Technical Paper

BR-1834

NOx Reduction Strategy Using a SOFA

System in Tangentially Fired Boilers at
Lingan Generating Station

Authors:
J. Pham
Babcock & Wilcox Canada
Cambridge, Ontario, Canada
D. Wasyluk
Babcock & Wilcox
Power Generation Group, Inc.
Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A.
W. Small
Nova Scotia Power
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Presented to:
2009 Power-Gen International
Conference
Date:
December 8-10, 2009
Location:
Las Vegas, NV, U.S.A.

NOx Reduction Strategy Using an SOFA System in Tangentially

Fired Boilers at Lingan Generating Station
J. Pham
Babcock & Wilcox Canada
Cambridge, Ontario, Canada

D. Wasyluk
Babcock & Wilcox
Power Generation Group, Inc.
Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A.

Presented to:
2009 Power-Gen International Conference
December 8-10, 2009
Las Vegas, NV, U.S.A.

W. Small
Nova Scotia Power
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

BR-1834

Abstract
Nova Scotia Power Incorporated (NSPI) operates four
coal-fired generating stations supplying about half of the
provinces electricity needs. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) from
the stations had increased with both higher thermal generating load and petroleum coke blending as major contributors
since 2000. NSPI began assessing options to reduce NOx
emissions in 2005 and embarked on a multi-phase plan to
reduce overall NOx emissions by at least 40%. This paper
addresses strategic planning, design considerations, and
performance test results of the separated overfire air (SOFA)
NOx reduction program at the Lingan Generating Station.

Introduction
Nova Scotia Power is a vertically integrated, regulated
subsidiary of Halifax-based Emera Inc. which owns and
operates most of the electricity generation for the province
of Nova Scotia in Atlantic Canada. The generation is a mix
of renewable and fossil fuels totalling 2293MWe. Renewable energy sources include 33 small hydroelectric plants
on six rivers, two wind turbines, and one tidal plant. The
rest of the generation capacity is thermal which includes a
183MW circulating fluidized bed (CFB) unit at Point Aconi;
four 160MW tangentially fired units at Lingan; two 185MW
wall fired units at Trenton; a 155MW tangentially fired unit
at Point Tupper; and seven single-cycle combustion turbines.
The thermal plants are fuelled by coal and petroleum coke
while the combustion turbines burn oil and natural gas.
Since 2005, Nova Scotia Power has developed a strategy
for sustainable reductions in emissions including greenhouse gases. The plan focuses on three priorities: increase
generation from renewable sources, take a leadership role
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in advancing and delivering electricity-based conservation

and energy efficiency, and decrease emissions from current
generating facilities. With respect to renewable energy, Nova
Scotia Power is rapidly expanding its portfolio of generation
from wind and other renewable sources. In addition to the
wind turbines which are already in operation, 240MW of additional wind capacity contract is presently being negotiated
and finalized with independent power producers. In addition
to wind, Nova Scotia Power has formulated a plan to co-fire
biomass in the CFB and coal-fired boilers and use landfill gas
in combustion turbines. With regard to conservation and efficient use of existing generating assets, Nova Scotia Power
offers both industrial and residential customers participation
in a demand side management program with load shifting,
as well as time-of-day rates. These programs provide value
to all customers by avoiding the addition of new generation
capacity. They also help to curtail peak load demand from
fossil fuel generation. Nova Scotia Power is decreasing
emissions from its existing fossil fuel generation as part
of the companys strategy for a cleaner, greener future for
Nova Scotia. Considerable progress has been made toward
reduction of emissions through new installation of baghouses
at the Trenton station, low sulphur fuel switching, low NOx
combustion retrofitting, and adding new equipment for mercury capture at Lingan, Trenton, and Point Tupper stations.
This paper provides an overview of the NOx formation
and reduction techniques, addresses the separated overfire
air (SOFA) design approach, and presents baseline and
post-retrofit performance test results of the NOx reduction
program at Lingan Generating Station.

NOx formation mechanism

NOx in the flue gas is a result of oxidizing either nitrogen

in fuel (fuel NOx) or nitrogen in combustion air (thermal
NOx). Generally for coal-firing, influenced by the type of
fuel, less than 25 percent of the NOx produced is thermal
NOx and the balance is fuel NOx. Nitrogen oxides consist
of 90 to 95 percent nitric oxide (NO) with the balance occurring as nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Once the flue gas leaves
the stack, the bulk of the NO is oxidized in the atmosphere
forming NO2.

Thermal NOx refers to the NOx formed through high

temperature oxidization of the nitrogen found in combustion air. The mechanism of thermal NOx formation was first
described by Zeldovich (1946) and later modified to what is
referred to as the extended Zeldovich mechanism (Sarofim
and Pohl, 1972) as shown in the following equations:
N2 + O NO + N
N + O2 NO + O
N + OH NO + H
Sarofim and Pohl observed that the rate of thermal NOx
formation is strongly dependent on temperature, as well as
on the residence time that the nitrogen element is oxidized
at high temperature. MacKinnon (1974) later found that
significant levels of NOx are usually formed above 1538oC,
under oxidizing conditions with exponential increase, as the
temperature is increased. Using data obtained from benchscale tests that measure NOx in a heated mixture of N2, O2,
and argon, he showed that thermal NOx can be predicted
using the following equation:
[NO] = K1e(-K2/T)[N2][O2]1/2t
Where: [ ] = mole fraction

T = temperature

t = time
K1,K2 = constants
From the above equation, thermal NOx can be reduced
by limiting residence time, reducing temperature and concentrations of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). Furthermore,
the exponential temperature expressed in the equation demonstrates its importance in the control of thermal NOx. In
practice, the Zeldovich mechanism is sufficient to predict
NOx only in the regions downstream from the flame front.
Because of the very short residence time, the Zeldovich
reactions proved inadequate. Subsequent investigation by
De Soeto (1973) showed that, as in Zeldovichs reaction,
the temperature reduction in all cases reduced prompt NOx;
however, additional O2 increased NO for fuel-rich flame
fronts but decreased NO for fuel-lean flame fronts. The understanding of the effect of fuel-rich versus fuel-lean flame
fronts on NOx production rate leads to the development of
air and fuel staging methods for thermal NOx reduction.
2

Although the kinetics involved in the conversion of organically bound nitrogen compounds found in fossil fuels
are not yet fully understood, numerous investigations (Habelt
& Howell 1976, Habelt 1977, Pershing & Wendt 1976, Pohl
& Sarofim 1976) have shown that the major source of NOx
emissions is nitrogen bearing fuels such as coal and oil.
Although there is little doubt that fuel bound nitrogen is an
important contributor in the formation of NOx, the mechanism involved in the transformation of fuel bound nitrogen
to NO is very complex. It appears that the majority of the
fuel NOx formation occurs by two separate paths. The first
involves the oxidization of volatile nitrogen species during
the initial phase of combustion. During the release, and
prior to the oxidization of the volatile compounds, nitrogen
reacts to form several intermediate compounds in the fuel
rich flame regions. These intermediate compounds are then
oxidized to NO or reduced to N2 in the post-combustion
zone. The formation of either NO or N2 is strongly dependent on the local fuel/air stoichiometric ratio. The second
reaction path involves the release of nitrogen radicals during
combustion of the char fraction of the fuel. These reactions
occur much more slowly than the reactions involving the
volatile species. These investigators have made quantitative measurements in laboratory scale, tests conducted by
Habelt (1977), burning fuel oil in a mixture of oxygen and
carbon dioxide, which has shown a remarkable correlation
between the percentage of nitrogen in the fuel and NOx
formation. However, similar tests run for various coals
have not produced similar results. Clearly, the coal test burn
results indicate that the fuel-nitrogen conversion rate is not
constant, but varies widely depending more on coal rank
than on actual nitrogen content. Pershing and Wendt (1976)
further isolated fuel NOx by burning coal in a synthetic oxidant mixture that has a specific heat similar to air, however,
containing no nitrogen: the mixture consists of 21 percent
oxygen, 19 percent carbon dioxide, and 61 percent argon.
On the basis of four different coals, the studies showed that
the fuel NOx, unlike thermal NOx, was relatively insensitive
to flame temperature.

In-furnace NOx reduction techniques

The investigations of the nature of NOx formation have

enabled scientists and engineers to develop control techniques for reducing NOx emissions in fossil-fuel power
plants. Because NOx is formed during the combustion
process, initial research has focused primarily on controlling NOx at the source, which is referred to as combustion
control or in-furnace NOx reduction techniques. It has been
recognized that NOx formation is promoted by rapid fuelair mixing. This produces high peak flame temperatures
and excess available oxygen, which in turn promotes NOx
formation. The countermeasures involved in low NOx
combustion system developments include generous furnace
sizing to reduce the thermal loading to the combustion zone,
low NOx burners to reduce the rate of combustion and peak
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flame temperatures, air staging and fuel staging with overfire

air (OFA) ports and reburners to reduce combustion zone
stoichiometry, and flue gas recirculation to the combustion
air to depress flame temperature. Depending on the desired
level of NOx reduction, for wall fired boilers, low NOx
burners with OFA are a popular choice to meet a moderate
(20 ~ 50%) NOx reduction target. For 70% or higher NOx
reduction, reburning with flue gas recirculation to burners
is used with low NOx burners and OFA (Pham & MacLean,
2006, 2007).
In a tangentially fired boiler, staged combustion has
been widely used in NOx control. This technique involves
removing a portion of the combustion air (staged air) from
the main combustion zone, to reduce stoichiometry during
combustion and thus reduce formation of both fuel and
thermal NOx. This staged air is then introduced through
ports downstream to complete the combustion process. The
reduction of NOx emissions with this technique ranges from
20% to 60% depending on the units baseline NOx emissions
levels and other factors including operating excess air concentration, fuel combustion equipment design and arrangement, as well as fuel type. The use of OFA in tangentially
fired unit results in significant decreases in NOx emissions
and is by far the most cost-effective technique for reducing
NOx emissions from units of this design. However, while
reducing (sub-stoichiometric) conditions result in significant
NOx reduction, increased levels of unburned carbon (UBC)
and CO can occur. The extent of these increases is most
dependent on the design of the OFA system and on fuel properties. Waterwall wastage may also occur with the degree
dependent on such factors as unit design (eight versus four
corners), heat release rates, coal composition (high versus
low sulphur), UBC, and tube temperature.

Low NOx combustion retrofit for tangentially fired boilers

Tangentially fired boilers are characterized by the introduction of fuel and combustion air at alternating elevations
through the corners of the boiler, tangent to an imaginary
circle in the middle of the furnace. The firing system design
is characterized by the introduction of fuel with primary air
at distinct elevations. Each elevation of coal nozzles receives
coal from one pulverizer. A small portion of the secondary
combustion air is introduced through the windbox co-annular
to the pulverized coal primary stream. The majority of secondary air is introduced through air compartments located
above and below each fuel admission assembly. This method
of air and fuel introduction results in lower NOx emissions
than those produced with other methods of fuel firing. Slower
mixing of fuel and air results in the creation of hydrocarbon
fragments that contain nitrogen in a reducing atmosphere,
and thus reduces the production of NOx. Traditionally, air
staging in tangentially fired boilers has involved a closecoupled overfire air system with compartments located
integral to and at the top of the existing windbox and/or just
above the main windbox. However, providing separation
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distance between the OFA levels and the main combustion

air zone delivers the most effective and maximum reduction
in NOx emissions. Thus, to maximize the reduction of NOx
emissions from a tangentially fired unit via modifications to
the combustion system, Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group, Inc. (B&W PGG) has developed a standard approach for the utilization of a separated overfire air (SOFA)
low NOx system that is customized on a unit-by-unit basis.
The typical system includes the following additions and
modifications to the existing combustion equipment:
Installation of SOFA ports above the main windboxes
in bent-tube waterwall openings,
Increased separation between the auxiliary air and fuel
admission nozzles to allow for delayed mixing of fuel
and air during the initial stages of combustion,
Reduction of secondary air flow through reduced size
air nozzles while maintaining system pressure drop
characteristics and injection velocities for efficient
mixing of air and fuel under staged conditions,
Reduction of the secondary airflow control damper
size for better control of the secondary airflow, and
Addition of separate tilt control of under bottom end
air admission nozzles for improved CO control.
SOFA ports are most effective when located approximately 15 to 30 feet above the top fuel firing elevation. Locating
the ports lower reduces their effectiveness (i.e., requiring
the use of additional OFA); locating them at a higher elevation, while not affecting their NOx performance, may affect
combustible losses and possibly steam temperatures. The
SOFA system for tangentially fired boilers is designed to:
Maximize NOx emissions reductions,
Maximize mixing of OFA with the flue gases to allow
for minimal increases in unburned combustibles,
Minimize modifications to the boiler buckstays and
sootblowers, and
Maximize access to affected elevations of the boiler.
As mentioned above, tangential firing involves the
injection of fuel and air at the corners of the furnace at an
angle tangent to an imaginary circle located in the middle
of the furnace. It is typical that the fuel and secondary air
are injected at an angle of 4 to 6 degrees off the diagonal
of the furnace. The angle allows for imparting rotation to
the reacting jets of fuel and air. Another significant factor
influencing the rotation of reacting streams (fireball) is the
injection velocity. Specifically, the velocity, along with the
mass of the fuel and air, imparts a swirling action, which is
necessary to stabilize the flames in the furnace.
The secondary air velocity is set based on two major
criteria: fuel reactivity and furnace size. Fuels with high
reactivity, such as natural gas or pulverized western subbituminous coal, require higher injection velocities of secondary air. This allows for flame fronts to be located away
from the burner corners while maintaining proper flame
stability. Proper operation of tangentially fired fuel combustion systems requires maintaining acceptable secondary air
3

velocities whenever changes are made to the combustion

system, such as the addition of separated overfire air. This
is accomplished by reducing the auxiliary air compartment
and nozzle sizes.
Proper sizing of the damper box opening for each compartment is important in achieving smooth unit operation
over the load range. During load changes, the units windbox-to-furnace differential pressure is controlled, to assure
proper secondary air distribution within the main windbox.
The auxiliary air dampers modulate to maintain windboxto-furnace differential pressure setpoint. The reduction in
secondary airflow of the nozzle tips requires a proportionate
reduction in the corresponding dampers flow area. Typically, the damper free area is approximately twice as large
as the nozzle tips free flow area. Should the free area of the
damper box not be appropriately reduced, minor changes in
damper position will create large changes in flow through
the compartment, causing changes in windbox-to-furnace
differential pressure and resulting in less stable control of
air flow. If the existing damper system is in good working
order, damper box free area reduction is accomplished by
trimming and/or disabling damper blades and installing low
pressure drop venturi plates to reduce flow area.
The main windbox nozzles and dampers are resized using a proprietary program to optimize secondary air mass
flow velocity and distribution. This is to assure that all main
windbox dampers will remain in control of windbox pressure
over the load range when the SOFA ports are in service.

Description of the Lingan Generating

Units
The boilers at Lingan Generating Station were commissioned between 1979 and 1984 and are, subcritical, single
reheat, controlled circulation, balanced draft, four corner
tangential fired tower units. Each unit is rated at 1,080,260 lb/
hr superheated steam at 1005oF and 1850 psig and 957,500
lb/hr reheat steam at 1005oF. The boilers were originally
designed to burn high volatile, bituminous coal with full
load capability firing heavy fuel oil. Currently, the unit fires
a variety of blended solid fuels including petroleum coke
(petcoke), low sulfur South American coals that may have
either high or low heating value, U.S. mid-sulfur, Powder
River Basin, and others. Blending of fuels takes place at the
front end and is supplied to all mills as opposed to dedicating
mills to individual fuels.
Pulverized coal is supplied by four 663 RS exhauster
mills. There are four coal elevations per corner for a total
of 16 burners. Each mill supplies coal to one complete coal
elevation (four burners, one per corner). Full load can be
achieved with three mills in service depending on coal types
and blended compositions.
Prior to the NOx reduction retrofits, the original windbox
compartment arrangement and nozzle designs had never
been modified to reduce NOx. Each corner windbox assembly consisted of 10 compartments: four coal, two auxiliary
air/oil, one intermediate auxiliary air, one top end air, one
4

bottom end air and one close-coupled OFA. The intermediate auxiliary air compartment had been decommissioned in
that the oil gun has been removed and the dampers locked
closed. The remaining two oil levels could achieve approximately 65% load or 100MWe.

Design and guarantee fuels

Design and performance guarantee fuels used for each
unit are as shown in Table 1. Regarding petroleum coke,
having extremely low volatile content and grindability index,
it exhibits similar ignition and combustion characteristics
to that of a hard to burn anthracite coal. With its high fixed
carbon (FC) content and low volatile matter (VM), the
resulting high FC/VM ratio is an indication that petcoke is
a high NOx producing fuel. In addition to increasing NOx
emissions, it is known that raising the petcoke input above
20% will significantly increase unburned carbon (UBC).

Description of combustion system

modifications
The low NOx modification consisted of adding separated
overfire air (SOFA) to provide deeper staging capability,
and modifying the main windbox air nozzles and air control
dampers. The main windbox modifications involved the replacement of existing air and coal nozzle tips with reduced
nozzle sizes and corresponding reductions in damper size.
These changes are to compensate for reduced secondary air
flow to the main windboxes resulting from the SOFA addition. They are to ensure that proper secondary air velocity
damper control be maintained over the normal load range
during low NOx operation.
With respect to the new SOFA system, four SOFA ports,
one at each corner, are located approximately 22 feet above
the top coal elevation. The selected SOFA elevation was
deemed best suited for the modifications. That is, it provides
adequate separation distance and residence time above the
top coal elevation for effective NOx control, while allowing
sufficient time to complete combustion prior to leaving the
furnace. Complete combustion minimizes unburned carbon
in flyash and avoids upper furnace slagging. Moreover, the
selected SOFA location would facilitate easy supply air duct
routing while not interfering with the existing buckstays.
Furthermore, locating the SOFA port higher may provide
lower NOx, but would be too close to the superheater and
would affect heat absorption and steam temperature as well
as increased unburned carbon due to reduced residence time.
The SOFA assembly as shown in Figure 1 consists of two
separate air compartments with integral turning vanes and
independent flow control dampers. This feature provides
operational flexibility, in that one or both compartments can
be controlled to provide optimal air velocity and furnace
penetration over the entire boiler load ranges to control NOx,
CO and carbon burnout. Moreover, the flow control dampers
are opposed blade type, providing even air distribution and
a linear air flow relationship, compared to the parallel blade
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Table 1
Bituminous Coal and Petroleum Coke Fuel Analysis
Unit 1
(2008)
80% Colombian

Units 2 & 4
(2007)
20% US
Appalachian

65% Venezuelan

Unit 3
(2006)

35% US
Appalachian

80% Colombian

20%
Petcoke

12.36

9.13

Proximate analysis, % Wt, as Received

Moisture

10.06

11.25

12.33

7.39

Ash

6.84

8.12

5.47

7.84

8.28

0.50

Fixed carbon

47.63

45.01

47.66

46.29

53.30

89.16

Volatile matter

35.47

35.62

34.54

38.48

38.42

10.34

HHV, Btu/lb

12044

12069

11807

12812

13126

15409

Ultimate analysis, % Wt, as Received

Carbon

69.53

68.14

67.31

70.87

79.18

88.34

Hydrogen

4.76

4.70

4.61

4.93

5.52

3.61

Nitrogen

1.44

1.23

1.40

1.26

1.52

2.33

Oxygen

6.64

3.90

8.04

4.51

4.73

0.51

Sulfur

0.70

2.65

0.83

3.20

0.77

4.52

Moisture

10.06

11.25

12.33

7.39

12.36

9.13

Ash

6.84

8.12

5.47

7.84

8.28

0.50

type design. Furthermore, each SOFA assembly is equipped

with a manual tilt wheel drive to tilt both air compartments
in unison online through a range of +/- 30 degree and two
manual yaw mechanisms for online horizontal yaw adjustment through a range of +/- 15 degree for additional NOx
and CO control.

Pre and post modification results

The low NOx combustion retrofit program at Lingan
Generating Station was conducted in three stages, each
stage involving a separate competitive bidding and contract award process. Unit 3 low NOx conversion contract

Fig. 1 Isometric view of SOFA windbox assembly and wall opening.

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was awarded in 2005 and completed in 2006, Units 4 and

2 in 2006 and completed in 2007, and Unit 1 in 2007 and
completed in 2008.
With respect to the performance fuels, Lingan station
utilizes a wide range of imported bituminous coals and
petroleum coke as shown in Table 1. The fuels and blended
compositions used for performance guarantees were different for each unit. The performance fuel used for Unit 3
is based on 80% Columbian coal and 20% petcoke; Units
2 and 4 was based on 65% low sulphur Venezuelan coal
and 35% mid sulphur U.S. Appalachian coal; Unit 1 was
based on 80% Columbian coal and 20% mid sulphur U.S.
Appalachian coal. Pre and post fuel analyses were similar
to enable a true comparison.
Nova Scotia Power conducted pre modification tests to
establish baseline boiler performance and emissions for
each unit, under normal full load operating conditions,
burning the performance fuels as specified above. After
the modification for each unit was completed, post retrofit
tests were conducted for each unit to prove performance
guarantee compliance.
Unit 3 was tested with 4 mills in service and burner tilt
at +10o, Units 2 and 4 tests were conducted having the top
3 mills in service and burner tilt was set at+10o, Unit 1
was tested with the top 3 mills in service and burner tilt at
level. Figures 2, 3, and 4 are comparisons of pre and post
modification NOx, UBC, and CO, respectively.
Each unit achieved over 50% reduction in NOx emissions
with small increases in UBC and CO. The pre modification
NOx emissions as shown in Figure 2 were higher with
petcoke, as expected. Approximately 35% higher NOx
5

Fig. 2 Pre and Post modification NOx

emissions were observed for the 80/20 coal and petcoke

blend composition compared to Units 3 and 1 with the
same proportion of Columbian coal. With regard to Unit 4
performance, post modification CO was higher. Although the
percentage increase was large, the absolute CO value was
32 ppm. CO less than 100 ppm is considered normal for a
coal fired unit with SOFA, burning these blends of coals. It
should also be noted that the NOx emissions with all mills
or bottom 3 mills in service were substantially lower than
shown on Figure 2 and ranged from 0.18 to 0.22 lb/MBtu
at full load with similar CO levels.
The addition of the SOFA ports extends the furnace
combustion zone further to the furnace exit plane. This
would alter the furnace absorption, however the effect was
insignificant in changing the main steam and reheat steam
temperature profile or the boiler efficiency. The post modification steam temperatures, as well as boiler efficiency, were
essentially unchanged from baseline.

Conclusion

Fig. 3 Pre and Post modification unburned carbon in flyash

The SOFA additions to the Lingan units have enabled

Nova Scotia Power to achieve over 50% NOx reduction with
small increases in CO and UBC. Lower furnace corrosion
risk has been one of the biggest concerns associated with
stage combustion. However, Unit 3 has been the first unit in
operation with SOFA at the reduced atmosphere condition
since 2006 with no sign of corrosion. Furthermore, all units
have been able to maintain the same emissions performance
and there has been no degradation since the acceptance tests.
Achieving reduction of NOx emissions from all of its coal
fired boilers is helping Nova Scotia Power fulfill one of its
initiatives in reaching its goal going toward a cleaner and
greener future for Nova Scotia.

Fig. 4 Pre and Post modification CO

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International in Orlando, Florida, USA. November
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at 1050MWe Coleson Cove Generating Station Using
Reburn, WFGD, and WESP Technologies. Presented
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