of phone numbers to collect information about which
numbersconnecttomodemsandotherdevicesofinterest.Thereareanumberofreasonswhypeoplemayengagein
wardialinganditisnotlegalinsomeregions.
An online divorce is a slightly deceptive term because in most countries, an actual divorce doesnt occur by filing
paperworkonline.However,therearenownumerousservicesthathelppeoplefilloutdivorcepaperworkwithrelative
easethatcanthenbefiledwithlocalcourtsystems.Essentially,onlinedivorcereferstothenumerousagenciesthat
offer this paperwork help, usually at far less cost than it would be to get a lawyer to help complete and file forms
requiredtoobtainadivorce.
ClickfraudisanewtypeofInternetscamthattargetsadvertisingcompaniesratherthanconsumers.Clickfraudhas
takenadvantageofthepayperclickadvertisingprogramsbyrepublishingtheadsinotherwebpages.
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Apodcastissimplyanameforanaudioorvideofilewhichisavailableonthewebthroughsomesortofsyndication
service.Strictlyspeaking,thefiles,format,andcontentofapodcastisnodifferentthananyothervideooraudiofile
thatmightbemadeavailableontheweb,eitherthroughastreamingdeliveryoradownload.Whatmakesapodcast
different from these other files is that its presence as a syndicated format means that programs built to pick up
syndication feeds can automatically download a new podcast that a user has subscribed to, immediately when it
becomesavailable.
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Anhtmltagisaword,orgroupofwords,usedtodescribethecontentofawebsite.Whenmultipletagsarepresent,
the website may utilize a tag cloud to list all of the tags, or the most popular tags, used in its content. This visual
depiction is often in the shape of a cloud. Most html tags consist of only one word. Normally, tags are listed
alphabetically within a tag cloud. Important and frequently used tags are often indicated within the tag cloud by a
darkercolororalargerfontsize.
AnInternetrefrigerator,oranetfridge,isanappliancethatcanstorechilledorfrozenfoodswhileallowingaccessto
the Internet. Its structure is very similar to a traditional refrigerator, with one prominent difference. On one of its
doors, there is a builtin computer. This builtin computer is what gives Internet refrigerators more sophisticated
features.
Also known as electronic fingerprinting, digital fingerprinting is a contemporary approach to creating images of
fingerprintsthatcanbeusedforpurposesofidentificationinanumberofsettings.Thistypeofresourcemaybeused
to enhance security measures at companies, government buildings, and other physical locations, as well as create a
moreefficientmeansofcopyrightprotectionandtheidentificationofcriminalsinvolvedinthecommissionofaspecific
crime.Unlikeolderfingerprintingtechniques,moderndigitalfingerprintsarenotsubjecttodeteriorationandcanbe
matchedwithvariouselectronicrecordsinverylittletime,possiblyevenafewsecondsinsomeapplications.
TheRegistryisafoundationaldatabase,constantlyupdatedasnewprogramsorhardwareareinstalledanduninstalled.
OvertimetheRegistrycanbecomeclutteredwithfragmenteddata,oftenfromprogramsthatdontuninstallcleanly.
Thiscanslowperformanceorevencausethecomputertohangordelivererrormessages.ARegistryfixcanreturnthe
databasetoasmoothlyfunctioningstate.
Ingamingandpersistentvirtualworldsthatemploytheirownformofcurrency,participantspurchasevirtualcurrency
with realworld dollars. This generates a synthetic economy within the virtual world. Second Life, a virtual world
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CSE GS Notes
community,whowasmakingseveralhundredthousandrealworlddollarsayearsellingvirtualland.Facebooksvirtual
creditscanbeboughtforrealmoney
MungingisatermusedontheInternet,whichhelpstoeliminatesomeusesofyouremailonsiteswhereyouremail
address may be collected and used to send you spam, often by programs called spam bots. The practice means you
alteryouremailaddresssoitiseitherinvalidornotviewedasemailaddressbythesebots.Eg.Robatserverdotnet
insteadofrob@server.netorgivewrongaddresslikes@b.com
Dataminingalgorithmsareprogrammedqueriesandprogramsusedtoidentifypatternsandtrendsindatasets.The
primaryuseofdataminingistodeterminecustomerneedsandpreferences,basedontheiractualactivity.Although
theinformationisbasedonpastperformance,itcanbeanexcellentindicatorofcustomerbehaviorandtrends.Two
excellentexamplesofdataminingalgorithmsaretheclusteringandnearestneighborpredictors.
Geocoding is the process of marking landmarks or specific location with latitude and longitude coordinates. This
process is typically done with mapping devices that use satellites to give the exact coordinates of a location. The
geocodedataisthenaddedintoadatabaseforusebyothersoftwaresystems.
acronymDWTstandsfordrivingwhiletextingThisbehaviorismostprevalentamongyoungerdrivers
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Also known as a geographical weblog, a geoblog is any type of blog that is constructed to include specific types of
geographicalinformationwithinthetextandgraphicsonitspages.Severaldifferenttypesofgeographicaldatamaybe
included, such as latitude and longitude, or any other information that helps to fixed a geographic position. This
processofgeobloggingisaccomplishedwiththeuseofmetatagsthataresometimesreferredtoasgeotags,whichare
strategicallypositionedwithinthetextandgraphicstoattracttheattentionofsearchengines,enhancingthechances
ofthesiteshowinghighinsearchesconductedbyInternetusers.
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Incomputingapplications,aprojectforkisasituationwhereaparticularaspectorfeatureofanestablishedsoftware
productisusedasthebasisforcreatinganewproductthatisgearedtowardapplicationsthatarenotthefocusofthe
originalsoftware.
The email account has become the new "inbox" for personal and professional communication, and like its
predecessor it appears to grow without ceasing. Some email may contain important or timesensitive information,
while others ask for personal replies or updates. Declaring email bankruptcy means clearing out an entire email
account and starting anew. Email bankruptcy may seem like an extreme action to take, but it can also be a freeing
experience for those who feel pressured by accumulating stacks of email. Answering older emails often reduces the
amountoftimeavailableforotherprojectsandduties.
Thesocialwebisthetermusedtoidentifythemanydifferenttypesofopportunitiesforpeopletosocializeviauseof
theWorldWideWeb.Thiswebwithinawebincludesavarietyofwebsitesthateachhavetheirownparticulartools
forcreatingandsustaininginteractionamongawiderangeofpeople.Sitesthatareconsideredpartofthesocialweb
maybefocusedongeneralsocialinteraction;devotedtospecifichobbies,interests,orpastimes;orprovideagathering
place for professionals who wish to communicate with others who face the same types of everyday challenges and
opportunitiesthattheydo.
Robotsoftwareissoftwarethatissuescodedcommandstosometypeofmechanicaldevices,usuallyreferredtoasa
robot.Thesoftwarecanbeconfiguredtoautomatevarioustasksassociatedwiththesemechanicaldevices,makingit
possiblefortherobotstocarryoutthetaskswithouttheneedformanualintervention.
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CSE GS Notes
DVDROM:ADigitalVersatileDiscReadOnlyMemory,orDVDROM,isamediastoragediskthatcloselyresemblesa
CDorcompactdisk.ThemajordifferenceisthattheDVDROMisformattedtoholdfarmoredata.ACDcommonlyhas
acapacityof650megabytes,whilethesmallestcapacityDVDcanstoreaboutseventimesmoredata,or4.38(GB).
TherearevariouskindsofDVDs,buttheDVDROMreferstoareadonlydisc,oradiscthatcannotbewrittenover.If
youpurchaseaDVDmoviefromthelocalvideostore,youhaveagoodexampleofaDVDROM.
4G: 4G, an acronym for fourthgeneration wireless it provides a comprehensive and secure IP (Internet Protocol)
solution.Userswillenjoyhighqualitystreamingvideoand"anytime,anywhere"voiceanddataatamuchhigherspeed
than previous generations. The fourthgeneration wireless technology will provide a wide variety of new services
includingHDvideo(highdefinitionvideo),andhighqualityvoiceandhighdataratewirelesschannels.4Gtechnology
will not only be used for cellulartelephone systems, but will also include several types of wirelessbroadbandaccess
communicationsystems.
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EDGE: EDGE isawireless network technologygenerallyconsideredthe nextstepin the2Gnetwork.Thenameisan

acronym that stands for Enhanced DataGSMEnvironment. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution is an alternative
name that is also used. As both names suggest, EDGE is an improvement on theGSM wirelesstechnology, which is
secondgeneration,or2G,cellphonetechnology.EDGEisusedforthepurposeofwirelessdatatransfer,suchassharing
picturesandvideosorbrowsingtheInternetviaamobilephoneconnection.Thisisbecausethetechnologyoffersdata
transferratesuptofourtimesfasterthanordinaryGSMnetworks.ImportantbecauseofiPhone,Blackberry.Because
EDGEisanupgradeofGSM,itiseasyforwirelesscarrierstoupgradetheirnetworkstoofferit.Theincreaseindata
speedisachievedviamoresophisticatedcoding,notbyequipment,sonewhardwareisnotusuallynecessary.Instead,
asoftwareupgradeenablesthewirelesscarriersbasestationstosupportdatatransferspeedsupto384kilobitsper
second(kbps).
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WirelessTelevision:Thoughtelevisionshavebeenabletoreceiveawirelesssignal,oftenreferredtoasanovertheair
signal, for years, wireless television takes that concept and applies it to subscriptionbased services. These services
havetraditionallydependedonwires,traditionallycoaxialcableandmorerecentlyHDMIforhighdefinitionsignals.The
latest standard in wireless television is known as Wireless Home Digital Interface, or WHDI. This technology was
developedbyanumberofdifferentcompanies,whocametogethertocomeupwithasinglestandardtheyhopewill
beusedacrosstheentireindustryasthetechnologystartstogainafootholdamongconsumers.Thecompaniesthat
have worked to come up with the standard for wireless, high definition digital television include: Sony, Hitachi,
Motorola,Samsung,SharpandAMIMON.
Themainadvantagetowirelesstelevisionisoneofconvenience.Thisallowseverytelevisiontobeconnectedtoacable
orsatellitehubwithouttheneedofrunningwiresthroughoutthehome.Manywhoareputtingtelevisionsonwallsand
other such locations have no way of hiding wires other than to run them behind the walls, which can make for a
difficultinstallation.
DryCellBattery:Adrycellbatteryisdifferentfromawetcellbatterybecauseitselectrolytesarecontainedinalow
moisture paste. A wet cell battery's electrolytes are contained in a liquid. Wet cell batteries are often used in cars
becausetheyarerelativelycheapandeasilyrecharged.
Components: At the center of each dry cell battery is a rod called acathode, which is generally made of metal or
graphite and is surrounded by anelectrolytepaste. The cathode and electrolyte paste are wrapped in paper or
cardboard. One or more of these cells are sealed into a metal cylinder called ananode, which is typically made
ofzincoralkaline.
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CSE GS Notes
RF:RFreferstoradiofrequency,themodeofcommunicationforwirelesstechnologiesofallkinds,includingcordless
phones, radar, ham radio,GPS, and radio and television broadcasts.RF waves are electromagnetic waves which
propagateatthespeedoflight,or186,000milespersecond(300,000km/s).ThefrequenciesofRFwaves,however,are
slowerthanthoseofvisiblelight,makingRFwavesinvisibletothehumaneye.
MiniDV:MiniDVisoneofthreecommondigitalformatsusedinsoundandpicturerecording.Usingdigitaltechnology,
MiniDVcapturesvideoandaudioonhighdensitycassettetapes.Thisformatisverypopular,asitdeliverssoundand
video that is decidedly sharp and high quality. The MiniDV format is one of the most commonly used formats for
camcorders.MiniDVtapesaretiny,onlyafractionofthesizeofotherdigitalvideo(DV)cassettes.
Optical Cable: An optical cable is anoptical fiberthat has been coated with a tough layer of resin. This layer is then
surroundedbywhatisreferredtoasajacketlayer.Mostoften,thejacketlayeroftheopticalcableismadeofplastic.
Thelayersaroundtheopticalfiberhelpprovidetheopticalcablewithextrastrength.Atthesametime,theselayersdo
notpreventthefiberwithintheopticalcablefrommaintainingitsproperties.
Thefiberinanopticalcableistypicallymadeofeitherglassorplastic.Thefiberitselfisthinandtransparent,makingit
capable of transmitting light. An optical cable may have 1000s of these fibers within it, making the cable capable of
transmitting a great deal of information throughbandwidthcommunication or large amounts of electricity when the
opticalcableisusedforthispurpose.
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3D Glasses: All types of3D glassescan be divided into two categories: passive and active. Active 3D glasses interact
wirelessly with images on a screen to enhance 3D viewing, whereas passive glasses do not. Passive 3D glasses have
been around since threedimensional viewing first arrived in the 1920s, subdivided into two major subcategories:
anaglyphicandpolarizedglasses.
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Anaglyphic 3D (Generally 3D movies) works by projecting two identical but slightly offset images on a screen, each
imagetintedwithadifferentcolor.Tothenakedeye,ananaglyphicimageappearsblurry,withreddishandbluishhues.
Theglassesusecolorfilteringlensestotargetoneimagetotherighteye,andanothertotheleft;theresultisthateach
eyeseesadifferentimage,butthemindistrickedintobelievingitseesonlyone.Themindcompensatesforthisby
focusinginbetweenthetwooffsetimagesandblendingthemintoone,whichcreatesanillusionofdepth.
Passivepolarizedglassesoperateonthesamebasisasanaglyphglasses,onlytheyfilterlightwavesratherthancolor.
Again,twoidenticalandslightlyoffsetimagesaresuperimposed, inthiscaseeachimageispolarizedtoprojectlight
differentlythantheother.
Pulfrichglassescanalsocreatea3Deffect,butonlywithobjectsmovingacrosstheviewer'splaneofvision.These3D
glasses have one completely transparent lens, and another that is heavily tinted. As an object moves across the
visionary plane, the image is immediately transmitted to the eye through the transparent lens, but the tinted lens
causesaslightdelay.Thisdelaycausesthebraintoaddmoredepthtotheimage,creatingsomewhatofa3Deffect.
LCD technology, which is capable of digitally transmitting images at super highspeeds, 3D glasses have made great
technological leaps and bounds. Active shutter glasses are able to communicate wirelessly with an LCD display,
interactingwiththeactiononthescreenviainfraredsignals.Thisenablesthelensonactiveglassestoshutterbackand
forthbetweendifferentlightfilters,furtherenhancingthe3Dviewingexperience.Anothersignificantupsidetoactive
technologyisthatitisadaptableto3DTVsets.
Infrared:Infrared(IR)lightisawavelengthofenergythatisinvisibletothehumaneye.Themostcommonsourceof
thisenergyisheat;objectscanhavetheirrelativetemperaturesmeasuredbyhowmuchofthisenergytheygiveoff.
Lower wavelengths or "near infrared" closest to thevisible lightcolor red are not hot, and are often used to
43
CSE GS Notes
transmitdatainelectronics.Aremotecontrol,mayuseaparticularwavelengthofnearinfraredtocommunicatewitha
receiver, sends out light in pulses, which are translated into binary codes that have corresponding commands. The
receiverispositionedonthefrontofthedevice,whereitreceivesthesepulsesoflightanddecodesthemintobinary
data,whichisunderstoodbythemicroprocessorinsidetheapparatus.
ApplicationsofInfrared:Convertinginfraredenergy,alsoknownasradiantheat,intoanimagethatthehumaneyecan
see and understand is done with a process calledthermal imaging. AnIR camerais used to accurately measure the
temperature of an object, which is then translated into color. For example,infrared imagingtypically shows the
warmestareasinahumanbodyasred,followedbyyellow,green,blue,andvioletasthetemperaturedecreases.By
studying how body heat is distributed, thermal imaging can health professionals to analyze body tissue and fluid to
detectinjuryordisease.
Infraredlightisusedinnightvisionequipment,allowingtheusertoseeinthedark.Twotypesofnightvisionbothuse
IR:thermalandimageintensifying.Thermalnightvisionallowstheusertorecognizepeopleandobjectsbytheheat
patterntheyemit.Intensifiersamplifyexistinglightincludinginfraredtoallowtheusertosee.
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1. Fluorescent Lights: Fluorescent lights are far more complex in design thanincandescent lightbulbs, and more
efficient.Anincandescentlightbulbgeneratesverylittlelightrelativetotheamountofheatitgenerates,wasting
muchenergy.Fluorescentlightswasteverylittleenergyandgenerallylastuptosixtimeslongerthanincandescent
lightbulbs.
2. Fluorescent lights are tubular in design with capped ends that feature two external pins each. The inside of
theglasstubeispowdercoatedwithphosphorous.Asmalldropofmercuryisalsoplacedinsidethebulb,whichis
filledwithargongas.Anelectrodeateitherendconnectstoelectricalcircuits.
3. Atomshavenegativelychargedelectronsorbitingthenucleusatvariousdistances.Whenanatomabsorbsenough
energyitcancauseoneoftheelectronstojumptoahigherorbit.Astheelectronlosesenergy,itfallsbacktoits
previousorbit.Whenitdoesso,itemitsaphotonoflight.Thekeyinproducinglightisinexcitingatomsenoughto
knockelectronsfromtheirorbits.
4. Whenelectricityflowsthroughtheelectrodesinfluorescentlights,itproducesachargethatcausesfreeelectrons
totravelthroughthegasfilledtubefromoneelectrodetotheother.Thisenergyvaporizesasmallportionofthe
mercury inside the tube. Electrons andions(charged atoms) collide with gaseous mercury atoms, which in turn
releaseultraviolet(UV)photons.
5. WecannotseeUVlight,sowhenphosphorisexposedtoUVlight,itabsorbstheenergyandradiatesitbackout
asvisiblelight.Thisiswherefluorescentlightsexceloverincandescentbulbs,astheUVenergywastedaslostheat
inalightbulbistransformedintovisiblelightinfluorescentlights.
Incandescentlightisaformofelectricilluminationthatusesextremeheattoproduceartificiallight.Whenthepower
switchinaroomisturnedon,anelectriccurrentflowsinsidethebulbandrunsthroughthethinwirefilamentinside.
This filament is often made oftungsten, which is a metal resistant to high temperatures that produces bright
illumination.Thefilamentisusuallycoveredbyathinglassbulbthatkeepsoxygenoutsideandprotectsthetungsten.
GPS: Global Positioning System. It refers to a system of satellites and receivers that allow people and devices to
pinpointtheirpreciselocationontheearth.Theheartofthesystemrelieson24satellitesthatorbittheearthtwice
perday.DevicesthatareequippedwithGPSequipmentreceivetransmissionsfromatleastafewofthesatellitesand
areabletodiscernveryprecisepositioningdata.
Asatellitephone orsatphoneis amobile phonethat sends and
receives calls using satellites rather than landlines or cellular
broadcasting towers. A satellite phone only requires a clear line of
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CSE GS Notes
sighttothesky.Theadvantageofasatellitephoneisthatitcancompletecallsfromanywhere.Asatellitephonecan
operate in the middle of the Sahara desert, at the top of Mount Everest. It is an indispensable tool for remote
excursionsofallkinds,andprovidessolidcommunicationontheseasandintheair.Disadvantage:noticeabledelayin
conversations.Thesignalmustfirsttraveltothesatellite,thentoanearthboundgatewaybeforebeingroutedtothe
receiver.Thereceiver'sresponsewillfollowthesamepathinreverse,takingequallylongtoreachthecaller.Satellite
minutesarealsomoreexpensivethancellularminutes.
Fiberoptics are made of abundleof thinglassor plastic strands. This bundle allows light to pass through without
leakingout.Sincethelightisunabletoescape,crystalclearimagesarepassedthroughthefiberopticsfromthepoint
oforigintothedestination,wheretheycanbeviewedbytheuser.
Uses total internal reflection. Optical fiber typically consists of a transparentcoresurrounded by a
transparentcladdingmaterialwithalowerindexofrefraction.Lightiskeptinthecorebytotalinternalreflection.This
causesthefibertoactasawaveguide.
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WiMax: Combines broadband, and wireless delivering highspeed broadbandInternet accessover a wireless
connection. Because it can be used over relatively long distances, it is an effective "last mile" solution for delivering
broadband to the home, and for creating wireless "hot spots" in places like airports, college campuses, and small
communities. WiMax delivers a pointtomultipoint architecture, making it an ideal method for carriers to deliver
broadbandtolocationswherewiredconnectionswouldbedifficultorcostly.Itmayalsoprovideausefulsolutionfor
deliveringbroadbandtoruralareaswherehighspeedlineshavenotyetbecomeavailable.AWiMaxconnectioncan
alsobebridgedorroutedtoastandardwiredorwirelessLocalAreaNetwork(LAN).WiMaxofferssomeadvantages
overWiFi,asimilarwirelesstechnology,inthatitoffersagreaterrangeandismorebandwidthefficient.
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GPRS: In between 3G and 2G is General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). GPRS is a series of functionalities that allow
mobiledatastreamingandtransfertousersofGlobalSystemforMobileCommunications(GSM)mobilephones.GPRS
issometimescalled2.5G.GPRSallowsmultipleuserstoshareatransmissionchannelbyopeningthetransmissionfor
transferonlywheneachindividualuserneedsit.Veryfewusersneedalwaysondatatransfercapability,soGPRSworks
for a vast majority of users. Such newtechnology functions as Web browsing, instant messaging, and real
timeemailreceptionrequireintermittentdatatransfersandareperfectexamplesofthesuccessfulfunctionalityofthe
kindofsharedbandwidthcapabilitythatGPRSoffers.Thiskindofsharedtransmissioniscalledpacketswitching.
Voice recognition can refer to one of two types of computer science: forensic voice identification or speechtotext
capability. This article addresses the latter definition. Voice recognition, or speech recognition in this case, is a
computertechnologythatutilizesaudioinputforenteringdataratherthanakeyboard.voicerecognitionsoftwareis
designed with an internal database of recognizable words or phrases. The program matches the audio signature of
speechwithcorrespondingentriesinthedatabase.
A universal remote control often replaces the factoryissued remote control included with a television, cable
box,VCR,DVDplayer or stereo system. Often a universal remote control can be programmed to operate several
electronicdevices,reducingtheneedforindividualcontrollers.Auniversalremotecontrolworksontheprinciplethat
almostallremotecontroldevicesworkonalimitednumberofcodes.Theremaybenumeroustelevision,stereoand
DVDplayermanufacturersintheworld,buttheyallusethesamehandfuloffrequenciesandprogrammingcodes.By
identifying and listing the codes used by individual manufacturers, a universal remote control can duplicate the
functionsoftheoriginalremote.Consumerssimplyfindtheirmakeandmodelofelectronicdeviceinthecodinglist,
thenusetheuniversalremotecontrol'sfunctionkeystoenterthenecessaryinformation.
AnMP3isadigitalaudiofilecompressedwithastandarddefinedbytheMotionPicturesExpertsGroup(MPEG).MPEG
was formed to develop techniques for dealing with digital video; since most video also contains audio, MP3 was
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CSE GS Notes
developed as an audio extension of that work. Officially known as "MPEG1, Layer 3", MP3 is alossy
compressionalgorithmthat uses psychoacoustic modeling to reduce the size ofaudio filesby up to 90%.
Psychoacousticstakesadvantageofdeficienciesinthehumanhearingsystemtothrowawaydigitalbitscorresponding
tosoundsthatcannotbeheard.Thehumanearcannothearsoftsoundsinthepresenceofloudsoundshavingasimilar
frequency;forexample,avoiceconversationbecomesinaudiblewhenajetflieslowoverhead.Thiseffectisknownas
auditorymasking,anddonecorrectlythediscardedsoundswillnotbemissed.MP3isalossyalgorithminthesense
thattheoriginalbitscannotberecreatedfromthecompressedbits.
Bluetoothisthenameofawirelesstechnologystandardforconnectingdevicesthatissettoreplacecables.Ituses
radiofrequenciesinthe2.45GHzrangetotransmitinformationovershortdistancesofgenerally33feet(10meters)or
less.ByembeddingaBluetoothchipandreceiverintoproducts,cablesthatwouldnormallycarrythesignalcanbe
eliminated.
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One wireless standard that is already familiar to many is IrDA orinfrared. Infrared uses pulses of nonvisible light to
communicatebetween twodevices,suchasaremotecontrolto atelevisionorDVDplayer.OnedrawbackofIrDAis
thattheremustbeaclearlineofsightbetweenthetwodevices,andtheotherdisadvantageisthatIrDAnormallyonly
operates between two devices at a time. An infrared remote control unit cannot communicate with the DVD player
whileitissignalingtheTV.Bluetoothovercomestheselimitationsbyusingradiowavestosendinformationinpacket
bursts.Theburstscanbesenttoanydevicewithin'earshot'allowingcommunicationwithseveraldevicesatonce.
IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)delivers television programming to households via a broadbandconnection using
Internet protocols. It requires a subscription and IPTV settop box, and offers key advantages over existing TV cable
andsatellitetechnologies. One of the advantages of IPTV is the ability for digital video recorders (DVRs) to record
multiplebroadcastsatonce.
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However, the real advantage of IPTV is that it uses Internet protocols to provide twoway communication
forinteractivetelevision.Oneapplicationmightbeingameshowsinwhichthestudioaudienceisaskedtoparticipate
byhelpingacontestantchoosebetweenanswers.IPTVopensthedoortorealtimeparticipationfrompeoplewatching
athome.Anotherapplicationwouldbetheability toturnonmultipleanglesofanevent,suchasatouchdown,and
watchitfromdualanglessimultaneouslyusingpictureinpictureviewing.
AMOSFET(MetalOxideSemiconductorFieldEffectTransistor)isasemiconductordevice.AMOSFETismostcommonly
used in the field of power electronics. A semiconductor is made of manufactured material that acts neither like
ainsulatornoraconductor.
A relatively lowenergy means of emitting light, light emittingdiode(LED) technology is used in many electronic
devicesusedfrequentlyintheaveragehome.LEDisdifferentfromthestandardlightbulbseeninmosthomesbecause
it uses an electrified semiconductive material to produce light instead of an electrified filament.In an LED light,
electrifiedenergycausesthesemiconductorcontainedinsidetheLEDbulbtoemitlight.LEDdiodescanbedesignedto
haveonecolor,ortheycanbedesignedtohaveseveralcolorsoflightcontainedwithinonediode.Theabilitytochange
colorusingmulticoloredLEDdiodespowersmanyhightechLEDscreenlikethoseusedonlargeLEDsigns.
Standard Definition television (SDTV) andHigh Definition television(HDTV) are two of the new formats. SDTV is a
digitalformatthatprovidesahighqualitypicture,verysimilartothatofdigitalversatiledisk.SDTVisalowerresolution
picturethanHDTV.ThedifferencebetweenSDTVandHDTVisthatthesignalonSDTVismorecompressedthanthatof
HDTV. As the digital signal is compressed, broadcasters can transmit five SDTV programs, whereas HDTV can only
broadcast one. Multiple program broadcasting, called multicasting, was not previously available with analog
transmissions.ThepicturedefinitionofSDTVisalsoslightlylowerthanonHDTV.
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CSE GS Notes
There are actually three types ofDVDplayers in the marketplace: the ubiquitous standard DVD player; the High
Definition(HD)DVDplayerthatisperhapslesswellknown;andtheBlurayplayer.WhenreferencesaremadetoDVD
versusBluraythecomparisonisbetweentheHDDVDplayerandBlurayplayer.Botharehighcapacityplayersthat
useaproprietaryHDformat,whichpittedthetechnologiesagainsteachotherformarketdominance.Theformatwar
essentiallyendedon22February2008whenToshibaannounceditwouldceasemanufacturingtheHDDVDplayer.
The secret to the Bluray player and HD DVD is that they both use blue lasers rather than the red lasers used in
standardDVD/CDplayers.Thepinpointfocusofalaseristhetoolthatproducesthepitsandlandsonthesurfaceofa
disc,laterreadasdigitalbits.Asmallerormorerefinedbeamcanburntinierpits(morebits)onthesurfaceofthedisc,
resultingingreaterdatacapacity.Bluelighthasashorterwavelengththanredlight,producingamoretightlyfocused
beam. Theblue laseris therefore capable of burning more data than a red laser into the same size space. Blu ray
Sony,HDDVDMicrosoft
AnHDDVDplayerisconsiderablylessexpensivethanaBlurayplayer
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Difference Between AMD and Intel: Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel are two different companies that
producemotherboardsandcentralprocessingunits(CPUs)foundwithinpersonalcomputers(PC).TheCPUisprobably
themostimportantpartofthecomputer,asitiswheremostcalculationstakeplacethatruncomputerprogramsand
systems. The speed with which a CPU can process these calculations is usually given in megahertz (MHz)
orgigahertz(GHz).Motherboardsprovidethecircuitryforallcomputerstofunction.
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AMDtendstobecheaperthanIntel.Besidescost,theotherkeydifferencesbetweenAMDandIntelprocessorsare
theclock speedand the socket used to connect the processor to the computer. The clock speed is the number of
operations a computer can perform in a clock cycle, which is usually one second. Due to design differences, Intel
processorsareusuallyfasterthanAMDones,butAMDprocessorsaremoreefficient.Assuch,foreachAMDandIntel
processor,theIntelversionisusuallyslightlyfasterthanitsAMDcounterpart.
ALightAmplificationbySimulatedEmissionofRadiation(LASER)isadeviceusedtoconcentratelightintoanarrow
beam.ThelightemittedbyaLASERisthinandcoherent.LASERlightisdifferentfromthelightthatnormallyradiates
from atoms. Atoms typically radiate light randomly, resulting in light that is refereed to as incoherent. Basically, this
means atoms radiate jumbles of photons that go in numerous directions. Coherent light behaves quite differently,
going in one clearly defined direction. Normally atoms emitted radiate light randomly. To produce coherent light
AtomsareexcitedwithinaLASERcavity,puttingmostofthemathigherenergylevels,whilereflectivesurfacesinthe
cavityreflectenergyandenableittobuildup.Throughaprocesscalledstimulatedemission,photonswithmatching
frequencies and phases are emitted. Finally, a fast, chain reaction occurs, discharging atoms and leading to the
productionofcoherentlight.
Amotiondetectorisadevicethatmonitorsafieldofviewandperformsafunctionifmotionisdetectedwithinthat
field.Thefunctionmightbetotriggertheopeningofadoor,asinthecaseofagrocerystore;startavideotapemachine
forsurveillance;turnonfloodlights;orsoundanalarm.Itmightdetectmotionthroughtheuseofopticsoracoustics
andcanbepassiveoractive.
Passiveinfrared(PIR) motion detectors are commonly used inside homes, linked to security systems. The unaided
humaneyecannotseeinfraredlight,butthehumanbodygeneratesaninfraredsignatureintheformofheat.Apassive
motion detector does not emit signals, but monitors the temperature of the field of view looking for changes in the
infraredspectrum.Ahumanbodymovingthroughthefieldcantriggerthemotiondetectortosoundanalarm
Anactivemotiondetectoremitsopticsorsoundwavesandmeasuresfeedbacktodetectmotion.Thesimplesttypeof
activemotiondetectoriscommonlyusedincommercialdoorwaystotriggeradoorbell.Adeviceisfixedtoonesideof
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CSE GS Notes
the doorway, anoptical sensorto the other. A beam of light passes from the device to the sensor. When someone
enterstheestablishment,thebeamisbroken,triggeringthedoorbell.
SONAR is an abbreviation for SOund Navigation And Ranging, a navigational technique which uses sound to gather
informationaboutthesurroundingenvironment.TherearetwotypesofSONAR:active,andpassive,andtheyareboth
widely used, depending on the situation. Passive SONAR involves listening for sounds, such as noises generated by
passing ships and submarines. When a ship uses active SONAR, it emits a pulse of sound in one of a range of
frequenciesandthenlistensfortheecho.
"smartclothing"isafuturisticformofclothingthatfunctionsasanactivedevice,forexamplereleasingchilledwater
vaporwhenitsensesitswearerishot.Theterm"smartclothing"denotesthepresenceofembeddedelectronics.Have
notbeenmassproducedyet.Militaryandcommercialresearchscientistsseektodevelopsmartclothingthatpossesses
manyoftheusefulpropertiesofcomputerstheabilitytostoreandmanipulatedata;displayimages,text,andvideo;
connecttotheInternet;offerinputdevices;andsoon.Otherpossiblefeaturesofsmartclothingincludetheabilityto
detectchemicalsintheair,quicklyhardenoncontactwithaspeedingbullet,changecolororopacityetc
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Ahalogenbulbisatypeofincandescentlightbulb,introducedin1958.Thehalogenbulbiscapableofburningmuch
morebrightlythanconventionallightbulbs,anditisapopularchoiceforheadlightsandotherapplicationsforwhich
verybrightlightisneeded.Inadditiontoburningmorebrightly,halogenbulbsarealsomoreefficientandhavealonger
life expectancy than conventional light bulbs. design very similar to that of conventional light bulbs, consisting of
atungstenfilamentenclosedinanothermaterial.Thehalogenbulbusesquartzinsteadofglass,however,allowingthe
bulb to be much smaller because quartz can withstand higher temperatures than glass and therefore may be
positionedmuchclosertothefilament.Inaddition,halogenbulbsusehalogengases,insteadofargonornitrogen,two
gasescommonlyusedinconventionallightbulbs.
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Alightbulbworksbyapplyingelectricitytothetungstenfilament,whichheatsupandputsoutlight.However,asthe
filamentheats,italsobeginstobreakdownthetungsten,whichbeginstocollectinsidethebulb,oftenleavingdark
deposits.Ultimately,thefilamentwillbreakataweakpoint,causingthelightbulbtoburnout.
Awirelessdevicecanrefertoanykindofcommunicationsequipmentthatdoesnotrequireaphysicalwireforrelaying
information to another device.Wireless headphonesfitted with a receiver use either radio frequency (RF)
orinfraredtechnologytocommunicatewithatransmitterthatisconnectedtothesoundsource,sayatelevision.
RS422 is atelecommunicationsstandard for binary serial communications between devices. It is the protocol or
specificationsthatmustbefollowedtoallowtwodevicesthatimplementthisstandardtospeaktoeachother.
Semiconductors are unique materials, solids whose electrical conductivity can be changed deliberately, usually in a
dynamic(reversible)fashion.Semiconductorsareusedtomakesemiconductordevices,whichledtotheInformation
revolution.
Thestructurethatunderliesanytransistor,orsemiconductordevice,isthepnjunction.Apnjunctionhastworegions
apregionandannregion.Thepregionis"doped"withsmallamountsofboron,causingthematerialtobecomefilled
withnumerouselectron"holes"absenceofelectronswhereelectronsshouldbe.Thishappensbecauseboronhasa
valenceofthree,whichcausesittoabsorbweaklyboundouterelectronsfromthevalencefoursemiconductoratoms,
leavingvoidsinitsplace.Thenregionisdopedwithamaterialthathasavalenceoffive,causingthereverseeffect,
wheretheimpuritiesdonatetheirextraelectrontothesemiconductingmaterial,causinganabundanceofelectrons.
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CSE GS Notes
Thisrelativeabundanceandabsenceofelectronsisexploitedinthetransistor.Bymanipulatingthejunctions,charge
flow can be regulated precisely, allowing for complex electronics. Variationson transistor can be used to make LEDs
andverydelicatesensors.
Telemonitoringisamedicalpracticethatinvolvesremotelymonitoringpatientswhoarenotatthesamelocationasthe
healthcareprovider.Ingeneral,apatientwillhaveanumberofmonitoringdevicesathome,andtheresultsofthese
devices will be transmitted via telephone to the health care provider.Some of the more common things that
telemonitoringdeviceskeeptrackofincludebloodpressure,heartrate,weight,bloodglucose,andhemoglobin.
Adv:efficientwaytogathernecessarypatientinformationwithoutagreattimecommitment,relevanttodiseasebased
research,
Bluescreen is a special effects process used in film, television, video, computers. To create a bluescreen image, the
actorisphotographedorfilmedinfrontofanevenlylit,purebluebackground.Theimageisthenusuallytransferredto
computerandthebluebackgroundisreplacedwithanotherimage.Thisisknownasthebackgroundplate.Thereason
blue is favored for this process is that the most common color in scenes is peach shades; blue is the most
complementarycolortopeach.Alsocamerasandfilmaremoresensitivetobluelight
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IEDistheabbreviationforanImprovisedExplosiveDevice.AnIEDisusuallyamakeshiftbombthatcanbeextremely
destructivewhendetonated.AnIEDrequiresadetonatorandalsoasystemthatwilltriggertheelectricalchargetoset
offthebomb.Duetoitsmakeshiftnature,thetypeofexplosivesusedcanbemixed.Somecontainlethalchemicalsand
some contain metal parts such as nails and ball bearings. The size of the IEDs mean that they can be placed almost
anywhere.Insmallboxes,bagsandundertables.IEDhasbeenwidelyusedbyIraqiinsurgentsinIraq.Theyhavebeen
thecauseof1/3rdofallAmericandeathsduringthewar.
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Biometricfacerecognitionworksbyusingacomputertoanalyzeasubject'sfacialstructure.Facerecognitionsoftware
takesanumberofpointsandmeasurements,includingthedistancesbetweenkeycharacteristicssuchaseyes,nose
andmouth,anglesofkeyfeaturessuchasthejawandforehead,andlengthsofvariousportionsoftheface.Usingallof
this information, the program creates a unique template incorporating all of the numerical data. This template may
thenbecomparedtoenormousdatabasesoffacialimagestoidentifythesubject.
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) and Enhanced Data Rates forGSMEvolution (EDGE) are
competing mobile communication technologies. These are both third generation (3G) communication technologies
withnewfeaturesandcapabilitiesthatadvancetheoptionsforcellphonesparticularlythoseusing3G.
The underlying technology for EDGE networks is Time Division Multiple Access transmission. General Packet Radio
Service(GPRS)isarecentenhancementtoEDGEthatexpandsitscapabilityforhandlingmultimediaathigherspeeds.
UMTSdeploymentreliesonthemoresecureWidebandCodeDivisionMultipleAccesstransmissionforhandlingdata
transmissiontraffic.EDGEnetworksarecapableofdecentspeedsfortextandgraphics.UMTSnetworksuseHighSpeed
Packet Access at transmission rates that support large file transfers and mobile dataintensive Internet activities like
videoandmusicstreaming.
TherapidevolutionofUMTShasmadeitthemoredominantofthetwotechnologies.ItisfullycompatiblewithGSM
the world's most widely used mobile communication technology. Most UMTS handsets currently on the market are
dualbanddevicesthatcanseamlesslyswitchtotheGPRSsystemfordatatransmission.
RADAR,shortforRAdioDetectionAndRanging.Apowerfulradiobeamissentoutataspecificfrequency.Whenthis
burst of radio energy strikes a solid object, at least part of that energy will be reflected back to the transmitter. By
calculating the speed of the radio waves and the time it takes for the signal to bounce off the object and hit the
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receiver,aradaroperatorcangaugethedistancebetweenhimselfandtheobject.Movingthetransmittertodifferent
points allows the radar operator to receive multiple returns. All of these individual reflections are combined to
estimatethesizeoftheobjectorobjectsbeingstruck.
Instead of exposing a photosensitive chemical known as film to a scene to create an imprinted image, most digital
camerasuse achargecoupled device(CCD),anelectronicsinstrumentthat createsapixelmapbasedontheelectric
chargegeneratedwhenphotonsslamintoasensitivematerial.Thisphenomenoniscalledthephotoelectriceffect.The
termCCDbased camerais sometimes used interchangeably withdigital camera, because by its very nature the CCD
based camera takes digital camera pictures pictures with a certain pixelbypixel resolution that can be encoded
digitally.
A chargecoupled device is an integrated circuit, meaning it uses multiple semiconductor elements on a unified
platform to achieve its goals. The active components of the chargecoupled device in a digital camera or other CCD
based camera are the capacitors. These are linked in a circuit, hence the termchargecoupled. Acapacitoris a basic
electronics device that stores a potential difference, or voltage, in the variance between two plates with equal but
oppositeelectricalcharges.
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AlensprojectstheimageontotheCCDs.Eachcapacitoracquiresachargeproportionaltothebrightnessofincoming
light.CCDsarenotinherentlycolorsensitive,andtotakecolorphotos,aBayermaskmustbeemployedtoselectively
filterlightintodesignatedpixelsbasedoncolor.Uponacquiringthecharge,thecapacitorsbeginpassingtheirchargeto
adjacent capacitors in a chargecoupled, daisychain fashion. A register at the end of a capacitor array makes the
appropriatemeasurements,anda2Dpixelmapiscreated.
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M2Mtechnologyistheutilizationofdifferenttypesofmechanicaldevicestoestablishacommunicationandexchange
of information. More properly known as machine to machine technology, the M2M interface allows businesses to
monitorandmanipulateremoteequipmentthatiscrucialtothebusinessoperation.Thistypeofremotemonitoring
and control makes it possible for corporations to address service issues and restore functionality with little or not
interruptioninproductivity.
ThebasicstructureforM2Mtechnologyinvolvesacentralsystemthatisabletoconnectwithothersystemsatvarious
locations. The connection allows the central or mother system to collect or send data to each remote location for
processing.Forexample,M2Mtechnologymaybeutilizedtocreateanintegratednetworkforsalesofficesacrossthe
world.
ErasableProgrammableReadOnlyMemory(EPROM)referstoatypeofcomputerchipthatcanholdasmallamountof
datainresidentmemory.ThemaindifferencebetweenEPROMchipsandProgrammableReadOnlyMemory(PROM)
chipsisthattheEPROMchipscanbeprogrammedmorethanonetime,whilePROMchipsarenotreprogrammable.
Primarily,thepurposesofanEPROMchiparetoprovideprogrammerswithawaytomapaddressableinputstoasetof
predetermined data outputs, similar to alookup table, and to store small bits of data that reflect state changes in
ongoingelectricalprocesses.
Nuclear batteries run off of the continuousradioactivedecay of certain elements. These incredibly longlasting
batteries are still in the theoretical and developmental stage of existence, but they promise to provide clean, safe,
almost endless energy. They have been designed for personal use as well as for civilengineering, aeronautics, and
medicaltreatments.Thealmostmagicalproductionofelectricityinnuclearbatteriesismadepossiblebytheprocess
ofbetavoltaics. Through this technology, the electrons that radioactiveisotopesregularly lose due to decay can be
harnessed and directed into a stream of electricity. A semiconductor, possibly made fromsilicon, catches the flying
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electrons and directs them into a steady power source. Even a small amount of radioactive material will provide a
chargeforaverylongtimebeforeitexpires.
ASCARArobotisanassemblymachinethatinstallspartsorcarriesitems.Itisdesignedtomimictheactionofahuman
arm and can be used in jobs from automobile factories to underwater construction. This tool is frequently utilized
becauseofitsspeed,efficiencyandlowcost.
SCARA stands for Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm or Selective CompliantArticulated RobotArm. A SCARA
robot has a full range of motion on its X and Y axis but is bolted down and unable to move in the Y axis. It can be
programedtoperformprecisejobsrepetitively,suchasinstallingapinorcarryingitemsfromonelocationtoanother
within its range of motion. In the field of robotics, the SCARA is considered more affordable than many of its
competitorsandisoneofthemostpopularmethodsofautomatedassembly.
ASCARArobotisprimarilyusedforassembly.Theyareusedbymanufacturersofeverythingfrombulkyautomobilesto
minuscule electronic items. It can be programmed to handle very precise installation work and cannot carry a great
dealofweight,sothearmworksbestwhenhandlingsmallparts.
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Triband technology refers to portable communications devices (generally cell phones) that operate over
threebroadbandfrequencies instead of one. Sometimes referred to as "world phones," triband phones offer the
ability to send and receive calls over a greater geographical range. The three most common frequencies used are
GSM900andGSM1800,whichareusedinmostpartsoftheworld,andGSM1900,whichisusedmostlyinthewestern
hemisphere.
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A television displays a moving picture by running a set of still pictures in quick succession to create the illusion of
movement.Thesestillframesflashbyat30framespersecond.Buttodisplayasingleframe,theTVmust"paint"the
screenorpicture,linebyline.
NRAM, short fornanoRAMornanotubebased/nonvolatile random access memory, is a new memory storage
technologyownedbythecompanyNantero.Thetechnologyblendstogethertinycarbonnanotubeswithconventional
semiconductors. Because the memorycontaining elements, nanotubes, are so small, NRAM technology will achieve
veryhighmemorydensities:atleast10100timesourcurrentbest.NRAMwilloperateelectromechanicallyratherthan
justelectrically,settingitapartfromothermemorytechnologiesasanonvolatileformofmemory,meaningdatawillbe
retainedevenwhenthepoweristurnedoff.
SatelliteTV is a broadcasting service which allows subscribers to receive television signals through a dishshaped
receiverunit.Thesesignalsareoriginallyuploadedtoacommunicationssatellitethatisinafixedorbitabovetheearth,
thenelectronicallyscrambledtopreventunauthorizeddownloading.ThosewhopayasubscriptionfeeforsatelliteTV
serviceareissuedboththereceivingdishandadescrambler.Theactualtuninginformationisfedintothetelevision
throughacable,muchliketheearthboundcabletelevisionservicesincompetitionwithsatelliteTVproviders.
Traffic light If it looks like a honeycomb of bright red dots LED lights. Cities around the world have been
systematically replacing their olderincandescent bulbbased traffic signals with the more energy efficient LED traffic
lights.
OnemajoradvantageofLEDtrafficlightsisincreasedvisibility.Incandescentbulbswereoftencoveredbycolorfilters,
reflectorsandglasslenses,whichcouldaffecthowmuchlightactuallyreacheddrivers'eyes.LEDtrafficlightsusean
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arrayofbrightLEDs,whichdonotrequireadditionalfiltersoramplification.Ifasingleincandescentbulbburnsout,the
entirelightsequenceisdisturbed.SeveralLEDscanfailinLEDtrafficlightswithoutcausinganoticeabledisruption.
Another advantage of LED traffic lights is lower maintenance costs. Almost all of the cost of LED traffic lights are
upfrontLEDsareexpensive,andthesignalsthemselvesrequiremorelabortoproduce.Theseexpensesareusually
offsetbylowermaintenancecosts.Ifanincandescentbulbburnsout,whichhappensthreetimesayearreplacement.
LEDonlyyearlycleaning.
The termLEDstands forLight Emitting Diode. Modern electronics relies heavily upon LED light bulbs.LED light bulbs
areminiaturebulbsthatdonotusefilamentstoproducelight.Therefore,thelifeofanLEDismuchlongerthanthatof
aregularincandescentbulb,becausethereisnofilamenttoburnout.Incandescentbulbsalsotendtobemuchlarger
in size due to the filament, which must be housed in a vacuum inside the bulb. LED light bulbs last as long as a
standardtransistorusedinmodernelectronics,andarelitpurelybythemovementofelectrons.
AnLEDisalightemittingdiode.Asemiconductordiodeisatwoterminaldevice,sometimesdescribedasapn.AnLED
is fabricated from a semiconductor material. One side of the semiconductor is attached to the P side which is the
anode;theothersideofthesemiconductorisattachedtotheNside,thecathode.Electricitycanflowfromthepside
tothenside.However,noelectricitycanflowinreverse.Ineffect,therefore,adiodeisaunidirectionalconductor.
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Electroluminescentwireisadecorative,flexiblewirethatglowsmuchlikeneon.OthernamesincludeELwire,ELfiber,
ELcableandglowwire.Itgeneratesnoheatandcanbetapedorgluedtoalmostanysurface.
Electroluminescentwireiscopperwirecoveredwithphosphorusthenwrappedwithtwothintransmitterwires,sealed
inaplasticskin.ItrequiresACandinvertersordriverscanbepurchasedforusewithDC.
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AnOLED(organiclightemittingdiode)consistsofanemissiveorganicmaterial,thatwhensuppliedwithanelectrical
current,canproduceasuperiorfullcolorflatpaneldisplay.
SeveralfactorsmakeOLEDsuperiortoLCDorCRTtechnology.ThemostobviousdifferenceisthatOLEDissoultrathin
itcanevenbeplacedonplasticfilm!Thismakesitmuchlighterthanoldertechnologyandagreatadvantageforhand
helddevices,laptopsandnotebooks.Itevenopensthedoortoflexibledisplays.OLEDisalsobrighterandhasbetter
contrastthanLCD,butdoesnotrequirebacklighting.Itconsumesabout20%lesspowerthanLCD,andhasaresponse
timeeverybitasfastasCRTdisplays.OLEDdisplayscanbeclearlyviewedatnearlyanyangleafull170degrees.An
OLEDdisplayconsistsofverythinsandwichedlayersofmaterials.Whenanelectriccurrentissupplied,thenegatively
charged electrons in thecathodelayer move through the organic substances towards the positively
chargedanodelayer. The reverse happens from the anode's side, as positively charged electrons are drawn towards
thecathodeleavingholesintheconductivematerial.Thesepositivelychargedholesjumptotheorganicmaterialto
recombine with electrons, which causes electroluminescent light. The chemical composition of the organic material
dictateswhichcolorsoflightareproduced.
Virtually every product that uses LCD or CRT technology is a candidate for OLED, including game devices, cellular
phones, video cameras,DVDplayers,GPS, audio displays, PDAs, notebooks, monitors, and televisions. With the low
power consumption, virtual weightlessness, clarity, brightness and wide viewing angle, OLED is the next generation
displaytechnology.
ClosedCircuitTelevision(CCTV)isanetworkofcamerasandmonitorsthataredirectlyconnectedonaclosedcircuit.
Thismeanstheimagespickedupbythecamerasarentaccessiblebyanyonewhohasareceiver,whichisthenorm
withregulartelevision.Instead,themonitormusthaveadirectconnectiontothecamerasofthesysteminorderto
accessitssignal.
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CSE GS Notes
ThedisplaymonitorshaveadirectconnectiontotheCCTVnetwork,whichisthereasontheycanpickuptheimageson
thecameras.Displaymonitorsthatarenotdirectlyconnectedtotheclosedcircuitnetworkcannotaccessthesignal.
Thistypeofsystemmayusecoaxialcablesforsignalbroadcasting,butsomesystemsuseothertypesoftechnologyto
accomplishthis.Forexample,aCCTVmayalsousemicrowavesorinfraredtechnologytosenditsbroadcastsfromits
camerastothedisplayunitsthatareconnectedtothenetwork.
Dopplerradarisalisteningdevicethatusesmicrowavesto'hear'physicalchanges.Microwavesreflectoffobjectsat
different times based on their relative position to the Doppler radar. Based on how quickly waves bounce back, a
precisepicturecanbecreated.Commonlyassociatedwithmeteorology,thepulseDopplercanmeasurebothdistance
andvelocity.
ItisbasedontheDopplerEffect,hencethenameDopplerradar.Usingthisscience,ifastationaryobjectisshooting
microwaves at a moving object, the velocity of waves will change as the position of the moving object changes. For
instance,ifmicrowavesarefocusedonapersonwalkingtowardtheradar,thesewaveswouldbecometallerandmore
frequentasthepersonmovedclosertothemachine.Thisisbecausedistancebetweentheobjectandradarisshorter
andthewaveshavelessspacetotravel.Theoppositeisalsotrue,meaningifamovingtargetweretowalkawayfrom
themicrowavesource,thewaveswouldlengthenandshortenasdistancebetweenthetwoincreased.
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HDTV stands forhigh definition television, a new means of broadcasting and the machines that take advantage of it.
HDTVbroadcastsvideodigitally.HDTVsrequireanHDTVtunertopickuphighdefinitionprogramming.Theincreasein
resolution is just one of the benefits of HDTV. Because the image is digital rather than analog, it tends to be much
sharperontelevisionsofallsizes.Itsimagedisplaytechnologyis"progressive"ratherthan"interlaced",meaningthat
theentirepictureiscontinuouslyshown,ratherthanalternatingbetweenpartialpicturedisplaysasinaconventional
television.Interlacedpixelsandlowrefreshratesareresponsiblefortheflickeringeffectseeninoldertelevisions.HDTV
hasbeenslowtocatchon.Thesetsarestillveryexpensive.
RFID, Barcode: Although the way they function is very different, barcode and RFDI technology are both useful
forinventorymanagement and other applications.RFDI stands forRadio FrequencyData Identification or Radio
FrequencyDataIdentifier.Abarcodeisaseriesoflinesandnumbersusedtorecordinformationaboutanitem.
ARadiofrequencydataidentifierorRFDIisamicrochipembeddedinaproduct'spackagingorlabel.Thismicrochip,like
abarcode,storesdataabouttheproductoritemtowhichitisattached.WhentheRFDIisscanned,thedataonthe
RFDI chip can be used to move an item into and out of a companys inventory system, or track the attached item
throughoutthesystem.
RFDIisamicrochipthatisattachedtoorembeddedinsideaproduct'spackaging,makingitmuchmoresecureandless
likelytobeillegibleorberemoved.Abarcodeisusuallyprintedonaproduct'slabelandcanbesmudgedorremoved
beforeitcanbeused.
ItispossibleforanRFDItagtobeembeddedinafamilypettoallowaveterinariantoimmediatelyaccessinformation
abouttheanimalifitisfoundorwandersawayfromhome.Barcodecannotbeusedforthis.
Magneticstripereadersaredevicesthatareutilizedtoallowtheencodedinformationcontainedinthemagneticstripe
thatisfoundonthebackofcredit,debit,andothertypesofpaymentcards.Thereadermakesitpossibleforvendorsto
acceptthecardsforpaymentandquicklycompletethetransaction.Themagneticstripereaderreadsandverifiesthe
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CSE GS Notes
information with the card issuer in real time, and makes it possible to credit the account of the vendor while also
applyingthechargeordebittothecardholdersaccount.
AVoiceoverInternetProtocol(VoIP)phoneisatypeofphonethatusesdigitaltechnologytotransmitphonecallsvia
the Internet rather than regular phone lines. A VoIP phone allows the user to bypass traditional phone companies
entirely,placingallcallsviatheWeb.VoIPphoneservicesrequiretheusertohavedigitalsubscriberliner(DSL)Internet
service.
Metaldetectorsworkontheprincipalofelectromagneticsandtheireffectsonconductivemetals.Thereareactually
twoseparateelementsinthecoilofatypicalunit.Oneisahighpoweredcoilofmetalwhichusesthebatterypowerto
generateapenetratingmagneticfield.Thiscoiliscalledthetransmitter.Astheelecromagneticfieldenterstheground,
anythingmetallicwillbecomechargedwithmagnetism.
The coil of a metal detector also contains a very sensitive wire array called the receiver. This receiver reacts to any
chargedmagneticfielditpassesover,especiallythenewlymagnetizedmetalelements.Whenthereceiverdetectsthe
electromagneticsignature,itsendsasignaltotheelectronicbox.Aspeakeramplifiesthissignalandtheoperatorhears
abeep.
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Nightvisionglassesusuallyrefertoanynumberofglasses,binoculars,goggles,ortelescopesthatusespecialmeansto
increase vision at night. Some night vision glasses use thermal vision, some use animage intensifier, and some use
activeinfrared.
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A cartesian robot/ cartesian coordinate robot, is a common type ofindustrial robot. It has three "arms" that each
functionalonglinearaxesofcontrol.Eachoftheseaxesisatarightangletotheothertwo.Acommonapplicationfor
thecartesianrobotisacomputernumericalcontrol(CNC)machine,anditcanhaveamultitudeofuses,especiallyas
eitheramillingordrawingmachine.
Thebasicformofacartesianrobotconsistsofthree"arms."Eacharmcanmoveonlyalongatwodimensionalaxisit
canonlymovebackwardsorforwardsor,ifthearmisvertical,upordown.Eacharmisatarightangletotheother
two, though, which allows the robot to utilize the motions of all three arms to reach various points in a three
dimensional space. These arms can vary tremendously in size, depending on the purpose of the robot. In some
particularlylargedesigns,thehorizontalarmwillhavesupportonbothends.Thisiscalledagantryrobot.
Radio telemetry uses radio technology to perform remote measurements in an effort to report and analyze
information.Dataistransferredfrompointtopointviaradiotechnologytocreateradiotelemetrysystems,enabling
userstogatherinformationanduseittomakeadeterminationaboutasubject.Usually,thissystemrequiresexternal
instructionsinordertooperate.Thisisdonethroughaprocessknownastelecommandcontrol.
The concept of radio telemetry uses the same basic technology as standard radios found in cars and homes.
Transmittersrangeinsizefromsmallportabledevicestolargeradiostations,andallemitradiowaves.Thesewavesare
transferredthroughanantennatoareceiver.Generally,thesystemdoesnotusecomplexinformationtransfersuchas
coding,butsimplysignalstransmittedatspecificfrequencies.Thisenablesuserstoidentifythelocation,directionand
otherdataaboutaspecificsubject.
Bioinkisamaterialmadefromlivingcellswhichbehavesmuchlikealiquid,allowingpeopletoessentiallyprintitin
ordertocreateadesiredshape.Thegoalofsomedaybeingabletodothingslikeprintreplacementsforfailingorgans
To make bioink, scientists create a slurry of cells which can be loaded into a cartridge and inserted into a specially
designedprinter,alongwithanothercartridgewhichcontainsagelknownasbiopaper.Afterinputtingthestandards
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CSE GS Notes
forthethingtheywanttoprint,theresearcherstriggertheprinter,andthecartridgesalternatelayerstobuildathree
dimensionalstructure,withthebiopapercreatingasupportivematrixwhichthebioinkcanthriveon.
Thereareseveralcommonlyusedsystemsthatallowfortouchscreenstowork.Eachmethodallowsforcommandsto
betranslatedbythecomputerasaresultoftouchingacertainpointonthescreen.Manyconvertthecoordinatesof
thetouchlocationstospecificactionstobetakenbythesystem.
Oneofthemostcommonsystemsfortouchscreensiscalledresistive.Coveringthetransparentpanelofthescreenare
conductiveandresistivemetalliclayersthathaveanelectriccurrentbetweenthem.Whenthescreenistouched,the
electricalcurrentcantelltheexactspotofcontactandsendthecoordinatestotheoperatingsystem.Thisissimilarto
how a mouse works with a computer, where the central operating system notes the exact point of a click and can
respondbyactivatingtheactionrequested.
Capacitive systems give a brighter and clearer image than resistive technology, as the electric layer on the monitor
allowsmorelighttopassthrough.Thesetouchscreenscarryanelectricalchargethatreactstotheelectricalfieldsof
thehumanbody.Circuitsateachcornerofthescreenmeasurethedistortionthatoccurswhenwetouchthescreen
andcausetheoperatingsystemtoreact.
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StraingaugetouchscreensareoftentobefoundonpublicATMs.Byusingaspringmechanisminthecornersofthe
screen,thestraingaugecanmeasurethepressureputonatouchpoint.AsanyonewhoaseverusedanoldATMcan
tellyou,thepressurepointscanwearoutwithuse,preventingthemachinefromrespondingcorrectly.
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3D imaging is a process to render a threedimensional image on a twodimensional surface by creating the optical
illusionofdepth.Generally,3Dimagingusestwostillormotioncameralensesaslightdistanceaparttophotographa
threedimensional object. The process effectively duplicates the stereoscopic vision of human eyes. The image is
reproduced as two flat images that viewers eyes see separately, creating a visual illusion of depth as their brains
combinetheimagesintoasingleone.
Digitalpaperisatypeofspecialpaperthatcanbewrittenonwithadigitalpentocreatedigitalcopiesofhandwritten
documents.Differentfromelectronicpaper,whichisadigitalwayofdisplayingdocumentsinawayeasiertoreadthan
traditional screens; the paper is imprinted with individual patterns of dots, which help a scanner in the digital pen
identifyexactlywherethepenisonthepaper.Thepenthenusesthisinformationtocomeupwithadigitalpictureof
whatisbeingdrawnorwritten,whichitcanstoreinternally,ortransfertoacomputer.Thus,digitalpapercanbeused
asareplacementtonormalpaper,allowingpeopletowriteinthesamemannertheywouldwithatraditionalpenand
paper,butwithmuchmoreversatilityastowhatcanbedonewithit.
Spintronicsisanascentformofelectronicswhichusesthe magneticstate (spin)ofelectronstoencodeandprocess
data,ratherthanusingelectriccharge.Technically,spinisaquantumproperty,closelyrelatedtobutnotexactlythe
samethingasmagnetism.Spintronicsisthereforesometimesregardedasexploitingquantumeffects.Anelectroncan
possess either anupordownspin, depending on its magnetic orientation. The magnetism offerroelectricmaterials,
nonconductorswhichbecomepolarizedwhenexposedtoanelectricfield,existsbecausemanyoftheelectronsinsuch
objectsallhavethesamespin.
Alsoknownasmagnetoelectronics,spintronicshasthepotentialtobecometheidealmemorymediaforcomputing.It
hasbeenclaimedthatspintronicmemory,orMRAM(MagnetoresistiveRandomAccessMemory)hasthepotentialto
achieve the speed ofSRAM(Static RAM), the density of DRAM (Dynamic RAM), and the nonvolatility offlash
memory.Nonvolatilitymeansthatthedataisstillencodedwhenthepowerisshutoff.Spintronicshasalsobeencalled
astepinthedirectionofquantumcomputing.
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CSE GS Notes
Thefirstwidelyacknowledgedbreakthroughinspintronicswastheexploitationofgiantmagnetoresistance,orGMR,a
technology now employed in the read heads of most hard drives. GMR and other spintronics can be used to detect
extremely small magnetic fields by using a nonmagnetic material sandwiched between two magnetic plates. This
materialchangesitselectricalresistivityrapidlybasedonthemagneticorientationoftheplates.GMRcanbe100times
strongerthanordinarymagnetoresistance.SometimesGMRdevicesarereferredtoasspinvalves.
Electronicpaperisanenhancedformofdisplaytechnologyprovidesalookthatisverymuchlikethatofconventional
paper.Sometimesreferredtoasepaper,theelectronicpaperdisplaywillexhibitsomeofthequalitiesofagoodgrade
ofwhite paper, including the reflection of light off the surface. In addition, the combination of electronic paper
andelectronic inkwill allow text and images to be written onto the surface, and hold the script and images for an
indefiniteperiodoftime.
Nickelmetalhydride,orNiMH,batteriesareatypeofrechargeablebatterysimilartoNiCadbatteries,butmadewith
more affordable and environmentally friendly components. NiMH batteries are increasingly popular, particularly for
use in consumer electronics, because of their relatively long lifespan, high charge rate, and affordability. NiMH
batteriesareoftenconsideredanalternativetolithiumionbatteries.Whilelithiumionbatteriesmayhavelongerlife
spans,theirhighcostandrelativelyhighmaintenanceneedsmakeNiMHawiserchoiceformanytypesofconsumer
electronics.
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Barcodescanners are devices which use some sort of lightemitting device and a photo conductor to read
barcodes.Barcodes are simple visual representations of data which can be transferred to a computer via a barcode
scanner. Traditional barcodes consist of parallel lines, but a number of variations now exist, including scatterings of
dots and embedded codes hidden within images. Barcode scanners typically utilize alaserscanner, though LED and
imagingvarietiesalsoexist.Lightisshotoutofthebarcodescannerontothebarcode,thenreflectedback,pickedupby
a photodiode in the scanner and decoded. The decoded information is then transmitted to the computer that the
scannerishookedupto.
Regulated by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), MPEG3 refers to coding standards for high definition
television(HDTV)signals.ThegroupispartoftheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization.Since1988,thegroup
hasbeenresponsibleforcreatingbothvideoandaudiocodingstandards.
ItisimportanttonotethatthespecificMPEG3standardnolongerexists,andthatthestandardssetforthwithinitare
nowapartofMPEG2.WhenthegrouporiginallytookontheresponsibilityforsettingMPEG3regulationsforHDTVin
1992,theyweresimultaneouslyworkingonwhatiscalledMPEG2.Itwasdiscovered,however,thatMPEG2encoding
couldaccommodateHDTVsignalsaswell.TheMPEG3standardwasthereforediscontinued.
AnIRphotodiodeisanelectricalcomponentthatconvertslightintoelectricity.Thistypeofcomponentisspecifically
designedtorespondtolightin theinfraredrange.Communications,sensors,andsecurity arethreeapplicationsthat
oftenusethem.
All photodiodes use the photoelectric effect to generate electrical current from light. When photons of light hit the
surface of adiode, electrons are "knocked" out of place. A charge occurs when the electron is moved. Continuous
exposureofaphotodiodetolightwillcreateaconstantflowofelectricity.Theamountofcurrentcorrespondstothe
amtoflighthittingthesurfaceofdiode.
Standard photodiodes create electricity in response to visible light. An IR photodiode uses aninfrared filterto block
visiblelight,andallowonlyIRwavelengthsoflighttopass.Thisreducesthelevelofinterferencefrombackgroundlight,
and ensures that current is generated only when infrared light is present. An IR photodiode is technically able to
generatecontinuouselectricitybybeingexposedtoinfraredlight.
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CSE GS Notes
Ballisticsgelatin,alsoknownasballisticsgel,isaanalogueforthetissueoflivingorganismswhichismadefromgelatin
which is dissolved in water, allowed to set, and then chilled so that it becomes very dense. As the name implies,
ballistics gel is used to test firearms, although it is also used in experiments where people want to approximate the
amountofdamagesomethingwillcausetoabodywithoutactuallyusingabody.
A charged coupled device (CCD) allows the transportation of electrically charged analog signals through
differentcapacitorssetupinaseries.Thisdeviceiscontrolledbyaclocksignalthatoscillatesbetweenhighandlow
states.Theentiresystemactsasashiftregisterthathasitsinputsandoutputslinkedtogetherinseries,whichallowsa
chargedcoupleddevicetobeusedasawayofdelayinganalogsignals.Themostcommonuseofthesedevicesisfor
photoelectriclightsensorsthatarelinkedtoparallelanalogsignals.Thistechnologyisthebasisofhowdigitalcameras,
videorecordersandpicturephonesoperate.
Thewaythatachargedcoupleddeviceworksincapturingimagesisbyfocusinganimagethatisprojectedfromalens
ontoaphotoactivecapacitorarray.Thisresultsineachcapacitoraccumulatinganelectricchargethatisproportionalto
thelightintensityoftheimage.Thiscapturesatwodimensionalimagethatistransferredtoachargeamplifier,which
inturncovertsitintovoltage.Thisimageisthenstoreddigitallyinamemorymoduleandcanbeaccessedlater.
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A basic charged coupled device is efficient in capturing luminance, but it has difficulty rendering color. To solve this
problem, modern digital cameras use a device called a Bayer mask over the CCD. It links fourpixelsinto blocks and
filters different luminance levels as different colors. These pixels are colored, with one being red, one blue and two
green,becausethehumaneyecanidentifygreenmorereadilythanothercolors.
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Abladelessfanisabletopropelairwithoutanyuseoffanblades.Differenttypesofbladelessfansareavailableonthe
market,includingoscillatingelectricfansaswellasceilingfans.Bladelessfansoperatebypullingairinwithamotorand
propellingitbackoutviaaninternalimpeller.Bladelessfansarefarmoreallergyfriendlythanconventionalfans:they
collectandspreadlessdust,andcancomeequippedwithairfilteringsystems.
Anuclearlaserisadeviceproposedbyphysicistsin2011basedonthestimulationofatomicnucleitoproducelight,
instead of electrons like other types of lasers. It may allow for extremely accurate tests of the laws ofphysicsand
propertiesofnature,withoutemittinggammarays.Thelaserwillemitlightbyexcitingenoughnucleiinasample;the
changeinstatecreatedeitherbyastrongmagneticfieldorapowerfulanddensegradientintheelectricalfieldwithin
thedevice.Byusinganuclearlaser,researchersareworkingtodevelopanewwaytoanalyzefrequenciesormakea
precisenuclearclock.
Foranuclearlasertowork,theatomicnucleineedtoremaininanexcitedstateforalongperiodoftime.Thoriumhas
thepropertiesthataresufficienttoachievethis.Anelectricormagneticfieldcouldinteractwithacompoundmadeof
lithiumcalciumaluminumfluoride.Thoriumwouldbeaddedtothecompoundinplaceofsomeofthecalciumatoms.
Theelectricormagneticfieldwouldbeusedtochangethestateoftheatomicnucleiinaprocesscalledapopulation
inversion.
Nuclear technology has been used to develop functional plans for how a nuclear laser would operate. In a nuclear
pumpedlaser,theenergystoredinatomicnucleiisconvertedintothelaserbeam.Specificwavelengthsoflightcanalso
be produced through the generation of plasmas based on the principles of nuclear fission. Excited nuclei split to
produceenergyinthelasermechanism,theprinciplebehindcreatingthelightforthelaserbeam.Anopticalsystem
with mirrors further modifies the light so that it is concentrated into the beam, enabling the device to be used in
scientificapplications.
57
CSE GS Notes
A digital integrated circuit (IC) is a highly miniaturized electronic circuit, operating on individual voltage levels, fitted
intoasmallpackage.Itcommonlyoperateswithlowvoltagedirectcurrent(DC)powersupplies.Typicalsupplyvoltages
are5and3.3volts(V).Earlierdigitalintegratedcircuitsworkedon12Vpowersupplies.
Acontactimagesensor(CIS)scansmaterialsincloseproximity,ratherthanusingmirrorstoreflectlighttoanimage
sensor inside a device. In a flatbed scanner, for example, the image sensor is directly below theglass, as close as
possibletothemediainthescannerbed.Thesedevicescanbemoreefficientthanolderscanningtechniques,butalso
tendtoproducelowerqualityimages.
ThesedevicesincludeanarrayofLEDstoilluminatethemedia,alongwithanopticalheadandasensortodetectand
recordlight.Thecontactimagesensorprovidesscansataonetooneratio,withnomagnificationoftheimageorother
distortions.
There are two competing 4G standards: wireless interoperability microwave access (WiMAX) and longterm
evolution(LTE).
LTE
existingmobileandbroadbanddeployments
LTEisslightlyfaster
700megahertz(MHz)
D
-D
WiMax
NewDeployments
WiMAXisslightlyeasiertosetup
LTE is slightly more affected by the number of users than
WiMAX.
2.3gigahertz(GHz)and3.5GHz
(c
)G
Prosthetichandsareartificialdevicesthatareutilizedtoapproximatetheappearanceandfunctionofanaturalhand.
Whilemanymodelshavelimitedmobility,advancesintechnologyhavemadeitpossibletocreateaprosthetichand
thatiscapableofgrippingobjects,holdingpencilsandevenmovinginanaturalmannerwiththewristandforearm.
Over the years,prostheticshave made it possible to develop artificial limbs that not only restore some degree of
functionforamputeesbutalsoresemblenaturallimbsmorecloselythanbefore.Thisisespeciallytrueoftheprosthetic
hand.
Opticalrecordingisamethodofrecordingeitherdata,audiocontentorvideocontentinaformwhichisplayedback
usinglight.Thisisusuallydonewithadiscasthestoragemedium.Themainadvantagetoopticalrecordingisthatthere
is less physical contact with the surface storing the data than with other forms of recording, theoretically giving it a
longerlifespan.
Inmostformsofrecording,opticalrecordingmethodshavereplacedmagneticbasedmethods.Forexample,inaudio
recording, thecompact discreplaced the audio cassette. In video recording, theDVDreplaced the videotape. In
computerdatastorage,theCDandDVDreplacedtheaudiocassetteandfloppydisk.
Optical recordings are only possible where data is in digital format, meaning it has been converted to binary. This
binarycodeisthenstoredinphysicalformonthedisc.1pitonthedisk,0leavingthesurfaceflat.Thedataisthen
readbythediscspinningaroundasalaserisbeamedontothesurface.Thetimeittakesforthelighttobounceback
willvarydependingonwhetherornotthesurfaceisflatorpitted.Thissystemisthereasonthatopticalrecordingis
normallystoredonadisc:thisisinherentlythemostefficientshapeforanobjectthatisspun.
Chrominanceisthepartofavideosignalwhichcarriesinformationabouttheattributesofthecolorsbeingdisplayed.
The development of a technique for transmitting information about color paved the way to color television, a move
whichrevolutionizedthetelevisionindustry.Colorvaluesaregivenintheformofquantitativemeasurementsagainsta
58
CSE GS Notes
standardreferencecolorsothatthesignalisstandardized,althoughpropertiesofthedisplayscreencanchangethe
wayinwhichthecolorexpresses.2attributescolorRGBcolormetricforaquantitativedescriptionofthecolor.Luma
referstobrightness
Androidisasynonymforhumanoidrobots.
Aringlasergyroscopeisaprecisioninstrumentthatusesalaserbeamtravelingintwodirectionstomeasurechanges
inangle,oradirection.Gyroscopesareusedinnavigationsystemsforaircraftandships,andforguidancesystemsin
missilesandprecisionweapons.Gyroscopesusetheprincipleofinertiatodeterminedirectionorchangesinposition.A
spinninggyroscopewheelwantstoremaininonepositionandwillresistbeingturned.Aringlasergyroscopemakes
use of the Doppler principle to measure differences in laser light beams. When the gyroscope is level, the two laser
beamsreturntothedetectorataknowntimedifference,andtheinterferencepatternsarestationary.Tiltingthering
lasergyroscopetoonesidecausesthelaserbeamstoreturnatslightlydifferenttimes,andtheinterferencepatterns
moveatarateconsistentwiththeamountoftilt.Thedetectorcanbecalibratedtoshowatiltmeasurementforaturn
andbank indicator on an aircraft used for precision turns, or to turn a compass dial used for navigation called a
directionalgyro.
D
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Organicelectronicshavecarbonbasedmoleculesorcarbonbasedpolymersformedintoapliablesubstancethatcan
conduct a current.Organic electronics created fromnanoparticles, or small molecules, and generally require a more
complexvacuumedprocessofapplication.
Opticalinterferometryistheuseoftheinteractionbetweentwoormorewavesofenergytocollectinformation.They
eithercomefromthesamesourceorareofsimilarfrequency,andtheinterferencegeneratedwithinthemeasuring
instrumentoffersimportantdataabouttheirbehaviorandthecharacteristicsofthesource.
(c
)G
Electromagnetic metamaterials are compounds engineered to have unique structural as well as chemical properties
that are not natural to the materials themselves. Nanoscale surfaces are created that can affect themetamaterial's
reactiontoordinarylight,aswellasothertypesofradiationsuchasmicrowaveradiationbythefactthatthestructural
featuresaresmallerinsizethantheactualwavelengthofradiation.Propertiessuchelectromagneticmetamaterialsare
often created to display include unique dielectric effects, as well as a negative refractive index with silver
metamaterials,whichcouldbeusedtomakeasuperlensthat couldresolvefeaturesafewnanometersinsizeorbe
usedtoviewtheinteriorofnonmagneticobjects.
Microwaveengineeringfor advanced antennas and other magneticrelated systems. These artificiallystructured
materialsarecapableofdevelopingmagnetismfeaturesinthepresenceofmicrowavefieldsorterahertzinfraredfields
thatexistdirectlybetweenthemicrowaveandvisiblelightrangeoftheelectromagnetic(EM)spectrum.Suchmaterials
would otherwise be nonmagnetic, and stimulating this property in them is referred to inphysicsas creating Left
Handed(LH)behavior.Creatingsuchabehaviorinnonmagneticdeviceswouldbeinstrumentalinthemanufactureof
advancedfiltersandbeamshiftingorphaseshiftingelectronics.
Claytronics is a system designed to implement the concept ofprogrammable matter, that is, material which can be
manipulated electronically in three dimensions in the same way that twodimensional images can be manipulated
throughcomputergraphics.Suchmaterialswouldbecomposedofcatomsclaytronicsatomswhichwould,in
analogywithactualatoms,bethesmallestindivisibleunitsoftheprogrammablematter.Eachcatomwouldbecapable
of receiving electronic instructions, processing information, and communicating with and adhering to other catoms.
Groupsofcatomswouldbecapableofmovement,butwithouttheindividualcatomshavinganymovingparts.Theaim
is for very large numbers of extremely small catoms to be used in nanoscale robotics, allowing a wide range of
applications.
59
CSE GS Notes
Virtual realityandaugmented realityuse much of the same technology to provide enriched experiences for users.
Augmented systems add something to the existing environment to enhance the real world, while virtual systems
actuallycreateanentirelynewreality.Bothhaveawiderangeofapplications,fromadvertisingtopsychotherapy.
Inthecaseofvirtualreality,thekeycharacteristicisthatwiththeuseofacomputersystem,theuserentersanentirely
immersiveworld.Everythingaroundtheuserisfabricatedbythesystem.Thismaydisplayinsideablankroometc.
Augmentedrealitytakesplaceintherealworld,withaddedvirtualelements.Thesecanincludesounds,sensations,or
images generated by a computer system. Haptic feedback which consists of vibrations and other sensations on
computerequipment,forexample,isaformofaugmentedrealitythatenhancestheexperiencefortheoperator.
Electronic maps are digitized representations of geographic areas. These tools can be used in everything from incar
navigation to the mapping of ethnographic data. Many are freely available to members of the public who
candownloadandusethem
"Flexible electronics" or "flex circuitry" are technologies that uses flexible plastic materials for electronic circuit
manufacturing. Circuits that are built using flexible electronics use standard components such astransistorsand
resistors,butcanbemoldedtoaspecificshape.Thismethodallowsverycompactandruggeddevicestobecreated.
D
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Aninfraredlight emittingdiode(IRLED) is a device that creates light with awavelengthjust slightly longer than what
thehumaneyecansee.Thesedevicesemitlightinthenearinfraredrange.AnIRLEDlightfunctionsinasimilarwayto
anLEDlightthatproducesvisiblelight.Thesedevicesarecommonlyusedinelectronicsandsecuritysystems.
(c
)G
AnIRLEDlightismadeupoftwosectionsofsemiconductormaterial,apositivelychargedsectionandandanegatively
charged section. When the LED light is powered off, the area inbetween these two sections becomes a neutral
depletionzonethatdoesnotallowcurrenttopassfromonesidetotheother.Withtheadditionofanelectricalcharge,
electronson the negative sideareabletojump tothepositiveside,aprocessthatallowstheelectrons toreleasea
certain amount of energy and emit a photon. The distance that the electrons jump dictates the wavelength of the
photon they release. In an IR LED light, the device is designed to allow the electrons to only jump across a limited
distancethatcorrespondstotherangeofacceptableinfraredwavelengths.
OneofthemostcommonusesforanIRLEDlightisinasecuritysystem.Thoughinfraredlightisbeyondtherangeof
lightvisibletothehumaneye,acamerasisabletodetectinfraredlightthatisjustbelowthevisiblespectrum.This
meansthatinfraredlightcanbeusedtoilluminateanareaatnightsothatacameracanseeclearlyandcontinueto
videotapethearea,thoughthelightwillbeinvisibletohumansinthearea.Securitycamerasdesignedtofunctionat
nightwilloftenhaveanIRLEDarraymountedaroundthelenstolightuptheareabeingfilmed.Anotheruseremote
controls.
Graphene looks set to become one of the most revolutionary scientific discoveries of all time. This
simplecarbonallotropepossessesphysicalqualitiespreviouslyunheardofandalmostunthinkablepotentialintermsof
thesheernumberofitspossibleapplications.Itisliterallyalayerofatomsthatcanbemovedaroundthatismorerigid
thanadiamond,totallyimpermeable,andhasanelectricalcurrentdensityamilliontimesbetterthanthatofcopper.
Grapheneisbasicallyasingleatomiclayerofcarbonmoleculesthatisnotonlyrigidenoughtopickup,butalsovisible
tothenakedeye.Itistotallyimpermeable,possessesoutstandingthermalandelectricalconductivity,andisresistant
tostrongacidandalkaliattack.Italsoexhibitsexceptionalstrengthandflexibilityandalsohasgoodopticalproperties.
Asolararrayisalooselydefinedtermreferringtoagroupofphotovoltaicsolarpanelsorcellsthatconvertsunlightto
electricity,arrangedandlinkedinsuchawayastooperateasasingleunit.Thetermcanalsorefertoasimilarsetof
60
CSE GS Notes
reflectingmirrorsusedfordirectingandfocusingsunlightontosuchagroupofphotovoltaicunits.Photovoltaiccellsare
the basis for most solar arrays. These devices convert sunlight into electric current, and can generate substantial
amountsofelectricityinlargeenoughnumbers.
Ananolaserhasallthetypicalpropertiesofastandardsizelaser,meaningthatlightisamplifiedthroughthestimulated
emissionofradiation.Theprimarydifferencewithananolaseristhescaleofboththemechanismandthelightbeam
that is emitted. Nanolasers feature the ability to condense or confine the light beam emitted beyond the diffraction
limit of light. As a scientific concept, the diffraction limit of light refers to the ability to confine light. At one time,
scientists believed that light could be confined to a maximum of half itswavelength. Such limits were deemed the
diffractionlimitoflight.Unliketraditionallasers,however,nanolasersareabletoconfinealightbeamasmuchas100
times smaller than half its wavelength. Prior to the development of nanolaser technologies, the minimum resonator
size was thought to be half the laser light's wavelength. By using surface plasmons rather than photons, developers
wereabletoreducethesizeoftheresonatorrequiredfornanolasersandthuscreatetheworld'ssmallestlasers.
Threedimensional(3D)imageprocessingisthemethodbywhichatwodimensional(2D)imagebecomesa3Dimage,
usually from model building and rendering. To create the image, 3D image processing starts with an objects mesh
skeleton,whichcontainsmanydifferentlinesandvolumedatatocorrectlyrepresentthe3Dspace.
D
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Afieldemissiondisplay(FED)isaflatpanelscreenthatcombineselementsofliquidcrystaldisplay(LCD)andcathode
ray tube (CRT) technology. It retains the sharp, clear, high quality image associated with CRT screens, but has the
narrowerprofileandlighterweightofanLCDsystem.Thistechnologyismoreenergyefficientthancomparablescreens
ofeitherstyle.
(c
)G
Nanoradio: A receiving and transmitting structure, it consists of acarbonnanotube radio that can be bundled into
fibers.Thestructureiscreatedonthenanometerscale.Traditionalradiostranslateairborneradiowavesintoelectronic
current.Ananoradio,however,behavesmuchmorelikethevibratinghairoftheinnerear,oratuningfork.Withone
endrootedintoanelectrode,thefilamentvibrates,alteringabattery'selectricfield.
The nanotube vibrates in harmony with an electromagnetic signal, which is essentially demodulated or amplified.
Dependingonthetechnicaldesign,soundmaybeproducedthroughmechanicalvibrationorthermoacoustically.
Alinefollowerrobotisarobotthatcantracklinesandfollowthem,proceedingalongapresetpaththatcanbealtered
by moving the lines. Sophisticatedrobotscan distinguish between different colors, making it possible for them to
followoneamongseverallinesaccurately.Suchdevicescanbesubjectsofcompetitionsinrobotsandcomputing,and
theyalsohaveanumberofrealworldapplications.Forexample,robotsinwarehousescanfollowlinestopickupand
deliverproductsalongaspecificroute.
An ultrasonic probe is a type of sensor that usesultrasound (sounds at frequencies higher than the human ear can
detect) Ultrasound is useful because it can penetrate through a medium, such as a person's body, and provide
information aboutthemedium'sinternalstructure.Ultrasonic probesareusedforanumberofdifferentareas,such
asdiagnosticimaginginmedicineandqualitytestinginindustry.
When a sound wave passes from one material to another material with a different density, part of the sound is
reflectedback.Bymeasuringtheprecisetimesatwhichsoundwavesfromtheultrasonicprobeechoback,theprobe
candeterminethedepthofdifferentmaterialswithinwhateverisbeingscanned.
Alasertelevision,orlaserTV,isatypeofdisplaythatusesaseriesoflaserstoprojectapictureontoascreen.Three
coloredlasersandrotatingmirrorsareusedtodirectthelightontoasurface.Thecombinationofthedifferentcolored
61
CSE GS Notes
laserscanformamuchwiderrangeofcolorsthanothertypesofdisplaytechnologies.AlaserTValsoismoreenergy
efficientthanothertelevisions.
Quantumdotsolarcellsaresolarcellsbuiltuponanetworkofcrystalsmanufacturedatthenanometerscalethathave
the potential to outperform conventionalsolar celltechnologies due to a fundamental limitation of how solar cells
capturesunlight.Astandardsolarcellisbuiltuponalayerofmaterialthatismostefficientatcapturingoneparticular
bandorwavelengthoflight.Thequantumdotsinquantumdotsolarcells,however,canbecreatedtocapturemultiple
bandsoflightbyvaryingtheirsizeandchemicalmakeupinthemanufacturingprocess.Thismakesanarrayofdifferent
kindsofquantumdotsononelayerofsubstratepotentiallyabletocaptureawiderangeoflightwavelengths,making
themmuchmoreefficientandeconomicaltoproducethanstandardsolarcells.Canachievemuchhigherconversion
efficiencythanconventionalsolarcells.
The emerging technology of quantum dot solar cells is built upon the physics and chemistry of the quantum dots
themselves,butalsoincludestheprincipleofamultilayeredsolarcell,andtheabilitytoincorporatethesecomponents
intoamoreeasilymanufactured,potentiallyflexiblesubstrate.
D
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Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are variations of standard light emitting diodes (LEDs) that use organic
compounds in place of artificial layers. OLEDs have two layers of organic material. These are called emissive and
conductinglayerstowhichacathodeandananodeareattached.Whencurrentisapplied,electronsmovefromthe
cathodethroughtheorganiclayersandoutoftheanode.Thisproducesvisiblelightaselectronspassthrough.
Nanowire battery: It is a form of chemical storage battery based on thelithiumionbattery model. The technology
utilizes an array of many connectedsiliconnanowiressituated at the negative voltage end of the battery. This
advancementinmaterialssciencehasincreasedstoragedensityfrom8to10timesoverthatofconventionallithium
ionbatteries.Itismadewithatransmissionelectronmicroscope(TEM).
(c
)G
Magneticnanoparticlesare extremely small particles of materials that will respond to magnetic fields. The base
materialsformagneticnanoparticlesincludemetalslikeiron,cobalt,andnickel,andanumberofproductionmethods
canbeusedtocreatetheminlabsandmanufacturingfacilities.Behaviorofmagneticnanoparticlesinamagneticfield
candependonthesizeandcompositionoftheparticles,thestrengthofthefield,andanyobstaclesthatmaybeinthe
way. One potential application of such particles is in medical treatment; research shows, for example, that these
particlescanheatupinamagneticfield.Targetedparticlesaimedattumorsandothertissuescanbeheatedwiththe
useofmagnetismforminimallyinvasivetissueablationinthetreatmentofcancersandothermedicalconditions.
Stereolithographyisamanufacturingmethodwherepartsarebuiltlayerbylayerusingalaserandliquidresin.Thisis
anadditive manufacturingprocess, meaning the part is built up from nothing, as opposed to the more common
subtractiveprocess,wherematerialisremovedfromaworkpiecetocreateafinishedpart.
A nanopowder is an extremely fine powder produced on the nano scale for applications in industry and research.
Production methods can include grinding and heat treatment to produce extremely tiny particles of materials like
metals.Targeteddrugdeliverycanrelyonananopowdercarrier,forexample,andthesecompoundsareusedinsolid
fuels,conductingpastes,andspecializedpaintsandglazes.Finishedcoatingswithmetalliceffectsareoftenmadewith
theassistanceofnanopowders.
3DTVActiveshutterglasses
Anothertypeof3DTVtechnologywhichiscommonlyreferredtoas"autostereoscopic"doesnotrequireglasses.This
typeof3DTVisdesignedtoautomaticallysendadifferentimagetoeacheyeofaviewer,creatingthedesiredthree
62
CSE GS Notes
dimensionaleffect.Sincetherearenoglassesusedwiththistypeoftechnology,aviewertypicallyhastobeacertain
distancefromthetelevisionandwithinalimitedviewingangleinordertoseetheimagein3D.
Threedimensionalprintingworksonaprincipleoflayering.Theprinterheatsaspecifictypeofresin,causingitto
hardenintoaverythinlayer.Asthelayersbuild,theheatimprintchanges,whichmakestheresinformthedesired
shape.
A3Dprintercanbeusedtomakeawiderangeofthings,fromcustomjewelrytoindustrialprototypestoartwork.
The medical world is already making use of3D printingto make customized hip replacements, heart valves and
evencellularstructurestorepairorreplacepartsoforgans.
Liquidcrystaldisplays(LCD)areatypeofflatmonitordevicethatrendersanimagebyusingsandwichedlayersofglass,
electrodes,andliquidcrystals(LCs).TheseLCsarephysicallyliquid,thoughtheyalsodisplayanumberofcrystallike
propertiesinthewaythemoleculesarearranged.TheuniquepropertiesofLCsallowthemtochangealignmentina
predictablewaywhenanelectricalcurrentisintroduced.Thiscanbeusedinaliquidcrystaldisplaytoactivatediscrete,
monochrome patterns like in a clock radio, or tinypixelsin a high resolutioncomputer monitoror television. Liquid
crystaldisplaysarefoundinitemsrangingfromwatchestocellularphonesandlaptopcomputers.
D
-D
ThereistypicallyalayerofLCsthatissandwichedbetweentheelectronicsnecessarytoactivatethem,oneormore
layersofglass,andpolarizersorreflectors.LCDsthatrelyonoutsidelightwilltypicallyhaveareflectorasthebacklayer
sothatlightcanpassthroughtheLCsandreturntotheeyesofaviewer.Otherliquidcrystaldisplaysuseabacklight
insteadofareflectorsothatthedevicerequiresnoexternallightsource.Polarizinglayersaretypicallynecessarydueto
thewaythatLCsrotatetoblocklightorallowitthrough.
(c
)G
A microelectromechanical systems, or MEMSgyroscope, is an inertial sensing integrated circuit that measures the
angle and rate of rotation in an object or system. Programmable for targeted applications, this technology relies on
threedimensionalaxesofsensing,whichareX(pitch),Y(roll),andZ(yaw).Thedevicescanaccuratelytrackcomplex
motions without being influenced by factors such as gravitation or magnetic fields. Once occupying transports and
vehicles,thistechnologynowturnsupinahostofconsumertechnologies.
Microelectromechanicalsystemsaretechnologiesthatrelyonmicrofabricatedintegratedcircuits.Thesedevicesuse
activeperceptionandcontrolfunctionstoservetwopurposes:asmicrosensorsandactuators.AMEMSgyroscopeis
sensitive enough to detect even slight degrees of rotation, eliminating the linear movement factors measured by
accelerometers.Thisservestoorienttechnologytoanabsolutepositioninphysicalspace.
Afiberopticgyroscopeisadevicethatmeasuresrotationalmovementoftheplatformorobjectitisonthroughthe
useoffiberoptictechnology.Theonlythingsnecessaryforbuildingafiberopticgyroscopeareopticalfiber,asourceof
light,abeamsplitterandadetector.Firstthelightsourceemitsabeamoflightatpresetintervals,whichthesplitter
dividesintotwoseparatephotons.
MRI short formagnetic resonance imaging machines use highpowered magnets to create incredibly detailed
imagesofthebody.Apowerfulprimarymagnetcreatesamagneticfieldthat'smuchstrongerthaneventhemagnetic
fieldgivenoffbytheearth.Theintensemagneticfieldcausestheabundanthydrogenatomsinourbodiestoarrange
uniformlyalongtheedge ofthe magneticfield.Then,smaller gradient magnetspulsate magneticfieldswithsurgical
precision,whichscatterthehydrogenatomsandcausethemtospinindifferentdirections.Astheprimarymagnetic
fieldpullsthehydrogenatomsbacktotheiruniformformation,theirmovementandalternatespinningdirectionsgive
offenergy,calledresonance,whichcanbetranslatedintoimageswiththehelpofradiofrequencies.
63
CSE GS Notes
BackscatterXraytechnologyisanadvancedformoftraditionalXrayscanning.Itdiffersfromtraditionaldualenergy
systems by providing a far more comprehensive picture, particularly of organic material. Traditional Xrays create an
imagebymeasuringtheamountofXraysabsorbedbyanobjectundergoingdetection.Inmedicalusage,thereason
bones are easier to see on an Xray than skin or organs is that the composition of bones absorbs more Xrays.
BackscatterXraytechnology,ontheotherhand,detectthereflectionoftheradiationfromtheobjectbeingexamined.
Elementslowontheperiodicscale,suchashydrogenorcarbon,scatterXrayphotonseffectivelyratherthanabsorbing
them,which makesthemmuchlessvisibleintraditionalXrays.Mostofthesofttissuesinthebodyaremadeup of
theselowatomicweightelements,makingXraysfairlyuselessforexaminingorganicmaterial.
The most prominent use of backscatter Xray machines is in commercial airports. Put in place to detect concealed
weapons or explosives, these machines can create a highly detailed twodimensional picture of anyone who passes
through the scanner. The downside to this procedure is that the image created is quite clear and removes the
concealmentofallclothing,creating,ineffect,anakedpicture ofthetarget.Thishasled toaconsiderableoutburst
amongcivillibertyactivists,religiousleaders,andmanypeopleuncomfortablewiththeideaofanakedpicturebeing
takenandviewedbyothers,especiallyasthescannershavethecapabilitytostoreandsaveimages.(millimeterwave
device)
D
-D
Aprotonexchange membranefuel cell(PEMFC) is a fuel cell that useshydrogenandoxygento liberate electrical

energy.Itsdistinguishingfeatureisanelectrolytemembranecalledamembraneelectrodeassembly(MEA)thatallows
thepassageofprotonsbutnotelectrons.Aprotonexchangemembranefuelcellhaspotentialapplicationsasbotha
stationaryandportablefuelcell.
(c
)G
An MEA has ananodeside and acathodeside. An electrical current flows into the MEA's anode side and out of its
cathodeside.AprotonexchangemembranefuelcelldelivershydrogengastotheMEA'sanodeside,whichsplitsthe
hydrogenatomsintoelectronsandprotons,aprocessthatcanbeshownbyanequation:H2>2e+2H+.Theprotons
inthisreactiontravelthroughtheMEAtoitscathodeside,andtheelectronspasstotheMEA'scathodesidethroughan
externalcircuit.Thecombinationoftheseprocessescreatesanelectricalcurrent.
AprotonexchangemembranefuelcellalsodeliversoxygengastotheMEAscathodeside.Ifthemoleculesofdiatomic
oxygen(O2)canbesplitintooxygenatoms,theprotonstravelingthroughtheMEAcanreactwiththeseoxygenatoms
toformmoleculesofwater.Thisreactionalsocanbeshownbyanequation:O+2H++2e>H2O.
Fuelcelltechnologyistheuseoffuelcellstoproduceelectricitytopowermotors.Fuelcellscomeinavarietyoftypes,
andeachtypecanbeutilizedtopowerdifferenttypesofobjects,suchastransportationvehiclesorlargegenerators.
Fuelcelltechnologyhascometotheforefrontofenergytechnologyasanalternativesource.
A fuel cell produces electricity through a conversion ofoxygenandhydrogento water. Through the transfer of the
electronscontainedwithinhydrogentothecell,directcurrentelectricityiscreatedanddirectedtoamotor.Oneofthe
majoradvantagesofusingfuelcellstocreateelectricityisthatthebyproductsoftheprocessareonlywaterandheat,
whereasusingfossilfuelsforenergycreatespollutionandwaste.Also,afuelcelldoesnotneedtoberechargedaslong
asithashydrogenandoxygentoconverttoenergy,butitcannotstoreenergylikeabatterycan.Therearefivemajor
typesoffuelcells:phosphoricacid,moltencarbonate,solidoxide,alkaliandprotonexchangemembrane.
Xrayphonesarebasicallymobilephoneswithtransparentcasing,enablingapersontoseethewiring,chips,andother
innergadgetsthatmakethephonework.
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CSE GS Notes
Carbondioxide(CO2)lasersareoneoftheearliestandmostwidelyusedtypesofgaslasers.Gaslasersuseanelectric
current discharged through a gas to emit light that is coherent.Laserlight has a high degree of temporal and spatial
coherencethatcannotbeattainedanyotherway.
Acarbon dioxidelaser produces aninfraredlight. It is the highestpower continuous wave laser and one of the most
efficientlasersavailable.Carbondioxidelasersuseanairorwatercooleddischarge,whichusuallyismadeupofcarbon
dioxide,nitrogen,hydrogenandhelium.Likealllasers,carbondioxidelasersrelyonpopulationinversiontofunction.
Thisoccurswhenasystemofatomsormoleculeshasmoremembersinanexcitedstate.
Asatellitetelephonereliesonsatellitesintheatmospheretorelaycommunicationsfromonepersontoanother.Itis
mostcommonlyusedinremoteplaces,wherethelandbasedtelephonelinesandcellulartowersarenotpresent,such
as in undeveloped countries or on an oceangoing boat. It can also be helpful if other forms of communications are
unavailableduetoanaturaldisaster.
D
-D
A scatterometer is a precision measuring device that transmits microwave energy, and reads reflections of light
scattered back from a target surface in order to obtain dimensional data. The backscattered light can be read as
graphical or color plot overlays of the target surface imaging, thus permitting very accurate observations and
measurements. This technology is utilized in the laboratory, in the field, and in satellites for numerous scientific,
industrial,andmilitaryapplications.Someusesincludemeasuringoceanicwaveheightsandflowstodeterminewind
directionandspeedforoceaniccurrentanalysisandmonitoring;additionally,scatterometrycanmeasuretopography,
globalclimateandweatherevents,andtheconstructionofprecisionmicrocircuitsandnanotechnology.
(c
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Usingopticaldetectorsandlasersofdifferingwavelengths,scatterometerscandeterminetheopticalcharacteristicsof
surfaces and underlying substrates. Groundbased technology may utilize parabolic reflectors,radio frequency(RF)
subsystems,intermediate frequency(IF) electronics, and data acquisition units. Such systems can
monitorbackscatterdatafromterrainsuchasforests,soil,andvegetation.
Nearfieldcommunications(NFC)isasubsetofradiofrequencyidentification(RFID)technology.NFCisdifferentfrom
RFID because of near field communications' standardized communication distance of roughly 4 feet (1.2 m). NFC is
definedascontactlesscommunication,becauseitallowsinformationtotravelbetweenasourceandreceiverwithout
anyactualphysicalconnection;thelimitedproximityallowsforgreatercommunicationsecurity,andtheinstantaneous
communicationallowsforfastinformationexchange.
Nearfieldcommunicationsreliesontwoseparatecomponents,anNFCtagandanNFCreader/writer.TheNFCtagisa
printedcircuitintegratinganantennaandstoreddata.SomedevicesareonlycapableofreadingNFCtags,whileothers
arecapableofreadingandwritingdatatoNFCtags;attheveryleast,adevicemustbecapableofreadingNFCdatato
takepartinanNFChandshakeortransaction.
PaperbatteryThebattery,whichismadeofupto90percentcellulose,isnothickerthanacommonsheetofprinter
paper.Becauseofitscomposition,thepaperbatteryiscompletelynontoxicandfullybiodegradable.Itisaresultof
paper infused withcarbonnanotubes, which allow the paper to conduct electricity. The introduction of carbon
nanotubes into the paper battery gives it a unique property. Unlike most batteries in use, the paper battery can be
twisted,crumpled,moldedorcontortedintoavarietyofshapesandnotloseanyintegrity.Theflexibilityofnanotubes
allowstheseactionstooccur,andthebatterywillbejustasefficientnomatterwhatformitistwistedinto.
The paper also is infused with electrolytes in the form of liquid salt, which furthers the conductive properties of the
battery.Becauseoftheirhighlyconductivestate,paperbatteriescanfunctionasbothanormallithiumionbatteryand
asupercapacitor.Thismeansthatthebatterycanstoreandregulatehigheramountsofelectricity.
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CSE GS Notes
Oftenreferredtoasanetworkcamera,anIPcameraisacamerasystemthatutilizesInternetProtocol(IP)totransmit
video and images over a FastEthernetconnection. This type of system typically serves the same purpose as a
traditionalclosedcircuittelevision(CCTV)camera,whichistomonitoralocation.Amongthemanydifferencesisthat
anIPcamerausuallystreamscontenttoanetworkvideorecorder(NVR),oraPC,ratherthantoadigitalvideorecorder
(DVR).
Some vendors describe an IP camera as a combination of a camera and computer. This is because, similar to a
computer,ithasitsownuniqueIPaddress,isattacheddirectlytoanetwork,andcanbeinstalledwhereveranetwork
connection is present. Another commonality is that this type of camera offers web, File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
andmailservercapabilities,inadditiontosupportforanumberofInternetandnetworkprotocols.
Aliquidlensusesthepropertiesoftwodifferentliquidswithinasmallspacetoprovidemagnification.Waterandoildo
notmix,andarebothsafeandinexpensive,sotheyareperfectforuseinaliquidlens.Themixtureofwaterandoilis
sandwichedbetweentwopiecesofclearglassorplastic.Inthisway,alight,cheapliquidlensiscreated.
The nanoemissive display is said to have a better quality, durability and economics than most traditional forms of
display technology.The nanoemissive display is said to have a better quality, durability and economics than most
traditionalformsofdisplaytechnology.
D
-D
A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is used to receive and transmit information such as narrowband data,radio
frequencyidentification(RFID)data,andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).Itsnameoriginatedfrom
therelativelysmalldishantennawithadiameternolongerthan10feet(3meters).TheVSATiscommonlyemployed
for commercial purposes such as transmittingcredit carddata and giving companies a stable communications
infrastructure.
(c
)G
Data is usually transmitted from network hubs to satellites that follow a regular orbit. As the satellites get near
asatellitegroundstation,theytransmitdatatoearth.Thedatatransmittednormallyvariesfrom56Kbit/sto4Mbit/s.
ItisthenreceivedbytheVSATusingatransceiverwhichinterpretsthedatafortheenduser.
Capable of interacting with other VSATs. It can also act as a twoway satellite ground station, and relay information
backtoorbitingsatellites.Thisenablesrealtime communicationbetweentheenduserandthehub. Canbeused in
remotelocationsetc
Ahydrogengas detectoris a piece ofsafety equipmentdesigned to detect traces of hydrogen gas in the air for the
purposeofalertingpeopletosafetyhazardsintheirenvironment.Thesedevicescanbeusedinindustrieslikemining
andpetroleumrefiningandinconditionswherehydrogengasmaybepresentincoolingandmanufacturingsystems.
Adigitalstorageoscilloscopeisanelectronictestinstrumentwhichcanstoreadigitalcopyofeachwaveformthatit
measures.Itusesanalogtodigitalconverterstosampleanddigitizemeasuredvoltages,storingtheresultsinmemory.
The stored waveforms can then be processed further using digital signal processing techniques. This type of
oscilloscope is used by engineers, scientists and technicians to measure signals in electronic circuits. Many spectrum
analyzers,medicaldevicesandignitionanalyzersalsoincludeacustomizedoscilloscopetomeasureanddisplaydata.
Oscilloscopescandisplaychangesinsignalvoltageovertime.
As a device that records and measures both temperature and radiant energy, the radiometric camera plays an
importantroleinseveraldifferentindustries.theconceptistoutilizetheabilitiesofthecameratodetectbothhotand
cold factors within a given situation. These generally show up on the image produced by the camera as a range of
colors, with colder portions of the captured scene identified with darker colors and the hotter portions depicted as
brighter colors. Because a radiometric camera is looking essentially at intensity, a higher number of image bits will
66
CSE GS Notes
produceamoreprecisereading.Thatis,themixofcolorswillmoreaccuratelyreflectgraduationsintemperaturesof
each scanned object, which may be very helpful if the task is to pinpoint some factor that is causing an undesirable
increaseordecreaseintemperature.
Thefunctionofhapticglovesisusuallybuiltaroundtwomainapplications.Inonetypeofinteractiveactivity,thegloves
allow the wearer to receive stimulation along the fingertips that mimics actual physical contact with an object or
anotherperson.Thesensationsareconnectedtoanelectronicsimulation,suchasinavideogame.Haptictechnology
allowstheindividualwearingtheglovestonotonlyviewthevirtualsimulation,butalsotophysicallyinteractwithit.
Along with allowing for the creation of an artificial sense of touch, haptic gloves also allow the wearer to move the
fingersandimpactthemovementwithinthevirtualsimulation.Thus,thewearerisabletousetheglovestohelpthe
virtual self move around in the virtual reality and interact with the other elements of the reality. The sense of
movementandtouchwillseemperfectlynaturaltothepersonwearingthegloves,andcanbeveryentertaining.
Infraredthermometersaredevicesusedtoremotelymeasuretemperatureinsituationswhereitisnotpossibletobein
physicalcontactwiththeobjectbeingmeasured.Thisincludesobjectsthatareveryhot,verysmallorveryfaraway.In
taking an infrared temperature reading of the moon, a simplified example would use a telescope hooked up to an
infrareddetector,whichconvertsinfraredradiationintoanelectricalcurrentorvoltage.
D
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AsolarLEDlightisadevicethatusesenergyfromthesuntopoweralampcontaininglightemittingdiode(LED)bulbs.
These lights collectsolar energythrough a photovoltaic panel, then store this energy until it is needed to power the
lights.
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Nearinfraredspectroscopy(NIR) is a type of spectroscopy in which the near infrared region of theelectromagnetic

spectrumisusedasanevaluationtool.Spectroscopyisthestudyofthewayinwhichmatterabsorbsandemitslight
and the way it disperses emitted light into different wavelengths, which are visualized as colors. All types of matter
absorbandemitlight,andbystudyingthetypeoflightthatisabsorbedoremitted,itispossibletogaincluesastothe
properties of the matter under examination. An object absorbs or emits light of certain colors or wavelengths
dependingonitstemperature,mass,compositionandotherfactors.Wavelengthsbetween800and2,500nanometers;
NIR technology has a good signaltonoise ratio, which means that background readings generally are low in
comparisontoresultsrelatingtothesamplebeingtested.Thismakesiteasierfortechniciansandscientiststoreadand
evaluate the results of a given NIR test. Another advantage is that NIR is inexpensive in comparison to other
spectroscopictechniques,andevenhighthroughputNIRexperimentscanbecarriedoutrelativelycheaply.Finally,this
methodissuitableforanalyzinglargesamples,becausenearinfraredlightcanpenetratefurtherthaninfraredlight.
Alsoknownascryptophones,cryptophonesarecommunicationdevicesthatmakeuseofadvancedsecurityfeaturesas
ameansofminimizingthepotentialforinterceptionofvoiceanddatatransmissionsduringaliveexchange.Theability
tocircumventmanyformsofelectronicsurveillanceandlessenthepotentialforeavesdroppingmakesthecryptophone
ideal for use in a number of business settings, as well as for high profile government officials and intelligence
operatives.
AnIRcameraisaninfrareddevicethatcreatesimagesfrominfraredradiation.Alsoknownasathermographiccamera,
anIRcamerauseswavelengthslongerthanvisiblelighttocreateimagesevenintotaldarkness.Thebasicoperationof
anIRcameraworksbydetectingtheamountofradiationbeingemittedfromanobjectbasedonitstemperature.The
hottertheobject,themoreradiationitemitsandthemoreintensetheimagecolorwillbe.
Ahyperspectralimageisapicturethatencompassestheentirelightspectrum.Theseimagesaretypicallyusedtofind
information that is invisible to the human eye. Certain things, from oil to plant illnesses, show up differently when
67
CSE GS Notes
photographed using nonvisible light. This property allows people to locate trace amounts of a substance simply
throughaphotograph,ratherthanextensivetesting.Theprocessofcreatingahyperspectralimageisexpensive,butit
isoftenlessexpensivethanblindtestingmethods.
Theoriginaluseforthistechnologywasfindingoilandminerals.Thetraceamountsofmaterialinthesoilwouldcause
shiftsinnonvisiblelightspectrums.Afterusingtheimagestofindlikelylocationsfornaturalresources,peoplecould
goinandmaketestsinspecificareas.
Ahyperspectralimageismadeupofmanylayersofindividualimages;eachofthemrepresentsaspecificfrequencyof
light. These layers stack on top of one another making a cubelike image showing the entire light spectrum. The
strength of a light emission becomes obvious when going through the images since stronger sources push through
morefrequencies.
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