AC Circuit Analysis AC Circuit Analysis: Lecturer: Url: Email: Number of Lectures: Recommended Text Book

AC Circuit Analysis
Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits

Lecturer: James Grimbleby
y
URL: http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~stsgrimb/
email: jj.b.grimbleby
g
y reading.ac.uk
g
Number of Lectures: 10
Recommended text book:
David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis (8th edition)
John Wiley and Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
James Grimbleby
School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering
Slide 1
AC Circuit Analysis
Recommended text book:

David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit
Analysis (8th edition)
Paperback 816 pages
J h Wil
John
Wiley and
dS
Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
Price: 36
James Grimbleby
Slide 2
AC Circuit Analysis Syllabus

This course of lectures will extend dc circuit analysis to deal
with ac circuits
The topics that will be covered include:
AC voltages and currents
Complex representation of sinusoids
Phasors
Complex impedances of inductors and capacitors
Driving-point impedance
Frequency response of circuits Bode plots
Power in ac circuits
E
Energy
storage
t
in
i capacitors
it
and
d iinductors
d t
Three-phase power
James Grimbleby
Slide 3
AC Circuit Analysis Prerequities

You should be familiar with the following topics:
SE1EA5: Electronic Circuits
Ohms Law
parallel resistances
Series and p
Voltage and current sources
Circuit analysis
y
using
g Kirchhoffs Laws
Thvenin and Norton's theorems
The Superposition Theorem
SE1EC5: Engineering Mathematics
Complex numbers
James Grimbleby
Slide 4
AC Circuit Analysis
Lecture 1
AC Voltages and Currents
Reactive Components
James Grimbleby
Slide 5
AC Waveforms
Sine waveform
(sinusoid)
Square waveform
Sawtooth waveform
Audio waveform
James Grimbleby
Slide 6
Frequency
The number of cycles
y
per
p second of an ac waveform is known
as the frequency f, and is expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Voltage or
Current
6 cycles
y
f = 6 Hz
Time
0
James Grimbleby
1s
Slide 7
Frequency
Examples:
p
Electrocardiogram: 1 Hz
Mains power: 50 Hz
Aircraft power: 400 Hz
Audio frequencies: 20 Hz to 20 kHz
AM radio broadcasting: 0.5 MHz 1.5 MHz
FM radio
di broadcasting:
b d
ti
80 MH
MHz 110 MH
MHz
g 500 MHz 800 MHz
Television broadcasting:
Mobile telephones: 1.8 GHz
James Grimbleby
Slide 8
Period
The period T of an ac waveform is the time taken for a
complete cycle:
1
period =
frequency
Voltage or
Current
T = 0.167 s
Time
0
James Grimbleby
1s
Slide 9
Why Linear?
We shall consider the steady-state
steady state response of linear ac
circuits to sinusoidal inputs
Linear circuits contain linear components such as resistors,
capacitors
p
and inductors
A linear component has the property that doubling the voltage
across it doubles the current through it
Most circuits for processing signals are linear
Analysis of non-linear circuits is difficult and normally requires
the use of a computer.
James Grimbleby
Slide 10
Why Steady
Steady-State?
State?
Steady-state
y
means that the input
p waveform has been
present long enough for any transients to die away
Output V
Vin
Time
t
Vin=0 for t0
James Grimbleby
Slide 11
Why Sinusoidal?
A linear circuit will not change the waveform or frequency of a
sinusoidal input (the amplitude and phase may be altered)
Power is generated as a sinusoid by rotating electrical
machinery
Sinusoidal
Si
id l carrier
i waves are modulated
d l d to transmit
i
information (radio broadcasts)
Any periodic waveform can be considered to be the sum of a
fundamental pure sinusoid plus harmonics (Fourier Analysis)
James Grimbleby
Slide 12
Fourier Analysis
A square waveform can be considered to consist of a
f d
fundamental
t l sinusoid
i
id ttogether
th with
ith odd
dd h
harmonic
i sinusoids
i
id
Square wave
Sum
Fundamental
3dh
3rd
harmonic
i
5th harmonic
James Grimbleby
Slide 13
Representation of Sinusoids
A sinusoidal voltage
g waveform v(t)
( ) of amplitude
p
v0, and of
frequency f :
v (t ) = v 0 sin 2ft = v 0 sin t
or:
v (t ) = v 0 cos 2ft = v 0 cos t
where =2f is known as the angular frequency

T = 1/ f
v
v0
James Grimbleby
Slide 14
Representation of Sinusoids
The sinusoid can have a phase term :
v (t ) = v 0 sin(t + )
A phase shift is equivalent to a time shift -/

/
v
v 0 sin(t + )
t
v 0 sin(t )
The phase is positive so the red trace leads the green trace
James Grimbleby
Slide 15
Resistors
Ceramic tube
coated with
Conductive film
i
Metal end
cap
v
Fil
Film:
carbon
b
metal
t l oxide
id
metal
R i t
Resistance
R
v = Ri
(Ohms Law)
James Grimbleby
Slide 16
Resistors
James Grimbleby
Slide 17
Resistors
v
i
Ohms Law:
v = Ri
i, v
Suppose that:
v (t ) = v 0 sin(t )
Then:
v (t )
i (t ) =
R
v0
=
sin(t )
R
Current in phase with voltage

James Grimbleby
Slide 18
Capacitors
i
Insulating
dielectric
Conducting
electrodes
Di l t i
Dielectrics:
James Grimbleby
air
i
polymer
ceramic
i
Al203 (electrolytic)
C
Capacitance
it
C
q = Cv
dv
i =C
dt
Slide 20
Capacitors
James Grimbleby
Slide 21
Capacitors
v
i
dv
d
i =C
dt
C
Suppose that:
v (t ) = v 0 sin(t )
i, v
i (t )
v (t )
Then:
d
i (t ) = C v 0 sin(t )
dt
= Cv 0 cos(t )
= Cv 0 sin t +
2
James Grimbleby
Current leads voltage by /2 (90)
Slide 22
Capacitors
Does a capacitor have a resistance?
v, i
v (t ) = v 0 sin(t ) i (t ) = Cv 0 cos(t )
t1
v (t1) v 0
=
=
i (t1) 0
t2
v (t 2 ) 0
= =0
i (t 2 ) i 0
Thus resistance varies between : not a useful concept

p
James Grimbleby
Slide 23
Capacitors
The reactance XC of a capacitor is defined:
v0
XC =
i0
where v0 is the amplitude

p
of the voltage
g across the capacitor
p
and i0 is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
v0
1
1
XC =
=
=
Cv
C 0
C
2fC
The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its

value and to frequency
James Grimbleby
Slide 24
Inductors
Magnetisable
core
Copper
wire
v
C
Core:
air
i
ferrite
i
iron
silicon steel
James Grimbleby
I d t
Inductance
L
di
v =L
dt
Slide 26
Inductors
James Grimbleby
Slide 27
Inductors
v
di
v =L
dt
L
Suppose that:
v (t ) = v 0 sin(t )
Then:
1
i (t ) = v 0 sin(t )
L
v0
=
cos(t )
L
v0
=
sin t
L
2
James Grimbleby
i, v
v ((tt )
i ((tt )
Current lags voltage by /2 (90)
Slide 28
Inductors
The reactance XC of an inductor is defined:
v0
XC =
i0
where v0 is the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor
and i0 is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
v0
Xc =
= L = 2fL
v 0 / L
The reactance of an inductor

ind ctor is directl
directly proportional to its
value and to frequency
James Grimbleby
Slide 29
Resistance and Reactance
Resistance R
Capacitance C
Inductance L
James Grimbleby
v0
X=
i0
f 0
1
C
open
circuit
short
circuit
short
circuit
i it
open
circuit
i it
Slide 30
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
2
AC Analysis using Differential Equations
Complex Numbers
Complex Exponential Voltages and Currents
James Grimbleby
Slide 32
AC Circuit Analysis
The ac response
p
of a circuit is determined by
y a differential
equation:
R
v in (t )
i (t )
v in (t ) = Ri (t ) + v c (t )
v c (t )
dv c (t )
i (t ) = C
dt
dv c (t )
v in (t ) = RC
+ v c (t )
dt
dv c (t ) v c (t ) v in
(t )
i
+
=
dt
RC
RC
James Grimbleby
Slide 33
AC Circuit Analysis
Now suppose that the input voltage vin is a sinusoid of angular
frequency
The output
Th
t t voltage
lt
vc will
ill b
be a sinusoid
i
id off th
the same ffreqeuncy,
but with different amplitude and phase:
v in (t ) = v 0 cos(t )
v c (t ) = v1 cos(t + )
Expanding the expression for vc:

v c (t ) = v1 cos t cos v1 sin t sin = A cos t + B sin t
dv c (t )
= A sin t + B cos t
dt
James Grimbleby
Slide 34
AC Circuit Analysis
The differential equation becomes:
v0
A
B
A sin t + B cos t +
cos t +
sin t =
cos t
RC
RC
RC
Comparing
p
g the coefficients of sint and cost on both sides of
the equation:
ARC + B = 0
BRC + A = v 0
Solving these simultaneous linear equations in A and B:
A=
James Grimbleby
v0
1 + 2R 2C 2
B=
RCv 0
1 + 2R 2C 2
Slide 35
AC Circuit Analysis
A = v1 cos =
Thus:
v1 = v 0
v0
1 + 2R 2C 2
B = v1 sin =
1
1 + 2R 2C 2
RCv 0
1 + 2R 2C 2
tan = RC
At an angular frequency =1/RC:

v0
v1 =
=
2
4
v0
cos t
v c (t ) =
2
4
The output
p voltage
g lags
g the input
p voltage
g by
y /4 ((45))
James Grimbleby
Slide 36
AC Circuit Analysis
V
Voltage
e gain v1/v0
1.0
0.7071
0.0
0
0
0.01/RC
James Grimbleby
0.1/RC
1/RC
10/RC
Angular
g
frequency
q
y ((rad/s))
100/RC
Slide 37
Complex Numbers:
Rectangular Form
Complex numbers can be represented in rectangular, polar or
exponential form
Rectangular form:
z = x + jy
where
h
x is
i the
h reall part, y is
i the
h iimaginary
i
part (x and
d y are
both real numbers), and
j 2 = 1
j = 1
Complex numbers are often the solutions of real problems,

for example
p q
quadratic equations
q
James Grimbleby
Slide 38
Complex Numbers:
Argand Diagram
Imaginary part
z = x + jy
Imaginary
axis
Real part
p
x
Real axis
James Grimbleby
Slide 39
Complex Numbers: Polar Form

Polar form:
z = r
where r is the magnitude, and is the angle measured from

th reall axis:
the
i
z
IImaginary
i
axis
O
James Grimbleby
Real axis
Slide 40
Complex Numbers:
Exponential Form
Exponential form:
Eulers identity:
z = re j
e j = cos + j sin
i
1
O
sin
cos
The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent

James Grimbleby
Slide 41
Complex Numbers: Conversion

z
r
y
O
Rectangular to polar:
r = z = x2 + y 2
= z
P l tto R
Polar
Rectangular:
t
l
y
tan =
x
x = r cos
y = r sin
James Grimbleby
Slide 42
Complex Numbers: Inversion

If the complex
p
number is in rectangular
g
form:
1
z=
x + jy
x jy
=
( x + jy )( x jy )
x jy
=
x2 + y 2
If the
th complex
l number
b is
i in
i polar
l or exponential
ti l fform:
1
1 j
z=
= e
Ae j A
James Grimbleby
Slide 43

When using
g the inverse tangent
g
to obtain from x and y it is
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of :
y
y
tan =
x
x
y+
x
y
z = x + jy
x+
y+
x
x+
y
w = x jy
James Grimbleby
Slide 44

When using
g the inverse tangent
g
to obtain from x and y it is
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of
1.
Calculate using inverse tangent:

= tan
1 y
This should give a value in the range: -/2

/ +/2
/
(-90 +90)
2.
If the real part x is negative then add (180) :

1 y
= + tan
x
James Grimbleby
Slide 45

C
Convert
t
z=2
3
to
t rectangular
t
l form
f
Real part:
1

x = 2 cos = 2 = 1
2
3
Imaginary part:
3

y = 2 sin = 2
= 3
2
3
Thus:
z = 1+ j 3
James Grimbleby
Slide 46

2
z = 1+ j 3
1 732
1.732
Imaginary
axis
r =2
=
(60o )
3
O
James Grimbleby
R l axis
Real
i
2
Slide 47

C
Convert
t
1
z=
1+ j
to
t polar
l or exponential
ti l fform:
12 + 02
Magnitude:
1
r =z=
=
2
12 + 12
Angle:
= z = 1 (1 + j )
1 0
1 1
= ttan ttan = 0 =
4
4
1
1
Thus:
James Grimbleby
z=
2
4
or
1
z=
e
2
Slide 48

0.5
O
Real axis
= ( 45o )
4
Imaginary
axis
0.5
James Grimbleby
1
1 j
z=
=
1+ j
2
Slide 49
Complex Exponential Voltages

We shall be using complex exponential voltages and currents
to analyse ac circuits:
v (t ) = Ve jt
This is
Thi
i a mathematical
th
ti l trick
t i k for
f obtaining
bt i i the
th ac response
without explicitly solving the differential equations
It works because differentiating a complex exponential leaves
it unchanged
unchanged, apart from a multiplying factor:
d
Ve jt = jVe jt
dt
James Grimbleby
Slide 50

Suppose that
S
th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt
iis applied
li d
across a resistor:
v (t ) = Ve
V jt
i (t )
R
v (t )
i (t ) =
R
V jt
= e
R
The current through the resistor is also a complex

exponential
James Grimbleby
Slide 51

Suppose that
S
th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt
iis applied
li d
across a capacitor:
v (t ) = Ve jt
i (t )
dv (t )
i (t ) = C
dt
d
= C Ve jt
dt
= jCVe jt
The current through the capacitor is also a complex

exponential
James Grimbleby
Slide 52

Suppose that
S
th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt
iis applied
li d
across an inductor:
v (t ) = Ve jt
i (t )
1
i (t ) = v (t )dt
L
1
= Ve jt dt
L
1
Ve jt
=
jL
j
The current through the inductor is also a complex

exponential
James Grimbleby
Slide 53

A complex exponential input to a linear ac circuits results in all
voltages and currents being complex exponentials
Of course real voltages are not complex
The real voltages and currents in the circuit are simply the real
parts of the complex exponentials
Complex exponential:
v c (t ) = e jt
Real voltage:
v r (t ) = cos t
James Grimbleby
( = cos t + j sin t )
Slide 54
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
3
Phasors
Impedances
Gain and Phase Shift
Frequency Response
James Grimbleby
Slide 55
Phasors
If the input voltage to a circuit is a complex exponential:
v cin (t ) = v 0e jt
then all other voltages and currents are also complex

exponentials:
v c1(t ) = v1e j (t +1) = v1e j1e jt = V1e jt
i c 2 (t ) = i 2e j (t +2 ) = i 2e j2 e jt = I2e jt
where V1 and I2 are time-independent voltage and current

phasors:
j1
V1 = v1e
I2 = i 2e j2
James Grimbleby
Slide 56
Phasors
The complex exponential voltages and currents can now be
expressed:
v c1(t ) = V1e jt
i c 2 (t ) = I2e jt
Phasors are independent

Ph
i d
d t off time,
ti
but
b t in
i generall are functions
f
ti
of j and should be written:
V1( j ) I2 ( j )
However, when there is no risk of ambiguity the dependency
will be not be shown explicitly
Note that upper-case letters are used for phasor symbols
James Grimbleby
Slide 57
Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit or component is defined to be the
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
V
Z=
I
For a resistor:
v c (t ) = Ve jt
i c (t ) = Ie jt
R
So that:
James Grimbleby
v c (t ) = Ri c (t )
Ve jt = RIe jt
V = RI
V
ZR = = R
I
Slide 58
Impedance
F a capacitor:
For
it
v c (t ) = Ve jt
i c (t ) = Ie jt
So that:
James Grimbleby
dv c (t )
i c (t ) = C
dt
d
jt
Ie
= C Ve jt
dt
Ie jt = jCVe jt
I = jCV
V
1
ZC = =
I
jC
Slide 59
Impedance
F an inductor:
For
i d t
v c (t ) = Ve jt
i c (t ) = Ie jt
So that:
James Grimbleby
di c (t )
v c (t ) = L
dt
d jt
jt
Ve
= L Ie
dt
Ve jt = jLIe jt
V = jLI
V
ZL = = jL
I
Slide 60
Impedance
V
Z=
I
f 0
Capacitance C
1
jC
Z 0
Inductance L
jL
Z 0
Resistance R
James Grimbleby
Slide 61
Impedance
All the normal circuit theoryy rules apply
pp y to circuits containing
g
impedances
For example impedances in series:
Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z 4
and impedances in parallel:

1 1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
Z Z1 Z2 Z3 Z 4
Other relevant
rele ant circuit
circ it theor
theory rrules
les are
are: Kirchhoffs la
laws,
s
Thvenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition
James Grimbleby
Slide 62
Impedance
Potential divider:
Z1
Vin
Z2
Vin
I=
Z1 + Z2
Vout = IZ2
Vout
Vin Z2
=
Z1 + Z2
Vout
Z2
=
Vin Z1 + Z2
James Grimbleby
Slide 63
AC Circuit Analysis
Suppose
pp
that a circuit has an input
p x(t)
( ) and an output
p y(
y(t),
)
where x and y can be voltages or currents
The corresponding phasors are X(j) and Y(j)
The real input voltage x(t) is a sinusoid of amplitude x0:
x (t ) = x0 cos(t ) = re( x0e jt ) = re( Xe jt )
and the real output voltage y(t) is the real part of the complex
exponential output:
y (t ) = y 0 cos(t + ) = re( y 0e j e jt ) = re(Ye jt )
James Grimbleby
Slide 64
AC Circuit Analysis
Thus:
y 0e j Y
=
x0
X
The voltage gain g is the ratio of the output amplitude to the

input amplitude:
y0 Y
g=
=
x0 X
and the phase shift is:
Y
=
X
James Grimbleby
Slide 65
AC Circuit Analysis
Using the potential divider formula:
Vc
ZC
=
Vin ZC + ZR
R
Vin
James Grimbleby
Vc
1/ jC
=
1/ jC + R
1
=
1 + jCR
Slide 66
AC Circuit Analysis
R
Vin
Vc
Vc
1
=
Vin 1 + jCR
Voltage gain:
Vc
1
=
g=
Vin
1 + 2C 2R 2
Phase shift:
Vc
=
Vin
i
= tan 1 0 tan 1 CR
= tan 1 CR
James Grimbleby
Slide 67
Frequency Response (RC = 1)
Volta
age Ga
ain
1.0
0.7071
0.0
0.01
James Grimbleby
0.1
1
10
Angular Frequency (rad/s)
100
Slide 68

0.1
1
10
100
P
Phase
shift
( 45)
4
( 90)
2
James Grimbleby
Slide 69
Frequency Response
g=
1
1 + 2C 2R 2
= tan 1 CR
g 1
0 ( 0)
1
=
CR
1
g=
2
= ( 45)
4
g 0
( 90)
2
This is a low-pass
p
response
p
James Grimbleby
Slide 70
Frequency Response
VC Vin
James Grimbleby
VC 0
Slide 71
AC Circuit Analysis
C
Vin
VR
ZR
VR = Vin
ZR + ZC
R
= Vin
R + 1/ jC
jCR
VR = Vin
1 + jCR
VR
jCR
=
Vin
1 + jCR
i
James Grimbleby
Slide 72
AC Circuit Analysis
C
Vin
V lt
Voltage
gain:
i
Phase shift :
James Grimbleby
VR
VR
jCR
=
Vin 1 + jCR
VR
CR
g=
=
Vin
1 + 2C 2R 2
VR
=
= tan 1 tan 1 CR
Vin
= tan 1 CR
2
Slide 73
Volta
age ga
ain
1.0
0.7071
0.0
0.01
James Grimbleby
0.1
1
10
100
Slide 74
Pha
ase shift
(90)
2
( 45)
4
0
0.01
James Grimbleby
0.1
1
10
100
Slide 75
Frequency Response
g=
CR
1 + 2C 2R 2
= tan 1 CR
2
g 0
(90)
2
1
=
CR
1
g=
2
= ( 45)
4
g 1
0 ( 0)
This is a high-pass
g p
response
p
James Grimbleby
Slide 76
Frequency Response
VR 0
James Grimbleby
VR Vin
Slide 77
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
4
Driving-Point Impedance
James Grimbleby
Slide 78
Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit or component is defined to be the
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
I ( j )
V ( j )
AC Circuit
V ( j )
Z ( j ) =
I ( j )
Impedance Z is analogous to resistance in dc circuits and its

units are ohms
When Z applies to a 2-terminal circuit (rather than simple
component) it is known as the driving-point impedance
James Grimbleby
Slide 79
Impedance
Z can be written in rectangular form:
Z ( j ) = R( j ) + jX ( j )
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance

Thus:
Z = R2 + X 2
Z = tan
and:
1 X
R = Z cos Z
X = Z sin Z
James Grimbleby
Slide 80
Symbolic and Numeric Forms

Symbolic Form
R
Z=
1 + jCR
Substitute component
values
Numeric Form
Z=
80
1 + j 8 10 3
Substitute frequency
value
Value at a given frequency
James Grimbleby
Z = 24 + j 40
Slide 81
Example 1
Determine the driving-point
gp
impedance
p
of the circuit at a
frequency of 40 kHz:
Z = ZR + ZC
1
=R+
jC
= 25 +
C = 200nF
1
3
j 2 40 10 200 10
1
= 25 +
j 0.05027
= 25 j19.89
James Grimbleby
R = 25
Slide 82
Example 1
Z = 25 j19.89
Z = 25 2 + 19.89 2
= 31.93
Z = tan
Z
C = 200nF
R = 25
1 19.89
25
= 0.6720 ( 38.5)
James Grimbleby
Slide 83
Example 1
What will be the voltage
g across the circuit when a current of
5 A, 40 kHz flows through it?
V = IZ
= 5 (25 j19.89)
= 125 j 99.45 V
In polar form:
f
V = IZ
= (5 31.93 ) 0.6720 ( 38.5)
= 159.7V 0.6720 ( 38.5)
James Grimbleby
Slide 84
Example 2
Determine the driving-point
gp
impedance
p
of the circuit at a
frequency of 20 Hz:
1
1
1
=
+
Z ZR ZC
1
= + jC
R
1
Z=
1/ R + jC
R
=
1 + jCR
James Grimbleby
R = 80
C = 100F
Slide 85
Example 2
R
Z=
1 + jCR
=
80
1 + j 2 20 100 10 6 80
80
=
1 + j1.005
80(1 j1.005 )
C = 100F
R = 80
12 + 1.005 2
= 39.79 j 40.00
James Grimbleby
Slide 86
Example 2
Z = 39.79 j 40.00
Z = 39.79 2 + 40.00 2
= 56.42
R = 80
C = 100F
1 40.00
Z = tan
Z
39.79
= 0.7880 ( 45.2o )
James Grimbleby
Slide 87
Example 2
What current
c rrent will
ill flo
flow if an ac voltage
oltage of 24 V
V, 20 H
Hz is applied
to the circuit?
V
I=
Z
V
I=
Z
24
=
39.79 j 40.00
24(39.79 + j 40.00)
=
39.79 2 + 40.00 2
= 0.3 + j 0.3016 A
24
=
56.42 0.7880
= 0.4254 A 0.7880 ( 45.2)
= 0.3 + j 0.3016 A
= 0.4254A 0.7880 ( 45.2)

James Grimbleby
Slide 88
Phasor Diagrams
Where voltages
g or currents are summed the result can be
represented by a phasor diagram: V = V1 + V2 + V3
Imaginary part
V2
O
V
V1
Real
part
V3
James Grimbleby
Slide 89
Example 2
I
Imagin
nary p
part
24
IR =
= 0 .3 A
80
IC = j 2 20 100 10 6 24 = j 0.3016 A
0.3A
0.2A
IC
I = IR + IC
0 1A
0.1A
IR
O
James Grimbleby
0.1A
0.2A
0.3A
Reall
R
part
Slide 90
Example 3
Determine the driving-point impedance of the circuit at a
frequency of 50 Hz:
Z = ZR + ZL + ZC
1
= R + jL +
jC
= 24 + j 2 50 36 10
R
24
3
1
j 2 50 120 10 6
= 24 + j11.31 j 26.53
= 24 j15.22
James Grimbleby
L
36 mH
C
120 F
Slide 91
Example 3
Z = 24 j15.22
Z = 24 2 15.222
= 28.42
1 15.22
Z = tan
24
= 0.5652 ( 32.4)
R
24
L
36 mH
C
120 F
Z = 28.42 0.5652 ( 32.4)

James Grimbleby
Slide 92
Example 3
What voltage will be generated across the circuit if an ac
current of 10 A, 50 Hz flows though it?
V = ZI
= 10 A (24 j15.22)
= 240 j152.2 V
In polar form:
V = ZI
= (10 28.42) 0.5652 ( 32.4)
= 284.2 V 0.5652 ( 32.4)
James Grimbleby
Slide 93
Example 3
200V
IImaginary
i
part
V = VR + VL + VC
VL
VR
200V
VC
Real
400V partt
-200V
James Grimbleby
Slide 94
Example 4
Determine the driving-point impedance of the circuit at a
f
frequency
off 400 H
Hz:
1
1
1
=
+
Z ZR + ZL ZC
1
=
+ jC
R + jL
1
Z=
1/(R + jL ) + jC
R + jL
=
1 + jC(R + jL )
R + jL
=
1 + jCR 2LC
James Grimbleby
C
200 F
R
2
L
1 mH
Slide 95
Example 4
Z=
R + jL
1 + jCR 2LC
2 + j 2 400 10 3
1 + j 2 400 200 10 6 2 (2 400 )2 10 3 200 10 6

2 + j 2.513
=
1 + j1.005 1.263
2 + j 2.513
=
0.2633 + j1.005
(2 + j 2.513 ) ( 0.2633 j1.005 )
=
0.2633 2 + j1.005 2
= 1.852 j 2.474
James Grimbleby
Slide 96
Example 4
Z = 1.852 j 2.474
Z = 1.8522 + 2.474 2
= 3.091
Z = tan
1 2.474
C
200 F
F
1.852
= 0.9282 ( 53.2)
R
2
L
1 mH
Z = 3.091 0.9282 ( 53.2)

James Grimbleby
Slide 97
Example 4
What current will flow if an ac voltage of 120 V, 400 Hz is
applied to the circuit?
V
I=
Z
V
I=
Z
120
=
1.852 j 2.474
120 (1.852 + j 2.474 )
=
1.8522 + 2.474 2
222.4 + j 297.0
=
9.556
= 23.26 + j 31.08
= 38.82A 0.9282 ((53.2)
James Grimbleby
120
=
3.091 0.9282
= 38.82 A 0.9282
= 23.26 + j 31.08
Slide 98
Example 4
I = IRL + IC
Imaginary part
50A
120
IRL =
ZRL
IC
= 23.27 j 29.23
120
IC =
ZC
= j 60.32
James Grimbleby
50A
Real
ea
part
IRL
Slide 99
Admittance
The admittance Y of a circuit or component is defined to be
the ratio of the current and voltage phasors:
I ( j )
V ( j )
AC Circuit
I ( j )
1
Y ( j ) =
=
V ( j ) Z ( j )
Admittance Y is analogous to conductance in dc circuits and

its unit is Siemens
Y ( j ) = G( j ) + jB( j )
where G is the conductance and B is the susceptance

James Grimbleby
Slide 100
Admittance
I
Y=
V
f 0
1
R
1
R
1
R
Capacitance C
jC
Y 0
Inductance L
1
j L
j
Y 0
Resistance R
James Grimbleby
Slide 101
Admittance
All the normal circuit
circ it theory
theor rules
r les apply
appl to circuits
circ its containing
admittances
For example admittances in series:
1 1 1
1
1
= +
+
+
Y Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
and admittances in parallel:

Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
Other relevant
Oth
l
t circuit
i it theory
th
rules
l are: Ki
Kirchhoffs
hh ff llaws,
Thvenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition
James Grimbleby
Slide 102
Example 5
Determine the dri
driving-point
ing point admittance of the circ
circuit
it at a
frequency of 400 Hz:
1
Y = YC +
1/ YR + 1/ YL
1
= jC +
R + jL
James Grimbleby
C
200
F
R
2
L
1 mH
Slide 103
Example 5
Determine the driving-point admittance of the circuit at a
f
frequency
off 400 H
Hz:
3
j
2
400
10
2
6
Y = j 2 400 200 10 +
2 + j 2 400 10 3
1
= j 0.5027 +
2 + j 2.513
2 j 2.513
R
= j 0.5027 +
2
22 + 2.513 2
C
2 j 2.513
200 F
= j 0.5027 +
L
10.32
1 mH
= j 0.5027 + 0.1939 j 0.2436
= 0.1939 + j 0.2590 S
James Grimbleby
Slide 104
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
5
Resonant Circuits
James Grimbleby
Slide 105
Resonant Circuits
Passive resonant circuits must contain a resistor, capacitor
and an inductor
The behaviour of resonant circuits changes rapidly around a
particular frequency (the resonance frequency)
Resonant circuits
R
i i can b
be characterised
h
i db
by two parameters:
the resonance frequency and the Q-factor
There are two basic resonant circuit configurations: series and
parallel
James Grimbleby
Slide 106
Resonant Circuits
d
=
dt
d
g
=
dt
L
James Grimbleby
Slide 107
Resonant Circuits
iL
C
i, v
vC
vC
di L vC
=
dt
L
dvC
iL
=
dt
C
iL
t
James Grimbleby
Slide 108
Parallel Resonant Circuit
L
C
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
Z ZR ZC ZL
1
1
= + jC +
R
jL
jL 2LCR + R
=
jLR
James Grimbleby
Z=
=
=
jLR
jL 2LCR + R
jL
jL / R 2LC + 1
jL
1 + jL / R 2LC
Slide 112
R = 5 k
Z=
C = 1F
jL
1+
1
+ jL / R 2LC
j
1 + j 2 10 4 2 10 6
James Grimbleby
L = 1H
Impedance is a
maximum
(
(resonant
t
frequency)
when:
h
1
=
LC
1
=
10 6
= 103
Slide 113
Z 0
James Grimbleby
Z 0
Slide 114
L
C
0
1
=
R
Resonant
t frequency:
f
LC
James Grimbleby
Z=
jL
1 + jL / R 2LC
jL
Z
= j0
1
jL
Z=
=R
jL / R
jL
j
Z
=
= j0
2
LC C
Slide 115
(90)
2
5k
Z
0
Z
0.0
0
0
100
James Grimbleby
1000
Angular frequency (rad/s)
( 90)
2
10000
Slide 116
Quality Factor
The standard form for the denominator of a second-order
system is:
1 + j / 0Q 2 / 02
Compare this with the impedance Z:
Z=
jL
1 + jL / R 2LC
So that:
1
0 =
LC
R
Q=
0L
where Q is the quality-factor and 0 is the resonant frequency

James Grimbleby
Slide 117
Quality Factor
R = 5 k
C = 1F
L = 1H
1
1
0 =
=
= 103
LC
10 6
R
5000
Q=
=
=5
3
0L 1 10
James Grimbleby
Slide 118
Quality Factor
Z max
Z max
0
=
Q
00
0.0
James Grimbleby
0
Slide 119
Quality Factor
(90)
2
2k
Z
Q=2
Z
0.0
0
0
100
James Grimbleby
1000
( 90)
2
10000
Slide 120
Quality Factor
(90)
2
10k
Z
Q=10
Z
0.0
0
0
100
James Grimbleby
1000
( 90)
2
10000
Slide 121

IR
1V
R = 5 k
Resonance occurs in
parallel resonant circuits
because the currents in
p
and
the capacitor
inductor cancel out
James Grimbleby
IC
C = 1F
IL
L = 1H
1
1
IR = =
= 2 10 4
R 5000
1
IC =
= jC = j 10 6
1/ jC
j j
1
=
=
IL =
jL L
Slide 122

At resonance:
= 103 :
IR = 2 10 4 A
IC = j 10 6
= j10 3 A
1mA
Imaginary
part
IC
O IR I
1mA
Real
part
IL
j
IL =
-1mA
= j10 3 A
James Grimbleby
Slide 123

Below resonance:
= 0.5 103 :
IC = j 10 6
= j 0.5 10
j
IL =
1mA
Reall
R
part
-1mA
IL
= j 2 10 3 A
James Grimbleby
IR
O
Imaginary I
part
IR = 2 10 4 A
3
IC
-2mA
Slide 124

Above resonance:
3
= 2.0 10 :
IR = 2 10 4 A
IC = j 10 6
= j 2.0 10 3 A
j
IL =
= j 0.5 10 3 A
James Grimbleby
2mA
IC
1mA
IImaginary
i
I
part
O IR
IL
1mA
Real
part
Slide 125
Series Resonant Circuit
Z = ZR + ZC + ZL
1
=R+
+ jL
jC
jCR + 1 2LC
=
jC
1+
1
+ jCR 2LC
=
jC
James Grimbleby
Slide 126

1 + jCR 2LC
Z=
jC
j
0
1
=
LC
James Grimbleby
j
1
Z
=
= j
jC C
jCR
Z=
=R
jC
2LC
Z
= jL = j
jC
L
C
Slide 127
1 + jCR 2LC
Z=
jC
=
=
R = 200
1 + j 200 10 6 2 10 6
j 10 6
L = 1H
1 + j 2 10 4 2 10 6
James Grimbleby
j 10 6
C = 1F
Slide 128
(90)
2
1k
Z
0
200
0
100
James Grimbleby
1000
( 90)
2
10000
Slide 129

The standard form for the denominator of a second-order
second order
system is:
1 + j / 0Q 2 / 02
Compare
p
this with the admittance Y ((= 1/Z)):
Y=
jC
1 + jCR 2LC
So that:
1
0 =
LC
1
Q=
0CR
where Q is the quality-factor

quality factor and 0 is the resonant frequency
James Grimbleby
Slide 130

1
0 =
LC
=
1
1 10 6 1
= 103 rad/s
1
Q=
0CR
=
R = 200
L = 1H
C = 1F
1 F
103 1 10 6 200
=5
James Grimbleby
Slide 131

Resonance occurs in
series resonant circuits
because the voltages
p
and
across the capacitor
inductor cancel out
VR = 1 R = 200
j j10 6
1
VC =
=
=
jC C
VL = 1 jL = j
James Grimbleby
VR
R = 200
VL
L = 1H
1A
VC
C = 1F
Slide 132

At resonance:
= 103 :
VR = 200 V
1kV
VL
j10 6
VC =
= j10 V
Imaginary
part
O VR
1kV
Real
part
VC
VL = j
= j103 V
James Grimbleby
-1kV
Slide 133
Crystal Resonator
James Grimbleby
Slide 134
Crystal Resonator
James Grimbleby
Slide 135
Crystal Resonator
Equivalent circuit:
f0 = 8.0 MHz
R=3
3.4
4
L1 = 0.086 mH
C1 = 4.6
4 6 pF
C0 = 42 pF
L
C1
James Grimbleby
C0
1
0 =
LC
= 5.03 107
1
Q=
0CR
= 1270
Slide 136
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
6
Frequency Response Function
Frequency-Response
First-Order Circuits
James Grimbleby
Slide 137
Frequency-Response
Frequency
Response Function
Input X
Y Output
Frequency-response function:
Y ( j )
H ( j ) =
X ( j )
Voltage gain g:
Y ( j )
g=
= H ( j )
X ( j )
Phase shift :
Y ( j )
=
= H ( j )
X ( j )
James Grimbleby
Slide 138
Frequency-Response
Frequency
Response Function
The order of a frequency-response function is the highest
power of j in the denominator:
1
H ( j ) =
1 + j / 0
Fi t order:
First
d
Second order: H ( j ) =
Third order:
H ( j ) =
1
1 + 2 j / 0 + ( j / 0 )2
1
1 + j / 0 + ( j / 0 )2 + ( j / 0 )3
The order is normally equal to (and cannot exceed) the

number of reactive components
James Grimbleby
Slide 139
Example 1
Vc
ZC
=
Vin ZC + ZR
Vin
1/ jC
=
1/ jC + R
1
H ( j ) =
1 + jCR
1
1
=
where : 0 =
1 + j / 0
RC
James Grimbleby
Vc
Slide 140
Example 1
R
1
H ( j ) =
1 + j / 0
=
Vc
1 + 2 / 02
g = H ( j ) =
Gain:
Ph
Phase
shift:
hift
James Grimbleby
Vin
1 j / 0
= H ( j )
1
1 + 2 / 02
tan = / 0
Slide 141
Example 1
g 1
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 142
Decibel
The decibel is a measure of the ratio of two p
powers P1, P2 :
P1
dB = 10 log10
P2
It can also be used to measure the ratio of two voltages V1, V2:
dB = 10 log10
dB = 20 log
l 10
James Grimbleby
V12 / R
V22 / R
= 10 log10
V12
V22
V1
V2
Slide 143
Decibel
Power ratio
1000000
100
10
4
2
1
1/2
1/4
0 01
0.01
0.000001
James Grimbleby
Decibels
60 dB
20 dB
10 dB
6 dB
3 dB
0 dB
-3 dB
-6 dB
-20
20 dB
-60 dB
Slide 144
Decibel
Voltage ratio
1000
10
10 = 3.162
2
2 = 1.414
1
1/2 = 0
0.7071
7071
1/2 = 0.5
01
0.1
0.001
James Grimbleby
Decibels
60 dB
20 dB
10 dB
6 dB
3 dB
0 dB
-3 dB
-6 dB
-20
20 dB
-60 dB
Slide 145
Example 1
Circuit is a first-order low-pass
p
filter:
g=
<< 0
= 0
>> 0
James Grimbleby
1
2
1 + / 02
g 1 (0dB)
= tan 1 / 0
0 ( 0)
1
( 3dB)
g=
2
= ( 45)
4
0
g
( 6dB / oct )
( 90)
2
Slide 146
Example 1
R = 1k
1
0 =
RC
=
C=1F
103 10 6
= 103
Gain:
g = H ( j ) =
Phase shift: = H ( j )
James Grimbleby
1
1 + 2 / 10 6
tan = / 103
Slide 147
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Phase(rad)
0
0 dB
-3 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30
30 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
-6
6 dB / octave
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
2
100000
Slide 148
Example 2
L
VR
ZR
=
Vin ZR + ZL
R
=
R + jL
1
H ( j ) =
1 + jL / R
1
=
1 + j / 0
James Grimbleby
Vin
VR
R
where : 0 =
L
Slide 149
Example 2
g 1
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 150
Example 3
C
Vc
ZR
=
Vin ZR + ZC
Vin
R
=
1/ jC + R
jCR
H ( j ) =
1 + jCR
j / 0
1
=
where : 0 =
1 + j / 0
RC
James Grimbleby
Vc
Slide 152
Example 3
j / 0
H ( j ) =
1 + j / 0
1
=
1 j0 /
C
Vin
VR
1 + j0 /
=
1 + 02 / 2
g = H ( j ) =
G i
Gain:
Phase shift:
James Grimbleby
= H ( j )
1
1 + 02 / 2
tan = 0 /
Slide 153
Example 3
g 0
James Grimbleby
g 1
Slide 154
Example 4
VL
ZL
=
Vin ZL + ZR
jL
=
jL + R
jL / R
H ( j ) =
1 + jL / R
j / 0
=
1 + j / 0
James Grimbleby
R
Vin
VL
R
where : 0 =
L
Slide 155
Example 4
g 0
James Grimbleby
g 1
Slide 156
Example 4
Circuit is a first
first-order
order high-pass
high pass filter:
g=
<< 0
= 0
>> 0
James Grimbleby
1
1 + 02 / 2
= tan 1 0 /
(6dB / oct )
g
0
(90)
2
1
g=
( 3dB)
2
= ( 45)
4
g 1 (0dB)
0 ( 0 )
Slide 157
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Phase(rad)
0 dB
-3 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30
30 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
6 dB / octave
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
0
100000
Slide 158
Example 5
Using
g the p
potential divider formula:
R1
Vc
R2 + 1/ jC
=
Vin R2 + 1/ jC + R1
jCR2 + 1
=
jCR2 + 1 + jCR1
Vin
i
R2
Voutt
1 + jCR2
H ( j ) =
1 + jC (R1 + R2 )
1 + j / 2
=
1 + j / 1
James Grimbleby
1
where : 1 =
C(R1 + R2 )
1
2 =
CR2
Slide 159
Example 5
R1
1 + j / 2
H ( j ) =
1 + j / 1
g = H ( j ) =
James Grimbleby
1 + 2 / 22
Vin
R2
Vout
1 + 2 / 12
Slide 160
Example 5
R1
g 1
James Grimbleby
R2
R2
g
R1 + R2
Slide 161
Example 5
Assuming that 1 << 2 :
g=
<< 1
James Grimbleby
1 + 2 / 22
1 + 2 / 12
g 1 (0dB)
1 << << 2
1
g
( 6dB / oct )
>> 2
1
R2
g
=
2 R2 + R1
Slide 162
Example 5
1 + j / 2
H ( j ) =
1 + j / 1
1
1 =
C(R1 + R2 )
=
1
10 6 (900 + 100 )
3
= 10 rad/s
R1 = 900
R2 = 100
C = 1F
1
1
2 =
=
CR2 10 6 100
= 10 4 rad/s
James Grimbleby
Slide 163
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Phase(rad)
0
0 dB
g
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30
30 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
2
100000
Slide 164
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
7
Second-Order Circuits
James Grimbleby
Slide 165
Example 1
R
Vin
Vc
This circuit must be simplified before the frequency response

f
function
i can b
be d
determined
i d
A Thvenin
Th
i equivalent
i l t circuit
i it iis created
t d off th
the components
t tto
the left of the red line
James Grimbleby
Slide 166
Example 1
Thvenin equivalent circuit:
R
Vin
1/ jj
C
V = Vin
1/ jC + R
Vin
=
1 + jCR
James Grimbleby
1 1
1 + jj
CR
= + jC =
R
Z R
R
Z=
1 + jCR
Slide 167
Example 1
R
1 + j
jCR
Vin
1 + jCR
VC
Vin
1/ jC
VC =
R
1 + jCR 1/ jC + R +
1 + jCR
Vin
1
=
1 + jCR 1 + jCR + jCR

1 + j
jCR
James Grimbleby
Slide 168
Example 1
Vin
1
VC =
CR
1 + jCR 1 + jCR + jC
1 + jCR
Vin
i
=
(1 + jCR ) (1 + jCR ) + jCR
1
H ( j ) =
1 + 3 jCR 2C 2R 2
R = 1 k, C = 1F:
H ( j ) =
James Grimbleby
1
1 + j 3 10 3 2 10 6
Slide 169
Example 1
g 1
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 170
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Phase(rad)
0
0 dB
g
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 171
Example 2
R
Vin
C
R
VR
This
s circuit
c cu must
us be ssimplified
p ed be
before
o e the
e frequency
eque cy response
espo se
function can be determined
A Thvenin equivalent circuit is created of the components to
the left of the red line
James Grimbleby
Slide 172
Example 2
R
1 + j
jCR
Vin
1 + jCR
C
R
VR
Vin
R
VR =
1 + jCR R + 1/ jC +
R
1 + jCR
Vin
jCR
=
1 + jCR jCR + 1 + jCR

1 + j
jCR
James Grimbleby
Slide 173
Example 2
Vin
jCR
VR =
1 + jCR 1 + jCR + jCR
1 + jCR
Vin jCR
=
(1 + jCR ) (1 + jCR ) + jCR
jCR
H ( j ) =
1 + 3 jCR 2C 2R 2
R = 1 k, C = 1F:
H ( j ) =
James Grimbleby
j 10 3
1 + j 3 10 3 2 10 6
1+
Slide 174
Example 2
g 0
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 175
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Phase(rad)
0 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30
30 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000 2
Slide 176
Example 3
VC
1/ jC
=
Vin 1/ jC + jL + R
H ( j ) =
=
Vin
Vc
1 + jCR 2LC
1
1 + j /(0Q ) 2 / 02
1
where : 0 =
LC
James Grimbleby
1
1 L
=
and : Q =
0CR R C
Slide 177
Example 3
g 1
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 178
Example 3
Circuit is a second-order low-pass
p
filter:
H( j) =
g = H ( j )
1+ j /(0Q) 2 / 02
<< 0
H ( j ) 1
g = 1 (0dB)
= 0
H ( j ) = jQ
g =Q
>> 0
James Grimbleby
H ( j )
02
2
02
( 12dB / octt )
Slide 179
Example 3
L = 400 mH R = 200
Vin
C = 2.5 F
VC
1
1
1
0 =
=
=
= 103
LC
400 10 3 2.5 10 6
10 6
1 L
1 400 10 3
1
Q=
=
=
1.6 105 = 2
R C 200 2.5 10 6 200
James Grimbleby
Slide 180
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
20 dB
Q=2
0 dB
Q = 10
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
-12
12 dB / octave
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 181
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
0
Q = 10
Q=2
1
Q=
2
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 182
Example 4
Using
g the p
potential divider formula:
VL
jL
=
Vin 1/ jC + jL + R
H ( j ) =
=
LC
Vin
VL
1 + jCR 2LC
2 / 02
1 + j /(0Q ) 2 / 02
1
where : 0 =
LC
James Grimbleby
1
1 L
and : Q =
=
0CR R C
Slide 183
Example 4
g 0
James Grimbleby
g 1
Slide 184
Example 4
Circuit is a second-order high-pass
g p
filter:
H( j) =
<< 0
2
/ 0
1+ j /(0Q)
H ( j )
2
02
g = H ( j )
2
/ 0
2
02
(12dB / oct )
= 0
H ( j ) = jQ
g =Q
>> 0
H ( j ) 1
g = 1 (0dB)
James Grimbleby
Slide 185
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
20 dB
Q=2
Q = 10
0 dB
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
12 dB / octave
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 186
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
Q = 10
Q=2
1
Q=
2
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 187
Example 5
C
VR
R
=
Vin 1/ jC + jL + R
H ( j ) =
=
Vin
jCR
VR
1 + jCR 2LC
j /(0Q )
1 + j /(0Q ) 2 / 02
1
where : 0 =
LC
James Grimbleby
1
1 L
and : Q =
=
0CR R C
Slide 188
Example 5
g 0
James Grimbleby
g 0
Slide 189
Example 5
Circuit is a second-order band-pass filter:
H( j) =
j /((0Q)
1+ j /(0Q) 2 / 02
g = H ( j )
<< 0
j
H ( j )
0Q
g
(6dB / oct )
0Q
= 0
H ( j ) = 1
g = 1 (0dB)
>> 0
j0
H ( j )
Q
0
g
( 6dB / octt )
Q
James Grimbleby
Slide 190
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
0 dB
Q=2
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
Q = 10
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 191
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
2
Q=2
1
Q=
2
Q = 10
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 192
Example 6
VC
1/ jC + jL
=
Vin 1/ jC + jL + R
H ( j ) =
=
1 2LC
Vin
1 + jCR LC
Vc
1 2LC
1 + j /(0Q ) 2 / 02
1
where : 0 =
LC
James Grimbleby
1
1 L
and : Q =
=
0CR R C
Slide 193
Example 6
g 1
James Grimbleby
g 1
Slide 194
Example 6
Circuit is a second-order band-stop filter:
H ( j ) =
1 2 / 02
1 + j /(0Q ) 2 / 02
g = H ( j )
<< 0
H ( j ) 1
g 1 (0 dB)
= 0
H ( j ) = 0
g = 0 ( dB)
>> 0
H ( j ) 1
g 1 (0dB)
James Grimbleby
Slide 195
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
0 dB
Q=2
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
-40 dB
10
James Grimbleby
Q = 10
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 196
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
1
Q=
2
Q = 10
0
Q=2
10
James Grimbleby
100
1000
10000
Frequency (rad/s)
100000
Slide 197
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
8
Power in AC Circuits
James Grimbleby
Slide 198
Power in AC Circuits
To calculate the power in a circuit we shall need to make
use of some trigonometric identities:
cos(( A + B ) = cos A cos B sin
i A sin
i B
cos( A B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Adding:
cos( A + B ) + cos( A B ) = 2 cos A cos B
so that:
1
cos A cos B = {cos( A + B ) + cos( A B )}
2
1
1 1
cos A = {cos 2 A + cos 0} = + cos 2 A
2
2 2
2
James Grimbleby
Slide 199
rms Voltages and Currents

The average power in a resistor is given by:
1T
P = v (t )i (t ) dt
T0
1 T v 2 (t )
dt
=
T0 R
i (t )
v (t )
1 1T 2
=
v (t )dt
RT 0
2
Vrms
=
R
James Grimbleby
1T 2
where
h
: Vrms =
v (t )dt
T0
Slide 200

The root-mean-square voltage Vrms determines the power
dissipated in a circuit:
2
Vrms
P=
R
There
e e is
s a ssimilar
a e
expression
p ess o for
o tthe
e po
power
e d
dissipated
ss pated when
e
a current Irms flows through a circuit:
2
P = RIrms
These expressions apply to any waveform

James Grimbleby
Slide 201

The rms value of a sinusoid of amplitude
p
(p
(peak)) value v0:
1T 2
Vrms =
v (t ) dt
T0
1T 2
2
v
cos
(t ) dt
=
0
T0
=
T
21 1 1
v 0 + cos( 2t ) dt
T0 2 2
v 02 v 0
=
James Grimbleby
Averages to zero over

a complete
l t cycle:
l
T = 2/
Slide 202

The UK mains power was until recently supplied at 240 V rms
and that in Europe 220 V rms
On 1 January 1995 the nominal voltage across Europe was
harmonised at 230 V rms.
s corresponds
co espo ds to a
an a
amplitude
p tude o
of:
This
v 0 = 2 Vrms
= 2 230
= 325 V
James Grimbleby
Slide 203

A mains power (230 V rms) electric fire has a resistance of
52 :
2
Vrms
230 2
P=
=
= 1.017 kW
R
52
An audio amplifier which drives a 4 loudspeaker at up to

pp y a sinusoidal output
p voltage:
g
150 W must supply
2
Vrms
= P.R = 150 4 = 600
Vrms = 24.5 V
This corresponds to a sinusoid of peak value 34.6 V

James Grimbleby
Slide 204

Square wave of amplitude v0:
v0
-v0
T/2
T
1T 2
1T /2 2
1 T
2
Vrms =
v
(
t
)
dt
=
v
dt
+
(
v
)
0
0 dt
T0
T 0
T T /2
T
1
= v 02 dt = v 02 = v 0
T0
James Grimbleby
Slide 205
Crest Factor
The ratio between the peak voltage and the rms voltage is
k
known
as the
th crestt factor:
f t
cf =
Vppeak
Vrms
For a sinusoid the crest factor is 2; for a square wave the

crest factor is 1
For audio signals the crest factor depends on the source but
is commonly 2 or higher
150 W off audio
di iinto
t 4 loudspeakers
l d
k
would
ld th
therefore
f
require
i
peak voltages of 50 V or greater
James Grimbleby
Slide 206
Power in a Reactive Load

Capacitors and inductors store energy, but do not dissipate
power
100 V rms
50 Hz
IR
R
25
IC
C
200F
100
IR =
=4A
25
100
= 100 2 50 200 10 6 A = 6.28 A
IC =
ZC
100 2
P=
= 400 W
25
James Grimbleby
Slide 207
Instantaneous Power
For sinusoidal voltages and currents:
i (t )
v (t ) = v 0 cos(t )
i (t ) = i 0 cos(t + )
v (t )
Instantaneous power:
p(t ) = v (t ) i (t )
= v 0 cos(t ) i 0 cos(t + )
= v 0i 0 cos(t ) cos(t + )
1
= v 0i 0 {cos( 2t + ) + cos }
2
James Grimbleby
Slide 208
Average Power
Average power:
1T
P = p(t ) dt
T0
1T
= v 0 cos(t ) i 0 cos(t + ) dt
T0
1
1T
1
1T
= v 0i 0 cos( 2t + ) dt + v 0i 0 cos dt
2
T0
2
T0
If T >> 1/:
1
1T
P = v 0i 0 cos dt
2
T0
1
= v 0i 0 cos
2
James Grimbleby
Slide 209
Average Power
1
P = v 0i 0 cos
2
1 v 02
=
cos
2 Z
i (t )
v (t )
1 2
= i 0 Z cos
2
James Grimbleby
Slide 210
Average Power
Average power:
1
P = v 0i 0 cos
2
For a resistor:
=0
1
1 v 02 1 2
P = v 0i0 =
= Ri 0
2
2R 2
=
2
P =0
=
2
P =0
For
o a capac
capacitor:
to
For an inductor:
James Grimbleby
Slide 211

Power expressed in terms of rms voltages and currents:
1
P = v 0i 0 cos
2
1
= Vrms 2 Irms 2 cos
2
= Vrms Irms cos ( W )
2
Vrms
P=
cos
Z
2
P = Irms
Z cos
James Grimbleby
Slide 212
Example 1
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
R = 80
230 V rms
50 Hz
C = 20 F
F
1
Z =R+
jC
= 80 +
j 2 50 20 10 6
= 80 j 159.2
= 178.1
178 1 1.105
1 105 (-63.3
( 63 3o )
James Grimbleby
Slide 213
Example 1
230 V rms
50 H
Hz
R = 80
C = 20 F
2
Vrms
P=
cos
Z
230 2
=
cos 1.105
178.1
= 133.4 W
James Grimbleby
Slide 214
Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
80 V rms
400 Hz
R
2
C
200 F
L
1 mH
The driving-point impedance of this circuit at 400 Hz

(calculated previously) is:
Z = 3.091 0.9282
James Grimbleby
Slide 215
Example 2
Z = 3.091 0.9282
2
Vrms
P=
cos
Z
80 V rms
400 Hz
R
2
C
200 F
L
1 mH
80 2
=
cos 0.9283
3.091
= 1241 W
James Grimbleby
Slide 216
Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit
Since no power is dissipated in the capacitor we only need
to calculate the power in the inductor
inductor-resistor
resistor leg
ZLR = R + jL
= 2 + j 2 400 10 3
= 2 + j 2.513
80 V rms
400 Hz
R
2
C
200 F
= 3.212 0.8986
James Grimbleby
L
1 mH
Slide 217
Example 2
ZLR = 3.212 0.8986
2
Vrms
P=
cos
80 V rms
400 Hz
R
2
C
200 F
F
80 2
=
cos 0.8986
3.212
= 1241 W
James Grimbleby
L
1 mH
Slide 218
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
9
Power Factor
Th
Three-Phase
Ph
El
Electric
ti P
Power
James Grimbleby
Slide 219
True and Apparent Power

The apparent power Pa in a circuit is:
Pa = Vrms Irms
Apparent power is measured in VA

The true power P dissipated in a circuit is:
P = Vrms Irms cos
True power is measured in W

James Grimbleby
Slide 220
Power Factor
The p
power factor is the ratio of the true p
power to the apparent
pp
power:
P Vrms Irms cos
pf =
=
= cos
Pa
Vrms Irms
where is the phase difference between voltage and current

current.
It does not matter whether is phase of the current with
respect to the voltage, or voltage with respect to the current,
since:
cos = cos
James Grimbleby
Slide 221
Example 1
Determine the power factor, apparent power and true power
power dissipated
di i t d in
i the
th circuit:
i it
Z = 4 + j15.08
= 15.60 1.312
1 312 (75.1
(75 1o )
R = 4
80Vrms, 400 Hz
pf = cos 1.312 = .2559
L = 6 mH
2
Vrms
Pa = Vrms Irms =
= 410.3 VA
Z
P = pf Pa = 105.0 W
James Grimbleby
Slide 222
Power Factor Correction

Most industrial loads have a poor (pf << 1) power factor
Examples are induction motors and inductor-ballast
inductor ballast lighting
Power factor can be corrected by connecting a reactance in
parallel with the load
This reduces the apparent power and the rms current
without affecting
g the load
This is obviouslyy desirable because it reduces the current
rating of the power wiring and supply
James Grimbleby
Slide 223

Power factor is normally corrected by connecting a reactive
element ZC in parallel with the load ZL :
IS
IC
Supply current: IS
L d current:
Load
t IL
Correction current: IC
IL
VS
ZL
ZC
Au
unity
yo
overall
e a po
power
e factor
ac o will be ob
obtained
a ed p
provided
o ded that
a VS
and IS are in phase:
IS
= G0 = G + j 0
VS
James Grimbleby
(real)
Slide 224

IS
IL IC
=
+
= G + j0
VS VS VS
1
1
+
= G + j0
ZL ZC
1
1
=
Z
L imag
ZC imag
IS
IC
IL
VS
ZL
ZC
If IL leads VS then an inductor is used for correction

If IL lags VS then a capacitor is used for correction
James Grimbleby
Slide 225

Correction of a lagging power factor load with a capacitor:
IS = IL + IC
IC
Current
(imaginary
part)
IS
Current
(real part)
IL
Note that the magnitude of the supply current IS is less than
that of the load IL
James Grimbleby
Slide 226
Example 2
Choose a suitable power factor correction component for the
circuit:
R = 4
80Vrms, 400 Hz
L = 6 mH
ZL = 4 + j15.08
Thus:
James Grimbleby
1
4 j15.08
=
= 0.01643 j 0.06195
2
2
ZL 4 + 15.08
1
= + j 0.06195
ZC
Slide 227
Example 2
R = 4
C = 2.465 F
80Vrms, 400 Hz
L = 6 mH
1
= + j 0.06195 = jC
ZC
0.06195
C=
= 2.465 F
2 400
James Grimbleby
Slide 228
Example 2
80
IL =
ZL
IC
IS
= 80(0.01643 j 0.06195 )
= 1.314 j 4.956
80
=
80Vrms
Zc
400 Hz
= 80 j 0.06195
= j 4.956
= IL + IC
IS
IL
IC
R = 4
L = 6 mH
C=
2.465 F
F
= 1.314 j 4.956 + j 4.956

= 1.314
James Grimbleby
Slide 229
Example 2
5A
Imaginary
part
IS = IL + IC
IC
IS
5A
Real
part
IL
-5A
James Grimbleby
Slide 230
Example 3
An electric motor operating
p
g from the 50 Hz mains supply
pp y has
a lagging current with a power factor of .80
The rated motor current is 6 A at 230 V so that the magnitude
of 1/ZL is:
1
IL
6
=
=
= 0.02609
ZL VS 230
and the phase of 1/ZL is:
1
= cos 1 0.8 = 0.6435
ZL
Since the current lags

g the voltage
g the negative
g
p
phase is used
James Grimbleby
Slide 231
Example 3
1
= 0.02609 0.6435 = 0.02087 j 0.01565
ZL
1
= + j 0.01565 = jC
C
ZC
0.01565
C=
= 49.82 F
2 50
Before correction:
Pa = 230 6 = 1380
P = pf Pa = 0.8 1380
= 1104
James Grimbleby
After correction:
P = Pa = 1104
P 1104
IS =
=
= 4 .8
230
VS
Slide 232
Example 3
5A
Imaginary
g
y
part
IS = IL + IC
IC
IS
5A
Real
part
p
IL
-5A
James Grimbleby
Slide 233
Three-Phase
Three
Phase Electric Power
Most ac power transmission systems use a three-phase
system
t
Three-phase
Three
phase is also used to power large motors and other
heavy industrial loads
Three-phase consists of three sinusoids with phases 2/3
(120)) apart
(120
This allows more power to be transmitted down a given
number of conductors than single phase
A three-phase transmission system consists of conductors for
the three p
phases and sometimes a conductor for neutral
James Grimbleby
Slide 234
Three-Phase
Three
Three-phase
generator
James Grimbleby
Three-phase
load
Slide 235
Three-Phase
Three
Phase-to-neutral
Phase
to ne tral voltage
oltage v0
Phase-to-phase voltage vp
v0
v p = 2v 0 sin
3
3
= 2v 0
2
= v0 3
James Grimbleby
vp
v0
(60o )
3
v0
2
(120o )
3
Slide 237
Three-Phase
Three
UK domestic supply
pp y uses three -phase
p
with a p
phase-toneutral voltage v0 of 230 V rms (325 V peak)
This corresponds to a phase-to-phase voltage vp of 400 V
rms (563 V peak)
Each property is supplied with one phase and neutral
If the phases are correctly balanced (similar load to neutral on
each)
h) then
th the
th overallll neutral
t l currentt iis zero
The UK electricity
electricit distrib
distribution
tion net
network
ork operates at 275 kV rms
and 400 kV rms
James Grimbleby
Slide 238
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture
10
Energy Storage
James Grimbleby
Slide 239
Energy Storage
Reactive components (capacitors and inductors) do not
dissipate power when an ac voltage or current is applied
Power is dissipated only in resistors
Instead reactive components store energy
During an ac cycle reactive components alternately store
energy
gy and then release it
Over a complete ac cycle
y
there is no net change
g in energy
gy
stored, and therefore no power dissipation
James Grimbleby
Slide 240
Energy Storage
The voltage across a capacitor is increased from zero to V
producing a stored energy E:
T
E = v (t ) i (t )dt
v(t)
dv
= v (t ) C
dt
dt
0
= C v dv
d
t
T
James Grimbleby
0
T
i
C
dv
i =C
dt
1
E = CV 2
2
Slide 241
Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in an electronic flash
capacitor of 1000 F charged to 400 V
1
E = CV 2
2
1
= 1000 10 6 400 2
2
= 80 J
James Grimbleby
Slide 242
Energy Storage
The current in an inductor is increase from zero to I
producing a stored energy E:
T
i(t)
E = v (t ) i (t )dt
0
T di
= L
0 dt
I
t
T
James Grimbleby
= L i di
0
i (t ) dt
L
di
v =L
dt
1 2
E = LI
2
Slide 247
Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in a 2 mH inductor
carrying a current of 10 A
1 2
E = Li
2
1
= 2 10 3 10 2
2
= 0 .1 J
James Grimbleby
Slide 248
AC Circuit Analysis
J. B. Grimbleby 18 February 2009
James Grimbleby
Slide 252

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AC Circuit Analysis

Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Recommended text book:

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

AC Circuit Analysis Syllabus

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

AC Circuit Analysis Prerequities

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

v (t ) = v 0 cos 2ft = v 0 cos t

where =2f is known as the angular frequency

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

A phase shift is equivalent to a time shift -/

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Current in phase with voltage

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Current leads voltage by /2 (90)

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Thus resistance varies between : not a useful concept

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

where v0 is the amplitude

The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Current lags voltage by /2 (90)

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

The reactance of an inductor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Resistance and Reactance

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Expanding the expression for vc:

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

At an angular frequency =1/RC:

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Complex numbers are often the solutions of real problems,

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Complex Numbers: Polar Form

where r is the magnitude, and is the angle measured from

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Complex Numbers: Conversion

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Complex Numbers: Inversion