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PDH - e 138
PDH - e 138
2012
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Part I:
Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions
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I.
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Introduction:
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the development
and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure 1-1 shows the basic
components of a control system. Disregard the complexity of the system, it consists of an input
(objective), the control system and its output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities are
affected by some type of control systems. There are two main branches of control systems: 1)
Open-loop systems and 2) Closed-loop systems.
Control
Element
Input/Objective
Output/Result
Controller
Engine
Actual
speed
Controller
Engine
Speed
sensor
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Actual
speed
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Block Diagrams:
Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control engineers to
describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition
and interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to
represent the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined
as the relationship between an input signal and an output signal to a device.
Three most basic simplifying rules are described in detail as follows.
Series Connection
R(s)
G1(s)
C(s)
G2(s)
C(s ) = G 1 (s )G 2 (s )R (s )
R(s)
G1(s)G2(s)
C(s)
C(s )
= G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
R (s )
Parallel Connection
R(s)
G1(s)
G2(s)
C(s ) = [G 1 (s ) + G 2 (s )]R (s )
R(s)
G1(s)+G2(s)
C(s )
= G 1 (s ) + G 2 (s )
R (s )
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C(s)
C(s)
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R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
H(s)
C(s ) = G (s )E(s )
E(s ) = R (s ) H(s )C(s )
(Error)
C(s ) =
G (s )
R (s )
1 + G (s )H(s )
R(s)
G (s )
1 + G(s)H(s)
C(s)
C(s )
G (s )
=
R (s ) 1 + G (s )H(s )
Some basic rules of simplifying block diagrams are tabulated in Table 1-1.
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(1-1)
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Original Structure
R(s)
G1(s)
G1(s)
G2(s)
R(s) +
R(s)
C(s)
G2(s)
R(s)
Equivalent Structure
R(s)
C(s)
C(s)
G1(s)
C(s)
G1(s)G2(s)
C(s)
G1(s)G2(s)
R(s)
C(s)
G 1 (s )
1 m G 1 (s)G 2 (s)
G2(s)
Z
W
4
X
5
X
X
1
G
X
Y
G
G
G
G
1
G
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Y
X
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Example 1-1: Find the transfer function of the closed-loop system below.
R(s) +
4
s +1
C(s)
1
s
Solution:
Use case 1 to combine the two series blocks
R(s) +
C(s)
4
s(s + 1)
Example 1-2: Find the transfer function of the closed-loop system below.
R(s) +
-
G1(s)
G2(s)
C(s)
H(s)
Solution:
Use case 3 to simplify the inner feedback loop to obtain the following block diagram.
R(s) +
-
G1(s)
G 2 (s )
1 + G 2 (s )H(s )
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C(s)
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R(s) +
-
C(s)
Use case 3 to obtain the transfer function for the standard feedback system.
G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
1 + G 2 (s )H(s )
G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
C(s )
=
=
G (s )G 2 (s )
1 + G 2 (s )H(s ) + G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
R (s )
1+ 1
1 + G 2 (s )H(s )
Example 1-3: Find the transfer function of the closed-loop system below.
G5
+
G1
+
G2
G3
G4
Solution:
Use case 3 to simplify the inner feedback blocks.
+
_
G2
1 G 2G 5
G1
G4
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G3
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+
_
G2
1 G 2G 5
G1
G3
1
G3
G4
G1G 2G 3
1 G 2G 5
G4
G3
Use 3 to calculate the overall transfer function of the system
G 1G 2 G 3
1 G 2G 5
G 1G 2 G 3
C
=
=
GG G G
1 G 2 G 5 + G 1G 2 G 4
R
1+ 1 2 3 4
1 G 2G 5 G 3
G1(s)
+
G2(s)
H(s)
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C(s)
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G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
R (s )
1 + G 1 (s )G 2 (s )H(s )
(1-2)
(ii) Similarly, the component C " (s ) produced by D(s) exists only (R(s)=0)
C " (s ) =
G 2 (s )
D(s )
1 + G 1 (s )G 2 (s )H(s )
(1-3)
G 1 (s )G 2 (s )
G 2 (s )
R (s ) +
D(s )
1 + G 1 (s )G 2 (s )H(s )
1 + G 1 (s )G 2 (s )H(s )
(1-4)
(1-5)
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Mason Rule:
C(s)
G(s) =
=
R(s)
G (s)
i
(2-1)
where
Gi(s) = path gain of the ith forward path,
=
1-all individual loop gains + gain products of all possible two loops which do not
touch gain products of all possible three loops that do not touch + ,
i = the ith forward path determinant = the value of for that part of the block diagram that
does not touch the ith forward path.
A forward path is a path from the input to the output such that no node is included more than
once. Any closed path that returns to its starting node is a loop, and a path that leads from a
given variable back to the same variable is defined as a loop path. A path is a continuous
sequence of nodes, with direction specified by the arrows, with no node repeating.
Example 2-1: A block diagram of control canonical form is shown below. Find the transfer
function of the system.
b1
+
+
b2
R
1/s
+
1/s
1/s
b3
-a1
-a2
-a3
Solution:
Forward path
1
2
3
Path gain
G 1 = 1 (b1 )
s
1
1 (b )
G2 =
s s 2
G 3 = 1 1 1 (b3 )
s s s
( )
( )( )
( )( )( )
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Loop path
l1 = 1 ( a1 )
s
1
1 ( a 2 )
l2 =
s s
l3 = 1 1 1 ( a3 )
s s s
( )
( )( )
( )( )( )
3 = 1 (0) .
b1s 2 + b2 s + b3
C(s ) G 1 1 + G 2 2 + G 3 3 s
s2
s3
=
=
= 3
a
a
a
R (s )
s + a1s 2 + a 2 s + a3
1+ 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
s
s
s
R
H2
H3
H4
H5
Solution:
Forward path
1
2
Path gain
G 1 = H1
G 2 = H 2 H3H 4
Loop path
l1 = H 3 H 5
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R (s )
1 H 3H5
H1
H2
H3
H5
H7
Solution:
Forward path
1
2
Path gain
G1 = H 4
G 2 = H1H 2 H 3
Loop path
l1 = H 1 H 5 ; (does not touch l3 )
l2 = H 2 H 6
l3 = H 3 H 7 ; (does not touch l1 )
l4 = H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5
The determinants are
= 1 (l1 + l 2 + l 3 + l 4 ) + (l1 l3 ) = 1 (H 1 H 5 + H 2 H 6 + H 3 H 7 + H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 ) + (H 1 H 5 H 3 H 7 ) ;
1 = 1 (l 2 ) = 1 (H 2 H 6 ) ; (note the forward path 1 does not touch loop path 2)
2 = 1 (0) ;
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R (s )
1 (H 1 H 5 + H 2 H 6 + H 3 H 7 + H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 ) + (H 1 H 5 H 3 H 7 )
Example 2-4: The block diagram of a closed-loop system is shown below. For simplicity, all the
blocks represent ideal amplifiers. Determine the ratio
C
.
R
4
R
_
+
_
+
_
Solution:
(7 2 3 5)1
C
210
210
=
=
=
= 0.6931
R 1 [( 6 2 3) + ( 4 7 2) + ( 1 7 2 3 5)] 1 + 36 + 56 + 210 303
Masons rule is useful for solving relatively complicated block diagrams by hand. It
yields the solution to the graph in the sense that it provides an explicit input-output relationship
for the system represented by the diagram. The advantage as compared to path-by-path
reduction is that it is systematic and algorithmic.
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Routh Test:
A mathematical method for determining the stability of a system from the open-loop
transfer function is the Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion (Routh Test). A simplified closed-loop
system is shown in Figure 3-1. Its transfer function is expressed as follows:
C(s )
G (s )
N(s )
=
=
,
R (s ) 1 + G (s )H(s ) D(s )
(3-1)
where N(s) denotes the numerator and D(s) denotes the denominator.
E(s)
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
H(s)
a 0 s n + a1s n -1 + a 2 s n - 2 + a 3 s n -3 + a n 1s + a n = 0 .
(3-2)
The coefficients are arranged into the first two rows of an array. Additional rows are calculated.
Routh Table
sn
a0
a2
a4
a6
s n -2
s n -3
a1
b1
c1
a3
b2
c2
a5
b3
c3
a7
s1
s0
q1
r1
n -1
b1 =
a1a 2 a 0 a3
;
a1
a3b1 a1b2
;
b1
c1 =
b2 =
a1a 4 a 0 a5
;
a1
b3 =
a1a 6 a 0 a 7
;
a1
c2 =
a5 b1 a1b3
;
b1
c3 =
a 7 b1 a1b4
;
b1
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To be a stable system, the necessary and sufficient condition for all the roots of the
characteristic equation to have negative real parts is that all the elements in the first column be of
the same sign and none zero. Whenever there is a sign change, it indicates the number of poles
in the right-half-plane (RHP) of s-Plane. To be a stable system, all the poles need to be in the
left-half-plane (LHP) of s-Plane.
Example 3-1: For the closed-loop system, find the characteristic equation and the range for K to
have a stable system.
R(s) +
K
s(2s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
C(s)
Solution:
K
C(s )
K
K
s(2s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
=
= 3
=
K
R (s )
s(2s + 1)(0.5s + 1) + K s + 2.5s 2 + s + K
1+
1
s(2s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
The characteristic equation: s 3 + 2.5s 2 + s + K = 0
Routh Table
s3
2
s
s1
s0
2.5 K
b1
c1
b1 =
2.5 1 K 1
2.5
(1)
c1 =
K b1 2.5 0
=K
b1
(2)
K>0
From (1)
Therefore,
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Example 3-2: Find the range of K so that the system shown is stable.
where G p (s ) =
G p (s )
2
.
s + 4s + 5s + 2
3
Solution:
The characteristic Equation can be obtained by
1 + KG p (s )H(s ) = 0
1+
2K
=0
s + 4s 2 + 5s + 2
3
s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + (2 + 2K )
=0
s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + 2
Therefore,
CE = s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + (2 + 2K ) = 0
Routh Table:
s3
s2
s1
s0
b1 =
1
4
b1
c1
5
(2 + 2K )
4 5 1 (2 + 2K ) 9 K
=
4
2
(1)
b1 (2 + 2K ) 0 0
= 2 + 2K
(2)
b1
To have a stable system, b1 and c1 must be greater than zero.
c1 =
From (2)
2 + 2K > 0
K > 1
From (1)
9K
>0
2
K<9
1 < K < 9
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1
15
b1
c1
d1
e1
20 5
10 100
b2
c2
b1 =
15 20 1 10 290
=
= 19.333 > 0
15
15
b2 =
15 5 1 100 25
=
= 1.667
15
15
c1 =
c2 =
19.333 100 15 0
= 100
19.333
d1 =
e1 =
Since d 1 is negative while the other elements in the first column are positive, the system
is unstable and has two poles on the right-half-plane (RHP). The number of poles on the righthalf-plane is determined by the number of changing sign of the elements in the first column of
the Routh Table. Figure 3-2 shows the Routh Table with only the elements in the first column
and when the sign changes take place.
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s5
s4
s3
15
19.333
s2
s1
11.293
172.862
+
+
+
_
s0
100
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Special Cases:
1.
2.
The first element in any one row of the Routh Table is zero, but the other elements
are not.
The elements in one row of the Routh Table are all zero.
In the first case, if a zero appears in the first position of a row, the elements in the next row will
all become infinite, and the Routh Test breaks down. In this case, one may replace the zero
element in the Routh Table by an arbitrary small positive number and then proceed with the
Routh Test.
Example 3-4: The Characteristic Equation of a closed-loop system is
CE = s 3 3s + 2
Is this system stable?
Solution:
Routh Table
s3
1 -3
2
s
0 2
1
s
Because of the zero in the first element of the second row, the first element of the third row is
infinite. In this case one may replace zero with a small positive number , then start a new Routh
Table
3
s3
1
2
s
2
3 2
s1
0
s0
2
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3 2
2
approaches
, which is a negative number, thus,
there are two sign changes in the first column of the Routh Table. Therefore the system is
unstable.
In the second case, when all the elements in one row of the Routh Table are zeros, the test breaks
down. The equation that is formed by using the coefficients of the row just above the row of
zeros is called the auxiliary equation. Routh Test may be carried on by performing the following
steps:
1.
Take the derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s.
2.
Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients of the resultant equation obtained by
taking the derivative of the auxiliary equation.
3.
Carry on the Routh Test in the usual manner with the newly formed table.
Example 3-5: The Characteristic Equation of a closed-loop system is
CE = s 5 + 4s 4 + 8s 3 + 8s 2 + 7s + 4 = 0
Is this system stable?
Solution:
Routh Table
s5
1
8
7
4
s
4
8
4
32
8
28
4
s3
=6
=6 0
4
4
48 24
24 0
s2
=4
=4 0
6
6
24 24
00
s1
=0
=0
4
4
Since a row of zeros appears, we form the auxiliary equation using coefficients of s 2 row. The
auxiliary equation is
A(s ) = 4s 2 + 4 = 0
The derivative of A(s ) with respect to s is
dA(s )
= 8s = 0
ds
The coefficients 8 and 0 are used to replace the row of zeros in the Routh Table and complete the
Routh Table as
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s5
s
s3
4
6
8
6
4
0
s2
s1
0 from
s0
32 0
=4
8
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dA(s )
ds
From the newly completed Routh Table, since the coefficients in the first column of the table are
all positive, the system is stable.
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References:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
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