2.

Limit rules and examples

Theorem 2.3.1. If limxa f (x) and limxa g(x) exist, then limxa (f (x) + g(x)),
limxa cf (x), limxa (f (x) g(x)), limxa (f (x) g(x)), exist and
1. limxa (f (x)+g(x)) = limxa f (x)+limxa g(x)

limxa cf (x) = c limxa f (x)

2. limxa (f (x) g(x)) = limxa f (x) limxa g(x)

limxa f (x) limxx g(x).
3. If in addition, limxa g(x) = 0, then limxa

f x)
gx)

limxa (f (x) g(x)) =

exists and limxa

f x)
gx)

limx f x)
.
limx gx)

Remark 2.3.1. If the limits of f1 f2 . . . fn at a all exist, then so is the limits of

1. f1 + f2 + . . . fn exists and,
lim (f1 + f2 + . . . fn )(x) = lim f1 (x) + lim f2 (x) + . . . + lim fn (x);

xa

xa

xa

xa

2. and f1 f2 f3 . . . fn exists, and

lim (f1 f2 . . . fn )(x) = lim f1 (x) lim f2 (x) . . . lim fn (x).

xa

xa

xa

xa

Consequently, if f is a polynomial, then for each real number a, limxa f (x) exists
x)
is a rational function and limxa g(x) = g(a) = 0,
and limxa f (x) = f (a). If fgx)
then the limit of

f x)
gx)

at a exists and limxa

f x)
gx)

limx f x)
limx gx)

f a)
.
ga)

Example 2.3.1. Justify why each

limits exist and evaluate them: limx2 (2x2
of these
x2
3
2
3

5x + 7|x|) limx 2 (x + 3)( 2x + 1) limx1 x2 2x+3

.
1. If n is a positive integer, and a is a non zero number, then limxa

1
xn

1
.
an

2. If a is a real number and r is any rational number than limxa xr = ar .

n
3. In particular limaa
x= n a for all odd integer n and all real number a.

Similarly, limaa n x = n a for all even integer n and all real number a > 0.
4. limxa ex = ea for all real a.
5. limxa ln x = ln a for all a > 0.
6. limx0 sin x = 0 limx0 cos x = 1.
Denition 2.3.1. A function f dened on an open interval containing a number a
such that limxa f (x) = f (a) is said to be continuous at a.
7

Theorem 2.3.2 (Squeezing theorem). Assume that f (x) g(x) h(x) for all x in
some open interval about a except possibly at a itself. If limxa f (x) = limxa h(x) =
L, then limxa g(x) exists and limxa g(x) = L.
Example 2.3.2. Prove that limx0

sin x
x

= 1, and that limx0

cos x1
x

=0

Theorem 2.3.3 (Substitution rule). If limxa f (x) = c, then limxa g(f (x)) =
limyc g(y). In particular, if f is continuous at a and g is continuous at f (a), then
g(f (x)) is continuous at a and limxa g(f (x)) = g(f (a)).

Evaluate limx0 cos 2x2 + x + 4 .

2.4

One-sided and innite limits

Denition 2.4.1. Let f be dened on some open interval (c a). A number L is the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left (or the left-hand limit of f at a) if
for all > 0 there is > 0 such that if a < x < a then |f (x) L| < .
In this case we write
lim f (x) = L

xa

and we say that the left-hand limit of f at a exists, or that limxa f (x) exits.
Let f be dened on some open interval (a b). A number L is the limit of f (x) as
x approaches a from the right (or the right-hand limit of f at a) if
for all > 0 there is > 0 such that if a < x < a + then |f (x) L| < .
In this case we write
lim f (x) = L

xa+

and we say that the right-hand limit of f at a exists, or that limxa+ f (x) exits.
Example 2.4.1. Evaluate the following limits
1. limx2

x3 4x
x2

2. limx5+ x5
5x

3. limx3 x2 9
Theorem 2.4.1. Let f be dened on an open interval about a, except possibly at a
itself. Then limxa f (x) exists if and only if both one-sided limits, limxa+ f (x) and
limxa f (x) exist and limxa+ f (x) = limxa f (x). In this case, limxa f (x) =
limxa+ f (x) = limxa f (x).