Ramsey & Sleeper - Architectural Graphic Standards - (10th Edition) PDF

ARCHITECTURAL
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STANDARDS
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THE
AMERICAN
OF
INSTITUTE
ARCHITECTS
ARCHITECTURAL
STANDARDS
TENTH
EDITION
JOHN RAY HOKE, JR., FAIA

EDITOR IN CHIEF
L10HN
New York
Chichester
WILEY
Weinheim
&
SONS,
Brisbane
INC.
Singapore
Toronto
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The drawings, tables, data, and other information in this book have been
obtained from many sources, including government organizations, trade
associations, suppliers of building materials, and professional architects or
architecture firms. The American Institute of Architects (AlA), the
Architectural Graphic Standards Task Force of the AlA, and the publisher
have made. every reasonable effort to make this reference work accurate and
authoritative, but do not warrant, and assume any liability for, the accuracy or
completeness of the text or its fitness for any particular purpose. It is the
responsibility of users to apply their professional knowledge in the use of
information contained in this book, to consult the original sources for
additional information when appropriate, and, if they themselves are not
professional architects, to consult an architect when appropriate.
Copyright 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Ramsey, Charles George, 1884-1963.
[Architectural graphic standards]
Ramsey/Sleeper architectural graphic standards/John Ray Hoke, Jr., editor in chief.10th ed.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-34816-3 (cloth: alk. paper)
1. Building-Details-Drawing. 2. Building-Details-Drawings-Standards. I. Title:
Architectural graphic standards. II. Sleeper, Harold Reeve, 1893-1960. III. Hoke, John
Ray, 1950-IV. Title.
TH2031 .R35 2000
721'.028'4-dc21
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
99-087348
CONTENTS
Publisher's Note
Forevvord
Preface
ix
xi
A Vievv of Architectural Graphic

Standards at the Beginning of the
Tvventy-First Century xiii
Timeline
Acknovvledgments
xiv
A Tribute to
Architectural Graphic Standards
xv
xvi
GENERAL PLANNING AND

DESIGN DATA 1
SITEWORK
183
MASONRY
184
209
Masonry Mortar 210

Masonry Accessories 212
Masonry Units 218
Glass Unit Masonry 244
Stone 247
METALS
259
Metal Materials 260

Metal Fastenings 264
Structural Metal Framing 266
Metal Joists 273
Metal Deck 275
Cold-Formed Metal Framing 277
Metal Fabrications 284
Ornamental Metal 291
Expansion Control 296
Human Dimensions 2
I
Egress Planning 8
Building Systems 13
Seismic Design 37
Lighting Design 47
Acoustical Design 63
Building Security 73
Site, Community, and Urban Planning 81
Flood Damage Control 101
Automobiles, Roads, and Parking 103
Trucks, Trains, and Boats 115
Construction Information Systems 122
CONCRETE
Concrete Forms and Accessories

Concrete Reinforcement 189
Cast-in-Place Concrete 192
Precast Concrete 201
WOOD AND PLASTICS

Introduction 298
Design Load Tables 300
Wood Treatment 314
Wood and Plastic Fastenings 317
Rough Carpentry 323
Structural Panels 339
Heavy limber Construction 341
Wood Decking 352
Sheathing 355
Wood Trusses 361
Glued-Laminated Construction 373
Finish Carpentry 378
Architectural Woodwork 380
143
Subsurface Investigation 144

Excavation Support Systems 145
Piles and Caissons 146
Water Distribution 147
Sewerage and Drainage 148
Paving and Surfacing 156
Site Improvements and Amenities 159
Retaining Walls 170
Planting 177
297
Fireplaces and Stoves 570

Flagpoles 573
Identifying Devices 574
Lockers 576
Fire Protection Specialties 577
Protective Covers 579
Postal Specialties 583
Partitions 584
THERMAL AND MOISTURE

PROTECTION
397
Waterproofing and Dampproofing 398
Thermal Protection 402
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 404
Vapor Retarders 405
Shingles, Roofing Tiles, and Roof Coverings 406
Roofing and Siding Panels 413
Membrane Roofing 415
Flashing and Sheet Metal 429
Sheet Metal Roofing 434
Flashing 438
Roof Specialties and Accessories 450
Gutters and Downspouts 459
DOORS AND WINDOWS
11
463
Fire Rating and Security 464

Door and Window Openings
Metal Doors and Frames
Wood and Plastic Doors
467
469
473
Specialty Doors 478

Entrances and Storefronts
Windows
486
Skylights
498
Hardware
12
515
Plaster and Gypsum Board 516

Tile 531
Stone Floor and Wall Coverings 534
Terrazzo 538
Special Ceiling Surfaces 539
Special Flooring 541
Unit Masonry Flooring 542
Wood Flooring 543
Resilient Flooring 546
Carpet 547
Wall Coverings 549
Special Wall Surfaces 551
Acoustical Treatment 552
Paints and Coatings 556
Special Coatings 561
10
SPECIALTIES
FURNISHINGS
613
Lamps 614
General Use Furniture 615
School and Library Furniture 619
Residential Furniture 624
Classic and Contemporary Furniture
Ecclesiastical Furniture 635
Office Furniture 637
Interior Plants and Planters 641
503
FINISHES
587
482
Glazing 512
EQUIPMENT
Security and Vault Equipment 588

Teller and Service Equipment 589
Instrumental Equipment 591
Commercial Laundry and Dry Cleaning
Equipment 593
Vending Equipment 594
Audiovisual Equipment 595
Loading-Dock Equipment 598
Solid Waste Handling Equipment 599
Food Service Equipment 600
Residential Equipment 609
Darkroom Equipment 612
13
SPECIAL
CONSTRUCTION
627
643
Air-Supported Structures 644

Special Purpose Rooms 645
Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control 653
Radiation Protection 654
Pre-Engineered Structures 656
Building Automation and Control 660
Detection and Alarm 662
Fire Suppression 663
14
563
Compartments and Cubicles 564

Service Walls 565
Wall and Corner Guards 567
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
Elevators 666
Escalators and Moving Walks
Material Handling 673
vi
672
665
15
MECHANICAL
Historic Storefronts 857

Historic Structural Systems 858
Historic Interiors 860
677
Mechanical Insulation 678

Building Services Piping 679
Plumbing 690
Special Systems 704
Heat Generation Equipment 705
Refrigeration and Heat Transfer 710
HVAC Systems 716
Air Distribution 726
16
ELECTRICAL
20
Residential Room Planning 864

Nonresidential Room Planning 876
Child Care 889
Health Clubs 891
Museums 892
Airports 896
Health Care 900
Ecclesiastical 904
Detention 907
Justice Facility Planning 908
Assembly 913
Retail 922
Animal Care 926
Greenhouses 931
Housing 932
Waste Management 942
Distribution Facilities 945
Storage Facilities 948
Processing Facilities 949
737
Basic Electrical Materials and Methods 738

Special Systems 745
Transmission and Distribution 748
Lighting 752
Communications 758
17
SPORTS AND GAME

FACILITIES 759
Field Sports 760
Track and Field 770
Court Sports 772
Tableand Bar Sports- 780
Aquatics 781
Equestrian 790
21
Ice and Snow Sports 791 I

Target Shooting and Fencing 794
18
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

DESIGN 795
HISTORIC PRESERVATION
ACCESSIBILITY
951
Introduction 952
Building Blocks 956
Curbs and Parking 960
Ramps 962
Elevators 963
Doors 966
Communication 967
Mobility Aids 968
Fumiture 970
Toilets and Bathrooms 971
Residential 974
Climate 796
Solar Radiation and Building Orientation 799
Natural Ventil~tion 807
Climate Response and Building Design 808
Energy Conse'tvation 813
Passive Solar 819
Active Solar 823
Shading 826
Thermal Transmission 829
Environmental Construction 833
19
BUILDING TYPES AND

SPACE PLANNNING 863
Appendix
977
Graphic Symbols 978

Drawing Methods 986
Geometry 995
Mathematical Data 1005
Structural Calculations 1008
Classical Architecture 1011
Metric 1017
843
Introduction 844
Historic Masonry 846
Historic Wood 849
Historic Architectural Metals 851
Historic Roofs 852
Historic Windows 853
Historic Entrances and Porches 855
Directory
Index
1023
1049
vii
1;:
PUBLISHEItS NOTE
Soon after the publication of Architectural Graphic Standards, suggestions and requests came from many enthusiastic readers. These called for changes and additions and
inevitably the decision was made to publish a second edition in 1936, which was almost 25 percent larger than the
first. Recovery from the Great Depression had begun when
the second edition came out, and with rising construction
activity the demand for Architectural Graphic Standards
increased. To serve its users' growing needs, work soon
began on a third edition which, when published in 1941,
was almost twice as large as the original edition.
World War II lengthened the interval between editions;
the fourth edition, prepared by Sleeper, appeared in 1951
and had grown to 614 pages. The fifth edition (with 758
pages), Sleeper's last revision, was issued in 1956. The
coauthors' achievements in the initial decade, followed by
the efforts of Sleeper, provided untold thousands of users
with an invaluable resource for almost 30 years.
Harold Sleeper's foresight led to his suggestion, which
was heartily supported by John Wiley & Sons, that The
American Institute of Architects be asked to assume the
editorial responsibility for the sixth and subsequent editions. This was proposed at the June 1964 annual convention of The American Institute of Architects, and within a
month a contract between John Wiley & Sons and the
Institute led to the fulfillment of Harold Sleeper's wish.
Now, more than 60 years after publication of the first
edition, we look back on a remarkable record. Each edition
has surpassed its predecessors. The book has grown fivefold in length, immeasurably in depth, and is now packaged
in a variety of formats designed for the changing information requirements of architects, their students, and their
colleagues in the design and construction fields. The collected editions are a chronicle of twentieth-century architectural practice and reflect as well those times when
progress has meant preservinq (and hence respecting) our
architectural heritage.
John Wiley & Sons takes pride in the part the company
has played in the enduring success of Architectural Graphic
Standards and in the association with The American Institute of Architects. Generations of readers have benefited
from this work, and we look forward to meeting the needs
of generations to come.
BRADFORD WILEY"
Chairman
hroughout most of the twentieth century, publication of

a new edition of Architectural Graphic Standards has
been a signal event at John Wiley & Sons. More than a million copies of Ramsey and Sleeper's book have influenced
several generations of architects, engineers, and designers
of the built environment, as noted by Robert Ivy and Philip
Johnson in their respective essay and tribute to this tenth
edition. For half of the life of Architectural Graphic Standards, Wile'thas been proud to have The American Institute
of Architects as its publishing partner in this great ongoing
endeavor.
The release of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic
Standards is an unprecedented event even by the high standards set by this landmark publication. For the first time,
revised print and digital versions are being released simultaneously. Also for the first time, both versions are fully integrated and contain the same content, in formats that are tailored to their respective media. This integration culminates
a major investment of effort and re,sources, and ensures
that Architectural Graphic Standardst'will continue to be not
only a definitive reference but also a valuable design tool.
ROBERT C. GARBER
Publisher
Professional/Trade Publishing
n the fall of 1932, the lowest point of the Great Depression, my father W. Bradford Wiley joined John Wiley &
Sons and soon learned that a promising new book had been
published in May. Martin Matheson, then manager of marketing, had persuaded Charles George Ramsey, AlA, author
of an earlier Wiley textbook, and his younger colleague,
Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, to develop their ideas and prepare the plates for what became Architectural Graphic
Standards. Subsequently, Matheson directed the design
and layout of the book and personally oversaw its production and manufacture.
The immediate acceptance and success of Architectural
Graphic Standards extended far beyond its anticipated audience of architects, builders, draftsmen, engineers, and students. Interior designers, real estate agents and brokers,
homeowners, insurance underwriters, and lovers of fine
books all carne to be among its users and admirers.
ix
FOREWORD
be a professional. To that list, I would like to add the many

individuals, firms, trade associations, professional societies,
and manufacturers who have given this publication its authority. Their contributions are credited throughout this book
on the appropriate pages.
I would also like to acknowledge and thank three Institute editors: Joseph N. Boaz, AlA (sixth edition); Robert T.
Packard, AlA (seventh edition); and John Ray Hoke, Jr.,
FAIA (eighth, ninth, and tenth editions). John has led this
project for the last quarter-century, defining the technical
content essential to a new generation of architects.
Because of the collective wisdom and dedication of the
Institute's editors, the basic principles of service to the
industry that were set forth in the original edition continue
to be advanced.
I would also like to thank two gifted individuals who
have enriched this new edition: Robert Ivy, FAIA, editor in
chief of Architectural Record, for his inspiring essay, and
AlA Gold Medal recipient Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA,
for his provocative tribute.
To each and every person associated with this special
project I offer the words of Eero Saarinen, FAIA, who wrote
in the foreword to the fifth edition: "Just as Vitruvius gives
us understanding of the vocabulary of Renaissance architects, so Architectural Graphic Standards will show the
future the dizzying speed and expanding horizons of architectural developments and practice in our time." (May 1956).
n behalf of The American Institute of Architects (AlA),

I am delighted to celebrate with our partners, John
Wiley & Sons, the publication of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic Standards. Since 1964, this indispensable
tool of the trade has been a resource in helping the AlA
carry out its historic commitment to the architectural profession and the public we serve by helping to bring order to
this nation's building design standards. What is remarkable
about this work and the key, I believe, to its success has
been the fact that Architectural Graphic Standards is the
fruit of a thoughtful, cooperative process that makes every
member of our industry an interested stakeholder.
This book has empowered and inspired generations of
architects to create a better built environment. The collected editions are a chronicle of the best architectural practices of the twentieth century. Indeed, I would go so far as
to make a claim that the very nature of modern practice is
encapsulated in the pages of this splendid book. Each chapter, each page, and each detail assists the architect in the
design process from programming through construction.
Everyone at the AlA and every practicing architect is indebted to the founding authors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA,
and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, for their leadership in creating this catalyst for coherence and coordination in a historically fragmented industry. Without it, modern practice
would likely not be as advanced.
In this edition, there are so many contributions from talented AlA members and building design experts that it is
impossible to acknowledge all of them here. These men
and women gave unselfishly and creatively so that the
whole profession wili benefit from their knowledge and
wisdom. Such generosity is at the heart of what it means to
NORMAN L. KOONCE, FAIA

Executive Vice President/CEO
The American Institute ot Architects
Washington, DC
PREFACE
size for any edition yet). But in terms of real change, with
revisions to old pages and new pages added, the book's
growth in content is estimated to be about 63 percent. For
those who keep records, we have omitted 232 ninth edition
pages, revised 224 pages, added 333 new pages, and transferred 465 pages unchanged from the ninth edition.
The 232 ninth edition pages we have omitted constituted about 26 percent of that edition. This process of weeding out has helped enrich the book by making room for new
material. Most of the pages that were eliminated were out
of date or determined to be of little interest to today's professional. Because of the large number of new pages in
this edition, I have not attempted to list them by name.
Therefore, I encourage you to open the tenth edition and its
CD-ROM product, located in the back cover of the book,
and begin your journey.
An important new chapter titled" Accessibility" is based
on the design standards of the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA). Today, both existing buildings and new construction must comply with ADA requirements for accessibility. A special team of experts helped define and develop
these new pages. My sincere thanks for their good work
and dedication go to Thomas Davies, AlA; Mark J. Mazz, AlA;
lawrence G. Perry, AlA; and Kim Beasley, AlA.
The publication of a major new edition of Architectural
Graphic Standards requires the time, energy, and expertise of many people. I would like to thank all of the great
people at Wiley, but especially Robert C. Garber, publisher:
Joel Stein, editorial director; Robert J. Fletcher IV, production manager; Debbie lynn Davis, new media director;Beth
A. Weiselberg, associate editor; and Jim Harper, editorial
assistant, for their commitment to this immense and complex project. I would also like to thank two very important
players at Wiley who continue to shape the future and the
very nature of this important work. One is Stephen Kippur,
executive vice president, and president, ProfessionalfTrade
Division. The other is Katherine Schowalter, vice president,
Professional/Trade Division.
At the AlA, I am delighted with the dedication of our professionals. My special thanks go to three important people
who make things happen. They are Janet Rumbarger,
managing editor; Pamela James Blumgart, assistant editor;
and Richard J. Vitullo, AlA, contributing editor. I am fortunate to have them as my friends and associates over three
editions. I also want to thank Fred R. Deluca, senior vice
he American Institute of Architects and John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. are proud to offer to the building design and
construction community the tenth edition of Architectural
Graphic Standards (AGSl, for the first time in simultaneous
release with a CD-ROM version. Since AGS was first published in 1932, more than a million copies of this comprehensive source of design data and details have helped shape
twentieth-century buildings and cities. With the tenth edition, this influential volume, established by Charles George
Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, will continue into the next millennium as a trusted companion to all
who seek its guidance and reference.
Historically, the primary audience of AGS has been
made up of architects, interns, and construction specifiers
as well as civil, structural, and mechanical engineers and
students in all these fields. In addition, however, a very important secondary market exists for AGS. This group is composed of general contractors, subcontractors, home builders, estimators, specialty contractorsfdevelopers, planners,
landscape architects, interior designers, building code officials, building owners and building engineers, construction
trade associations, historians and preservationists, facility
space planners, librarians, homeowners, and lawyers.
Since the publication of the sixth edition in 1971, and
under the care of The American Institute of Architects, AGS
has generally been organized according to the principles of
MasterFormat, which is published by the Construction
Specifications Institute. MasterFormat organizes construction data and information into classifications based on building trade or specialty, reflecting the assembly-line character
of the modern construction industry. In the tenth edition, an
effort has been made to conform even more carefully to the
MasterFormat system. As a result, most pages have new
and improved page titles and section names. Chapters 2
through 16 conform to MasterFormat, while chapters 1,
17, 18, 19,20, and 21 contain sections that are compatible
with or complementary to MasterFormat.
The tenth edition of AGS is the largest and most improved edition to date in terms of growth and content. It
consists of approximately 11,000 illustrations in twenty-one
chapters. Much of the core information, or about 50 percent
of the book, has remained unchanged. The new edition has
increased by 127. pages or about 14 percent. It now has
1,022 content pages, as compared to the 895 content
pages in the ninth edition (one of the largest increases in
xi
president/COO, for his many years of service in the care of

one of this Institute's most cherished programs.
I would like to thank two very special people who have
joined our AGS celebration-my dear friend Robert Ivy,
FAIA, editor in chief of Arctiitectutel Record, for his insightful essay on the historical context of AGS; and one of this
nation's most prominent architects, Philip Cortelyou
Johnson, FAIA, for his inspired tribute. We are grateful for
their important contributions.
Finally, I want to pay tribute to the memory of the original editors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve
Sleeper, FAIA who created the first five landmark editions.
They made a wise decision in entrusting the future of their
life's work to The American Institute of Architects, which
has nurtured the book with great care and passion for its
integrity. As the standard bearer of Ramsey's and Sleeper's
original vision, Graphic Standards is poised at the beginning
of the new millennium, prepared for service for the next

century and beyond.
In conclusion, I want to express my deep appreciation to
the AlA members and other contributors for their good
efforts in the making of the tenth edition. We honor them
by acknowledging their contributions on the relevant page
or pages, as well as on the acknowledgments page following the preface. Their valuable and inspired service to the
Institute is a fine example of how the profession continues
its undaunted support of Architectural Graphic Standards
year after year.
John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA
Editor in Chief
Washington, DC
January 2000
xii
A VIEW OF
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Part of this work's beauty is its organization. Its clear
drawings; charts and graphs, and now its digital bits, offer
information on a mind-boggling range of issues that mirror
the design and building process. It answers the question,
"How do you do that?," from site planning to building systems. Graphic Standards presupposes the interrelationship
of parts to whole projects, a nineteenth-century notion
articulated by Wright when he said, "The part is to the
whole as the whole is to the part." Here, small details link
into larger systems, ultimately joined into entire constructions embracing larger sites, a linked unity of great complexity, divisible into bite-sized chunks.
Physical wisdom is represented in graphic ways.
Throughout the millennia, humankind has recognized subtle
changes in dimensions that make big kinetic or aesthetic
differences. Consider the lowly step. Graphic Standards
presents tread/riser diagrams that acknowledge the enormous physical changes felt with minor shifts in width to
height ratios. It remains to the architect to devise the actual stair, but all can appreciate the underlying facts.
You can read this book as social history as well.
Sections on accessibility, ecology, town planning, and historic preservation all arose following specific movements in
the larger civilization. Likewise, the exquisite renderings
from earlier in this century, with their complicated analyses
of shade and shadow, have disappeared: Software has rendered such knowledge almost arcane, as the electronic
GPS system eclipsed dead reckoning.
However, the potential unlocked by the computer age
only underscores our need for a resource like Graphic
Standards. When all things are possible, we need to know
what things are best. Great freedom on the screen will be
well-served by rock-solid craft and a knowledge of materials. The editors and contributors to this body of knowledge
have, in a sense, created their own architecture with Architectural Graphic Standards. It, and its complementary digital version, form a structure of firmness, commodity, and
delight. Accessible and well-crafted, this sturdy and vast
treasury of ideas allows us to study, adopt, and modify the
accumulated wisdom of the past into our own new ideas.
Thus armed, we step forward in time.
he tenth edition of Architectural' Graphic Standards
arrives on the cusp of change, as both a century and a

T
millennium tick into memory, It has been a period of
extremes-scientific optimism tempered by overwhelming
societal trauma, social improvement and two World Wars,
Le Corbusier and Albert Speer, Einstein's cosmic vision and
atomic weapons, Cold War and commerce.
Two houses built early in the twentieth century in
Pasadena, California, illustrate divisions present early in the
previous century. The first, Greene and Greene's Gamble
house, represents the apotheosis of hand craft, a contemporary wooden temple on a hillside rubbed to near perfection, as open and forthright as the capitalist family it served.
Just down the hill, Frank Lloyd Wright sounds a more complex chord at La Minatura, a sophisticated example of modular block construction, advanced for its moment, yet hinting at unresolved psychological forces. The two residences
represent radically different ideals, prescient of clashes that
would follow in succeeding years.
At the turn of the twenty-first cePl'tury, our own models
seem to be virtual ones, a galaxy of computer-generated, biomorphic shapes developed by architect Frank Gehry and his
coterie. The cyber revolution seems to promise endless formal possibilities through easily calculated custom fabrication.
We have traveled far from Wright and the Greenes. Bombarded by new information, which assaults us in an electronic
torrent, we stand on an invisible divide with the sense that
new ways of building are underway. Where can those of us
concerned with shaping the built environment turn for help?
Throughout roughly two-thirds of the last hundred years,
this encyclopedia of building convention and practice has
offered succor and advice. Architectural Graphic Standards
has been a repository of good ideas and a framework for
constructing new ones; its content is singular, based on
architecture's specific language, which is drawing. Since
1932, architects, engineers, and a host of others have
turned to its pages as they would a knowledgeable mentor.
The representations in Graphic Standards are ideal, not
specific, meant to embody the best thinking and applications
in universal settings, allowing the reader to tailor details to
the real world. As a source of ideal principles, the book
stands with other seminal antecedents, such as the work of
Vitruvius from the first century BC; as a comprehensive
resource, it compares to the work of Sir Banister Fletcher almost two thousand years later, with a nod to Diderot and the
encyclopedists of eighteenth-century France.
ROBERT IVY, FAIA

Editor in Chief
Architectural Record
xiii
TIMELINE
The increase in size and complexity of Architectural Graphic Standards since its initial publication
has mirrored the extraordinary accomplishments of architecture in the 20th century.
Architecture landmarks
Pennsylvania Station, New York

(McKim, Mead and White)
John Wiley & Sons publishes Architectural Details, a
prototype for Architectural Graphic Standards
La Villa Savoye, Poissy, France (Le Corbusier)
Chrysler Building, New York (William Van Alen)
Wiley publishes first edition of
Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (Frank Lloyd Wright)
10,000th copy sold
100,000th copy sold
The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut
(Philip Johnson)
Fourth edition published: changes in building technology
trigger 80% increase in length over prior edition
Fifth edition published: last edition prepared by
Charles Ramsey and Harold Sleeper
Seagram Building, New York
(Ludwig Mies van der Rohe)
Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (Louis Kahn)
John Hancock Center, Chicago
(Bruce Graham/Skidmore Owings and Merrill)
Sixth edition published: first edition edited by The

American Institute of Architects; incorporates
Uniformat organization
AlA Headquarters, Washington, DC

(The Architects Collective)
Centre Pompidou, Paris
(Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano)
National Gallery of Art East Wing, Washington, DC
(I. M. Pei)
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, DC

(Maya Lin)
Ninth edition published: incorporates ADA guidelines; new
material on building systems and energy-efficient design
First digital version of Architectural Graphic Standards
released as CD v1.0
J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California

(Richard Meier)
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain
(Frank Gehry)
1,000,000th copy sold

Tenth edition of book and version 3.0 of CD published
xiv
A TRIBUTE TO
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
n 1932, the same year Henry-Russell Hitchcock and I collaborated in writing The International Style, John Wiley &
Sons brought out a little-known book titled Architectural
Graphic Standards. Both of these books, in different ways,
helped usher in the era of Modernism and contributed to
my amazing journey in architecture. Sixty-eight years later
and ten editions complete. Architectural Graphic Standards,
or as I like to call it, Graphic Standards, has quadrupled in
size and immeasurably in depth of content, thanks to the
dedicated work of its gifted editors, architects, and contributors. I even understand that it is in digital form on CD-ROM
located in the back cover of this book. What's next, a
Graphic Standards website?
I can't think of another book published this century that
has supported, taught, and delighted our profession as
much as Graphic Standards. These ten editions are a chron-
icle of twentieth-century U.S. architectural practice standards. Furthermore, the book is one of the most unifying
and focused reference works available in the world. I have
always considered my Graphic Standards as important in
design as is my pencil.
Every architect loves it, wears it out, and keeps it within arm's length. It is a combination of the Encyclopedia
Britannica and the telephone book-or maybe it's the
Whole Earth Catalog of architecture! No architect can be
without Graphic Standards, and with it every architect is
empowered and equipped to practice architecture.
PHILIP C. JOHNSON, FAIA

The Glass House
New Canaan, Connecticut
July 7, 7999
xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Edward Allen, AlA

David Arkin, AlA
Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RIBA
Randall I. Atlas, AlA, PhD,
CPP
Charles M. Ault
Chip Baker
Gordon B. Batson, PE
Erik K. Beach
Kim A. Beasley, AlA
Ralph Bennett
Tedd Benson
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES,
IALD
John Birchfield
Reed A Black
Richard Boon
Ben Brungraber, PhD., PE
Robert D Buckley, AlA
Robert P Burns, AlA
David Campbell
Dennis Carmichael
John Carmody
David Collins, FAIA
Mark Conroy
Dean Cox, AlA
Mark Knapp Crawfis
Thomas 0 Davies Jr., AlA
Fred Davis, CLEP
Larry O. Degelman, PE
Joseph Demkin, AlA
Brent Dickens, AlA
Anthonv DiGreggarlo
Valerie Eickelberger
Richard Eisner, FAIA
John Eliker
Dale Ellickson, FAIA
Carrie Fischer
Russell S. Fling, PE
Robert P Foley, PE
Jacqueline Jones
Philip Kenyon
Don Klabin
Thomas R. Krizmanlc, AlA
James W Laffey
Elin Landenburger
Michael G. Lawrence, AlA
Grace S Lee
William T Mahan, AlA
Mark J. Mazz, AlA
Keith McCormack, /O.IA
Kevin R McDonald, AlA
McCain McMurray, AlA
Joseph P Mensch, PE
Walter Moberg
David Natella
Mark J. Forma
Kenneth D. Franch, PE, AlA
Michael Frankel, CIPE
Douglas J. Franklin
Sidney Freedman
J. Francois Gabriel
Edgar Glock
Ronald L Gobbell, FAIA
Paul Gossen
Alfred Greenberg, PE, CEM
Donald Neubauer. PE
Paul Nimitz
Beth Nixborf
Thomas F O'Connor, AlA,
FASTM
Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA
Kathleen 0' Meara
Steven A Parshall, FAIA
Lawrence G. Perry. AlA
Jessica Powell
Walter T. Grondzik, PE
Jeff Haberl, PhD, PE
Tedd Hallinan
Grant Halvorsen, SE, PE
Don Hardenbergh
Daniel F.e Hayes, AlA
Greg Heuer
Richard F. Humenn, PE
D.J. Hunsaker
Mary K Hurd
Robert Ivy, FAIA
Hugh Newell Jacobsen, FAIA
Kenneth D. Jaffe
Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA
xvi
Robert Prouse. IALD, IES

Isabel Ramirez
D. Neil Rankins
Darrel Rippeteau, AlA
Michael A. Ritter, PE
Richard M Roberts, AlA
Richard Rodgers
Robert C. Rodgers, PE
Carl Rosenberg, AlA
Debbie Rathgeber Ryon, PE
Robert Sardinsky
Christopher Save reid
Michael Schley, AlA
Thomas Schueler
James E. Sekela, PE
Stephen Selkowitz
Neil Thompson Shade
Robert W ShuIdes, PE
Mary S. Smith, PE
John Soltis
Stephen B. Soule
William W. Stewart, FAIA
Kristie Strasen
Doug Sturz
Jim Swords
Charles A. Szoradi, AlA
Art Thiede
Joel Ann Todd
Charles B. Towles, PE
Brian Trimble, PE
Thomas Turvaville, AlA
James Urban, ASLA
Jeffrey R. Vandevoort
Richard J Vitullo, AlA
James W. G. Watson, AlA
Ed Williams
Stephen Wise
ONE
GENERAL PLANNING
AND DESIGN DATA .
Human Dimensions
Egress Planning
Site, Community,
and Urban Planning
81
8
Flood Damage Control
Building Systems
101
13
Seismic Design
37
Automobiles, Roads,
and Parking 103
Lighting Design
47
Trucks, Trains, and Boats
Acoustical Design
Building Security
63
73
Construction Information
Systems 122
115
Anthropometric Data: Adult

INTRODUCTION TO
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
rate, differences are small when compared with size

variations.
The following anthropometric drawings show three

values for each measurement: the top figure is for the
large person or 97.5 percentile; the middle figure. the
average person or 50 percentile; and the lower figure,
the small person or 2.5 percentile. The chosen extreme
percentiles thus include 95%. The remaining 5% inelude some who learn to adapt and others. not adequatelv represented. who are excluded to keep designs
for the rnaloritv from becoming too complex and expensive. Space and access charts are designed to accept
the 97.5 percentile large man and will cover all adults
except a few giants. Therefore, use the 97.5 percentile
to determine space envelopes, the 2.5 percentile to
determine the maximum "kinetospheres" or reach
areas bv hand or foot. and the 50 percentile to establish control and displav heights. To accommodate
both men and women, it is useful at times to add a
dimension of the large man to the corresponding
dimension of the small woman and divide bV 2 to obtain data for the average adult. This is the wav height
standards evolve. Youth data are for combined sex.
Although girls and bovs do not grow at the same
Pivot point and link systems make it easy to construct

articulating templates and manikins. Links are sirnplified bones. The spine is shown as a single link; since it
can flex, pivot points mav be added. All human joints
are not simple pivots. though it is convenient to assume
so. Some move in complicated patterns like the roving
shoulder. Reaches shown are easv and comfortable;
additional reach is possible bV bending and rotating the
trunk and bv extending the shoulder. Stooping to
reach low is better than stretching to reach high. The
dynamic bodv mav need 10% more space than the
static posture allows. Shoes have been included in all
measurements; allowance may need to be made for
heavV clothing. Sight lines and angles of vision givtn ill
one place or another applv to all persons.
92.0
n4~
203
19.4
I :~ I ~~:~
178
70.5
155
Standin9 H ei!tl t
--;--
1905 75.0
1770 69.8
1640' 64.6
1.+
I.....
~ -I' . . .
~
T:;;
[I
CI.. ~ul.,
455
425
Thoracic
tr~b~
9.3
8.7
8.5
l]ill575 62.4
1460 57.6
1345 52.9
Ul3~
~~'.~
315
12.4
192
18.0
5.7
~~
r\
ti .j,80-,20
Ir('
[J[
~~~ ~:~
175
Q
90
L 6.9
7.4
175
160
Elbow Hei!tlt
..
r1ml175
46.3
1090 43.0
1005 39.6
6.3
20
~
850
775
Pivot
Points
36.3
33.5
30.6
1--0[00
280
265
[]I
18.1
16.7
390
15.3
11n
35
UI
I
680
620
Wldth~
J
14.9
13.1
295
11.7
Standing Height
790
1665
1540
00
70.4
65.5
60.6
[I
455
425
400
1_r:: HiP)
PIV
\--
28.9
26.8
24.5
[1[
-~
18.0
16.8
15.7
2190
..10
175
13.9
12.4
180
8.3
7.5
6.9
0[
25
390
355
links
[]I
10
380
345
14.8
290
265
Male and
1905
1775
1640
11.4
10.5
9.7
female S1anding heights (including shoes)
75.0
69.8
64.6
1790
1665
70.4 large ~ 97.5 percen.tile } includes

65.5 average = 50 I"'erce-ntlle 95% U.S.
1540
60.6 small
2,5 oercentue
adults.
Niels Diffrient, Alvin A. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York. New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
7.7
7.3
7.2
nrl
80
75
3.3
3.1
3.0
0[
11.2
10.5
9.9
16
. .7
15.4
140
290
.7
16
13.8
11.5
Ol{]
370
310
16.2
14.9
13.6
14.6
12.3
58.0 {
53.7
49.6
85
265
250
Elbow Height
105 40.3
:43.5
7.7
7.1
6.4
1025
935
36.9
) 0[
10.1
235
9.3
220
8.7
[I
7.5
6.9
6.3
55
Crotch Hei!tlt
5 3: 4.0
790 31.2
~
730
'
I-
28.7
90
175
160
Finger Height
~27.1
I ~gJ~~:~
-I
'65 2.6
~~ ~:j
r~ 39--
I--
I ~g
t"\
-i
-I
Shoe Length
75 10.9
260 10.2
240
9.4
265
245
10.4
9.7
8.9
~:~
2.9
I ~ ~:g
~5.8
Shoe Widlh
V lILI'[l;~
j3.5
225
Lli-
.JL i~
nID
~
95
185
185
liJ
Pelvic
Link
Hip W. Silting
SO 17.7
16.2
r!l
11.2
17.7
liJ
6.2
57
5.3
475
1365
1260
CG
15.8
315
'195
10.6
10.0
9.7
207135"
0[
2.7
2.5
2.2
55
145
135
& ,"'-J
T' Un ,
70
255
235
65
55
3~ g:~
lHI:3502: J
355
17.7
16.0
14.4
70 14.5
350 13.7
[ 325
] [ 12.8
Hip W. Sitting
[iJ
--
For Men Or Women. C.G. Is Within Pelvic link.
Shoulder Height
('
OJITrHIP
380
335
69.0
61.5
166
152
135
SO
405
365
285
Finger Height
75.5
0,.2
n!fl
Weiftlt Kg & Lb
11.9
11.1
10.4
'-----'-'-'----H",c-t-'.,... I
228-82"
Crotch Height
Maximum safe temperature of metal handles is 50C

(122F) and of nonmetallic handles, 62C (144F);
maximum air temperature for warm air hand dryers
is 60C (l40F); water temperatures over 46.1C
(115 F) are destructive to human tissue. Environrnental temperature range is 17.2 to 23.9C (63 to 75 F).
Weights lifted without discomfort or excessive strain
are 22.7 kg (50 Ib) for 90% of men and 15.9 kg (35 lb}
for women; limit weight to 9.07 kg (20 Ib) if carried
bv one hand for long distances. Push and pull forces,
like moving carts. are 258 N (58 lbf] and 236 N (53
Ibf) initiallv, but 129 N (29.1 Ibf) and 142 N (32Ibf)
if sustained. Noise above the following values can cause
permanent deafness: 90 dB for 8 hr. 95 dB for 4 hr.
100 dB for 2 hr. 105 dB for 1 hr. and 110dB for 0.5 hr.
.----tl----;-
' ..
180_380
425
6.8
:z:
16.7
Standing Slump Can Be
Eye level
~----\ ~~~.~
~ I ~~~ !60.6
ljJ70 10.7
230
9.0
195
7.7
Link
3.5
3.3
3.1
85
80
1
ce:;~ ~~~::~~:~
~ ~
I
r--jjJ~~::::;;:j~~=~
\ l.
,-
145
~:~ ~:;
Shoulder Height
L.
(
65
6.1
220
215
~It---.>
[165
155
1illl21O 8.7
~. ~
235
m ~70-90"_~J--~~
:;:
24
0['
Jr;H:'~'
1
"-
153
90
365
345
~~
60
SAFETY INFORMATION
The metric system of measurement has been included,

since it is used in scientific work everywhere and is the
most practical system of measurement ever devised.
Millimeters have been chosen to avoid use of decimals.
Rounding to 5 mm aids mental retention while being
within the tolerance of most human measurements.
Weight Kg & lb (Includes Avg. Clothes). Data Are For load ComPUtations, Not Health Purposes.
BO.5
Disabilities are to be reckoned as follows: 3.5% of men

and 0.2% of women are color blind; 4.5% of adults are
hard of hearing; over 30% wear glasses; 15 to 20% are
handicapped, and 1% are illiterate. Left-handed people
have increased in number to more than 10%.
20
105
95
4.B
4.2
3.7
I~~ I~ ~
2 3'-
75
30
,IA\---'I:l:'r.-----'-;.~t
I
-/
lC
IJ
1 401 1 5
Dimensional notation svstern:
ooo
100
25.4
39.3} Numb~~ appearin. g in bOo xes ~re measurements

3.9 in milfimeters , Numbe~ outSIde boxes are
1.0 measurements in Inches
Anthropometric Data: Children

Combined
Ages
Sex Data
Years
1BOO
70.8
Avg-- 15
1675
Small ---
1545
1625
1485
1350
659
60.8
"
A
Birth
15
12
G
HS
J,.
HS
4 th.
2 nd .
KOG
1330
1210
52.3
500
41.1 465
lOBS 42.1 425
Reach
High
Distance C Reach 0
735 29.0
6B5 21.0
635 25.1
665
620
565
600
550
26.2
24.3
22.3
485
23.6
21.7
19.1
550
495
445
21.7
19.5
11.5
19.7 480
19.0
11.1
18~3
435
16.7 390
15.3
Reach
Ey,
Radius E
level F
144{) 56.7 660

1375 54.1 610
1315 51.7 570
1320 52.0 600
1250 49.2 555
1185 46.6 510
1175
1120
1040
1080
1015
960
970
915
865
53.2
1440
56.6
1320
52,0
47.3
1315
1220
1125
51.8
48.0
44.2
t185
46.7
43.0
::9.1
18.2
16,5
J48
395
350
300
156
137
11,9
350
310
265
320
2B5
250
13.8
12.1
10.5
290
260
230
11.5
10.3
95
930
36,7
725
505
28.6
240
205
19.9
150
370
350
330
14.6
345
320
295
310
290
275
290
280
260
13.5
12.6
270
255
240
Low
58.5
Head
465
420
375
12.6
11.3
99
91
BO
6.0
13.8
13.0
11.7
12.3
11.4
10.8
11.4
11.0
10.2
10.7
10.0
94
465
430
405
420
390
360
375
350
320
345
325
305
315
300
2BO
Height F
Height G
Length H
Foot
Length J
Eye
Height E
1460
1370
1260
860
790
730
33.9
31.1
2B.7
790
735
6B5
31.1
28.9
26.9
270
250
230
10.6
1685
1565
1445
31.9
28.7
25.4
27.7
710
660
600
640
5B5
515
240
220
195
9.5
B.6
76
47.8
2B.0
44.0
40.3
22.0
16.5
37.3
34.1
30.7
B6
7.B
6.9
79
71
63
71
63
5.6
1215
1120
1025
200
195
190
220
200
175
200
lBO
160
lBl
161
141
1100
7.6
7.0
6.5
Bl0
730
645
705
630
560
630
565
50S
545
490
430
2BO
7B
7.3
6.7
7.7
7.1
6.5
225
220
215
215
215
210
210
205
205
205
205
200
1085
995
B90
42.8
22.0
39.'
18.0
35.0
13.5
175
6.9
195
28.9
175
22.2
B35
640
13.0
63
4.0
56
43
32.B
160
100
141
110
25.1
9.0
3.1
440
17.4
3.5
Length 0
155
145
140
155
145
135
150
140
130
150
140
130
145
135
125
135
200
190
lB5
7.9
74
72
200
lB5
170
200
185
170
195
lBO
165
195
180
165
79
73
6.B
6.2
5B
5.5
61
57
53
6.0
5.6
52
59
5.5
5.1
5.B
54
5.0
5.2
4.9
125
95
3.B
18.3
17.0
16-7
15.3
14.'
14.8
13.8
12.7
13.7
12.8
12.0
12.4
11.8
11.0
125
430
400
360
15.7
14.2
420
390
350
3B5
345
305
15.1
13.6
12.1
375
335
300
335
300
265
300
270
245
260
235
210
13.0
325
290
255
290
260
235
255
220
195
17.0
11.9
10.4
11.8
10.6
96
10.3
9.3
8.2
16.6
15.3
13.8
14.7
13.2
11.8
12.8
11.4
10.1
11.4
10.3
9.3
10.0
B.8
7.7
1065
960
1060
970
890
945
B65
7BO
735
6.9
5.0
565
375
1205
1080
42.5
1165
45.8
42.0
37.7
4L8
38.2
35.1
14.9
24.9
22.0
24.7
25.9
23.7
25.1
23.1
2~.3
23,1
19.3
17.0
5B5
525
470
515
460
415
375
14.7
415
16.4
245
170
9.6
305
195
12.0
22.3
19.8
21.5
6.6
20.7
18.6
20.3
18.2
16.3
7.6
4.4
4.1
3.9
355
325
290
12.7
100
95
90
95
90
B5
90
B5
BO
85
BO
70
39
3.B
3.5
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.3
3.1
320
2BO
250
11.1
270
245
220
245
220
210
3.3
3.1
2.B
215
200
lB5
14.0
11.5
12.5
9.B
10.6
9.6
B6
9.6
87
B2
8.4
7.8
7.2
7.4
6.9
G.?
67
60
5.2
190
175
160
170
150
130
145
130
110
130
115
100
5.7
5.1.
4.4
5.1
4.5
3.9
4.2
3.6
3.1
105
90
BO
2B5
270
250
11.3
10.6
170
160
150
6B
6.3
5.9
6.2
5.B
SA
5.8
5.5
5.1
5.3
4.9
260
245
225
10.3
135
125
120
4.7
Work
Up To Hat Shelf
Lavatory
Height H
TopJ
A"" Height G
1675 66.0 760 30.0 915
15
36.0
43.3
41.0
38.9
12
9
7
1485
1090
1320
1220
58.5 685
52.0 635
585
43.0 485
48.0
795
25.0 695
23.0 635
31.3
570
22.5
27.0
19.0
27.3
76.5
56.8
1520
1385
59.9
54.5
37.0
1250
49.2
23.5
1335
52.6
1220
48.0
43.3
36.5
27.0
51,5
17.0
Lb
169
152
137
114
B2
52
Bl
59
38
62
49
36
49
39
29.5
29
20
7.5
73
6.9
65
240
220
195
220
200
175
190
170
145
Kg
66.4
61.7
69.0
62.0
185
175
165
160
145
135
145
140
130
Weight
Level K
9.9
91
BO
115
105
100
1160 45.6
1100 43.3
23.6 1100
1040
990
46.3 540 21.2
975
44.0 495 19.5 925
40.9 435 17.1
880
42.6 SOD 19.6
890
4{).0 445 17.5 B50
31.7 395 15.6
815
38.1 430 16.9 B15
36.1 385 15.2
770
34.1 345 13 720
21.9
20.1
54.0
49.6
52.2
47.5
25.9 1215 47.8

24.1
22.4
57.5
1325
Arm
Crotch
Shoulder
BB
B6
BA
B.5
8A
8.2
B.3
81
8.0
B.l
B.O
7B
79
77
75
77
15.9
H,..,
Head
Width C
High
63,9
1200
1090
995
Reach B
A"" Reach A
2085 82.0 815 32.0
15
1915 15.3 730 28.7
1765 6g.4 665 26.2
1860 13.2 70S 27.6
12
1705 61.1 630 24.7
1545 60.9 560 22.1
1645 64.8 60S 23.B
1510 59.4 55!> 21.8
1345 53.0 510 20.0
1505 59.3 545 21.5
1370 53.9 510 20.1
1245 49.0 485 19.0
Shoulder
Width B
Standmq
Height A
Large
99
9.6
B9
.9.4
B6
7.7
B.6
7B
6.9
7.6
67
57
255
240
220
10.1
9A
B.7
195
lBO
165
7.6
7.0
6.5
230
215
195
91
B.5
76
175
160
145
6B
6.2
5.8
210
190
160
B.2
7A
6.3
7.
6.5
5.8
6.3
5.7
5.1
150
140
130
140
130
120
130
120
115
60
5.7
51
5.7
5.2
4.B
190
165
150
160
145
130
Sea
Table
Work
Depth K
5.1
4.7
4.5
Height l
Length M
460
18.0 650
25.5
420
3BO
16.5
590
15.0 525
23.3
18.9
300
275
11.8
14.0
17.5
250
9.9
25.0 355
330
480
13.0 445
20.7
370 14.6
340 13.3
10.8
38.4
36.5
34.6
"".,
Hei!t'tN
35.0
33.5
Age,
32.0
15
405
15.9
32.1
30.4
28.4
12
370
325
290
265
14.6
9
7
Starting School Grades
Chalk Board
Height
Seat To
11.4
Spacing 0
Width R
Basic
Table
Width S
6.0
175
6.8
445
17.5
5.7
5.4
5.1
4.8
160
140
6.2 420
5 355
5.1 330
5.0 305
16.5
380
370
760 30.0
710 2BO
14.0
330
13.0
305
280
12.0
610
610
24.0
13.0
11.0
535
21.0
Backrest
12.B
10.4
Min
Backrest
Height P
0
150
145
135
130
120
130
125
Armrest
12.0
"".,
15.0
14.5
24.0
l...-.-.--coK_-+-H
o
Standing heiqhts (including shoesl-typiCal example

1800
1675
1545
70.8 large 15 year youth ~ 97.5 percent.ile } combined

65.9 average 15 year youth '"50 percentile
sex data
60.8 small 15 year youth'" 2.5 cercentue
U.S. youths
Dimensional notal ion system
ooo
100
25.4
GTIJ
39.3} Numb~rs appea.ring in b.OXe5 are measurements

3.9 III millimeters Numhers outsHre boxes are
1.0 measurements In incht:S
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Workstations: Standing
SERVING AT A COUNTER
(FOOD COUNTERf
Counter
Depth
535-610
21-24
18
Two or More
Counter
Servers
Height
96
I 2030 lao
_-4,..J.--=.c~L:.:-I
16
J36
2440
Minimum
Aisle Space
One Server _-l..J---::":-~:"'"
Residential
Ceilings
STANDING HEIGHT STCS.

COMBINED ADULT SEX
Viewing Distance To Standard DisPlays
2440 96-
13-28
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Residential Ceiling
High Reach, Higtl Shelves
Minimum
Ceilings
_ _ lower03
low Reach, low Shelves-Raise
2135
84
2030 80
+
L...:.=":":'~":":''':'':'-l---~It 30'
Residential Doors
Shelving Depth
Work Surfaces
I ower0 1.5
~\~ 5:;~g~~ndeliers
1980
78
1905
75
Highest Head Top
1880
74
Clothes Line (Max)
1830
72
2M
~3
Office Doors
230-305
9-12
Shower Head (Max)
1830 72
No See Over
Hat Hooks (Mall:)
Highest Shelf (Men)
Shower Head Clear IMinl
1780 70
Rail ForEveningDresses
Top Of Mirror
1730 68
Highest Shelf (Womenl
1920
1780
1655
10"
30"
1600 63
Catwalk Head Clear (Mini
1790
1575 62
Avg Adult Eye level
1665
1540
1475 58
Thermostats
1395
55
See Over
1370
54
Grab Bars
Phone Dial Hgt
1320
52
1270
50
1220 48
1145
45
1120 44
1065
42
1015
40
915
36
840 33
lowest
Reach Level
230
a Datum
Male and
1905
1775
1640
female standing heigtlts (including shoes]:

75.0
69B
64.6
1790
1665
1540
70.4 large:: 97.5 percentile} includes

65.5 average=50pen:entile
95% us.
60.6 small ., 2.5 percentile
eccns
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Highest File
Door Push Plates
Shower Valves
Walt5witch Plate
Deal Plate
Push Bar On Doors
Bar (Hi)
Counters, Doorknob IMa)()
Safety Handrails, Bars
Entrance lock (MaK)
Ironing Board (Hi)
Handrails, Ironing Board (Hi)
Counters, Doorknob (Min)
Zone
Panic Bars
790
31
lavatory Rim
760
30
letter Slot,
Rails On Steps
760
30
Ironing Board (lo)
455
18
Wall QutJets
405
16
Highest Step
Rung Spacing
305
12
205
Bar Rails
190
7.5
Stair Riser (Opt I
150
Toe Space (MaxI
75
ToeCle.r IMinl
25
Optimum
Shelving
535-610
21-24
Cavity For Stool Storage
lowest
Reach Level
Threshold (Maxi
Dimensional notation system:
ooo
ITm
100
25.4
39.3} ~um.b_~rs aPpea.rin9 in boxes are measurements

3.9 In rndlimeters. Numbers outside boxes are
1.0
measurements In inches.
Workstations: Seated
HIGH WORK SEATS
(BANK AND TICKET COUNTE RSl
MEDIUM HIGH WORK SEATS

(POST OFFICE CDUNTE RI
SEATING ANGLES
Reclining Postures
Retaxing Postures
Alert Postures
610-710 24-28
Sit Or Stand
Work Positions
Work Postures
SO
13-14
22
Hip Anqles
110-130 Relax
95_130" Work
And Alert
light Sources
Reflect In
EYeGlasse5
Easy Head Rotation
(79 0 Maximums)
Minimum
Table
Widths
1o
24
27
30
SITTING HEIGHT STDS.

COMBINED ADUL T SEX
50"
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Easy
Head Movements
50 Maximum
light Sources Below

Visual Limit line
Create Glare
1450
57
Highest Head Top
High Forward Reach, Eye level, Head Heig--t
1420
56
Mirror Top
Reach Radius
1370
54
No See Over
1370
54
Floor Lamp (Hi)
~ lower~ 2.2
Decrease~ 2.5
/
50" ~i9h Visual Limit

FunctIOnal GriPS
1270
50
1195
47
Avg Eye Level
1170
46
High File. Front Tab
1090
43
See Over Hgi
1065
42
Phone Dial Hqt
1015
40
Floor Lamp (La!
High Shelf
3.8
3.2
2.7
Ma)(WC
Height
Sitting
18.5
16.8
15.6
Male and
1905
, 775
1640
36
lunch Counter
34
High File, Top Tab
790
31
Sewing Table
760
30
Stool For 42 Counter

Hasp. Bed (Hi)
Work Table
Desk
735
29
685
27
Iron Board
660
26
Typing Table
635
25
610
24
Table (Min!
Knee Space
Side Tables
Chair For 36 Counter
Coffee Table (Hi)
Wall Outlets
455
18
455
18
8.d
445
17.5
Work Chair
400
15.8
Toilet Seat
380
15
Seat (Min)
Park Seat
305
12
FOOl Stool (Hi)
280
"
Coffee Table {Loj
400
Height
470
425
395
915
865
150
715
655
600
28.1
25.8
23.7
female standing heights (including shoesl:
75.0
69_8
64.6
1790
1665
1540
70.4
65.5
60.6
large = 97.5 percentile} includes

95% u.S
adults
average '"' 50 percentile

small = 2.5 percentile
Foot Ring 24 Chair
150
Toe Space (Max)
75
Toe Clear. (Min)
50
Foot Sroot It.ol

Dimensional notation system
ooo
100
25.4
39.3} Numben appea.rin g in b.oxes are measurements

3.9 In miltirneters. Numben cctsioe boxes are
1.0 measurements In Hlches
Niels Diffrient. Alliin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates: New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Space Usage
PASSAGES FOR ONE
PASSAGE FOR TWO
FACING DOORS
-----
Door Opening
Outward
Door A
~36
Door B
E!30
OoorA
1805 71
1600 63
FACING DOOR::
PASSAGE FOR FOUR
SINGLE DOOR
Door B
1650 65
@
@
78
Note: Also See Wheelchair Requirements
(Q)
Door
Opening
Outward
Min
Door A
2440
610
24@
96
Min
Door B
2135
84
<1D
Prefer Straight And Short Corridors With Two Way Traffic; "I" And 'L' Shapes Cause Blockages. Make Flow Plans
OFFICE SPACE
LIVING SPACE
Table For One;
685
27
-NOTE~P;et;rFront Load
Dishwashen:
female standing hei~ts (including shoes):
Male and
1905
1175
1640
75.0
69.8
64.6
1790
1665
1540
10.4
65.5
60.6
large"97.spercentile} includes
average" 50 percentile 95% U,S.
small '" 2.5 percentile
adults
English Beds: Small Single 900 x 1900;NewStd.Single 1000 x 2OOO;Small Double

1350 x 1900; New Std. Double 1500 x 2(X)()
Niels Diffrient. Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Dimensional notation sY'tem:

ooo 39.3} Numbers apPearing in boxes ~re measurements
100
3.9 in millimeters. Numbers outsIde boxes are
25.4
1.0 measurements in inches.
Accessibility
SIDE
CQARtQORS
PASSAGEWAY
FRONT
CATWALK
WITH ONE BAG
HALLWAYS
WITH TWO BAGS
(:AAAYING TRAY
1 Person 2 People
rrnsl49 f1880174
,...,
<
<
I
MANHOLES
CEILING AND
~22.8
FLOOR HATCH
TOP AND
BOTTOM ACCESS
~i' ~~13
~
HEAD ACCESS
Diameter
~9.3Bare
~12.5safetv
<$)-
~5To
Hot
fiNGER ACCESS
TWO FINGER
r=I
TWIST ACCESS
1.3 Bare
~ 1.5 Glove
[!]O.3 To
R
r::::-l
EKclUd~2.5 G~~;
?:/Il
Exetuoe
~2Bare
Round
Object
~'{
SIT";ING UPRIGHT
CRAWLWAYS
~25Min
~30Prefer
185
Height
Width
~2.3 ~4Bare
]s
~3.5Bare
~4
@D6
~4.5GIOve
~:~
~6Glove
~S=~i~~h
=:::::;:>For Cia
Reet
II Hound
~useHei9hl
- - - - - - ' For Dlil
RELAXEDSEATlNG
Width With Armrest
~22.8Min
~2BMin
TWO HAND REACH

ACCESS (No Vision)
ARM ACCESS
TO SHOULDER
36
MINIMUM HAND
ACCESS TO WRIST
FINGER TIP PUllS
~OrSquare
~3.2 Minimum
~3.8Bare
Hand Curled With

Or Without Screw
~
I
SITTING ON FLOOR
Work Width
~8 ~5
Height
~'9.5~5
FOOT OPENINGS
HANDLE OPENI NGS
~3.8 ~1.5Bare
..H.
G4.5 0
L/2 For Two F m(lf~rs
L/2 For Two Fingers
[ _~JO. 75 Minimum
TWO ARM REACH

ACCESS (No Visionl
$'~'
31
Prefer
915
HAND FLAT ACCESS

Height
Width
ARM ACCESS
TO ELBOW
Min
Width No Armrest:
[865]34 Depth
I
CRAWL PIPE
m; @ 1
Max AbOlie
Floor
[!60] 30
J18 Min Oia

Or$quare
~36Spac:e
WALL ACCESS
I--
2 Glove
Dia
.j
SQUATTING
STOOPING
(For Short Durauoos!
(For Short Durations)
ca=;5J
0.3 0.9
~12
[!2i]4.5Bare
~13 ~5Shoes
~15.5 ~6.5 Boots
JLlolJC
KNEELING
(Prefer Knee Padl
~25Min
Maximum Recline
[l1OOl67
[l98O] 78
Datum
SUPINE
[1005]75
PRONE
96
I ~p~~~,20
~43017
Male and
1905
1775
1640
female standing heig,ts (including shoes):

75.0
69.8
64.6
1790
1665
1540
70Alarge" 97.5 percentile} includes

65.5average"5Dpercentile 95% U.S.
60.6 small" 2.5 percentile
adults
Dimensional notation svstem:
ooo
100
25A
39.3} Numbers appearing. in boxes are measurements

3.9
1.0
In mll.,meten. Numbers outsioe boxes are

measurements in meres.
, Niels Dilfrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Occupant load Calculations
GENERAL
The information for determining occupant load shown in
the table on this page comes from three model building
codes in use in the United States:
1. BOCA National Building Code (BOCA). 1996 edition. with
permission of the Building Officials and Code Administrators International. Inc . publisher.
2. Standard Building Code (SBC). 1997 edition. with permission of the Southern Building Code Congress International, tnc., publisher, with all rights reserved.
3. Uniform Building Code (UBC). 1997 edition. with permission of the International Conference of Building Officials.
publisher.
Occupant load generally is defined as the maximum capacity of a building or room given as the total number of people
present at anyone time. For occupant loads, it is generally
assumed that all areas of a building will be occupied at the
same time, with some exceptions noted in specific codes.
For example. the UBC states, "Accessory use areas. which
ordinarily are used only by persons who occupy the main
areas of an occupancy, shall be provided with exits as

though they are completely occupied, but their occupant
load need not be included in computing the total occupant
load of the building' rUBC Sec. 3302 la)).
Most codes require that to determine multiple use building
or area occupancies, the occupant load (OU must be based
on the use that produces the most occupants. For example,
the occupant load for a school multiple use room, which
will be used for classroom activities (Ot. factor 20) as well
as assembly space (OL factor 15), is calculated using the 15
sq ft per occupant factor.
If buildings or areas contain two or more separate occupancies, the overall occupant load is determined by computing
occupant loads for various areas and adding them together
for an aggregate occupant load.
EXITS
All three major codes use occupant loads to determine the
size and number of required exits. Based on occupant loads
and area uses, it is possible to determine the required number of exits and the arrangement and sizes of exit components.
All three codes (BOCA. SBC. and UBC) consider an exit to
be more than merely a door. Although specific definitions
vary with each code, exits usually are considered to be continuous and unobstructed means of egress to a public way
and may include such building elements as doors, corridors,
stairs, balconies, lobbies, exit courts, etc. Elevators are not
considered exits. Requirements for arrangement. size. and
operation of exits vary; consult applicable codes for specific
information.
When calculating occupant load for areas with fixed seating

in benches or pews, the number of occupants is based on
one seat for each 18 in. of bench or pew space. In dining
areas with booth seating, the number of seats is based on
24 in. for each seat.
MINIMUM EXITS
BASED ON USAGE
OCCUPANT LOADS
MAXIMUM FLOOR AREA PER
OCCUPANT (SQ FT)
USE
BOCA
Assembly areas 2-concentrated use (without fixed seats):

auditoriums, bowling alleys3, churches, dance floors. lodge
rooms, reviewing stands, stadiums
7 net
Assembly areas-less concentrated use: conference rooms,

dining/drinking areas, exhibit rooms, gymnasiums, lounges,
15net
SBC
USC!
7 net
15net
15
staqesAssembly areas-standing space

Business areas 5
Courtrooms (without fixed seats)
3 net
100 gross
100 gross
3 net
40 net
40 net
Day care facilities

Dormitories
Educational
Classroom areas
Shops and vocational rooms
Industrial areas 6
Institutional?
Children's homes,
homes
sanitariums, hospitals
Inpatient treatment areas
Outpatient areas
Sleeping areas
for
aged.
nursing
homes,
20 net
50 net
20 net
50nel
100 gross
100 gross
240 gross
100 gross
1209ross
240 gross
100 gross
120 gross
Kitchens (commercial)
Libraries
Reading rooms
Stack areas
3
100
50 net
100 gross
Aircraft hangars
10
Auction rooms
30
Assembly areas
50
Bowling alley
50
Children's homes
Classrooms
50
40
Congregate residences
10
Courtrooms
50
50
Dormitories
10
Dwellings
10
Exercise rooms
50
Health care facilities

Sleeping rooms
Treatment rooms
8
10
20
50
200
80
240
120
50
100
lobbies (accessory to assembly area)
locker rooms
USAGE
Aged. homes for the
35
200
. 50 net
100 gross
2 EXITS MINIMUM
REQUIRED WHERE
OCCUPANT LOAD
IS AT LEAST,
50
Hotels and apartments
10
Kitchens (commercial)
30
Library reading rooms
50
locker rooms
30
Manufacturing areas
30
Mechanical equipment rooms
30
Nurseries for children (day care)

Offices
7
30
Parking garages
30
Mechanical equipment areas
300 gross
300 gross
300
Mercantiles
Basements
Ground floors
Upper floors
Storage, stockrooms, shipping areas
School shops
rooms
30 gross
30 gross
60 gross
300 gross
30 gross
30 gross
60 gross
300 gross
30
30
60
300
Skating rinks
50
Storage and stockrooms
30
200 gross
200 gross
200
200 gross
200 gross
Stores (retail sales rooms)

Basements
Ground floors
Upper floors
2 exits minimum
50
50
Parking garages
Hesidential"v
Hotels and apartments
Dwellings
Skating rinks I
Rink area
Deck
Storage areas
300 gross
Swimming pools
Pool
Deck
All other areas
1. Both BOCA and SBC use net and gross floor areas to determine occupant load. UBC does not differentiate
between net and gross areas.
2. Occupant loads for assembly areas with fixed seats are
determined by the actual number of installed seats.
3. Occupant load calculations for bowline alleys under
BOCA and SBC use 5 persons per alley in addition to the
tabular values indicated.
4. Stages are considered assembly areas--less concentrated use (15 sq ft per occupant) in UBC, not separately
classified in BOCA or SBC.
5. USC classifies business areas as office occupancy.
6. USC classifies industrial areas as manufacturing areas.
ICBO; SBCCI; BOCA

James O. Rose, AlA; University of Wyoming; laramie, Wyoming
Annica S. Emilsson; Rippeteau Architects, P.c.; Washington, D.C
EGRESS PLANNING
200
300
15net
50
15
300 gross
300
50
15
100
7. BOCA and SBC classify areas within institutional occupancies; UBC classifies by occupancy description only.
8. UBC classifies mercantile areas as store-retail sales
rooms.
9. UBC considers storage and stockroom areas as storage
occupancy (300 sq ft per occupant).
10. BOCA and SBC do not separate hotel/apartment and
dwelling occupancies.
11. BOCA does not classify skating rinks separately from
other assembly areas of less concentrated use (15 sq ft
per occupant). SBC does not separate areas within skating rinks.
and
vocational
50
Swimming pools
50
Warehouses
30
All other
50
Stair Design
GENE~AL
Stairways are an essential component in the circulation and

egress systems of most buildings. They are also the site of
accidents resulting in approximately 4000 deaths and one
million injuries requiring hospital treatment annually In the
United States. For these reasons, stairway design is strictly
controlled by building regulations.
The information on this and the following page on stair

design summarizes -most common building code and
access regulation requirements. Be sure to check local regulations as welt.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: Consult the table below on
building code stairway requirements to determine dimensional limits for treads. risers, and stair width. Verify that
local codes are not more restrictive.
TREAD AND RISER SIZES: Use the stair proportioning
graph on the associated AGS stair design page to find the
number of risers, riser height, and optimum tread depth.
STAIR WIDTH: In addition to the minimums shown on this
page, stair widths must also meet occupant load requirements based on use group and floor area. Consult the local
building code.
LANDINGS: Landings at least as wide as the stair itself are
required at the top and bottom of the stair and at intermediate points if necessary to ensure that no single flight has a
rise greater than 12It (3658 rnrn),
STAIR LAYOUT: A sample stairway plan and section are
shown on the following page on stair design. Some tips for
stair layout follow:
1. Maintain minimum headroom of 6 It 8 in. (2032 mm) for
non-residential and 6 ft 6 in. (1981 mm) for residential
stairs.
2. Avoid flights with fewer than three risers to minimize
tripping hazards.
3. The use of door alcoves is recommended to prevent
stairway doors from obstructing the egress travel path.
4. For prefabricated stairs. the stairwell enclosure should be
oversize by several inches for-ease of stair installation
and to avoid structural conflicts.
iTJmt_ ~,o"."
up to 42 in. {1067 mm} are permitted by some building

codes. Intermediate ralls or balusters must be spaced so
that a sphere of either 4 or 6 in. 1102 or 152 mmJ. depending on the code and use group, cannot pass through any
part of the guard. Guardrail designs with horizontal rails that
are easily climbed are not recommended and, in some
cases. are restricted. For residential stairs. guardrails 36 in.
(914 mm) in height are usually permitted.
3'1" MIN
STAIR DETAILS
Treads and risers within a flight must be uniform in size
within close tolerances. Treads must be slip resistant. The
shape of nosings and risers must meet the requirements
shown below. Carpeting or other stair coverings should be
applied securely and should not create a nosing radius
greater than permitted. Handrails. guardrails. and stairways
themselves must meet structural load requirements.
60.M~
EXTENSION DIMENSION
RETURN
12"
1 TREAD
BOTTOM
EXTENSION
RETURN TO WALL
IS ADDITIONAL TO
REQUIRED
EXTENSION, TYP.
(TOP AND BOTTOM)
Templer. John. The Staircase. 2 vets. Cambridge. M,ass.:

MIT Press, 1992.
NOTE
PLAN
Metal Stairs Manual. National Association of Architectural

Metal Manufacturers, 1992.
See pages in other Architectural Graphic Standards chapters for stair construction details in various materials and for
other applications.
112"(13 rnm: RADIUS MAX----~-----
SUPPORT HANDRAIL FROM

BELOW SO GRIPPING SURFACE
IS NOT INTERRUPTED
RETURN
TO WALL
REFERENCES
Most interior stairs are designed to the steepest limits permitted by code so as to occupy the least amount of space.
However, tread and riser combinations that are less steep
may be considered for exterior stairs. grand stairs. or stairs
of just a few risers. The most common rule for the comfortable proportioning of stairs in these cases is 2 x riser height
+ tread depth = 25 in. (635 rnrn). Consider testing life-size
mock-ups of stairs of unusual proportions to verify their
ease of use.
1'1.'(38 mrm CLEAR SPACE

BETWEEN HANDRAIL AND WALL
ENDS OF HANDRAILS MUST

RETURN SMOOTHLY INTO A
WALL, FLOOR, OR POST
Winders (radiating risers) in stairs normally are permitted

only in single-family residences. Minimum tread depth
requirements at the inside of the winders may limit the
inside radius of the stair. Spiral stairs typically are permitted
in single-family residences and for access to mezzanines of
limited area in other building types. With certain tread depth
restrictions, circular stairways are permitted in most buildings. Alternating tread stairways are permitted for some
mezzanines and for access to rooftops. The use of fixed
ladders is limited to access to restricted areas. such as rooftops and elevator pits.
TREAD AND RISER PROPORTIONING
rnrru
SECTION
Access regulations in some localities require floor material

strips of contrasting color located at the top approach to a
stair and at the lowest tread. These markings are intended
to aid the visualtv'imoaired in identifying the limits of the
stair. The application of such markings may be appropriate
even where not required. particularly where a high proportion of elderly or visually impaired users are anticipated.
SPECIAL STAIR CONFIGURATIONS
""'"0 ""~
BE 1 114 TO 1'12 " (3 2 TO 38

IN OUTSIDE DIAMETER
ELEVATION
-,
HANDRAILS
The accompanying diagrams summarize most handrail
requirements for nonresidential stairs. For residential stairs
not covered by ADA, most codes permit handrails on only
one side of the stair, without top and bottom extensions. In
some cases a greater range of heights is also permitted.
The ADA recommends (but does not require) additional
handrails at lower heights where stairs are used by children.
RADIUS"','(13
~
---""--'OPEN RISER
~C--S-Q-U--CA==RE
GUARDRAILS
Guardrails 42 in. (1067 mm) in height are typically required
on the open sides of nonresidential stairs. When handrails
are used in combination with a guardrail, handrail heights
NOT OK
OK
ACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND RISERS
OR ABRUPT UNDERSIDE
UNACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND

RISERS
NOT OK
NOTES
1. When considering metal pipe rails, do not confuse the
nominal size by which pipes are specified with the actual
outside diameter of the pipe. The outside diameter is
larger than the nominal size.
2. Handrails must be continuous on both sides of a stair.
Ends of handrails must extend beyond the stair as shown
above.
3. The gripping portion of a handrail must be equivalent to a
114to 1 y, in. (32 to 38 mm) diameter round rail.
HANDRAIL DETAILS CONFORMING TO

ADA AND MOST BUILDING CODES
BUILDING CODE STAIRWAY REQUIREMENTS

BUILDINGS OTHER THAN SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES
MINIMUM
TREAD
DEPTH
RISER
RESTRICTIONS
MINIMUM STAIR WIDTH
SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES
MINIMUM
TREAD
DEPTH
RISER
RESTRICTIONS
MINIMUM
STAIR
WIDTH
1998ADAAG
11" (279mm)
No limits
48" (1219 mm) clear between handrails for stairs adjacent to an area of
rescue assistance
No limits
No limits
1996 BOCA National

8uilding Code
1997 Standard
Building Code
11" (279mm)
T' (178 mm) maximum

4" (102 mml minimum
44"(1118mm)
36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer
44" (1118 mm)
36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer in some cases
9" 1229 mm)
8'1.' (210 mm)
36" (914 mm)
9" (229 mm)
7 31.'
36" (914 mmJ
1997 Uniform
Building Code
11" (279 mm)

.
44"11118mm)
36" 1914 mrnl for occupancy of 49 or fewer
60" (1524 mm) for educational use group with occupancy of 100 or
more
9" (229 mm)
8" (203 mm)
9" (229mm)
31."
7
(197 mm) maximum
2R + T must equal 25" (635 mm)
17"
(178 mm) maximum
4" (102 mm) minimum
1197 mm)
Joseph lana. Architect; Boston, Massachusetts

Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts
Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
No limits
36" (914 mm)
10
Stair Design
STAIR DESIGN AND BUILDING
CODES
STAIR PROPORTIONING GRAPH
mmllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllill1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
130
5"
mm
140
150
5.5"
160
6"
170
180
RISER HEIGHT
6.5"
7"
190
200
8"
12'
3600
Building codes are updated regularly, so it is best to consul"

the current copy of the applicable building code (the SOC
National Building Code. the Standard Building Code. or tl'
Uniform Building Code) for tread and riser dimensions. Th
International Building Code will also offer a standard fc
these dimensions when it is published in 2000.
210
75
8.25"
U
OJ
::J
3400
STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
OJ
,,'
'<i."
An exit stairway in a theater rises a total of 20 ft 3 in. This

dimension is off the graph shown at left, which means thaat least one landing must be inserted in the stair. Sele(
two flights of 10ft 1 'h in. rise each. Looking for the hiqhes
possible riser, read across to the 18-riser sloping line
(before crossing the 7 in. maximum riser height line). ther
upward to read a riser height of 6.75 in. Reading downwarc
to the bottom horizontal axis, the optimum tread dimensior
is 11 Y.! in. This figure can be rounded down to the leg;=;
minimum of 11 in. to make the st~r a~ compact as pass!
ble.
3200
'!!
0:
'0'
3000
Ul
it
..J
'"
2800
i=
9'
w
0
iii
2600
a:
STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
X
::E
II
2200
2000
'Ill
OJ
ci
I
0:
A stairway in a single-family house rises 8 ft lOin. anc'

needs to be as compact as possible according to CASC
requirements. Read across to the 13-riser sloping line, the:
upward to read a riser of 8.15 in.
'"
8'
2400
NOTES
7'
0
0
1. Stairs should be laid out in both plan and section. The dl

mensions shown on this page are samples only .
2. Landings must be at least as wide as the stair.
3. No single flight may rise more than 12 It 0 in. 1365Smrr
vertically.
4. In each flight, there is one more riser than tread.
5. Handrails may project up to 3 Y.2 in. (S9 mm) into the
required stairway width. They must be continuous or the
ends must extend beyond the top and bottom of the
stair. Stairs serving areas of rescue assistance must have
4 It clear between handrails.
6. Stairway doors must swing with the direction of egress
travel and must not obstruct more than half of the
required landing width at any point in the swing. Wher
fully open doors must not strike handrails (including
extensions) and not project more than 7 in. (178 mm
into the travel path.
7. See AGS page on areas of rescue assistance for more
restrictive stair dimensioning requirements.
..J
u,
6
I'BOO
ci:
6'
..J
u,
1600
5'
'400
'200
4'
1000
3'
800
600
2'
ALLOWABLE HEAD HEIGHT

400
mm
"
Ul
0:'
y~~
1'-<0
OPTIMUM TREAD DEPTH (READ RIGHT TO LEFT) 2R + T '" 25" (635
1//////////
V i.->
HANDRAIL
'/2 REQUIR ED
LANDING
WIDTH MIN
///
1/
mrrn
III 0 ' "
Ul
//////////
0:'
V
V
.~~
I
I-
"
_' a:t-
'03:
'"
IUl
.:!"m~
I' - <0
_. a: t-
......
100e{
'---
V
V
/
I
l-
03:
.~~
-c
lUl
r//////
V
V
V
V
V
///////////////~//
PLAN
SAMPLE STAIRWAY
Joseph lana, Architect; Boston, Massachusetts

Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts
Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
4'-0"
NOTE
Measure allowable head height at nosings.
Spiral and Circular Stairs

,-
II
,-
FRAMING DIMENSIONS (IN.)
DIAMETER
--~-~~-~~"
~-
-N'
.,1
l-----
/'
CENTER
1/
2"
OUTSIDE
DIAMETER
II'
40
4B
52
60
64
72
76
BB
44
24
28
52
26
30
56
30
34
64
32
36
68
36
40
76
38
42
80
44
20
24
COLUMN
1
HANDRAIL
,-----
....
I
I
BALCONY RAIL
1 .. SQUARE BARS
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:I 1f--t--:=~~=;jT"
48
92
96
48
52
100
c
A
>-
----71~~~~~~~
STAIR DIAMETER
-----TOP CAP
BALCONY RAIL
11
114" X 2"
MOUNTING
PLATE WITH
3/ 8" HOLES
m
I
L
," SQUARE
BALUSTER-
..J
PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP
I
I
I
I
jI
STRINGERS
....J
PLAN-LEFT-HAND UP
NOTES
ELEVATION
1. For spiral stairs. larger diameters increase perceived

comfort, ease of use. and safety.
2. Tread and platform materials: The most common materials are steel (regular and galvanized), aluminum, and
wood. Steel and aluminum can be smooth plate, checker
PLATE
TREADS""
plate, pan type, and bar. A variety of hardwoods can be

used. although many manufacturers use steel substructures to support the wood finish surface.
3. Refer to local and national codes for dimension and construction requirements and allowable uses.
BASEPLATE
ELEVATiON
SPIRAL STAIRS
SPIRAL STAIR DESIGN DIMENSIONS (IN.)

Diameter
Center column
Lb/9 It
Tread detail A
Tread detail B
27 tread detail C
27" tread detail 0

30 0 tread detail C
30 tread detail 0
0
Landing size
40
4
205
4
18
9
48
4
220
4
22
1
/4
7 5/.
10 '/2
8'/2
22
'l
l
/
8
12 9 / 16
8 5/a
26
52
4
235
4
24
12 'I.
8 'I.
13 5 / a
8 3/.
28
60
4
250
4
28
13 15 / 16
8 3 /.
15 3 / .
8 7 /a
32
64
4
265
4
32
14 7 / .
8 1/ 2
16 3 / .
9
34
72
4
310
4
34
16 3 / .
8 5 /.
18 7 / a
9 1/ 4
38
76
4
325
4
36
17 5 / .
8 3/ .
19 7 / a
9 3 /a
40
96
88
6%
435
5
6 /.
42
20 '/2
10
23
11 'fa
46
6%
485
6%
48
22 5 / 16
10 '/2
25 '/a
11 '/2
52
PLAN
~t
A~1u
B
12"
TREAD DETAIL
NOTE
Design considerations for circular stairs are similar to those

for spiral stairs. A fabricated steel tube serves as a onepiece stringer to which treads are bolted or welded. Risers
can be open or closed. Numerous finishes are available.
and treads can be made of laminated wood.
CIRCULAR STAIRS
I
I
I
I
I
==~~==;=~=r~==--'f----11-:-~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
IL
I
J
PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP
PLAN-RIGHT-HAND UP
FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT
FINISH FLOOR
HEIGHT (IN.)
FINISH FLOOR
HEIGHT (IN.)
FINISH FLOOR
HEIGHT (IN.)
84to 91
92 to 98
99 to 105
106to112
113 to 119
120 to 126
127to133
134 to 140
141 to 147
148 to 154
NUMBER
OF STEPS
CIRCLE
DEGREE
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
270
292'/2 0
315 0
337'/2
360 0
382'/2
405 0
427'/2
450 0
472'/2
0
90 to 96
97 to 104
105 to 112
113 to 120
121 to 128
129t0136
137 to 144
145 to 152
153 to 160
161 to 168
NUMBER
OF STEPS
CIRCLE
DEGREE
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
297"
324 0
351 0
375
405 0
432'
459 0
486 0
513
540 0
0
85 to 95
96 to 104
105to 114
115to 123
124 to 133
134 to 142
143 to 152
153 to 161
162 to 171
172 to 180
NUMBER
OF STEPS
CIRCLE
DEGREE
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
NOTE
NOTE
16 treads per circle. Riser height: 6Jh to 7 in.
13112 treads per circle. Riser height: 7Yzto 8 in.
12 treads per circle. Riser height: 8Yzto 9Y.!in.
22 1/2 0 TREAD SPIRAL S'rAIRS
27 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS
30 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS
NOTE
David W. Johnson; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
270'
300 0
330'
360
390
420
450 0
480 0
510
540 0
0
12
Treads, Risers, and Nosings

CAST ABRASIVE SURFACE
SupRESISTANT
SURFACE
SLIP-RESISTANT
RUBBER
----------~-
RADIUSED
EDGE
--------------
NOSING CAST IN
IRON. ALUMINUM.
NICKEL. OR
BRONZE
ANCHOR
II" MIN
TREAD
VINYL OR RUBBER NOSING ~

GROOVES FOR TRACTION
MINIMUM
EXPOSURE
OF METAL
AT RISER
FLUSH JUNCTURE
OF RISER AND
GRADUALLY
RADIUSED NOSING
FLUSH ABRASIVE
NOSING SET ON
ALUMINUM BASE
WIDTH
TREAD
TREADS AND RISER SIZES

Riser and tread dimensions must be uniform for the length
of the ,stair. ANSI specifications recommend a minimum
tread dimension of 11 in. nosing-ta-nosing and a riser
height of 7 in. maximum. Open risers are not permitted on
stairs accessible to persons with disabilities.
ABRASIVE EPOXY
PREFABRICATED SYSTEM
WHERE NOSING IS
INTEGRAL WITH
STEELPAN--'(~~~I5I5~~~~
TREAD COVERING
FLUSH JOINT
OSHA standards require finishes to be "reasonably slip

resistant" by using nosinqs of slip-resistant finish. Treads
without nosings are acceptable provided that the tread is
serrated or is of a definite slip-resistant design. Uniform
color and texture are recommended for clear delineation of
edges.
~
STEEL SUBTREAO
TROWELED GROOVES IN
SUP-RESISTANT
CONCRETE
ABRASIVE STRIPS
NOSING DESIGN
ANSI specifications recommend nosings without abrupt
edges that project no more than 1'/2 in. beyond the edge of
the riser. A safe stair uses a 1/2 in. radius abrasive nosing
firmly anchored to the tread, with no overhangs and a
clearly visible edge.
RADIUSED
EDGE---MINIMUM
OVERHANG
AT JOINT
VARIES
ANCHOR
ROUNDED
NOSING
ANGLED
NOSING
.-- TAPERED
END
FLUSH
RISER
FULL-TREAD NOSING
PVC NOSING
RISER"DESIGN
ACCEPTABLE NOSING PROFILES (ANSI 117.1-86)

V IN YL O R
RUBBER NOSING
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM
REPLACEMENT TREAD
WITH ABRASIVE STRIPS \
CARPET
\
Iiiiiiiiiii~~~~~
LEVELING COMPOUND
WHERE WOOD. MARBLE.
OR CONCRETE TREAD IS
WORN OR SPLINTERED
NOTE
Abrasive materials are used as treads. nosings. or inlay

strips for new work and as surface-mounted replacement
treads for existing work. A homogeneous epoxy abrasive is
cured on an extruded aluminum base for a smoother surtace, or it is used as a tiller between aluminum ribs
VINYL NOSING
REPLACEMENT OF TREAD
NOSING DETAILS
Eric K. Beach and Annica S. Emilsson, Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C
EGRESS PLANNING
STRUCTURAL TREAD
INTEGRAL METAL TREAD/RISER
Building Systems-Steel Bar Joist with Bearing Wall
13
INTRODUCTION
Combining a wide range of common building technologies,
the building systems presented on this and the following
pages reflect basic approaches to design, construction, and
use of materials in response to a variety of occupancy
requirements. Such building systems embody key inteqration issues that arise when components and subsystems
are merged to produce complete buildings.
Each example includes a summary of the unique system
features, a description of the system's most appropriate or
particularly advantageous uses, and a discussion of the
main opportunities and challenges for systems integration.
The drawings stress the essential interconnectedness
among design decisions, illustrating the design process as
a fusion of the knowledge of many disciplines, each with an
understanding of the value and import of the others' contributions.
The examples encompass structural, envelope, mechanical, and interior systems. In most examples one system
(usually structural) or a pair of systems tends to dominate
the integration potentials and priorities, clearly circumscribing the prudent and possible uses of the other systems.
The examples represent common and reasonable combinations and variations, but they are not the only possibilities
within a given building vocabulary.
STRUCTURAL
Roof:
Floor:
Walls:
Steel decking and open web steel joists ICI

Slab on grade 1M)
Concrete masonry bearing wall and
concrete footing (H)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Bearing wall and

bar joist roof building systems employ masonry walls bearing on a turndown slab on grade or conventional spread
footings. The walls support a roof structure of open web
steel bar joists, through which mechanical distribution systems are threaded. Spans for J- and H-series open web
joists generally may not exceed more than 20 times the
joist depth, or more than 50 to 60 ft. Long-span joists are
available, as are a wide variety of special shapes. By nature,
open web joists spaced at even intervals are best suited to
relatively light, uniform loads; joists may be doubled or tripled to ~ccom,!,odate heavier, concentrated loads or may
be combined with other steel framing for roof openings and
rooftop mechanical equipment. The roof deck may be precast concrete plank, tongue and groove wood decking, or,
more commonly, steel decking. Small openings in the roof
area can be framed between joists by means of specially
designed headers.
In buildings with masonry bearing walls, each joist should
be anchored to the masonry by means of a joist anchor
embedded in the masonry. Steel joists can be designed to
cantilever beyond the edges of the bearing walls. Continuous horizontal bracing of both top and bottom joist chords is
possible with spot-welded connections at each joist and
with the ends of the bracing members anchored to a bearing wall; this type of system is well suited to seismic risk
zones.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Walls:
Floor:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B)

Window assembly (NI, exterior insulation and
finish system (EIFS)(D), and canopy assembly (K)
Vapor barrier.and dampproofing (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The concrete

masonry unit (CMU) bearing walls are insulated on the exterior to take better advantage of the wall's thermal mass by
placing. it toward the occupied side. Lonq-span open web
steel JOistroofs can deflect substantially, and the camber of
the joists alone is often not sufficient to maintain the necessary slope to roof drains.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Rooftop unit (AI and ductwork IGI
Electrical: Surface-mounted conduit or behind
furred-out walls
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof
Fire safety:Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum (El
Principal advantages and characteristics: If ductwork is to
be housed within the depth of the joist, headers or
branches must be fed through the joist webs, perpendicular
to. the spanning direction. The webs of joists must be
aligned, and bearing walls with projections must be worked
around. Because beams running transverse to the joists
may block the threading of piping, ductwork, and wiring,
care must be taken that variations in the configuration of
STEEL BAR JOIST WITH BEARING WALL

perimeter walls do not disrupt the regular pattern of the
joist web elements, interfering with straight runs for
mechanical components. If the building owners will also be
tenants, relatively fixed interior lighting and mechanical systems may be planned. Otherwise, overhead and in-floor
systems should be laid out for maximum flexibility. If the
joist depth is insufficient to carry the ductwork, such equipment can be suspended from the bottom chord of the steel
joist.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Floors:
Walls:
Lighting:
Suspended acoustical tile (EI

Resilient tile (JI
Glazed interior face on CMU (I)
Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (F)
and natural light (N)
Furnishings:Movable displays
Princip~1 advantages and characteristics:
Suspended interior ceilings are nearly always preferred to directly attached

interior ceilings. Finished ceilings attached directly to the
joist bottom chord are not only difficult to alter but must be
designed to accommodate the high degree of deflection
the roof assembly will experience.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
St~e~ open web joist and bearing wall construction yields
buildinqs that have relatively large interior clear spans and

flexible interior layouts. The open webbing of the joists provides a lightweight structure that is easily penetrated by
mechanical systems. The bottom chords of the joists are
used for suspension of interior finishes, lighting fixtures,
and air diffusers in finished areas, although they may be left
uncovered. Masonry bearing walls and metal joist roofs are
among the simplest and easiest to design and build. The
relatively low cost of the system makes it attractive for
speculative projects, as does the fact that contractors find
this construction method familiar and easy to erect. Retail
commercial facilities usually require flexibility in lighting,
partitioning, and mechanical systems and large expanses of
column- and wall-free space; the envelope and structural
systems chosen often reflect these demands.
The height to which masonry bearing walls can be built
without resorting to lateral bracing is limited. so they are
used most frequently in one-story structures. Roof spans
up to 60 ft can generally be accommodated. The spacing
and depth of joists is related to the spanning capability of
the roof decking material and the requirements for loads on
the roof structure.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
14
Building Systems-Steel Frame with Access Floor and Curtain Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame
Steel, with welded and bolted connections IF)
Roof:
Steel decking welded to frame (A)
Floors, upper: Steel decking welded to primary frame
members, with cast-in-place concrete topping (M)
Floors,
Core:
Slab on grade, with concrete foundabasement:tion (01

Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete
Principal advantages and characteristics: Core shear walls
add rigidity to frame; composite action of structural steel
framing and a steel and concrete floor diaphragm result in
relatively long, uninterrupted clear spans with smaller depth
of construction. Heights can range from one to more than
100 stories. System allows for off-site fabrication of frame

components, easy shipping to site, and rapid assembly; corrugated steel deck becomes a working surface as soon as it
is placed and provides torrnwork for concrete topping
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Built-up roofing or single-ply membrane on

rigid insulation IB)
Walls:
Curtain wall units of glass/frame assemblies IE) and insulated spandrel panels III,
attached to structural frame
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board, with

foundation drain (N); vapor barrier under
slab IP)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The envelope is
structurally independent of the steel frame, providing flexibility in weight, size, and configuration of the envelope system. Curtain wall units preassembled at the factory must
be designed with shipping, storage, installation, and general handling in mind, emphasizing protection from damage
at all stages.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, either suspended

from structure in ceiling plenum or placed
in floor plenum beneath access floor IDI
Electrical and Electrical wires and cables placed mainly

telecommuni-in access floor plenum and
structural/eleocations:trified floor (H); can also be located
in
ceiling plenum. for lighting, and in interior
wall at spandrel panel
Plumbing:
Most plumbing functions placed in core

area for efficient vertical circulation of
systems
Fire safety:
Sprinkler system suspended from structure in ceiling plenum
Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical systems, hidden in floor or ceiling plenums or both, can be
accessed through removable panels in ceiling or floor systems.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Floors:
Suspended acoustical tile ICI

Carpeted access floor system (l.) and
structural electrified floor (HI
Walls:
Gypsum wallboard IJI

Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (G) and
natural light lEI
Open office furniture (K)
Lighting:
Furnishings:
Principal advantages and characteristics Suspended ceiling

provides space for distribution of internal services, but it
tends to be used principally for overhead lighting and ductwork. Structural/electrified floors and access floor systems
keep all wires and cables in space below finish floor, easily
accessible by removable floor panels, allowing high degree
of flexibility for interior environment. Buildup of static electricity and the ensuing risk of equipment damage and
shocks need to be considered. Access floors are not suited
to situations involving heavy point loads or shifting heavy
equipment. Stringerless systems are among the most flexible and least costly varieties. but they lack the stability of
fully gridded systems and depend on perimeter walls for
restraint. Use of access floors as air plenum, requiring tight
and uniform joints between access panels, may hinder
access to wires, cables, and pipes; ductwork in floor plenums may eliminate the advantages of access floors by
blocking the path for wiring, cables, and pipes.
STEEL FRAME WITH ACCESS FLOOR AND CURTAIN WALL
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Steel frame and curtain wall construction allows for off-site
fabrication of frame and envelope components. easy shipping to the site, and rapid assembly at the site. The steel
and concrete in the floors are designed to act as a composite diaphragm, providing a thin, lightweight structural element with or without an access floor. The access floor

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
shown is advantageous in office environments that need

especially flexible interior layouts. This system keeps all
wires and cables in the space below the finish floor (generally not less than 4 in. deep) and out of wall cavities
Although access floors may add to overall floor-to-floor
heights, the access floor conceals the most visually obtrusive distribution elements.
Building Systems-Staggered Steel Truss
15
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Roof:
Floors. upper:
Floor, lowest:
Walls:
Staggered story-high steel trusses (0) on

steel columns (I) support floor slabs on
both top and bottom chords
Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck ICI
Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck (CI
Slab on grade, with concrete
foundation (M)
Precast shear panels (H) and precast
stiffener beams (OJstabilize structure
Principal advantages and characteristics: This system is

best suited to multiunit residential or hotel buildings of 7 to
30 stories with repetitive floor plans. Flocr-heiqht Pratt
trusses are placed atop every other column in a staggered
pattern, strengthening the structural system while reducing
overall weight; precast hollow-core concrete planks serve
as the floor without a topping slab, allowing for bays of
approximately 60 x 60 ft (twice the truss spacing). A fireresistant membrane, such as drywall, is usually added to
each side of a truss to provide protection; these walls also
serve to divide individual units. Lower floors in this system
can be finished and trimmed while upper-level structural
members are still being laid; the structure becomes rigid as
soon as the precast exterior wall panels and the outer concrete deck elements have been installed.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Rigid insulation, single-ply roofing and ballast (AI

Window assembly (GI. precast concrete
Walls:
panels Ill, precast stiffener beams (01, and
precast shear panels {Hl
Basement: Vapor barrier, and waterproofing and
protective board (N)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Precast concrete
wall members act as an envelope system as well as a structural system.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, and sprinkler system

(B); separate unit-by-unit HVAC systems
can be used
Electrical:
Conduit fed through vertical chases at
outer walls (JI
Plumbing.: Pipes fed through vertical interior chases
Fire safety: Sprinkler system supply at central
corridor (BI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the Pratttype trusses extend from floor to ceiling, with openings for
corridors and elevator doors only, horizontal running of
pipes. wiring, and ductwork can be difficult. For this reason
separate unit-by-unit heating and air conditioning systems
are often preferable; also, unitary HVAC systems offer economic and maintenance advantages in multifamily residential construction. Utilities are typically fed upward through
chases and risers on outer walls, with -service or supply
units placed to either side on each floor; end wall stair
enclosures are also used for this purpose. Most sprinkler
systems are laid out in this fashion as well.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Floors:
Walls:
Lighting:
Underside of concrete planks is either

painted or covered with acoustical ceiling
tile; corridors may have suspended ceilingtile (B)
Joints at floor planks are grouted and tops
carpeted (KI or tiled (EI
Gypsum wallboard IFI
Surface-mounted fixtures or suspended
fluorescent fixtures at corridor (8)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The smooth surface of concrete deck planks can provide interior ceiling finishes, if desired.
STAGGERED STEEL TRUSS
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Staggered truss construction is most often used for double-loaded residential-type occupancies, including hotels, highrise apartments. nursing homes. and hospitals. Such building types usually have highly repetitive floor plans and can
benefit from systems that integrate objectives regarding
structure, interior unit separations, fire-compartmentalization, and acoustical privacy. The system is not generally
considered economical for low-rise buildings due to the

manufacturing costs of the jigs for the trusses and the
forms for the spandrel precasting. The system easily allows
for long structural bays, permitting a high degree of tlexibility in unit interiors. The ground floor is free of trusses and
interior columns and thus suitable for parking or retail commercial use. The system's light weight reduces foundation
size.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland

BUILDING SYSTEMS
16
Building Systems-lightweight Steel Frame and Brick Veneer
STRUCTURAL
Roof:
Metal roof frame (Cvstud brace, C-rafter,

Ccchannel. C-joist) IC), with plywood
sheathing
Metal floor frame (C-joist), steel deck, and
concrete topping (l)
Slab on grade with concrete
foundation IP)
C-stud assembly 1M)
Floor, upper:
Floor, ground:
Walls:
Principal advantages and characteristics: The lightweight

cold-formed steel members are load bearing, and beams,
columns. channels. headers. and other elements can be
built up from standard steel shapes and sections. The
frame's rigidity depends on cross bracing, the distance
from exterior corner to exterior corner, and the type and tavout of fasteners used. Sheathing both sides of the frame
also provides some lateral stability. Steel studs used for
masonry backup should be cross braced with steel straps.
Horizontal and diagonal bracing increases the frame's riqidity. Welded connections are stronger than self-tappinq
screws. The method of attachment can affect costs substantially. The positioning and types of fasteners for affixing
both interior and exterior sheathing should be carefully
specified, because these factors significantly affect lateral
stability,
Cold-rolled steel framing is detailed and fastened quite differently than wood framing, and special noncarpentry tools
and equipment are required. Advantages of cold-formed
steel framing include its light weight. dimensional stability,
speed and ease of assembly, resistance to moisture and
decay, and, in some cases, readier availability than wood
framing members. Also, steel framing members are Irequently made from recycled scrap and can themselves be
endlessly recycled,
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Grade:
Walls:
Shingles and roofing felt (8)

Dampproofing (0) and vapor barrier
under slab
Batt insulation (KI. window assembly (HI,
and brick veneer (GI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Deflection in light~

weight steel frame construction can be several times
greater than deflection in exterior masonry veneer; such differentials must be accommodated in anchoring details or
overcome by adding structural rigidity to the wall frame.
The masonry ties that anchor the veneer to the steel frame
should permit free and independent movement of the two
materials. Where the veneer depends on the steel frame
for lateral stability, anchors should be flexible and should
not resist shear; wire ties that allow independent movement are recommended. The framing design and method
of fastening windows and doors should account for the differences in movement. In general, fenestration components should be attached to either the framing or the
veneer, but not attached rigidly to both. When filled with
batt insulation and fully sheathed, the lightweight steel
frame wall is thermally isolated from the single wythe of
masonry veneer. This results in greater differential thermal
movement in the veneer than would occur with solid double-wythe masonry construction; the interior heat is not
transferred as readily to the exterior masonry.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts. with diffusers ID)
Electrical: Wiring threaded through C-stud wall
assembly 1M)
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof
Principal advantages and characteristics: Prepunched holes
in the studs provide easy routing of plumbing and electrical
lines. Most codes require the use of electrical conduit or
sheathing of the prepunched stud opening to avoid stripping the insulation as wires are drawn through. Electrolytic
action between framing members and nonferrous plumbing
pipes must also be considered, and pipes on exterior walls
must be adequately insulated.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile IE)
Ceramic floor tile (J) resilient floor tile (N),
Floors:
and carpet (I)
Gypsum wallboard IF)
Walls:
Principal advantages and characteristics: Interior gypsum
wallboard, along with exterior sheathing, applied to steel
studs provides additional lateral bracing and an interior
finish.
LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL FRAME AND BRICK VENEER
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Lightweight .steel frame bearing wall construction is often
used in low-rise commercial and residential buildings. The
long-term performance of lightweight steel framing in structures over three stories is a concern. To date, its use in
medium- and high-rise buildings has been mainly for exterior partitions or as nonbearing backup for exterior veneers.
Speed of construction, noncombustjbilitv. and relative light
weight are key advantages of this system. The space
between studs eases insulation and accommodates piping
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Buifding Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
and electrical distribution. Because the framing can be com

pleted independent of the masonry veneer, the interior is
out of the weather quickly and can be finished while the
exterior brick veneer is laid. In nonresidential construction,
which is likely to have fewer bracing walls and longer vertical spans and horizontal runs, added cold-formed bridging
or bracing of the frame increases lateral stability. This can
also be accomplished by decreasing the stud spacing or
increasing the stud gauge.
Building Systems-Wood Roof Truss and Wood Floor Truss
17
STRUCTURAL
Roof:
Wood roof truss and plywood

sheathing IBI
Wood floor truss and plywood
subfloor IGI
Floor, upper:
Floor. ground:
Slab on grade, concrete masonry

foundation wall, and concrete
footing IK)
Wood frame and sheathing IFI
Walls:
Principal advantages and characteristics: In this example. a

standard wood framing system is employed with prefabricated roof and floor trusses and exterior sheathing. The
trusses are built at the factory to engineering specifications.
The exterior panels act in concert with wall studs as a structural skin and weathering surface. The wood frame system
unifies envelope and structure when this external skin acts
as a diaphragm over the studs, joists, and rafters. Often
built of 2 x 4 elements, the floor trusses also provide a nailing edge nominally 4 in. wide along the top and bottom
chords for subflooring and decking, an improvement over
the thinner edges presented by dimension lumber.
Because trusses are made up from commonly available
dimension lumber, there is little chance that supply shortages will delay projects. Assuming proper factory quality
control. the variations often seen In dimension lumber from
different mill lots should not be a problem. Also, the smaller
wood components are more readily available from sustainable forest reserves, as opposed to large dimension lumber
sections, which are available only from older growth forests.
Bridging between floor trusses may be eliminated, depending on the depth of the truss and the application and rigidity
of subflooring and ceiling finishes. If needed, bridging may
be accomplished by running continuous 2 x 4s perpendicular to the truss chords within the open web and nailing
them to truss struts. When such bridging is used, it should
not block possible transverse duct runs. Most floor truss
systems allow for a continuous-edge ribbon at the truss
ends in lieu of a header. Before truss units are lifted into
place, it is wise to inspect them for uniformity of depth and
camber and for general tightness. If substantial field-work is
contemplated, it may be desirable to use plywood l-trusses,
which can be cut to length and drilled to allow threading of
pipes and wires.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Grade:
Walls'
Shingles, roofing felt. with metal

flashing (AI
Vapor barrier under slab, with
dampproofinq at foundation
Batt insulation (E), window assembly (J),
and lapped wood siding III
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wood compo-nents treated with fire retardants can now be used in many
applications for which untreated wood is unsuitable. Some
fire-retarding treatments may discolor wood, accelerate
corrosion of metal fasteners, or alter the structural properties of the wood. For example, plywood can become
delaminated, a particularly difficult problem when the plywood sheathing itself acts as the exterior finish surface.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Electrical:
Plumbing:
Ducts and diffusers IHI. with below-slab

perimeter ducts 1M)
Wiring threaded through holes drilled
through wood studs
Pipes set in partition walls, then
through roof
Principal advantages and characteristics: Open web trusses

allow threading of wiring, piping, and ductwork without onsite drilling or cutting, thus greatly speeding and easing the
installation of heating, plumbing, and electrical systems.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Acoustical tile (C)
Floors:
Carpet ILl
Walls:
Gypsum wallboard IDI
Principal advantages and characteristics: The open web
wood trusses permit longer clear spans than conventional
timber framing, leaving greater flexibility for the location of
interior partition walls that need not be load bearing
WOOD ROOF TRUSS AND WOOD FLOOR TRUSS
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Prefabricated roof and floor trusses eliminate much field
labor, thus speeding on-site construction; help ensure dimensional stability; and may eliminate the need for intermediate load bearing partitions. Longer clear spans are possible with floor trusses than with generally available dimension lumber, and recent advances in manufacturing
techniques make it possible to specify many special tea-
tures. Open web trusses are lighter in weight than dimension lumber and can be lifted easily in gangs by a small
crane or lift. Trusses are available in standard configurations
between 12 and 24 in. deep and allow threading of
mechanical systems without cutting the members, speeding installation. The smaller wood components used in
these trusses are more readily available from sustainable
forests, as opposed to the older growth trees harvested for
larger standard lumber sections.

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
18
Building Systems-Flat Plate Concrete
STRUCTURAL
Columns:
Cast-in-place concrete (K)
Roof:
Floors, upper'
Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (E)
Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (El
Floors, basement
Slab on grade and concrete pile

foundation (Nl
Core:
Central service core of cast-in-place

concrete
Principal advantages and characteristics: Combines cast-inplace concrete columns with two-way concrete slab plates
of uniform thickness. Two-way flat plate concrete floors are
among the simplest concrete structures for reinforcing,
formwork, and detailing. Exterior precast concrete panels
can be attached on lower floors, even with flat plate shoring
still in place, while concrete is being poured for upper-floor
columns and plates. When crane hoists are used to lift concrete buckets or large equipment, a hole is generally left in
a section of each plate to allow for passage of the hoist;
this hole is filled later, when large components have been
moved and concrete pouring is complete. Elevator shafts
are not used for this purpose, as elevators are usually
installed before construction work is complete. In this system, precast concrete or composite spandrel units are
welded in place to a series of angle clips fastened into the
concrete flat plates at their edges.
Flat plate concrete construction permits more stories to be

fitted into a given building height than any other system.
This is because its floor structure has minimum thickness,
especially when post-tensioned. In addition, in many building types the underside of the floor plate can serve as the
finish ceiling.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Rigid insulation and ballast IC), on protected

roof membrane (B)
Walls:
Window assembly (0) and precast concrete

spandrel panels 1M), batt insulation II)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board at
foundation, with vapor barrier under slab (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Exterior precast

concrete panels can be attached on lower floors, even with
flat plate shoring still in place, while concrete is being
poured for upper-floor columns and plates. Window-fram+
ing elements and glazing are installed after the spandrels
have been set. Tolerances within the system grow progressively tighter: the concrete structure requires the least
attention; placement of steel angles for welding to the
spandrels requires greater exactitude; and positioning the
spandrels to accommodate framing and glass requires
greatest care.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, suspended

from structure in ceiling plenum (Gl
Electrical and telecommunications:
Power and communication poles
(HI
Plumbing:
Most plumbing functions in core

area for efficiency in vertical
circulation of systems
Fire safety:
Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum
Conveying system' Elevator equipment in penthouse
(A)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Centralized core

permits relatively uniform, short horizontal runs for power,
plumbing, lighting, and other systems.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Floors:
Walls:
Lighting'
Suspended acoustical tile (F)

Carpeting III
Gypsum wallboard, metal stud assembly IJ)
Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling and

natura/light (01
Principal advantages and characteristics: Workstations in

unpartitioned interior offices can be serviced unobtrusively
by ceiling height power and communications poles, in
furred-out areas around columns, and in corridor partition
walls. Office workstations require daylight exposure and
views. Because the central core is farthest from perimeter
zones, usable floor area in the perimeter can be maximized.
On constrained urban sites, the central core may be moved
against an unfenestrated waH and still retain this advantage
FLAT PLATE CONCRETE
SYSTEM SUMMARY
This example combines cast-in-place columns and two-way
concrete flat plates of uniform thickness, with precast concrete spandrel panels. The system usually has a central
core for vertical circulation and services, and it is typically
employed for low- to medium-rise construction because of
the costs and difficulties associated with placement of
materials and labor in higher buildings. The central core also
permits consolidation of vertical service risers, increasing

Based on Richard 0, Rush, AlA, The BUilding Systems Integration Handbook {John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
fire protection by reducing or eliminating through-floor pe

etrations in office areas.
Flat plate concrete construction is especially applicable
apartments, hotels, and dormitories, in which no su
pended ceiling is required. Story height can be minimized
these applications by using the undersides of the slabs
finish ceiling.
Building Systems-Post- Tensioned Concrete
19
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Rigid concrete (J)
Roof:
Rigid concrete slab
Concrete slab IB)
Floors, upper:
Floor, basement- Slab on grade and concrete
foundation (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Post-tensioning is
a highly sensitive integration of the compressive strength
of concrete with the tensile strength of steel. Plasticsheared. high-strength steel tendons are cast in the slab
and. after curing. are placed in the tubes, anchored. and
jacked into tension from one end. After stresses are
applied, the tendon channels may be grouted to bond the
tendons to the slab. For lengths greater than 100 tt,
stresses must be applied simultaneously from two ends.
Integration of mechanical services is influenced greatly by
the positioning of tendons, which controls the locations of
through-slab penetrations. Post-tensioning permits the use
of shallower beams and slabs, reducing overall building
height and permitting longer spans with thinner structural
members; structure is quite rigid and less subject to movement and creep, allowing use of masonry" infill envelope.
Alterations and demolition can be difficult due to potential
forces latent in post-tensioned tendons.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Walls:
Built-up roofing or single-ply

membrane on rigid insulation (Al
Window assembly (II. and brick and
concrete masonry with rigid insulation
(K)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board

at foundation (Nl. vapor barrier under
slab
Principal advantages and characteristics: Envelope rests on
the concrete frame by means of steel shelf angles attached
to spandrel beams.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, suspended

from structure in ceiling plenum (C)
Electrical and telecommunications: Wires and cables placed in wall

assemblies
Most plumbing functions placed in
Plumbing:
centralized locations, avoiding
tendons
Fire safety:"
Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum
Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical systems hidden in ceiling plenums can be accessed through
removable panels. This system is optimal for additions to
hospitals and other medical facilities, which often require
floor-to-floor heights that match those of the existing structure. Although contemporary standards for servicing and
mechanical equipment require deeper interstitial spaces
than are found in older medical buildings, the shallower
slabs and beams of post-tensioned concrete construction
can conserve such space.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Floors:
Walls:
Lighting:
Suspended acoustical tile ceilings (E)

Resilient flooring IF)
Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (D)
and natural light III
Specialties: Operable partitions (GI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Suspended ceiling
provides space 'for distribution of internal services but tends
to be used only for overhead lighting and ductwork.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Post-tensioned concrete construction is virtually identical to
the flat plate concrete construction described on the preceding page. The major difference lies in the thickness of
the concrete slab, which is slightly reduced in this type of
construction.
Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete by
stretching steel reinforcing tendons after placement and
curing of the concrete structure. This prestressing reduces
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE
or eliminates tensile stresses on the concrete under use
loading and strengthens the slab without increasing its
thickness or adding the dead loads introduced by additional
steel reinforcing rods. Post-tensioning is useful when the
thickness is important to economical or functional design
aspects or when concentrated live loads are high and the

building height must be kept to a minimum. It is also effective when project conditions require minimal floor-to-floor
heights but maximum ceiling heights with generous space
above the ceilings.

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
20
Building Systems-Precast Concrete Frame
STRUCTURAL
Frame
Prestressed precast concrete columns
Roof:
and spandrel beams. IDI

Prestressed precast concrete
double T (81
Floors. upper"
Prestressed precast concrete
Floors, basement"
double T (81
Slab on grade. with cast-in-place
concrete piles (F)
Core'
Cast-in-place concrete vertical

circulation {El
Principal advantages and characteristics: This system rs

most commonly used for parking garages. Double-T joists
are generally 8 or 12 ft wide, at a depth of 18 to 36 in.,
depending on the spanning requirements; spans of 60 ft
are considered maximum. due to the constraints of shipping and lifting the pieces. but longer spans and deeper
sections are possible. It is advantageous to use as many
similar elements as possible; that is, floors, inverted T girders, and columns should all be of the same length and
design. Off-site precasting can conserve time and materials
for concrete forming, and on-site erection time is considerably faster than for cast-in-place construction. Cast-in-place
core provides lateral stability to frame. Adding final finishes
and installation hardware to prestressed components
before erection helps reduce on-site construction time
Temporary shoring and bracing may be required during construction, particularly (if the structure is composite) until the
toppings have cured to service strength. Lifting loops are
generally embedded in the precast pieces and then covered
with the topping or cut off after installation.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Walls:
Concrete topping slab (AI

Spandrel beams act as finish walls (0);
no glazing in openings
Principal advantages and characteristics: For parking

garages, the most common application of precast concrete
frame, a weather-tight condition is not needed; therefore,
structural components can be directly exposed to the elements. Some aesthetic treatments can be cast in or applied
to surfaces but are not needed for moisture protection.
MECHANICAL
Electrical:
Conduit, exposed at underside of

concrete structure
Plumbing:
Pipes from roof and floor drains,
exposed to view throughout structure
Conveying system: Elevator equipment for hydraulic
elevator IGI
Fire safety:
Sprinkler heads dropped from supply
lines set into channels at upper face of
precast floor Ts
Principal advantages and characteristics: In parking structures the requirements for through-floor penetrations are
minimal. However, holes or sleeves can be cast in the
stems and flanges of the Ts, to allow for passage of conduit
and piping. These holes and openings can be as great as
one-third of the stem's total depth but must avoid the reinforcing tendons; openings toward the top of the stem in
midspan and toward the bottom at the ends are most common. Preplanning of aU openings is essential to minimize
sitework and to realize the inherent economies of the system. Ts may be notched at the ends to permit passage of
conduit along girders or beari,ng walls. Also, channels can
be formed by chamfering mated edges of adjacent Ts at
the upper surface, setting the conduit, then pouring a concrete topping slab.
INTERIOR
Floors:
Walls:
Concrete topping acts as floor finish (A)

Concrete structure surface acts as
wall finish (DI
Lighting:
Fluorescent light fixtures attached to

structure (C). and natural light between
spandrel beams
Curbs, handrails, and signage
Specialties:
Principal advantages and characteristics: Most typical interior elements are not needed because of the open air
nature of the building type; however, all elements provided
are attached directly to the exposed structure. In parking
garages, the depth of the structural Ts and concerns for
minimizing floor-to-ceifinq height present special challenges
for the integration of lighting and signs.
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Precast concrete components are usually pretensioned.
Pretensioning is a method of prestressing concrete in
which steel tendons are stretched prior to placement of
concrete and maintained in tension until the concrete is
cured. The external tension on the tendons is then released
to compress the concrete. This example employs prestressed columns, inverted T girders, ledger girders, and
double-T joists, all of the same length and design. Once the

Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
floor and roof Ts are set. the surface is covered with a th

concrete topping that provides the finished, weettu
exposed surface and a horizontal structural diaphragm. Tt
precast components are fabricated off site and lifted in:
place by crane. A variety of finished surfaces is possibr.
and the unity of materials presents an opportunity for nat
ral visible integration of elements. Thin brick or tile can at-.
be used as a surface material.
Building Systems-Flying Form
21
STRUCTURAL
Rigid concrete
Frame:
Floors. upper: Flat plate (K)

Foundation:
Slab on grade and concrete (M)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form construction requires almost total regularity in structural bay
widths. Flying forms can be used to construct flat slabs,
pan-joist slabs. waffle slabs. and various types of beams-inslab. They are also used to form spandrels of varying configuration. Flat plate or flat slab construction is preferred. as
this eases movement of the flying form "table" and mini~
mizes special additional forming. For flying forms to be economical. the building structural layout must be uniform and
the beams and spandrels should be very shallow.
There are three principal types of flying forms: adjustable
post shoring, manufactured truss forms, and column-supported forms. Adjustable post shoring uses scaffolding that
rests on a wood sill and blocking and is raised by jacks. The
forms are moved horizontally, usually by means of rollers,
and are generally suitable for pours of up toAD ft in length.
Manufactured truss forms, ranging up to 50 x 100 ft in side
dimensions, use 4 to 6 ft deep trusses and are raised by a
series of uniformly distributed jacks. The forms are moved
by crane from one floor to the next, often in a staggered or
stepped sequence. Greater widths in truss forms are made
possible by the use of additional longitudinal trusses. Column-supported forms employ adjustable brackets that
"climb" columns and are shored after initial positioning.
This type is better suited to applications involving relatively
close c~lumn spacing.
Usually the same work crew sets and strips the flying
forms; half of the crew works below the deck level that has
been cast. while the other half works above the previously
cast area, setting the forms that have been removed. Conventional temporary shoring, separated frpm the surface
forms, is set in place after removal of the flying forms. To
speed the process of curing and to enable quicker removal
of the forms, early high strength concrete is frequently
used.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B): concrete masonry parapet backup {A}
Walls:
Window assembly (G) and precast concrete

spandrel panels (Ll
Basement: Vapor barrier (N)

Principles and characteristics: As in the case of conventionally cast-in-place flat plate concrete construction, the structural and mechanical systems are concealed from view,
with the precast concrete envelope spandrel and glazing
units connected to the structural frame. Flying form construction. which requires relatively uniform bay widths, can
have an effect on visible integration because it produces
regularity in the rhythm of structural elements.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts and diffusers (D)
Electrical and
telecommunications: Under-carpet flat cable (J)
Principal advantages and characteristics: In office applications. the high quality of the slab's finished surface lends
itself readily to the use of flat wiring for power, lighting,
electronics, and communications. Because they are flat,
these wiring systems increase the flexibility of open office
planning; they are attached to the slab with steel tape prior
to the installation of carpet tiles, with direction changes
accomplished by folding the flat cable. Extra fire protection
measures are unnecessary, as there are no through-slab
penetrations to be sealed.
FLYING FORM
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (E)
Floors:
Carpet tile (I)
Walls:
Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture and natural light (F)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form construction permits great flexibility in interior layouts and furniture arrangements. The use of flat wiring frees the
electrical system from restraints imposed by the structure,
permitting the furniture layout .and power needs to remain
variable until very late in the construction process.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Speed of construction. the economies realized through
reuses of the forms, and the high quality of finished surfaces are among the most attractive features of this construction method. The systems employed with flying form
construction do not differ substantially from those found in
other types of reinforced concrete construction; the difference lies in the method of forming slabs and spandrels and
in the sequencing of pours. A disadvantage of the flat plate
construction system is the relative difficulty of punching
through the slab or plate. An important consideration with
the use of flying forms is the regularity of bay spacing and
the absence of deep beams or spandrels.
During construction the forms are placed and removed in a

sequence of related operations, with temporary shoring
used after form removal under the slabs until they have
cured. The repetitive use of the forms can lead to conservation of both time and, of course, the materials used in forming. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed in the
suspended ceiling assembly. The use of flat wiring atop the
floor slabs for internal distribution of power, lighting, electronics, and communications dictates the use of removable
carpet tiles and yields a set of requirements for interfaces
with furnishings and equipment.
Based on Richard D. Rush. AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
22
Building Systems-Tilt-up Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Precast concrete panels (H}
Roof:
Steel deck and open web steel Joists ICI
Floor:
Slab on grade and concrete footing (JI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Load--bearing tiltup wall panels provide a unified vertical envelope. structure,
and interior. The panels are precast on-site. generally using
the floor slab or grade as the casting surface, and tilted or
lifted into position. The floor slab used as a form must be
level. smoothly finished. and treated with a bond-breaking
agent to permit easy separation of the cast pieces. The wall
panels, usually 6 in. in nominal thickness. may extend from
one to several stories in height, and must be designed to
withstand the bending loads involved in tilting and lifting, as
well as loads that will be encountered once in place. They
may be plain, reinforced, or prestressed and are often provided with temporary timber or steel "strongbacks" for tilting, particularly when there are large window openings.
The panels must be braced during construction until all wall

and roof structural members are in place. Columns are usually cast in place following installation of the panels. In loadbearing tilt-up wall systems the roof and floor members are
bolted or welded to plates and angles cast into a continuous ledge beam. Roofing systems may be steel open-web
joists, precast concrete T's. or hollow-core planks. Flashing
reglets and other roofing connection details can be cast
with the panels. Regular inspection of casting and lifting
operations is essential.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B); skylights

(AI
Walls:
Precast concrete panels (H); window assembly

(GI; dampproofing and protective board (E)
Floor:
Concrete slab (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Joints between

panels should be designed to be concealed; this is easily
accomplished where cast-in-place columns are designed to
lap the panel edges, or where the panels insert at their
edges into a precast column channel. Connections
between panels should not be rigid, so caulks and sealants
are important.
Foundation and slab detailing are key to preventing water
infiltration at the panel bases. It is good 'practice to design
the system so that the slab level is slightly above the bottom edge of the vertical tilt-up panel.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ductwork in open-web bar joists IG); radiant

heat panels in suspended ceiling lEI
Electrical:
Fluorescent light fixtures (F)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the slab

on which the panels are cast must be smooth, utility raceways. pipes, and conduits that will penetrate the slabs
must be stubbed below the finish slab level, covered during
wall panel casting. and then uncovered for final connections.
The location and installation of angles. channels, weld
plates, conduits, connectors, and other hardware should be
carefully planned and detailed, with regular and careful
inspections before placing the concrete. Lifting forces and
special complications related to openings require exacting
structural analysis and special erection hardware.
The suspended ceiling panels incorporate radiant heat panels. Ductwork for cooling and ventilation air is threaded
through the open-web bar joists. In the open area. gas-fired
heating units are suspended from columns and the structure is left exposed.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (K)
Floors:
Resilient tile flooring (I)
Walls:
Precast concrete panels (H)
Lighting:
Skylights (AI and fluorescent light fixtures (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: The site-east panels are the load--bearing elements for the roof members and
provide both interior and exterior finish. The building shell
can be erected quickly, permitting interior work to proceed
along with final joining and sealing of the envelope panels.
The clear spans produced by the bar joist roof structure and
option for hung ceiling allow interior partitions to be intro-
TILT-UP WALL
duced virtually anywhere, with meshed interior and
mechanical systems provided by a ceitinq-rnounted radiant
heat panel.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Tilt-up walls have been used routinely in a variety of building types and heights, especially for single-story buildinqs
with large, uncomplicated exteriors. The system is also
increasingly used for multistory lowrise projects. Significant
savings in time and formwork costs can be achieved. and
long lead times required for precast or structural steel com-
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Bui/ding Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
ponents are often averted. Because most of the forming

and erection work is done within the floor slab area, tilt-up
systems work well in confined construction sites.
Conservation of time and forming material is realized when
there is uniformity in panel design and when the floor surface can be used for forming. Careful planning of the forming, storage, and lifting sequence is essential, and early
consultation with manufacturers and contractors is advisable. Regular inspection of casting and lifting operations is
essential.
Building Systems-Laminated Wood Post and Beam
23
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Heavy glued laminated wood beams (Hl; exposed

wood frame and plywood sheathing (J)
Roof:
Plywood sheathing and wood roof, tongue-andgroove wood decking (C)
Floors'
Slab on grade and concrete foundation (N)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Heavy glued and

laminated beams and columns, which define the interior of
the building, make up the frame in this example. The roof
structure is laminated tongue-and-groove decking, nominally 214in. thick. laid over the beams.
Considerable flexibility is available in selecting structural
modules and bay sizes in heavy timber construction by
varying the depth of beams and increasing the thickness of
decking to span between beams. Columns are frequently
overdesigned to give an appropriate appearance; if sized
only to carry the loads transferred from above, they may
appear too spindly in proportion to other framing elements.
Glued laminated beams, columns, aod decking are generally preferred over dimensioned sawcut lumber. Appearance is easier to specify and ensure; a variety of custom
shapes, sizes, and presawn joints can be obtained in glued
laminated pieces; and they are drier and more resistant to
twisting, checking, and shrinkage. All pieces should remain
factory-wrapped until in place and out of the weather, as
rain and snow will stain them.
If mill-cut lumber is used, it should be cut and dried well in
advance and should be specified free of heart centers.
Although well suited to pier foundation systems, post and
beam framing is often more easily erected atop a perimeter
masonry foundation.
Outside air infiltration is increased at endwall joints in
tongue--and--groove timber decking and must be controlled
through appropriate detailing. When components have
been carefully ordered and weather conditions are favorable, erection of the structural system can proceed quickly.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Standing seam roof, roofing felt. and rigid insulation (B)
Walls;
Wood siding (G); window assembly (F)
Floor;
Vapor barrier under slab (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Lower portions of

perimeter walls are framed conventionally with wood studs
between -rnain timber columns; a vapor barrier is placed
toward the occupied side, and the voids are filled with batt
or rigid insulation. Drywall covers interior walls; the exterior
is sheathed in plywood and finished with diagonal wood
siding. The roof deck is covered with a moisture barrier and
insulated on top with rigid insulation board between sleepers. A standing seam metal roof is applied over the sleepers, which also provide diagonal bracing.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts, supply and return system (D)
Electrical:
Rigid conduits run through decking (A)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Space heating and

cooling is provided by. air supply-and-return ducts. Kitchens.
lavatories, and other areas requiring both odor removal
equipment and greater amounts of fresh air are separated
by walls and covered by suspended or furred ceilings.
As in any system with exposed components, cleanliness of

details. finishing, and dimensional coordination are very
important. If .ductwork cannot be fed through voids in the
floor structure into interior and exterior wall voids, layout,
finishing, and suspension hardware must be skillfully
designed and executed for compatibility, as must interior
fire sprinkling systems. Overhead electrical service can be
located in rigid conduits that run through the decking. During the application of roofing materials, puncturing these
hidden conduits must be avoided.
LAMINATED WOOD POST AND BEAM
SYSTEM SUMMARY
INTERIOR
Floors:
Carpeting (I) and clay tile flooring (M)
Walls:
Drywall (L1
Lighting'
Incandescent light fixtures (E) and natural light
Principal advantages and characteristics: The underside of

the laminated tongue-and-groove decking is exposed to
interior view and should be specified for appearance grade.
Drywall covers interior walls.
Although used historically for larger buildings, post and

beam construction is now generally confined to buildings of
three stories or fewer. Its main advantages are simplicity of
elements and details, combined with the potential for visual
integration and bold structural and architectural forms.
and appearance of hardware used for joinery of the wood

members. Certain parts of the mechanical system can be
meshed within interior partitions and exterior walls, leaving
them concealed. The sizing of structural members and joinery details may be influenced more by considerations of
visual proportion and appearance than strictly by the loading
and stress conditions involved.
Structure and interior are unified in post and beam construction. Because the structural elements in this system
are exposed to view in the finished builcings, as are portions of the mechanical system, care is required in the
visual integration of these components and in the design
BUILDING SYSTEMS
24
Building Systems-Lightweight Mobile Modular
STRUCTURAL
Frame"
Wood frame and sheathing (J)
Roof:
Glued laminated beams and wood deck (C)
Floors:
Plywood subfloor on lateral steel beams IN)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Modules are tied

together through the concealment of joints and mating
lines. accomplished by holding the cladding material back
from the mating line, and spanning between two units with
field-installed components to cover the' area left unclad
They are then bolted at the steel frame, in addition to being
anchored to the foundation. Stud framing, floor joists, and
roof rafters are supported on steel l-bearn frames until the
unit is placed on its foundation.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Sheet metal roofing and metal cap flashing (8)
Walls:
Aluminum siding (I) and batt Insulation ID)
Floor:
Vapor barrier (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Openings in the

envelope for doors and windows may present difficulty in
mating units, due to differential movement of the units,
which are normally placed on separate and tess-than-permanent foundations. Entrance doors, for example, should
not span between unit mating lines, even when the installation is not considered temporary. Exterior siding can be
held back from the mating lines between units and then
field-instal'ed to span the joint lines. This technique
improves visual integration and also helps tie units together
structurally. At the roof, special curb caps are available or
may be field-fabricated to span across low parapets on
mated units. If a complex must mate some units at all four
sides, mechanical system plants may be root-mounted.
Modular units are normally tied down by cable and earthembedded anchors.
Skirting at the base of the units is often necessary for
appearance and security, with field-set steps required at
entrances. Plans for roof drainage and water carryoff should
be resolved with the manufacturer.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Rooftop unit (A) and Insulated ducts lEI
Electrical:
Electric baseboard heaters III
Plumbing:
Factory installed. hooked up on site (I)
Fire safety: Fire sprinklers and fire/security systems may be

factory installed
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wiring and plumbing, installed at the factory, are easily hooked up at the destination site. Nearly all system components are installed at
the factory, including heating, cooling, and ventilation
equipment. Site grading, foundation work, connection of
utilities and services, landscaping, and interconnection of
the modular units are the only on-site activities required.
Mechanical systems are meshed within voids in the structure and envelope assembly and are basically self-contained within each unit; even when plans call for the linking
together of units to form a complex, mechanical and electrical systems for the individual units remain independent. For
occupancies that require substantial interior partitioning,
HVAC supply and return registers should be planned for
high wallor ceiling locations.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (F)
Walls:
Drywall (K); window assembly (H)
Floors:
Resilient flooring (M)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures in ceiling (Gl and natural

light
Principal advantages and characteristics: An interesting
aspect of these low-cost buildings is that except for baseboard-mounted electric heat panels, there are no exposed
structural or mechanical elements. The result is maximum
interior flexibility.
Ordinarily floor plans are based on the relatively narrow
dimension of the module and require great care In planning
for interior layouts, although it is possible to obtain large
clear-spanned floor areas. Claddings, exterior and interior
wall finishes, door and window types, floor finishes, and
envelope thermal insulation levels can be specified to
order.
LIGHTWEIGHT MOBILE MODULAR
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Lightweight mobile modular buildings consist of factory fabricated wooden structures. Although both smaller and
larger dimensions are available, the most common size is
12 ft x 60 ft. Speeds of construction and low initial cost are
the main advantages of mobile modules. On-site labor
requirements are minimal. Where weather, labor, or site
problems affect other options, or for emergency or temporary use, mobile modulars are often the appropriate solution. Mobile modular use has increased significantly in
areas of rapid growth and development, especially in areas
with large influxes of temporary population. Modules can
be easily moved, even when assembled as a complex.
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Modular units can almost always be combined. Door open

ings should not be placed at the mating lines between mod
ules; such placement requires field installation of the doorand may result later in binding of the door due to differentia
movements between the mated modules. When plannm;
the complex, the manufacturer should be apprised of the
location of utilities and services on the site: any local build
ing code requirements that differ from major codes: anc
handicapped access needs. Distance of the site from the
manufacturing plant is a major cost factor, and any cornph
cations in shipping should be investigated
Building Systems-Space Frames
25
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Metal space frame (B)
Roof:
Metal deck IBI
Floor:
Slab on grade and concrete foundation (I)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Space frames

serve as both structural and interior systems, while providing a structure for envelope connections and space for
meshing of mechanical distribution elements. A metal deck
and built-up roof cover the space frame shown, Space
frames may appear in horizontal, vertical, domed. vaulted,
stepped, sloped, or tower configurations, In this example,
the edges of the space frame are glazed to permit perimeter clerestory lighting of interior areas. Tubular highstrength extruded aluminum struts are joined by means of
solid aluminum hubs, also designed to accommodate the
hardware for fastening of clerestory glazing. The frame can
also be cantilevered beyond the continuous perimeter
masonry wall, which allows for effective plate structural
action.
Space frames are increasingly common as atrium covers
and have also been used as structures for entire building
envelopes. In perimeter-supported applications, truss
depth-to-span ratios of up to 1/30 are practical. Besides,
their light weight and economy of materials, space frames
have the quality control advantages of factory production.
Recent developments in strut and hub technology make
space frames highly durable and well engineered. The lightweight frame components are easily shipped, quickly
assembled on site, and then lifted into place. Sometimes
the frames are factory assembled and shipped whole or in
subsections to the site. Careful coordination and assembly
instructions are important to keep pieces in sequence for
field assembly. Field bolting is almost always preferred to
field welding of frame components, because welding space
frames is expensive, and quality control can pose problems.
Where a continuous perimeter wall will not support the
space frame, the design of supporting points is crucial. Certain spanning and rigidity advantages are gained by the
design of supports that extend the pattern of the space
frame above or below the plane of the main truss.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (A)
Walls:
Brick veneer and rigid insulation (G)
Floor:
Vapor barrier (J)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structure and

envelope are connected in this example, with the exposed
nature of the space frame requiring a high degree of visible
integration between the frame's structural components and
parts of the mechanical system. The space frame permits
very long column-free spans with minimal amounts of
structural material. The visual properties can be destroyed if
the frame is coated for fire protection and in many cases
coating can be forgone if the frame is placed 20 ft or more
above floor level.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts suspended from hubs of the frame IC)
Electrical:
Electrical conduits (C)
Fire safety: Sprinkler piping IC)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the
space frame is a highly regular structure and is exposed to
view in most applications, the coordination of service systems with patterns in the frame is essential for visible integration. Piping can be suspended from the hubs of the
frame, but should correspond to the patterns of the frame.
Utility runs generally follow the orthogonal grid, while the
sprinkling apparatus and electrical conduits may be run
diagonally. Fireproofing of space frames generally destroys
their appearance, so sprinkling is usually a consideration
unless the exposed frame is 20 ft or more above floor level.
INTERIOR
Ceilings:
Metal deck (8)
frame serve to join the struts and can also accommodate

mountings for the envelope system and various types of
interior equipment.
Floors:
Wood flooring IH)
Walls:
Glass block panel (E) and concrete masonry

bearing wall (F)
Lighting:
Incandescent light fixtures 10)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The ceiling unifies

interior and structural systems, and meshes them with unified mechanical and interior systems. The solid hubs in the
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems
SPACE FRAME
Integra~on
SYSTEM SUMMARY
The triangulated space frame network is one of the strongest and most efficient structural configurations, permitting
long column-free spans with lightweight, highly repetitive
elements. Slender structural members make space frames
advantageous in cases where high light permeability is
sought, yet significant live structural loading may occur.
Typical applications include spans above entries, sports arenas, and convention centers.
The selection of a space frame module is governed by the
integration of cladding systems, the spanning characteristics of deckings, and the mullion spacing for glazings. A
space frame may be enclosed with metal decking, glass,
acrylic, membrane, or insulated paneling. Space frames
must usually be engineered and fabricated by a specialty
engineer and/or fabricator, although strut sections and hubs
generally do not need to be specially designed for each
application
Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
26
Building Systems-Metal Building Systems
STRUCTURAL
Frame"
Rigid steel frame (C)
Roof:
Standing seam metal roof (8); batt insulation (0)
Floors:
Slab on grade and concrete
foun~atjon (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Pre-engineered

primary frames and claddings are dominant in warehouse.
agricultural. and light industrial buildings. and are increasinglyused for office and retail facilities. Their use is generally confined to one-story construction. but there is growing
experience with multistory buildings.
Metal frame and skin building systems take advantage of
factory assembly techniques and quality control. The structural integration of frame components with the building
skin, for strength and rigidity, permits major economies in
the size and number of steel framing components. Primary
and secondary framing members, fasteners, and panels
interact to produce a light stable building shell. All framing
and cladding components are designed, engineered, and
fabricated in a plant, then shipped to the site for erection.
The same company often designs, engineers, and. builds
the system. Metal structural components are generally
sized and deployed according to exact requirements of an
application, permitting economies in materials and speed of
construction.
ENVELOPE
Roof:
Standing seam metal roof IB)
Walls:
Window assembly IH); insulated metal wall panels
Floor:
Dampproofing 1M) and vapor barrier IN)
(I)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The pre-engineered metal building integrates lightweight structural and
envelope components, each of which adds strength and
rigidity to the overall form. The floor slab, often left uncovered in warehouse and industrial applications, unifies the
envelope, structure, and interior systems, and is normally
the only major site preparation required for erecting the
building. The light weight of the envelope system, which is
valuable for shipping, is especially vulnerable to wind uplift
and requires great care in design and layout of fastenings.
For applications in which privacy or sound isolation is an
issue, the thin sheet steel presents an acoustical problem.
The standing seam metal roof system requires less maintenance than other alternatives, and its long-term performance record is excellent. Most standing seam metal roofs
provide a free-floating monolithic membrane, connected by
a series of slotted clips that allow movement. This method
freely accommodates expansion/contraction cycles caused
by thermal changes. In addition, a variety of details, colors,
and finishes is available.
MECHANICAL
HVAC:
Ducts and diHusers IE); heat pump IJ); ridge

vent IA)
Plumbing: Stacks in roofing panels and seams

Principal advantages and characteristics: Although the
structural and envelope systems of metal buildings are usually highly integrated, manufacturers rarely consider the
mechanical and interior systems in any detail. When insulating metal sandwich panels are used for interior and exterior
finishes, special care is required in detailing the power and
signal wiring, and in providing for its protection once in
place. The mechanical plant shown in this drawing is
located on the ground adjacent to the building, but it could
just as easily be roof mounted.
The standing seam metal roof presents several items of
concern to architects: the modularity of roof panels and
seams, important for locating plumbing stacks, skylights,
and other roof apertures; proper expansion details at intersections with flashing, especially upper-roof ridge; and the
critical importance of crickets, parapet caps, and other
details to avoid buildup of standing water.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (G)
Floors:
Carpet IK)
Walls:
Insulated metal wall panels II)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures (F) and natural light

Principal advantages and characteristics: This construction
approach is particularly advantageous for applications
requiring large interior clear-spans, the support of heavy
overhead cranes, or substantial expanses of roof. More
METAL BUILDING SYSTEMS
often associated with ..standard." buildings components

and even "standard" buildings, the metal buildings systems industry is able to respond to highly specialized
needs, while still employing standardized structural components and factory fabrication.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
A variety of exterior cladding alternatives is available, ranging from lightweight corrugated metal skins to fully insulated sandwich panels that provide both interior and
exterior finishes. Manufacturers also otter door, window,
and skylight components that work as integral elements of
the envelope and interior systems. Centralization of responsibility for engineering, fabrication, and construction permits close cost control and early assessment of building
costs. Architects working with pre-engineered building systems can rely on technical support from the manufacturer,
Based on Richard D Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
induding the preparation of fabrication and subsystem eng

nearing documents.
The pre-engineered, cold-formed steel componentry is ver
flexible and can be used for a wide variety of buildin.
shapes and sizes. Such buildings can be rapidly dismantle
and moved. The rectilinear nature of such systems usuall
results in buildings that are easily expanded in the longe
dimension. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed I
the ceilings, but the mechanical plant (here shown on the
ground adjacent to the building, but just as easily roof
mounted) is normally kept on the exterior, sometimes pre
senting difficulty with visible integration.
Metal systems are very lightweight. In areas subject to
winds, special care should be taken for wind bracing
structural frame and for fastening and design of exteric
cladding details. Building corners and edges are particular!subject to wind-induced uplifting and suction.
Building Systems-Tension Fabric Structures
27
STRUCTURAL
Frame:
Steel cables in fabric sleeves (A); steel masts (e)
Floors:
Slab on grade (E)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structural, envelope. and interior systems are unified in tension-fabric structures. A fabric membrane, usually configured to follow an
optimal structural shape. is anchored by steel cables

attached to the fabric and is suspended from steel or aluminum masts to form "aroof or total enclosure.
Fabrics for temporary use are typically composed of a polyester substrate with a polyvinyl-chloride-eoated outer layer.
A more expensive but longer-lasting fabric is either Tefloncoated or silicone-coated fiberglass. Cables are clamped to
the fabric. which is cut and sewn according to patterns for
the structural shape employed.
The rules of structural geometry that govern the design of
tension structures impart a unique and particular form,
which does not easily permit deviations. Working with an
engineer, the architect often begins the design process
with model studies and a computer analysis to verify load
expectations and to guide pattern-making for the fabric.
ENVELOPE
Walls and roof: Noncombustible fabric membrane (8)
Floor:
Vapor barrier (G)
Principal advantages and characteristics: In general the skin

and cables of these structures are in tension, while columns and arches are subject to compression. Under
dynamic loading conditions, an efficient tensile structure
will adjust and allow slight deformation.
Unique aerodynamic properties assist open tension structures in overcoming the difficulties of wind-driven rain;
wind conditions subject most of the fabric to negative pressure, "lifting" rain away from the skin. The use of vegetation or architectural barriers at ground-level openings also
reduces wind and rain effects under the canopy.
MECHANICAL
Electrical:
Lighting fixtures, receptacles, and sound system mounted on columns and masts (0)
Fire safety:
Noncombustible or fire-retardant fabric membrane (B)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the fabric

transmits light while blocking direct rays of the sun, it also
assumes some functions normal to mechanical systems.
Electrical lighting and other equipment are difficult to integrate because of the thinness of the structural envelope
membrane, and are nearly always attached to the structural
masts or placed on independent, freestanding structures.
Acoustical, thermal, and fire-safety considerations are difficult to accommodate in tension structures, although their
light weight and dynamic properties under wind loading
make them very safe from a structural point of view. If
areas of fabric are placed close to the ground or in other
easily accessible locations, vandalism becomes a concern,
as most materials suitable for tensile structures are easily
cut. Fabric-covered structures for the performing arts are
generally equipped with electrical systems designed for
safety in wet conditions. Sealing of the holes at the peaks
of tensile structures where masts protrude is not usually
necessary.
Several of the major building codes now contain provisions
governing tensile structures, but it is advisable to consult
local code officials early in the design process. The treatment of electrical wiring within or affixed to rigid columns
and masts, which must be designed to permit some movement. may be a concern. Some fabrics are classified as
noncombustible, and some are only fire retardant. so it is
important to determine early on which fabrics are acceptable in a specific situation
INTERIOR
Ceilings
and walls'
Noncombustible fabric membrane (B)
Floors:
Pivoted mast base and concrete footing (F)
Lighting'
Incandescent light fixtures (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Color is an integral

element of fabrics and will have an effect on the quality of
natural illumination beneath the canopy. Because the fabric
provides both interior and exterior finished surfaces for the
envelope, the columns and masts are typically the only
TENSION FABRIC
structural members used for mounting such items as lighting fixtures and power receptacles. Gantries hung from columns or masts provide additional service areas
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Several features give tension structures an advantage over
low-cost wood, metal, and concrete shelters. Fabrics can
range in service life from a few years to several decades. If
a lifetime of around 15 years is acceptable for the facility, a
PVC-coated tension structure will suffice at a low initial
cost. The usual solution for greater permanence is Teflon
coated fiberglass. Clear spans of up to 100 ft are easily
obtained with lightweight fabric structures.
Designers can consult with specialists on engineering and

shop drawings. Oesignlbuild firms will produce complete
shop drawings and often fabricate all components or erect
the structure on the site. Careful detailing of steel and cable
elements, joints, and attachments is critical to overall
appearance, as most will be exposed to view. Steel and
wire rope manufacturers can assist with detailing
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
28
Floor Structure Assemblies
FLOOR STRUCTURE ASSEMBLIES

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
CONSULT
MANUFACTURERS'
LITERATURE
AND
TRADE
ASSOCIATIONS
"
._ .
_J~L __ .
JOiST
WOOD
TRUSS
..
o-
_,..
PLYWOOD SU8FLOOR
~_~CEILING
OR
JOIST
(IN.)
(IN.)
7-13
Nominal joist
DEAD LOAD
ABLE
OF
,
STRUCTURE!
(PSF)
,GE
5-8
1-40
Up to 18
Deflection
6-12
)-40
12-30
Deflection
6-16
)-40
10-22
2x 6, 8,10,
JOIST
F P L Y W O O D SUBFLOOR
PLYWOOD JOIST
(OR WOOD TRUSS)
PLYWOOD
STANDARD
MEMBER
SIZES
DEPTH OF
~WOOO
WOOD
SYSTEM
LOAD
)
SPAN
RANGE
(FT)
DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY
AFFECTED BY
and 12
13-21
Plywood joists
12,14,16,18,
and 20
-----------~CEtLING
WOOD
WOOD
PLANK
WOOD
BEAM
1022
SEAM
Nominal plank
2,3, and 4
AND
PLANK
~---
LAMINATED
WOOD
~WOODPLANK
BEAM
AND
PLANK
--
STEEL
JOIST
-
I ~
-- --
0-40
8-34
:-::~O~AI~~:-LOOR
931
Steel joists
820
0-40
16-40
Deflection
STEEL
30-110
)-100
16-60
Deflection
-8-30
JOIST
SLAB
ST E E L CENTERING
STEEL
11 75
Steel joists
8-72
(up to 130)
JOIST
~CEILrNG
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
--.
_-1
FRAME
6-20
-....-CEILING
LIGHTWEIGHT
STEEL
Nominal plank
2,3, and 4
GLUE LAMINATED
WOOD
BEAM
<..:.::.._... ,... ~:._,..-;_.4_::.-:o/;:;..ot-CONCRETE

STEEL
JOIST
8-22
----
~LIGI-lTWEIGI-lT STEEL
.L.
FRAME
Consult
manufacturers'
literature
6-20
0-60
10-22
35--60
0-100
16-35
Deflection
40-75
0-150
Up to 50
Generally
below 35
Deflection
and creep
40-75
0-150
Up to 60
Generally
below 35
Deflection
and creep
50-120
0-150
~CEIUNG
9 15
lC
.J:----
STEEL
FRAME
7-12
1i.C--STEEL CENTERING
STEEL BEAM
--lC...:...-CEILING
-----
8-16
STEEL
FRAME
Concrete plank
16-48 W
4-12 D
PRECAST
CONCRETE
~~,.~~~~ARSETT~;~~:~~~
.,-;
PLANK
;0..'
CONCRETE
6-12
16-48 W
4-12 D
BEAM
4-10
ONE -WAY
CONCRETE
SLAB
Concrete plank
4-10
50-120
0-250
TWO-WAY
SLAB
8-22
ONE-WAY
RIBBED
Standard
40-90
0-150
10-30
20 and 30 W
6-20 D
SLAB
8-22
TWO-WAY
RIBBED
CONCRETE
Standard
dome forms
75-105
0-200
I .I
,...--- CONCRETE
SLAB
CONCRETE
FLAT
SLAB
4S;R~F ~:~~T~ANEL
PRECAST
- - - - - - - - - - -....-CONCRETE
.n~i':" ..-;, -r: ~<.":'-.:;;,:-,#
TOPPING
6-16
<:':
'.I'
20-40
50-80
0-150
20-50
Creep
16-36 D
50-90
:0-150
25-65
Creep
4-6
35-70
,0-200
Up to 35
Deflection
5-14
60-175
,0-200
18-35
Creep
TEE
18-38
Creep
Up to 70 with
prestressing
PRECAST
SINGLE TEE
>__".
,0-250
4',5',6',8',
and 10' W
6-16 D
8-18
~~.-:;::,~;-:;:::.,;:;_-:-..-C ONCRETE TOPPING
Creep
75--170
PRECAST
DOUBLE
25-60
Min. slab
thickness
5 without) Drop
4 with
panel
COLUMN
DOUBLE
TEE
Creep
More with
prestressing
19 x 19, 30x 30
6-20 D
SLAB
15--50
More with
prestressing
pan forms
CONCRETE
COMPOSITE
More with
prestressing
CONCRETE
PRECAST
TEE
10-20
More with
prestressing
s-CONCRETE
SLAB
~:;t;: ~WELDED STUD
{SHEAR CONNECTOR}
____
CONCRETE
FLAT
STEEL
BEAM
PLATE
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. LeWIS, FAIA & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
More with
prestressing
Floor Structure Assemblies

REQUIRES
FINISHED
REQUIRES
FINISHED
CHARAC-
FLOOR
CEILING
TERISTICS
SURFACE
SU~FACE
BAY SIZE
Yes
Yes
Optional
COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE
_.--------!.2...~UND~A":l~~ISSl~ ____
IMPACT
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER

CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
UNPRO-
TECTED
AIRBORNE
Fair
HOURS
MAXIMUM
PROTECTED
HOURS
CONSTRue
TlON TYPE
CLASSIFI
CATION
481AI
3C 181
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Between
Joists
-one way
Poor
Visual or
fire
Between
trusses and
joists
-two ways
Poor
Fair
2
(combustible)
48 (AI
3C (81
Under
structure
-one way
Poor
F'Hr
3A
6" x 10" frame
min.
4" planks min.
protection
purposes
Maximum
beam
SERVICE
PLENUM
No
spacing
8'0"
(combustible)
REMARKS
Economical, light, easy
to construct. Limited to
lowrise construction
Close dimensional tolerances; cutting holes

through web permissible
Most efficient with
planks continuous over
more than one span
Optional
No
Under
structure
-one way
Poor
Fair
3A
6" x 10" frame
min.
4" planks min.
Light joists
16" to 30" o.c.
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c.
Yes
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Between
joists
-two ways
Poor
Poor
3C (8)
Light joists
16" to 30" o.c.
Heavy joists
4'-12' o,c.
No
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Between
joists
-two ways
Poor
Fair
1-3
1, 2 and 3
r.es
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Under
structure
Poor
Poor
3C (81
No
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Under
structure
Poor
Fair
1-3
1-4
l,2,and3
Optional
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Under
structure
Fair
Fair
1-4
1,2,and3
Optional
No
Under
structure
Fair
Fair
2-4
3-4
1 and 2
No
No
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Restricted to short
spans because of excessive dead load
U~er
structure
Economical system,
selective partition placement required. Cantilevers difficult
No
No
Under
structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Suitable for concentrated loads, easy partition placement
No
No
Between
ribs
-one way
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Economy through reuse of forms, shear at

supports controlling
factor
L:S 1.33 W
No
No
Under
structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
For heavy loads,

columns should be
equidistant. Not good
for cantilevers
L$.1.33W
No
No
Under
structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Drop panels against

shear required for spans
above 12 ft
Optional
Visual
purposes;
differential
camber
Between
ribs
-one way
Fair
Good
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Most widely used prestressed concrete

product in the medium
span range
Optional
Visual
purposes;
differential
camber
Between
ribs
-one way
Fair
GOOd
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Easy construction, lack

continuity, poor earthquake resistance
No
Visual or
fire
protection
purposes
Under
structure
Good
Good
1-4
1,2, and 3
No
No
Under
structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
L S 1.33 W
L -& 1.33 W
Uniform slab thickness,

economical to form,
easy to cantilever
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
29
30
ROOF"
RoofStructure Assemblies
STRUCTURE
ASSEMBLIES
STANDARD
EPLYWOOO
SHEATHING
WOOD
JOiST
WOOD
RAFTER
--
WOOD BEAM
AND PLANK
------
MEMBER
SiZES
IOEAO LOAD
OF
STRUCTURE
SUITABLE
SYSTEM
(IN.)
(IN.)
(PSF)
(PSF'
DEPTH OF
FOR ADDITIONAL
INFORMATION
CONSULT
MANUFACTURER'S LITERATuRE AND
TRADE
ASSOCIATIONS
4-8
10-50
Up to 22
8-22
~ominal
planks
~,3, and 4
5-12
10-50
8-34
WOOD BEAM
lOR LAMINATED
BEAM I
DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY
AFFECTED BY
Deflection
Maximum
beam
8'0"
10-50
8-32
4'0"
modules
Varies
5-15
10-50
30-50
1525
1060
100 200
10-28
1050
(1'-12')
TRUSS
STEEL DECK
f'ot
STEEL
TRUSS
PURLIN
STEEL
'".
- ........
-----
ST E E L
_____
---.....,..-
DECK
_ __ ~
ST E E L DEC K
Steel joists
Up to 96
8-72
Deflection
Deflection
Light joists
16"-30" o.c.
Deflection
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c.
10-32
WOOD NAILER
STEEL ..JOIST
CEILING
INSULATION
___
11 75
CENTERING
STEEL ..JOIST
CEILING
P LY W O O D
STEEL
.JOIST
Varies
2'-8'
between
trusses
TRUSS
CONCRETE
Steel joists
8-30
820
10-50
Up to 96
Light joists
16"-30" o.c.
Deflection
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c.
11 75
Steel joists
6-24
10-50
Up to 96
Deflection
40-75
30-70
20-60
Generally
below 35
Deflection
and creep
40-75
30-70
20-60
Generally
below 35
8-72
STEEL .JOIST
_ __ ~ C E I L I N G
STEEL
FRAME
PRECAST
CONCRETE
4-12 plus
beam depth
Concrete plank
4-12 plus
beam depth
Concrete plank
16-48W
4-12 D
16-48 W
4-12 D
50-120
4-10 slab
ONE-WAY
CONCRETE
SLAB
TWO-WAY
CONCRETE
SLAB
BAY SIZE
CHARACTERISTICS
spacing
3-6
WOOD
STEEL
.JOIST
RANGE
(FT'
Nominal
rafters
2 x 4, 6, 8, 10,
and 12
PLYWOOD
PANEL
STEEL
..JOIST
SPAN
RANGE
5-13
CEILING
~ W O O D PLANK
LIVE LOAD
Up to 100
beam depth
~-. . ~~/~.::.'.'~-'
~.-~ CONCRETE
~BEAM
50-120
4-10 slab
plus
beam depth
8-22
ONE-WAY
RIBBED
CONCRETE
SLAB
Up to 100
Standard
40-90
Up to 100
Standard
75-105
Up to 100
Creep
15-50
25-60
L:S 1.33W
Creep
More with
prestressing
dome forms
19 x 19, 30 x 30
6-20 D
16-36
L S 1.33 W
More with
prestressing
20 and 30 W
6-20 D
8-24
10-30
More with
prestressing
pan forms
TWO'-WAY
RIBBED
CONCRETE
SLAB
10-25
More with
prestressing
plus
,,=====~r-~ CONCRETE SLAB
Deflection
and creep
16-36 deep
65-85
20-80
30-100
Creep
4',5',6',8', and
10' wide
6"-16" deep
35-55
25-60
20-75
Creep
50-160
Up to 100
PRECAST
TEE
6-16
pRECAST
DOUBLE
TEE
4-14
CONCRETE
FLAT
SLAB
~~~_~~,..CONCRETE
~:~~~;~_~
5 16
SLAB
DROP PANEL
CAPITAL
COLUMN
Min. slab
50-200
W/O}
5
4 wi
Drop
panel
5-20
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Up to 100
thickness
3-6
GYPSUM
DECK
Up to 35
L S 1.33 W
Creep
Creep
More with
prestressing
CONCRETE
FLAT
PLATE
Up to 50
Up to 40
L<1.33W
More with
prestressing
Equal column
spacing
required
Up to 10
Up to 8'
Deflection
between
subpurlins
and creep
RoofStructure Assemblies
SUITABLE
FOR
INCLINED
ROOFS
Yes
REQUIRES
FINISHED
CEILING
SURFACE
For visual
Between
or fire
rafters
-one way
protection
purposes
Yes
Yes
RELATIVE
SERVICE
PLENUM
CAPACITY
AIRBORNE
IMPACT
MAXIMUM
TECTED
PROTECTED
HOURS
HOURS
CONSTRUC-
TION TYPE
CLASSIFI-
CATION
REMARKS
Poor
Fair
2
(combustible)
46 (A)
3C (6)
Medium
Poor
Fair
3A
6" x 10" frame
min.
4" plank min.
low
Poor
Fair
461A)
3C (6)
Between
trusses
low
Poor
Fair
2
(combustible)
46 (A)
3C (6)
Truss depth to span

ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 10
Between
trusses
low
Fair
Fair
1-4
l,2,and3
Truss depth to span

ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 15
Between
Medium
Fair
fair
1-4
1,2, and 3
Under
structure
purposes
-one way
No
UNPRO-
low
protection
For fire
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER

CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE
TO SOUND TRANSMISSION
THERMAL
Under
structure
only
Yes
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Yes
Pitched trusses
usually used
for short spans
No
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
joists
Yes
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Between
joists
low
Poor
Fair
1,2, and 3
Yes
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Between
joists
High
Excellent
Good
1,2, and 3
Yes
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Fair
Fair
1-4
l,2,and3
Yes
No
Under
High
Under
Easy to design;
quick erection
structure
High
Fair
2-4
Fair
3-4
1 and 2
structure
Provides finished
flush ceiling.
May be used with any
framing system
No
No
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Between
ribs
-one way
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Under
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Fair
Good
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Under
;figh
structure
No
No
Under
structure
No
For visual
purposes
No
No
structure
Yes
Yes
No
Economy in forming;
suitable for two-way
cantilevering
Generally used for
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Between
ribs
-one way
High
For visual
or fire
protection
purposes
Between
ribs
-one way
High
Under
High
Good
Good
, -4
3-4
1 and 2
Uniform slab thickness;

easy to form;
suitable for vertical
expansion of building
3-4
1 and 2
Suitable for heavy

roof loads
l,2,and3
Provides resistance to
wind and seismic loads
No
long spans
2-3
Good
Fair
3-4
1 and 2
Most widely used

prestressed concrete
element.
structure
No
No
Under
structure
High
Good
Good
1-4
No
For visual
or fire
protection'
purposes
Under
structure
High
Good
Good
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet 1. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA. & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
31
32
Exterior Wall Assemblies
EXTERIOR
WALL
,..:
WALL
ASSEMBLIES
VERTICAL SPAN
RANGE /UNSUP.
THiCKNESS
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT MANUFACTURERS

LITERATURE AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
.
~C.M.U.
{GRAVEL
AGGREGATE)
C.M. U.
(NOMINAL)
{IN.}
12
WEIGHT
(PSF)
55
85
PORTED HEIGHT)
(FT)
Up to 13
Up to 20
c!!!
z'"
- llJ
:t' 0::
RACKING
RESISTANCE
HEAT TRANS_
MISSiON COEFFI_
CIENT IU,FACTORJ
(BTUtHR 'SQ FT .0FI
SERVICE
PLENUM
SPACE
Good
None
0.56
0.49
Good
Through
insulation
0.21
0.20
Good
Through
insulation
;:'"
------+--------------------t-------+------!-------12
C.M,U.
I I NSULATED I
8+
12 +
60
90
Up to 13
Up to 20
'
s:
-o
fii
0.19
4+4+
75
4+8+
100
4+2+4
4+2+8
75
100
Up to 9
Up to 13
Fair
None
0.12
0.11
8+
67
Up to 13
Good
Through
interior
insulation
0.16
4
6
12
16
Up to 14
Up to 20
(LId';; 50)
Poor to fair
Between
studs
0.06
0.04
4+4
52
Up to 14
Poor to fair
8etween
studs
0.07
METAL
STUD
4
5
14
18
Up to 13
Up to 17
Poor
Between
0.06
0.04
BRiCK
4+4
54
Up to 15
Good
Between
studs
Fair to good
None
Up to 13
(w/rein!. 17)
Up to 20
(w/rein!. 25)
Excellent
None
97
Up to 13
(w/rein!.17)
Excellent
Through
insulation
0.13
112
Up to 13
(w/rein!. 17)
Excellent
Through
insulation
0.13
C. M. U
AND
BRICK
VENEER
I INSULATED)
BRICK.
C,M.U
VENEER
~ii!!I!!!\lii!!\liili!!1i~~
.
.INSULATION
~
~ INT. WALL FIN.
REPELLENT I
CAVITY
C.M,U.
AND
STUCCO
(INSULATED J
OE
~
WOOD
ST UC C O
C.M. U.
INSULATION
INT.
WALL
E X T.
WALL
FIN.
F"IN.
~~~:T.r~NG WITH MOISTURE
~ ~ ~~~AT~~~O
WITH
BARRIER
STUD
0.18
INT. WALL
VAPOR
FIN
BRICK
VENEER
VENEER
CONCRETE
INSULATED
SANDWICH
PANEL
~.....~
.......
,.~.
~: ..
.......- CONGRETE
:.~:_.~.:-;~'o.-::.. ",~
CONCRETE
I fNSULATED I
92
12
138
8+
studs
0.07
0.05
See
manufacturers'
literature
0.68
0.55
CONCRETE
4+8+
AND
BRICK
VENEER
(INSULATED I
.-".~" ... , ..-.,
PRECAST
CONCRETE
CONCRETE IREINFORCEpJ
,INSULATiON
..........-
INT.
WALL
PRECAST
CONCRETE
SANDWICH
2+
4+
23
46
Up to 6
Up to 12
Fair to good
Through
insulation
0.99
0.85
45
Up to 14
Fair to good
None
0.14
FINISH
SIZE RANGE
GLASS
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
G ASS AREA
SEE INDEX UNDER "GLASS"
'I_
SINGLE
GLAZING
1/4"
3.2
GLASS
DOUBLE
GLAZING
z:r : : :
GLASS
CAVITY
TRIPLE
GLAZING
W:~::
GLASS
CAVITY
'1_
6.4
1'1_
9.6
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect Roger K. Lewis. FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
WIND
LOAD
SHADING
COEFFI
CIENT S.C.
Four side supported 110 SF @ 10 PSF

20SF@60PSF
40 SF @ 10 PSF
17 SF @60 PSF
Clear
0.94
Two side supported
Tinted
0.70
Four side supported 55 SF @30 PSF

28 SF @60 PSF
Heat strengthened
70 SF @80 PSF
30 SF @ 200 PSF
Reflective
0.44
I
Clearltinted
1.1
Reflective
0.8-1.1
Clearltinted
0.5-0.6
Reflective
0.3-0.6
Clear/tinted
0.3-0.4
Reflective
0.2-0.4
Exterior Wall Assemblies
FIRE RESISTIVE
RATING PER
CODE AND
UNDERWRITERS
(HRSI
RESIST ANCE TO
EXTERIOR-AIRBORNE
HAZARD
SOUND TRANSMISSION
CLASSIFICATION (FIRE)
Fair to good
Classification provides data in

regard to (1) flame spread, (2) fuel
contributed, and (3) smoke devetoped during fire exposure of mate-
Fair to good
rials in comparison to asbestoscement boards as zero and untreated

red oak lumber as 100 when exposed
to fire under similar conditions
Excellent
FUEL
CONTRIBUTED
FLAME
SMOKE
DEVELOPED
~
Paint on CMU
0-5
5-25
Excellent
CONSTRUCTION
SUBCONTRACTORS REQUIRED
TYPE
CLASSIFICATION
FOR ERECTION
lPLUS FINISHESl
2-4
4
1,2, and 3
2-4
4
1,2, and 3
Carpentry
3-4
4
l,2,and3
l,2,and3
15
Poor to fair
0-10
75
Poor to fair
190
Treated wood particle board with

untreated wood face veneer
25-180
10-160
1
(combustible)
1-2
(combustible)
3B,C
10-20
1-2
Glass fiber batts and blankets (basic)

20
15
20
(foil kraft faced)
25
0
Poor to good;
see manufacturers'
literature
Treated lumber
Good-
(Hemlock)
10-15
Good
Excellent
(Douglas fir)
15
Fair
Poor
5-1s1
5-30
NFPA CLASSIFICATION:
CLASS
B
C
Washing, repointing joints,
Masonry
Washing, paint-
Masonry

sand blasting
Carpentry
Drywall
(Lath and
plaster)
1
(nonbearingl
2 and 3
1-2
Washing, painting, and replacing exterior

finish
(nonbearing)
Masonry
Carpentry
Drywall
0-25
26-75
76-200
For lesser classifications, permitted

in residential construction only,
refer to regulating agency guidelines
Washing, painting, and replacing exterior

finish
The assembly is reversed for optimum

energy conservation
Exterior wall finishes:

wood, plywood,
aluminum siding
stucco
Exterior wall finishes:

wood, plywood,
aluminum siding
stucco

sand blasting
Curtain walls
-erection
Washing, steam
cleaning, painting, replacing
joint sealers
Temperature change critical

Minimize metal through connections
l,2,and3
Concrete work
Washing, sand
blasting
Concrete walls have very high heat

storage capacity
4
4
l,2,and3
Concrete work
Washing, sand
blasting
l,2,and3
See
See
manufacturers'
literature
manufacturers
literature
4
4
Drywall
(Carpentry)
SMOKE
DEVELOPED
0-450
0-450
0-450
Cavity increases heat storage capacity

and resistance to rain penetration
sand blasting
Carpentry
Drywall
(Lath and
plaster)
0-5
Laminated plastic Ifr)

0-15
20-30
--A
Poor to fair
10
FLAME
SPREAD
are drastically reduced

sand blasting
Masonry
Drywall
(Carpentry)
Carpentry
Drywall
2 and 3
Good to excellent
Properties of non-engineered masonry
Washing, repointing joints.

painting, sand
blasting
ing, and reDrywall

Lath and plaste r stuccoing
(Carpentry)
10-250
Vermiculite acoustical plaster

10-20
1,2, and 3
2-4
15-45
Untreated wood particle board

180
Good to excellent
Gypsum board surfaeed on both

sides with paper, vinyl faced
25-35
Masonry
Carpentry
Drywall
sides with paper
Good
Masonry
Drywall
REMARKS
REQUIREMENTS

painting, sand
blasting
0-10
Gypsum board surfaced on both

15
Masonry
EXTERIOR
MAINTENANCE
33
Concrete work
Masonry
Drywall
(Carpentry)
lA
(nonbearing)
1-3
1-3
Curtain walls
-erection
Washing, sand
blasting, replacing joint
sealers
Large size economical (fewer joints)

units available with various finishes
Curtain walls
-erection
Washing, sand
blasting, replacing joint
sealers
8' x 20' max. size for concrete sandwich panels

Plant quality control is very essential
Curtain walls
-erection
Washing, replacing joint

sealers, gaskets
Anchorage to building is critical

Anchors must isolate wall to Iimi t
building movement transmitted to

sealers. gaskets
Wall design must limit wall movement

transmitted to glass
Mullions should accommodate movement
throuqh gaskets, sliding connections, etc.
1B, 2, and 3
Drywall
(Carpentry)
lA
(ncnbearinq)
lB, 2, and 3

sand blasting
(Glazing)
glass
Fair
Curtain walls
-erection
(Glazing)
Good
Cu rtain walls
-r-erection
(Glazing)

sealers, gaskets
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis. FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
34
Selected Floor loads
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS
LIVE
OCCUPANCY OR USE
Armories and drill rooms
Assembly halls and other places of assembly'

Fixed seats
Movable seats
Platforms lassembly)
LOAD
(PSF)
150
50
ioo
roo
Attics
Nonstorage
Storage
Bakeries
10
30'
150
IMPACT LOADS
Residential
Multifamily houses
Private apartments
Public rooms
Corridors
Dwellings
First floor
Second floor and habitable attics
Inhabitable attics
Hotels
Guest rooms
Public rooms
Corridors serving public rooms
40
100
100
Rest rooms and toilet rooms
40
Schools
Classrooms
Corridors
40
80
40
30
20
Balconies
Exterior
Interior (fixed seats)
Interior (movable seats)
Sidewalks. vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking
250
ioo
Bowling Alleys. poolrooms, and similar recreational areas
Skating rinks
100
75
Stairs and exit-ways
100
Broadcasting studios
roo
Catwalks
25
Storage warehouses
Light
Cold storage rooms

Floor
Roof
Corridors
First floor
Other floors. same as occupancy served
except as indicated
60
50
150
250
ioo
too
Dormitories
Nonpartitioned
Partitioned
80
40
File rooms
Card
Letter
High-density storage
125'
80'
150'
Fire escapes on multifamily or single family res-
roo
idential buildings only
125
H~vy
~O
Hay or grain
300
Retail
First floor, rooms
Upper floors
Wholesale
75
75
100
Stores
ioo
Dining rooms and restaurants
Dance halls and ballrooms
The live loads shall be assumed to include adequate altov,

ance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be
made in structural design for uses and loads that involve
unusual vibration and impact forces.
40
100
80
Telephone exchange rooms
150 2
Theaters
Aisles, corridors, and lobbies
Orchestra floors
Balconies
Stage floors
Dressing rooms
Grid iron floor or fly gallery grating
Projection room
100
50
50
150
40
75
100
Transformer rooms
200 2
Vaults, in offices
250
Yards and terraces, pedestrians
100
600'
Foundries
Fuel rooms, framed
400'
Garages (passenger cars only). For trucks and

buses use AASH03lane load
50
Grandstands
Greenhouses
roo-
Gymnasiums, main floor and balconies
ioo
Hospitals
Operating rooms and laboratories
Private rooms
Wards
Corridors, above first floor
60
40
40
80
150
Kitchens, other than domestic
150 2
Laboratories, scientific
roo
Laundries
150'
Manufacturing
Light
Heavy
Ice
1. Increase when occupancy exceeds this amount.

2. Use weight of actual equipment when greater.
3. American Association of State Highway Officials
4. Paper storage 50 Ib/ft of clear story height.
5. Verify with design criteria.
6. Additional loads-120 Ib~inear It vertical. 24 Iblft parallel
lateral, and 10 Ib/ft perpendicular to seat and footboards.
MINIMUM ROOF LOADS

1. FLAT, PITCHED, OR CURVED ROOFS: Ordinary roofs flat. pitched, or curved - shall be designed for the live
loads or the snow load, whichever produces the greater
stress.
2. PONDING: For roofs, care shall be taken to provide drainage or the load shall be increased to represent all likely
accumulations of water. Deflection of roof members will
permit pondinq of water accompanied by increased
deflection and additional ponding.
3. SPECIAL PURPOSE ROOFS: When used for promenade
purposes, roofs shall be designed for a maximum live
load of 60 psf; 100 pst when designed for roof garden or
assembly uses. Roofs used for other special purposes
shall be designed for appropriate loads, as directed or
approved by the building official.
LIVE LOAD
Hotels (see residential)
Libraries
Reading rooms
Stack rooms (books and shelving at
65 pef) but not less than indicated
NOTES
ELEVATORS: All elevator loads shall be increased 100'Ye

for impact, and the structural supports shall be designed
within limits of deflection prescribed by American
National Standard Safety Code for elevators and escalators, All.1 ~ 1981, and American National Standard Practice for the Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and
Movinq Walks (Inspector's Manuall A17.2 - 1979.
2. MACHINERY: For the purpose of design, the weight of
machinery and moving loads shall be increased as fol
lows to allow for impact:
a Elevator machinery, 100%.
b. Light machinery, shaft or motor driven, 20%.
c. Reciprocating machinery or power driven units, 50%
d. Hangers for floors or balconies, 33%.
All percentages to be increased if so recommended by
the manufacturer.
3. CRANEWAYS: All craneways, except those using only
manually powered cranes, shall have their design loads
increased for impact as follows:
a. A vertical force equal to 25% of the maximum wheel
load.
b. A lateral force equal to 20% of the weight of trolley
and lifted load only, applied one - half at the top of
each rail.
c. A longitudinal force of 10% of the maximum wheel
loads of the crane applied at top of rail.
4. PARKING GARAGE GUARDRAILS: Guardrails and walls
acting as impact rails in parking structures shall be
designed for a minimum horizontal ultimate load of
10,000 Ib applied 18 in. above the floor at any point of the
guardrail.
60
150
80
Live load is the weight superimposed by the use and occupancy of the building or other structure, not including the
wind, snow, earthquake, or dead load.
The live loads to be assumed in the design of buildings and
other structures shall be the greatest loads that probably
will be produced by the intended use or occupancy, but in
no case less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit
load.
LIVE LOAD REDUCTION

In general, design live loads should not be in excess of 100
psf on any member, supporting an area of 150 sq ft or
more, except for places of public assembly, repair garages.
parking structures, and roofs. The reduction shall not
exceed the value of R from the following formulas:
Stairway and balcony railing, both exterior and interior. shall

be designed to resist a vertical and a horizontal thrust of 50
Ibllinear ft applied at the top of the railing. For one- and twofamily dwellings, a thrust of 20 Ib~inear It may be used
instead of 50.
R ~.081A-1 501
R = 2311+D/U
R =reduction (%)
=dead load per square foot of area supported
by the member
L =live load per square foot of area supported
by the member
A =area supported by the member
In no case should the reduction exceed 60% for vertical
members, nor 40 to 60% for horizontal members.
CONCENTRATED LOADS
For live loads in excess of 100 pst, some codes allow a live
load reduction of 20% for columns only.
where
75
125
300
Marquees
75
Morgues
125
Office buildings
Office
Business machine equipment
Lobbies
File and computer rooms require heavier
loads based on anticipated occupancy
Penal Institutions
Cell blocks
Corridors
50
THRUSTS AND HANDRAILS
ioo-
roo
80
40
ioo
Printing plants
Composing rooms
Linotype rooms
Paper storage rooms
Pressrooms
150'
Public rooms
roo
ioo
ioo
Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly distributed live load or the concentrated load in pounds given,
whichever produces the greater stresses. Unless otherwise specified. the indicated concentration shall be
assumed to occupy an area of 2 1/ 2 sq ft (6.26 ft 2 ) and shall
be located so as to produce the maximum stress conditions
in the structural members.
PARTIAL LOADING
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live loads
applied only to a portion of the length of a structure or
member shall be considered if it produces a more unfavorable effect than the same intensity applied over the full
length of the structure or member
Charles W. Vanderlinden, PE; Hansen Lind Meyer, Inc.; Orlando, Florida
BUILDING SYSTEMS
CODES AND STANDARDS

The applicable building code should be referred to for specific uniformly distributed live loads, movable partition load,
special and concentrated load requirements.
In addition to specific code requirements, the designer
must consider the effects of special loading conditions,
such as moving loads, construction loads, roof top planting
loads and concentrated loads from supported or hanging
equipment (radiology, computer. heavy filing, or mechanical
equipment)
The live loads given in this table are obtained by reference
to ASCE, UBC, BOCA, and SBCCI.
Long Span and Tensile Structures

LONG SPAN SYSTEMS
GENERAL
When selectinqa long span roof system. it is appropriate to
consider life safety of equal concern to cost. Egress must be
carefully evaluated by simulating the most adverse conditions rather than simply complying with building codes. Fire
safety begins by limiting the fire load, as codes rarely require
fire protection or sprinkler systems. Auxiliary uses having
any fire risk (e.q., food handling) should be carefully fire separated from the rest of the structure.
f-
W
W
>-
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
FACTORS
SYSTEM
Examples of long span structures shown in the table are rated for their ability to address the following design factor conditions.
MATERIAL
(OR SHAPE)
Joist
Steel
Truss
Steel
NATURAL CONDITIONS
a. Uneven or excessive snow and ice loads: Geometry,

equipment, or exterior structure may contribute to snow
drifting or ice buildup.
b. Ponding: Provide positive drainage to remove water from
the structure when roof drains clog.
c. Wind: Evaluate potential of wind induced destructive
vibration in members or connections.
d. Thermal: Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles can
cause significant changes in structural shape and member stresses and may lead to fatigue failure.
e. Freeze/thaw cycles or corrosive atmosphere: Evaluate
long-term effects on structural performance, particularly
for exposed concrete structures.
Wood
Space
frame
Steel
Stressed
skin
Steel
Beam
Steel
Wood
Prestressed
concrete
PRIMARY STRESSES
Rigid
frame
f. Two or more load paths lor all loads should be provided

wherever possible. The greater the area a single member
supports, the greater should be its safety factor.
g. Compression failure: Resistance to lateral buckling of
long members is crucial. Use members that assure initial
and verifiable alignment.
h. Tension failure: Dynamic stability under wind or other
vibration loading should be carefully verified.
Steel
Wood
Prestressed
concrete
>-
~
0
~
f-
u
u,
a:
;)
a.
..J
..J
III
f-
U
f-
-c
..J
u,
a.
0
u,
a:
>
a:
>
a:
a:
;)
;)
SPAN RANGE (FT)
If)
0
0
- - '"
If)
0
0
<D
0
'Z_
0
f0.
lila:
20 - 24
Folded
plate
Steel
Wood
Cylindric
shell
Concrete
Vault
Concrete
Arch
Steel
Wood
Concrete
Dome
n. Erection alignment: True member length and spatial position are crucial for proper alignment and load flow.
o. Creep: Length changes over time will influence both primary and secondary stresses.
p. Supports and foundations: Supports must accept movements due to deflections from primary and secondary
stresses and differential foundation settlement.
QUALITY CONTROL
q. Engineering design must not be compromised by time,

scheduling, design changes, or building codes. Computerized design must be carefully verified to resolve all primary and secondary stresses.
r. Construction methods should be selected carefully to
safely locate the structural components accurately in
space.
s. Site observation: Only when the structure is properly
established in space should it be accepted. Changes in
construction should be carefully checked.
1. Structural building maintenance: Conditions and alignment of various members, especially crucial nonredundant members, should be verified on a regular schedule.
Consider using equipment to detect excessive deflection.
u. Nonstructural building maintenance: Condition of building
components should not adversely affect the structure
(e.g., keep roof drains open, prevent excessive equipment vibration, and maintain expansion joints).
Radial
steel
Geodesic
dome
TOLERANCES
Radial
wood
Lamella
wood
Concrete
Pneumatics
Steel
Cabke
Parallel
Radial
Hyperbolic
Tent
Hyperbolic
a.b.t
16 - 20
-- -I-'-
Concrete
--
--
f-lIl
UZ
W
"-lIl
a.b.f.q
a.b.t.q
9-12
9 - 12
b.f
16 - 20
a.b.i.jm.n.
14-18
a,b,i,j,m,n,
p.q.s.u
18-22
a.q
--
-- r--
b.t.t
16 -20
b.f.t
22 -26
b.f.t
20-24
~t
p.q.s.u
lIl>
a.b.f.q.rn.t
a.b
18- 22
24-28
I
i,p
Concrete
p.q.s
16 - 22
lIl
a:t:l
OZ
f-O
Ua:
f"-lIl
f-
a.
III
J:
f-
;)
J:
III
Cabke
stayed
SECONDARY STRESSES
i. Deflection: Changes in orientation of members at joints

from loads can increase stresses destructively.
Member interaction: Load flows through structures in
such a way as to minimize strength. Check all possible
load paths of complex geometric structures.
k. Nonstructural connections: Assemblies attached to a
structure will influence structural load flow and even
become part of the load flow if the attachment changes
the dellected shape.
Scale: Most systems have a span beyond which self
weight becomes a severe limit.
m.Stress concentration: Check stresses at changes of
cross sections, holes, and connections. High-strength
materials are particularly sensitive.
35
c.e.h.q.t
18- 22
a.f.rn
12 - 16
a.f.m
10-14
a.f.l.rn
10- 14
a,l,m,o
6- 10
c.o
4-8
a.d.t.q
a.d.f.q
3-7
3-7
a,d,l,g
4-8
b,c
a.d.f.q
2-5
a.b.c.f.q d.n.r
3-6
b,c
a.d.t.q
3-6
a,b,c,l,g
d.n.r
5-8
b,c,l,g
a.d.l,o
4-7
a.b.c.e
8-16
a.b.c.f
6- 12
a.b.c.f
4-8
b.d.f
a,c
3-6
b.f
a.c
3-6
a.dj.o
NOTES
1. Steel is A-36; wood is laminated, sometimes heavy timber; concrete is reinforced with steel; prestressed concrete is prestressed with steel.
2. Cable-stayed system can give auxiliary support to
trusses, beams, or frames, greatly reducing span and
member sizes, but providing additional tensional
strength.
3. Lamella arches provide two--way arch structures and
improve redundancy.
4. Domes may also be constructed of aluminum.

5. Pneumatics are fabric roofs, pressurized, and stabilized
with steel cables.
6. For each system the following notation applies:
is the typical configuration
- is occasionally used
William C. Bauman, Jr.: University of Oklahoma; Norman, Oklahoma
BUILDING SYSTEMS
36
Composite Structural Elements

EMBOSSMENTS PROVIDE
KEYING EFFECT FOR
COMPOSITE ACTION
SHEAR STUDS
WELDED TO
STEEL BEAM
TRANSFER
SHEAR
BETWEEN
CONCRETE
AND STEEL
BEAM
BOTTO~
PLATE FORMS
CELLS FOR
WIRING
CROSS WIRES WELDED TO DECK

(OPTIONAL KEY DETAIL) ----------
CONCRETE TOPPED STEEL DECK
STEEL BEAM WITH STUD IN CONCRETE SLAB

STEEL TUBE
CONCRETE FILL
BONDS TO STEEL
TUBE __
__
UNDERLAYMENT
CONCRETE ENCASEMENT BONDS
TO STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR
COMPOSITE ACTiON
--~
STEEL-ENCASED CONCRETE
WEB MEMBERS
CONCRETE ENCASED STEEL COLUMNS
WOOD AND STEEL JOISTS
<,
WOOD TOP CHORD
HOLES
WOOD POST
CUT FOR
UTILITY
LINES
LIMITED
BY MFR.
SPECS. _ _+ _ ~
STEEL BOTTOM
CHORD
STRESS RATED
WOOD TOP AND

BOTTOM CHORD
(BUILT-UP OR
SOLiD WOOD)
WOOD AND PLYWOOD COMPOSITE

JOISTS
STRUCTURALCONCRETE.~... .
TOP AND BOTTOM

FLANGE PLATES
YIELD STRESS
SLAB ACTS AS
COMPRESSION
FLANGE OF
COMPOSITE
MEMBER
50,000 PSI OR
GREATER
......
-.
.
<: '. :~
V
"v
.'
I"
TOP CHORD CUT

FROM STEEL
BEAM YIELD
STRESS
36,000 PSI-----'"
WEB YIELD
STRESS
WELD
36,000 PSI
WELD
TO TRANSFER
SHEAR FORCES
BETWEEN TEES
HEAVY TEE YIELD
STRESS SAME AS
TOP TEE OR GREATER
BOTTOM
CHORD CUT FROM
DIFFERENT WEIGH1
STEEL BEAM: YEIL[
STRESS SAMEAS OR
GREATER THAN TOP CHORD
HYBRID STEEL GIRDERS USING STEELS OF DIFFERING STRENGTH

STEEL STUDS WELDED TO
STEEL GIRDER (OR DOWELS
FROM PRECAST GIRDER)
DEVELOP COMPOSITE
ACTION
STRUCTURAL
NOTES
Individual elements of the composite unit must be securely

fastened to prevent slippage, especially at points where
load is transferred from one element of the composite
member to another.
WOOD JOIST
MEMBERS
TYPES OF COMPOSITE ELEMENTS

1
2.
3.
4.
Concrete topped composite steel decks.

Steel beams acting compositely with concrete slabs.
Steel columns encased by or filled with concrete.
Open web joists of wood and steel or joists with ply
wood webs and wood chords.
5.Trusses combining wood and steel.
6 Hybrid girders utilizing steels of different strengths.
7. Cast-in-place concrete slab on precast concrete joists or
beams.
STEEL PLATE
SANDWICHED
BETWEEN
WOOD JOISTS
FLITCH BEAMS
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB AND

PRECAST JOIST
Composite construction combines different materials, or

different grades of a material, to form a structural member
that utilizes the most desirable properties of each. Perhaps
the earliest composite structural unit was the mud brick
reinforced with straw. More recently fiberglass-reinforced

plastics, wire-reinforced safety glass, and glued laminated
plywood and wood beams have been used.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
COMPARATIVE DESIGN
A 30 ft beam with a 2.25 kip/ft uniform load carrying 2 1/ 2 in
concrete fill on a 2 in. metal deck slab uses a W24x55 in a
noncomposite design and only a Wl8x40 with 38 steel
studs of 3/4 in. diameter in a composite design.
Introduction to Seismic Design

GENERAL
SEISMIC CODES
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust

is divided into constantly moving plates. Earthquakes occur
when, as a result of slowly accumulating pressure. the
ground slips abruptly along a geological fault plane on or
near a plate boundary. The resulting waves of vibration
within the earth create ground motions at the surface.
which, in turn. induce movement within buildings. The fre~
quency, magnitude. and duration of the ground motion.
physical characteristics of the building, and geology of a site
determine how these forces affect a building.
The seismic requirements in the Uniform Building Code

have historically been based on Recommended Lateral
Force Requirements, generally referred to as "The Blue
Book," an earthquake design manual developed by the
Structural Engineers Association of California. The seismic
requirements in the National Building Code and the Standard Building Code are based on FEMA 222, the National
Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Recommended
Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings. Since
the Blue Book and the NEHRP provisions incorporate the
expertise of many of the same engineers, and since the
anticipated International Building Code will encourage convergence of the requirements, the seismic code development community intends to make the two codes similar.
DESIGN JUDGMENT
In an earthquake, buildings designed to the minimum levels
required by model codes often sustain damage. Early discussions with an owner should explore the need to limit
property loss in an earthquake and the desirability of
attempting to ensure continued building operation immediately afterward. To achieve these results, it may be necessary to make design decisions more carefully tuned to the
seismic conditions of a site than code requires.
The following information is based on the requirements

expected to appear in the 1997 NEHRP provisions and in
subsequent issues of all model codes. Detached one- and
two-family dwellings will be exempt from seismic regulations in areas other than those with high seismicity. Seismic codes are constantly evolving, and architects should
always consult the relevant code before beginning a
project.
-
37
A recent. significant change in the seismic codes is the

elimination of seismic zones as a basis for establishing
design acceleration. Seismic maps have been redrawn
(completely for the first time since 1976) to show building
response periods as a percentage of gravity.
The map below, based on a building response period of 02
second, gives accelerations to be used for low buildings. A
similar map based on a building response of 1.0 second is
proposed for taller buildings. Before determining what level
of ground shaking applies to a project, an architect must
find out what type of earth the building will be built on. The
maps are based on buildings built on soft rock, but ground
motion increases as the soil becomes softer.
TERMS
The seismic community has an extensive set of terms with
which to describe common conditions in the field. Following is a short list of these terms and their definitions:
BASE SHEAR (static analysis): calculated total shear force
acting at the base of a structure, used in codes as a static
representation of lateral earthquake forces; also referred to
as "equivalent lateral force."
- --- =-
==~
----
GROUND RUPTURE
DIFFERENTIAL
SUBSIDENCE
GROUND SHAKING
LIQUEFACTION
MAIN CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE
(FREQUENCY
Mw-t
0.10
0.50
r-a
PERIOD OF BUILDING MOTION
NOTE
The relationship between the period of ground motion and
the period of building motion is of great importance. Fundamental periods of motion in structures range from 0.1 second for a one-story building to 4.0 seconds or more for a
high-rise building. Ground generally vibrates for a period of
between 0.5 and 1.0 second. If the period of ground motion
and the natural period of motion in a building coincide, the
DRIFT
BASE SHEAR
BASE SHEAR AND DRIFT
MAGNITU::J
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE: earthquake ground motion for

which a building is designed.
SEISMIC GROUND
MOTION
DRIFT: lateral deflection of a building or structure. Story

drift is the relative movement between adjacent floors.
building may resonate and the loads will be increased. Theoretically, one part of the seismic design problem is to
"tune" the building so that its own period of motion falls
outside the estimated range of ground motion frequency. In
practice, this tuning is very seldom carried out. Rather,
architects rely on increased load effects required by the
applicable code to take care of the problem.
FUNDAMENTAL PERIODS
ODD
ODD
ODD
DUCTILITY: the ability of a structural frame to bend but not

break. Its ductility is a major factor in establishing the ability
of a building to withstand large earthquakes. Ductile materials (steel in particular) fail only after permanent deformation
has taken place. Good ductility requires special detailing of
the joints.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS: a structural analvsis based on the
vibration motion of a buildinq. Dynamic analysis is time-consuming and normally reserved for complex projects.
FORCES, IN-PLANE: forces exerted parallel to a wall or
frame.
FORCES, OUT-OF PLANE: forces exerted perpendicular to
a wall or frame.
OUT-OF-PLANE
FORCE DIAGRAMS
MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE: the greatest
ground shaking expected to occur during an earthquake at a
site. These values are somewhat higher than those of the
design earthquake. particularly in areas where seismic
events are very infrequent. The code maps are based on
earthquakes of this magnitude.
SEISMIC ACCELERATION FOR LOW BUILDINGS EXPRESSED

AS A PERCENTAGE OF GRAVITY
RE-ENTRANT CORNER: The inside building corner of an L-,

H-, X-, or T-shaped plan.
William W. Stewart, FAIA: Stewart-Schaberg Architects: Clayton, Missouri

Map courtesv of the U.S. Geological Survey. National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project (June 1996)
SEISMIC DESIGN
38
Site Design for Seismic Areas
GENERAL
-- PROVIDE 25' MIN. SETBACK
~'~'""
",ecOcec
"""
IDENTI.FIED
FAULT TRACE
Each building and site lies within a broader context of

repiona! seismicity. localized geology, community. vulnerabillty. and adjacent structures and land uses. Siting decisions, therefore. can have a significant impact on the overall
seismic performance of a structure. This page focuses on
the following criteria for siting a building:
1" Avoid unstable sites.
2. Avoid nonengineered fill.
3. Avoid or design for sites that can subside or liquefy.
4. Avoid building over surface faulting.
5. Avoid adjacent hazardous buildings.
6. Prevent battering from adjacent buildings.
7. Create safe areas of refuge when redeveloping older
buildings.
Decisions on appropriate land uses for a specific site, separation from active ground faulting, site stability, and separation from adjacent buildings are critical to performance.
Although many of these factors have traditionally been considered city planning issues, the designer must also incorporate them into the architectural development of a
seismically resistant building.
-t-
Low
SiTE ELEVATION
PROVIDE OPEN
SPACE
SEPARATION
SITE SECTION
FAULT ZONE (200 YAROS ON
EACH SIDE OF SUSPECTED
ACTIVE FAULT, THOSE THAT
HAVE MOVED WITHIN PAST
1 1,000 YEARS)
SURFACE
FAULT TRACE
EXISTING COLLAPSE
HAZARD BUILDING
LAND USE
ADO BUTTRESS TO
PREVENT COLLAPSE
High-density commercial/retail
Essential services (fire stations,

hospitals, emergency operations
centers. etc.)
Hazardous industrial processes
Medium- and low-density

residential
Low-rise commercial/retail
Industrial uses
High
DOD
SiTE ELEVATiON
High occupancy and assembly
Medium
BUILDING
SITE
SEISMIC ZONATION
TO REDUCE RISK
RELATIVE
RISK OF SITE
MODE OF
COLLAPSE
Very low-density residential
SITE PLAN
NOTE
NEW
STRUCTURE
Within a fault zone, trench to determine the exact location

of the fault trace. Development within a fault zone should
be restricted to low-density land uses, open space, and
other low-occupancy activities
SURFACE FAULTING
SATURATED SAND LAYER
CAN LIQUEFY AND SPREAD
LATERALLY AND CREATE
SAND BOILS ON SURFACE
SITE ELEVATiON
ADJACENT HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS
Nonhazardous industrial
B U IL D IN G DRIFT
DURING EARTHQUAKE
Recreation
(
Public open space
r----D-.,Tr/--=f_~_~_PV_=i""~_1!,~"""'O"
Public rights-of-way
NOTE
Land uses should reflect the relative risk of the location.
DD
DO
AVOID BUILDING AT TOES

OR DOWN SLOPE OF
ACTIVE LANDSLIDES
BATTERING FROM ADJACENT

BUILDINGS
SITE SECTION (BEFORE LIQUEFACTION)
EXISTING UNREINFORCED
MASONRY BUILDINGS (URM)
BUILDING
SAND SPREADS LATERALLY

AND EJECTS VERTICALLY
-----~
AVOID BUILDING
ABOVE ACTIVE
LANDSLIDES
STREET AND PARCEL MAP-URM BLOCK
CREATE SAFE ZONE AND

MULTIPLE EGRESS ROUTES
SiTE SECTION
NOTE
SiTE SECTION (AFTER EARTHQUAKE

AND LIQUEFACTION)
On sloping sites, earthquakes can trigger landslides Also,

alluvium and unconsolidated soils can increase the violence
and duration of ground shaking. In areas of young soil
deposits, design for greater ground shaking. For example,
during the 1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake, ground shaking in
San Francisco's marina district. on nonengineered fill, was
more than twice as violent and lasted more than twice as
long as ground shaking on adjacent bedrock sites.
Avoid sites subject to liquefaction (water saturated sandy

soils), design foundation systems to withstand ground failure, drain water from the site, and change the composition
of the soil and compact the site.
UNSTABLE SITES
SUBSIDENCE OR LIQUEFACTION
NOTE
Richard Eisner, FAIA; Governor's Office of Emergency Services; Oakland, California
SEISMIC DESIGN
REVITALIZED URM BLOCK
SAFE AREAS OF REFUGE IN

OLDER BUILDINGS
Building Configuration for Seismic Areas

The seismic-resistant framing system selected for a structure must meet both architectural and seismic design
requirements. Although most buildings can be made seismic resistant, some architectural configurations interrupt
the load path or otherwise interfere with the seismic design
process. Inappropriate design choices increase construction cost and make the seismic restraint system less effective. The examples on this page contrast configurations that
probably would cause problems in areas with high levels of
seismicity with variations that should avoid these problems.
LOAD PATHS
A load path is the path seismic forces take from the roof to
the foundation of a structure. Typically the load travels from
the diaphragms through connections to the vertical lateral
force-resisting elements and on to the foundation by way of
additional connections. This path should be direct and uninterrupted. Seismic design begins with, and codes require,
the establishment of a continuous load path.
SYMMETRICAL
~ RESiSTANCE
39
UNBALANCED
RESISTANCE
BUILDING
TWIST
I 1I: I r~J
U
FORCE
FORCE
PREFERRED
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
The lateral force resisting system for a symmetrical building

is much easier to design than that for an asymmetrical
buildinq. Because the source of an earthquake cannot be
known, symmetry in both directions should be considered.
LOWER FLOOR STRENGTH

MUST BE AT LEAST 80%
OF FLOOR ABOVE
TORSION IN PLAN
PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
<O.15L
NOTE
PREFERRED
PREFERRED
This is a variation of the symmetry issue. When the notch

gets too big, the bulding tends to tear at the inside corner.
NOTE
NOTE
The base should not be too much larger than the tower
above.
While it is best to have uniform stiffness. some variation is

acceptable.
RE-ENTRANT CORNERS
c:=J
c:=J
c:=J
c:=J
VERTICAL GEOMETRY IRREGULARITY

TOTAL OPEN AREA
LESS THAN ONE HALF
OF PLAN AREA
ROOF NOT
CONSIDERED -
c=J
c=J
50% GREATER
MASS THAN
THAT OF
~E6~~'N~
H-'"
II
PREFERRED
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
While all floors do not have to be the same. it is important

that no floor has too much more mass than those adjacent.
MASS IRREGULARITY
c=J
c=J
c=J
PREFERRED
DiSCOURAGED
.>
NOTE
Horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) can more readily

transfer earthquake loads to the vertical force resisting
c::=J
c::=J
c::=J
c=J
system when the size and number of holes in the diaphragm are limited.
DIAPHRAGM DJSCONTINUITIES
l7-~~~~~NED
PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
NOTE
SHEAR
WALLS
LINE UP
SHEAR
WALLS
OFFSET
When a taller (inherently weaker) first floor is desired, anticipate using much heavier first floor framing to equalize the
stiffness with that of the floors above.
SOFT STORY
o
o
o
PREFERRED
SHEAR
WALL
WINDOW
DISCOURAGED
NOTE
PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
OUT-OF-PLANE VERTICAL OFFSETS
Although both drawings illustrate shear walls in the same

plane, one arrangement is discouraged because the load
path is not direct enough.
IN-PLANE DISCONTINUITY
William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
40
Seismic Design-General
ESTABLISHING SEISMIC FORCES
ANCHORAGE
--- GLASS
The equivalent lateral force procedure is the most common

method at establishing seismic design forces. In it. the
seismic load, V (base shear), is determined by multiplying
___ - DIAPHRAGM
the weight of the building by a factor Cs N=CsWl. The
value of C$ depends on the size of the design earthquake.

the type of soil. and the response modification factor (a variable corresponding to the type of lateral force resisting system used). This force is applied at the base of the structure
then distributed throughout the building according to the
mass and strength of the structure.
DESIGN FOR RESISTING

SEISMIC FORCES
Shear walls are load-bearing or non load-bearing walls that
resist seismic forces acting in the plane of the wall. Shear
wall design is simpler and more cost-effective than other
lateral force resisting systems; however, the architectural
design must be able to accommodate the locations of
these walls and the small number of openings they permit.
SHEAR WALLS AND DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms are horizontal or nearly horizontal structural elements (usually a floor or roof) designed to transmit lateral
forces to the vertical elements of a seismic resisting system. Diaphragms must be rigid enough and the connections strong enough to transfer the entire load to the lateral
force resisting system.
Tall, narrow structures tend to tip over before they slide,

while short structures slide rather than tip Earthquake
waves rock buildings, increasing overturning loads, and can
act in any direction. Thus, resistance to overturning is best
achieved at a building's perimeter rather than at its core.
Building foundations must be designed to resist the lateral
forces transmitted through the earth and the forces transmitted from the lateral load resisting system to the earth. In
general. softer soils amplify the effects of an earthquake.
Anchors are either cast-in-place or drilled in after placern

of the concrete. When anchors can be precisely locatbefore the concrete is poured, cast-in-place anchors
typically used. Post-installed anchors are usually emplovwhen anchor locations cannot be predetermined with au
racy. Spacing between anchors, the distance to the edqe
the concrete, embedment depth, stiffness characteristic
and the type of loading (e.g., dead, live, dynamic, seisn
all must be considered. For structural elements that requi
seismic design, only anchors tested under dynamic load t
should be used. The preferred anchor types for seismic Pi'
forma nee include cast-in-place bolts and inserts. Acce
able post-installated anchors are undercut anchors, hea,
duty sleeve (torque-controlled expansion) anchors,
chemical anchors. .f-bolts and L-bolts cannot be counter:
to resist much uplift.
TOOL
UNDERCUT
CONCRETE
BEFORE
BOLT IS
PLACED
UNDERCUT
POST-INSTALLED
ANCHOR
OVERTURNING
THREADED
CAST-iN-PLACE
ANCHOR
SLIDING
THREADED
ROD
OVERTURNING AND SLIDING

BUILDING FRAMES
Braced frames depend on diagonal braces to resist lateral
forces. Although cost-effective, most braces limit the number of openings possible in a wall, Eccentric bracing is a
configuration that allows for more openings than are normally achievable. K-bracing used to be a common variation
of X-bracing, but it was discovered that the forces at the
intersection are very great, making the connection difficult.
A moment frame is one in which members and joints are
able to resist lateral forces along the axis of the members
as well as by bending. It is an alternative to solid shear
walls that allows for openness and design flexibility.
WASHER
(OPTIONAL) ~
TRADITIONAL
(PREFERRED)
BRACED CONFIGURATIONS
-r-e--r-r-
K BRACE
(DISCOURAGED)
ECCENTRIC
BRACE
WELD
DDD
WELD
TYPICAL SHEAR
ONLY CONNECTiON
TYPICAL MOMENT
CONNECTION
~DDD~
PERIMETER
CLOSURE
FLOATING STRUCTURAL
FLOOR SLAB
CONNECTIONS
A recent variation of base isolation is offered by a family ()

devices that absorb or dissipate energy and change the
response of a structure to seismic activity. These svsternr
appear most useful for improving existing structures with
out the need for an entirely new structural system.
REFERENCES
in Panel Ceilings. 5700 Old Orchard Ad.. Skokie. IL 60077

National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRpl
Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for Nev.
LEAD
PLUG --i"",,~'1
'.- . .. -
DOWEL HOLES
THROUGH
OUTER SHIM
i;j
Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association

Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay
OUTER
STEEL
SHIMS--t-_
DETAIL
BASE ISOLATION
William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
When using base isolation, it is important to ensure that th,

isolators are the only place where the building touches th,
surrounding earth. This is normally accomplished by pos
tioning the building in a large scooped out area and can
necting it to the surrounding ground with flexible "bridges
The base isolators are usually located in a sub-basemen
dedicated to their use.
AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research. Buildings

Risk: Seismic Design Basics for Practicing Architects
WOOD CONNECTIONS
Connections are an important element of the lateral force
resisting framing system. Wood connections come in a
variety of types, many of which are not appropriate for seismic or wind loading conditions. End grain nailing performs
poorly and should be avoided, and toe nailing as the sole
means of attachment is inadequate. Positive connections
using appropriate fasteners are necessary to establish a
continuous load path. Shear walls must be fastened
securely to the foundation. Diaphragms should be properly
attached to the lateral force resisting system. Connector
design and detailing should include proper use of connectors to achieve required load capacity and code compliance.
Adequate size and placing of nails is necessary to minimize
splitting and optimize the load carrying ability of the frame.
(See AGS pages on wood seismic design and structural
wood fasteners for details.)
BASE ISOLATION
Base isolation is a major seismic design innovation. Anerc
gous to the suspension of an automobile, isolators separate
the building from ground motion. Base isolation is mot
cost-effective for buildings in areas of high seismicity, bulle
ings that must have an irregular shape, large histor.
buildings, and buildings that must remain in operatro
immediately after an earthquake.
DDD
COLUMN
~BOLT
HEADED CAST-iN-PLACE ANCHORS
(BEAM
BOLT
HEADED
BOLT
ANCHORAGE
BRACED FRAMES
_~NUT
"
BASEPLATE
WITH DOWELS
. MORTAR LEVELING
PAD ON FOUNDATION
Buildings. t994 ed. Part 1. "Provisions" IFEMA-222A); part

2. "Cornrnentarv" IFEMA-223A).
- - . Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existinc
Buildings IFEMA-178) and Handbook of Techniques for the

Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA-172l.
- - . Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHAP Rec

ommended Provisions IFEMA-99J.
Architectural and Mechanical Components for Seismic Design

ADJUSTABLE LENGTH
VERTICAL COMPRESSION
STRUT TO PREVENT
VERTICAL
MOVEMENT
GENERAL
When detailing architectural and mechanical elements for
seismic resistance, the architect's primary concerns are to
minimize falling hazards and to maintain a normal egress
route. Features such as masonry chimneys, parapets, light
fixtures, suspended mechanical equipment, large ductwork, and heavy pipes are potential falling hazards. Cabinets and bookcases can block exits if they fall. An additional
concern for architects designing for earthquake-prone areas
is the need for a building to remain in operation after an
earthquake.
41
12-GAUGE WIRES AT EACH

CORNER OR AT LEAST AT
DIAGONALLY OPPOSITE
CORNERS; ANCHOR
WIRE TO STRUCTURE
ABOVE (MINIMUM 3
TIGHT TURNS IN 1 1/2"
AT EACH END OF WIRE)
Many resources that offer detailed solutions for seismic

design only address areas with high seismic activity. However, no ::>ingle detail is appropriate for all areas. This page is
meant to guide architects through the philosophy of seismic design. Readers should use the references listed to
develop the right solution for a particular site.
To determine seismic forces on architectural components,

an importance factor (I) is introduced into the force equation. I is either 1.0 or 1.5. If the component is essential or
might create a hazardous condition when falling or breaking, there is a 50% increase in the design load. The lateral
force == 1.6 SaS IW. W is the weight of the part. SaS is the
spectral acceleration. In reality the force decreases as the
location (height) of the component within the building is
lowered. A more complicated formula is available if it is
necessary to reduce the loads.
NOTE
Provide 4-way diagonal bracing and compression struts

approximately every 12 ft each way.
.
STIFF SPACER. OR OTHER
SUITABLE SYSTEM TO KEEP
PERIMETER COMPONENTS
FROM SPREADING APART
WALL CHANNEL
CEILING GRID <,
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY

FOR STRUCTURES
gr
SEISMIC USE GROUP
VALUE OF SaS
II
III
5 aS s 0.167 9
0.167 9 ~ 5 aS < 0.33 9
0.33 9 s 5 aS < 0.50 9
0.50 9 ~ 5 aS <1.0 9
1.0g,;5a5
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
E
A
C
/8 " FOR LOW TO

MODERATE SEISMIC
(2" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
WALL ATTACHMENT DETAIL
NOTE
For ceiling grids, pull-out capacity at the joints is a key to

good seismic performance. Vertical (compression) struts
prevent failure from wave-like or galloping motion. Solutions for all levels of seismic activity are addressed in the
Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association
standards.
.
NOTES
3 /8 " FOR LOW TO

MODERATE SEISMIC
(3 / 4" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
D
D
1. g-weight of object being analyzed; 5. s- spect ral

response acceleration
2. Seismic use group classification is assigned to each
building depending on the importance of maintaining
function or protecting occupant safety. Buildings in setsmic use group 111 are those that are required to function
for post earthquake recovery. Seismic use group II buildings are buildings with relatively large occupant loads.
Any remaining buildings fall into group l. The level of
seismic -detailing is expressed by letters A through F and
is based on the relationship between the seismic use
group and the level of design ground motion. This level
of detailing is known as the seismic design category.
METAL CHANNEL,
FASTENED TO
STRUCTURE
ABOVE, PERMITS
PARTITION TO
SUDE AT TOP
BUT RESTRAINS
IT FROM LATERAL
MOVEMENT
SEALANT REQUIRED
FOR ACOUSTIC
ISOLATiON
FASTEN
BASE TO
STRUCTURE
NOTE
This detail must be checked for acceptability when the partition is fire-rated. Partitions that extend to the structure
above usually perform well if consideration has been given
to potential building racking (i.e.. being forced out of
plumb).
~~~r\JION DETAIL FOR SEISMIC
"
"
""
Ii
FLEXIBLE GAS
CONNECTION
LIGHT FIXTURES
There are two ways to handle light fixtures that could shake
free from the ceiling grid and create a falling hazard. One is
to suspend the light fixture from the structure above with
two to four wires (if two wires, they should be in opposite
corners). The second method (not used in areas with high
seismicity) is to brace the ceiling and clip the light fixtures
to the grid. Pendant-mounted fixtures should be designed
so they cannot swing and hit other building components.
:i; DISTANCE
FROM WALL
CEILING DETAILS FOR SEISMIC AREAS
3 / " X 24-GAUGE
4
PLUMBER'S TAPE
NOTE
Fill space between water heater and wall with 2x blocking

with cushioned face.
WATER HEATER SEISMIC

REINFORCING
EXTERIOR CLADDING
SHELVING AND CABINETS
Exterior cladding must be secured to the building to prevent it from falling. Heavier veneers require more anchorage, When cladding is anchored to the structural frame,
consideration must be given to how movement of the
frame will affect movement in the cladding. A major concern is the difference in movement between floors and/or
floor and roof (story drift). which is addressed with connections that permit the cladding to move independently of the
structural frame. Commonly used are push-pull connections, caulked joints, slip joints, and covers that collapse.
Shelves and racks can overturn during seismic activity,

injuring building occupants or blocking exits. The hazard
increases with the occupancy density and the height of the
equipment. Fixtures should be bolted onto heavy-gauge
studs above their center of gravity.
_-.LL~!\~---.l-.L':::::----METAL OR
WOOD STUD
LIGHTING FIXTURE DETAIL FOR

SEISMIC AREAS
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
To brace sprinkler systems, architects must address three
main problems: the falling hazard of heavy mains, separation of the mains at the joints (property loss is critical here),
and breaking of the pipes where the heads pass through
the ceiling. The la.tter problem is solved by enlarging the
hole (with up to 1 In. clearance) and covering it with a large
escutcheon plate. An alternative is to detail a swing joint in
the sprinkler drop that will provide 1 in. movement in all
directions. Another solution is to detail the grid and sprinkler drops as one integral unit. (See NFPA 13 for information on sprinkler bracing,)
WATER HEATERS
When a water heater overturns, a gas line can rupture.
Depending on the level of seismicity, the common solution
for residential water heaters is to use a flexible gas connection and/or a simple steel strap wrapped around the tank
and securely anchored to a stud or solid wall.
ELEVATORS
Traction elevators cause the most concern in regard to seismic activity. The main problem is that the counterweights
may come loose and strike the cab. Current elevator standards address this problem, but older elevators may need
to be upgraded.
HVAC, ELECTRICAL, AND

PLUMBING COMPONENTS
HVAC equipment is often heavy, with large inertial forces;
securely attaching such equipment greatly reduces damage. Piping systems generally perform well during seismic
activity but are vulnerable at equipment connections.
Heavy electrical equipment such as switchgear, transformers, and batteries are the parts of the electrical system
most vulnerable to seismic activity. Emergency systems
depend on electrical power for fuel or control and so may
fail even though the equipment remains functional.
Plumbing distribution systems are relatively flexible and can
withstand a fair amount of shaking. Piping and equipment
should be anchored so it will move with the structure, limiting differential movement at the joints.
William W. Stewart. FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
42
Seismic Rehabilitation of BUildings
GENERAL
REHABILITATION STRATEGIES
CODES AND REGULATIONS
The greatest hazard In major earthquakes stems from older

buildings that were designed under early seismic codes or
before such codes were introduced. Seismic rehabilitation
(or seismic retrofit) refers to design and construction
intended to improve the seismic performance of an existing
building.
Although the unique characteristics of each building must

be considered when devising a rehabilitation strategy,
some fundamental concepts have been developed from
experrence:
At present a general code for seismic rehabilitation of b.

ings does not exist. For URM buildings, the City of- I
Angeles Section 88 Code may be appropriate; for cert.
types of historic URM buildings. the Uniform Code
Building Conservation may be used. Following
Northridge earthquake. Los Angeles developed criteria
rehabilitating tilt-up buildings and nonductile reinforced c.
crete frame buildings.
Some cities have established seismic rehabilitation programs to reduce the risk caused by unreinforced masonry
(URM) buildings, which are particularly hazardous in earthquakes. The City of Los Angeles, for example, passed an
URM ordinance in 1981 that required all of the 8000 URM
buildings in the city to be strengthened or demolished. San
Francisco has a similar ordinance. Many buildings also have
been voluntarily rehabilitated
REHABILITATION PROCESS
The first steps in rehabilitation are to identify the seismic
deficiencies and determine a method of rehabilitation.
Other steps involve bUdgeting, preparing contract documents, and selecting a contractor.
EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Two procedures exist for evaluating buildings for seismic

rehabilitation. The first, called rapid visual screening (RVS),
is used to assess the rehabilitation needs of a number of
buildings: a whole city, a few city blocks, a college campus,
etc. RVS involves surveying the exterior of a building and
recording its major features in a way that allows it to be
rated for possible seismic risk. The evaluation takes about
30 minutes per building. The intent is not to provide a definitive seismic rating but rather to indicate which buildings
should undergo a more detailed evaluation. This procedure
is described in Federal Emergency Management Agency
IFEMAI Publication 154.
The second. more detailed seismic evaluation process is

described in FEMA Publication 178. The evaluation begins
with collecting information about a structure and classifying
it according to one of fifteen model building types. This
qualitative investigation determines whether the building
exhibits any of the defined life-threatening performance
characteristics that similar structures have demonstrated in
previous earthquakes. If such characteristics are identified,
a detailed evaluation is recommended and permissible
capacity/demand ratios are suggested. Although the
detailed procedure generally takes several days to complete, it provides an evaluation of the building's threat to life
and a list of the particular structural and nonstructural features that must be addressed.
Another aspect of the evaluation is establishing the benefitcost ratio for seismic rehabilitation. FEMA Publication 227
describes such a procedure and provides computer software to perform the evaluation.
HAZARDOUS BUILDING TYPES
Any building may be hazardous in an earthquake if it is not

designed according to seismic codes and. perhaps more
significant, the designer does not understand or have experience with seismic design. Many old buildings, designed
before seismic codes existed. are well designed seismically
and have stood the test of time. Other, newer buildings are
unsafe because they were designed according to an obsolete code and without an understanding of seismic design
issues.
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Add strength.
Alter building stiffness.
Create structural continuity
Add structural containment
Rationalize existing capacity
Isolate the building from the ground.
Add energy-dissipating details
In addition to purely structural issues, architectural concerns influence rehabilitation design. For historic buildings,
rehabilitation measures must be devised that respect the
original architecture, and the addition of external strengthening components is not an option. For other buildings this
may not be a concern, and affordable cost, safety, and preservation of building function may be the paramount objectives.
FEMA publication 172 provides conceptual design guidance
on methods of rehabilitating all 1'5 model building types
described in FEMA 178.
The Building Seismic Safety Council/National Earthqua

Hazard Reduction Program is developing the first cornp:
hensive criteria (available about 1998) for the rehabilitatn
of all building types in any geographic region.
D~D
D~D
II
::
ADD REINFORCED INFILL WALLS TO

INCREASE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
Dl8JD
Dl8JD
UNREINFORCEO MASONRY
BEARING WALL
DDDDD
DDDDD
DDDDD
ADD BRACING TO INCREASE STIFFNESS
ADO BUTTRESSES FOR CONTAINMENT
NON DUCTILE CONCRETE FRAME
A number of typical building types have been identified as

hazardous because of their generally poor performance in
earthquakes:
1. URMs: bearing wall buildings with unreinforced masonry
walls. usually brick.
2. Nonductile concrete frame: typical of buildings constructed in the United States before about 1975, when
new codes came into effect that recognized the problems caused by underreintorced concrete frame structures subject to brittle failure. (Ductility refers to the
ability of structures. usually steel structures, to deform
greatly under load without collapsinq.l
3. Concrete or steel frame with unreinforced masonry walls
(often hollow tile): popular for buildings constructed from
the early 20th century until World War II.
4. Precast concrete tilt-up construction: common industrial
building type that relies on the exterior concrete walls to
act as shear walls against earthquake forces. Unless correctly detailed, the roofs are likely to pull away from the
walls and collapse during earthquakes.
ADO ENERGY DISSIPATING BRACES TO

REDUCE DRIFT AND INCREASE DAMPING
CONCRETE FRAME WITH

UNREINFORCEO MASONRY INFILL
PRECAST CONCRETE TILT-UP
BASE ISOLATION TO REDUCE

RESPONSE AND AID DAMAGE CONTROL
HAZARDOUS STRUCTURAL TYPES
REHABILITATING A CONCRETE FRAME
Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RI8A, Building Systems Development, lnc.: Palo Alto, California
SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry
lower seismic exposure areas and walls not part of the lateral resisting system (even when other walls are engineered). Buildings that are in higher exposure areas or have
walls that are part of the lateral resistance system require
engineering design that conforms to local codes.
GENERAL
Empirical rules and formulas for the design of masonry
structures resulted from the long history of masonry use
and thus predate engineering and analysis. Empirical design
is a method of sizing and proportioning masonry ~I.ements
that depends on centering gravity loads over beanng walls,
neglecting the effect of steel reinforcing.
.4
There are specific limits on masonry as to height wind or

other horizontal loads. and seismic loads. In many cases,
design for wind and industry recommendations for crack
control due to shrinkage or expansion may govern building
reinforcement in areas with lower seismic activity.
For most masonry work, empirical design is conservative. It

is generally appropriate for smaller buildings with i.nterior
masonry partitions and stiff floors, as well as buildinqs in
EXPANSION
BOLT TO
CONCRETE
(WELD TO
STEEL)
3" X 3" X 15 1 "
STEEL ANGL~,
CONTINUOUS
OR CLIP ANGLE
BONO BEAM AT
DIAPHRAGM
CONNECTION
SEALANT,
OPTIONAL
eMU WALL
BONO BEAM
NOTCHED TO
ALLOW FOR
PASSAGE OF
#4 BAR
43
NOTE
This detail allows transfer of out-of-plane forces but isolates in-plane forces from the structure.
#4 STEEL REBAR
AT BONO BEAM
(DIAPHRAGM
CONNECTION),
CONTINUOUS
THROUGH
CONTROL
JOINTS
#4 STEEL
REBAR AT
CORNER (OR
IN FIRST VOID
FROM CORNER,
FILLED SOLID
WITH GROUT)
MAX. 16" FROM
~9~~6~(OR
CONCRETE (OR
STEEL)
STRUCTURE
. .
(.
'"
----'~:!irn~1IIIIIqJ~=~:=S:I:Z'EALLOWS
FOR DEFLECTION
OR CREEP
CONTROL JOINT)
FLEXIBLE
SEALANT WITH
BACKER ROO
W1_7 STEEL WALL

REINFORCING AT
16" O.C., VERTICAL
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
BOND BEAM
LQCATEDTO
ALLOW FOR
CAVITY GROUTING
ACCESSIBILITY
16"
D.C.
NONBEARING WALL ISOLATION

DETAILS
REBARS SET INTO
FOUNDATION
SHEAR WALL SPACING

RATIO-EMPIRICAL DESIGN
Bearing walls
Solid units
Fully grouted
Others
Nonbearing walls
Exterior
Interior
NOTE
Standard construction practice tor masonry crack control

requires Wl.7 at 16 in. o.c., which would cover seismic
requirements as well. W1. 7 steel reinforcement at 8 in. o.c.

should be used in parapet locations.
WALL REINFORCING FOR MASONRY WALL (EMPIRICAL DESIGN FOR MODERATE

SEISMIC AREAS)
I/t < 20
I/t < 20
I/t < 18
I/t < 18
I/t < 36
I-wall length; t-wall thickness
METAL SCREEN OR MESH

TO RESTRICT GROUT FLOW
PRIMARY
CMU WALL
EMBED BENT ENOS

IN GROUTED CELLS
30" MIN
_ - - - - SECONDARY
eMU WALL
NOTE
Preformed, hot-dipped galvanized tees (Wl.7 wire at 8 in.

o.c., vertical for bearing; 16 in. o.c. tor nonbearing) are
used for reinforcing intersecting walls.
INTERSECTING WALL DETAIL
INTERSECTING WALL REINFORCING
Edgar Glock, Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis. Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
44
Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry
WOOD TRUSS
AT 24" O.C
GROUT CELL AT
ANCHOR ONLY
1/2" HEADED BOLT
AT MAX. 6'0" D.C
G ROUT CELL AT
DOWEL ONLY
1" X 12" STEEL
STRAP, EACH
TRUSS
#13 DOWEL AT
16" o.c. (TURN
DOWN 16" INTO
PRESSURETREATED
WOOD PLATE
II
c!.L!?
BONO BEAM)
'/2" DiAMETER
HEADED BOLT
AT 6'-0" O.C
FLOOR JOIST
PARALLEL TO
WALL 16" D.C
~
CONTINUOUS
BOND BEAM.
GROUT SOUD
Ll
---------
CONTINUOUS
BOND BEAM WITH
#4 REBAR5
CMU WALL
CONCRETE ON
METAL DECK
_ - - - - eMU WALL
WOOD TRUSS
AT 24" O.C
THROUGH WALL
REINFORCING
(Wl.7.16"O.C ..
VERTICAL)
NOTE
Anchors should also be placed at cross-bracing for joists.
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR WOOD

JOIST/RAFTER PARALLEL TO WALL
GROUT CELL AT
4" X 4" X 15/ 16"

CONTINUOUS
STEEL ANGLE
(ANCHOR WITH
EXPANSION
BOLT)
3" X 3" X 3/ 16"

STEEL ANGLE
AT48 O.C
M
CONTINUOUS
BOND BEAM
(GROUT SOLID)
PRESSURE
TREATED
WOOD PLATE
ANCHOR ONLY
1/2" HEADED BOLT

AT MAX. 6'-0" o.c.
(OR l,Z" THREADED
1/ 2" DIAMETER
HEADED BOLT
AT 6'-0" o.c
CMU WALL
ROO HOOKED TO
BAR)
METAL JOIST
HANGER
THROUGH WALL
REINFORCING
(W1.7, 16" O.C ..
VERTICAL)
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL

JOISTS PARALLEL TO WALL
CONTINUOUS
BOND BEAM.
,GROUT SOLID
NOTE
CMU WALL
For moderate seismic areas
ROOF TIE DETAILS FOR MODERATE

SEISMIC AREAS
FLOOR JOIST OR
RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL 16" D.C.
3" LEDGER
CONTINUOUS
BONO BEAM WITH
#4 ROO
AS ALTERNATE
TO BRACE, USE
#4 STEEL REBAR
AT 48" O.C:
CAVITIES FILLED
WITH GROUT
CONCRETE ON
METAL DECK
C]
l*==q~-----THROUGH WALL
REINFORCING
(WT.7, 16" a.c ..
VERTICAL)
:'
I" I
II
~USEBRACE
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION
FOR WOOD JOIST/RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
IF HfT > 3
-, -, -.(
-,
"
ROOF
STRUCTURE
"
-,
GROUT CELL AT
-,
ANCHOR ONLY
I
"I
II
-,
-,
-,
..:L__ jJ~Et:l;;3;:EI1~~
'1
"' I
~f::=~:f============
BEARING
PLATE WITH
#13 HOOK
TO BAR
JOIST/RAFTER
PARALLEL OR
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL
"
CONTINUOUS
BONO BEAM
(GROUT SOLID)
1/2" DIAMETER
THREADED ROO,
HOOKED TO BOND
BEAM REBAR
CONTINUOUS
BONO BEAM
THROUGH WALL
REINFORCING
(W1.7, 16" D.C.
VERTICAL)
ALTERNATE DIAPHRAGM
CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/
RAFTER
Edgar Glock. Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
STEEL JOIST
NOTE
THROUGH WALL
REINFORCING
(WI.7, 16" O.C.,
VERTICAL)
Empirical design for masonry parapets should be used only

in areas with low seismicity, Engineering analysis is
required when the heiqht-to-thickness ratio of three-to--one
is exceeded and in areas of higher seismicity,
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL

JOISTS PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
MASONRY PARAPET DETAIL FOR

SEISMIC AREAS
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing

GENERAL
ROOF DIAPHRAGM
Wood frame structures with a variety of solid wood and

engineered wood products can be designed to resist seismic forces using many of the same principles used to resist
CEILING DIAPHRAGM
wind forces. Wind-resistant design involves resolving loads

assumed to be applied to the structure in one direction for a
short time (monotonic loads). Wind load can induce shear
that is both perpendicular and parallel with the structure.
resulting in an overturning motion as well as uplift on the
structure. Seismic loads, on the other hand. are cyclical.
moving in different directions over a short period.
- - - - - ROOF-TO-WALL
ANCHORAGE
WALL DIAPHRAGM
Seismic loading conditions on conventional construction are

referenced in four main sources, which also provide information about the capacity of various materials: American
Society of Civil Engineers 7-95, Section A9.9.10; the Building Code, Section 2326; the Standard Building Code, Sections 2308.2.2 and 2310; and the National Building Code,
Section 2305.8. In general, these provisions are limited to
buildings with bearing walls not exceeding 10ft in height
and gravity dead loads not exceeding 15 psf for floors and
exterior walls and 10 psf for floors and partitions. Sheathing
for braced walls must be at least 48 in. wide over studs
spaced not more than 24 in. o.c
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
WALL-TO-FLOORTO-WALL
ANCHORAGE
Wood construction standards for all seismic areas include

the following: wall anchorage must use a minimum of t
o.c., maximum. Walls must be capped with double top
plates, Uniform with end joints offset by at least 4 ft. Bottom plates must be 11 /.} in. thick (2 in. nominal) and at least
the width of the studs.
WALL DIAPHRAGM
Forces must be transferred from the roof and tloorts) to

braced walls and from the braced walls in upper stories to
the braced walls in the story below, then into the foundation . Transfer must be accomplished with toe nails using
three 8d nails per joist or rafter where not more than 2 ft
o.c. or with metal framing devices capable of transmitting
the lateral force. Roof to wall connections must be made at
the exterior walls when the building is 50 ft or less in
length. A combination of exterior and interior bearing walls
is necessary when the building length exceeds 50 ft.
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
FLOOR-TOFOUNDATION
ANCHORAGE
NOTES
1. Diaphragms (the roof, tloorts}. and shear panels in walls)

must be designed to resist forces created by the dead
load mass of the structure and applied seismic loads. In
wood frame construction, a diaphragm is typically a
structural "panel" made of a skin (sheathing) stretched
over and fastened to ribs (wood members such as 2x4s)
The resulting construction is stiff and strong enough to
transmit forces to resisting systems such as the foundation. Connections must be designed to transfer lateral
forces and restrain overturning motion. Lateral forces can
be either perpendicular or parallel to the structure. The
load from each part of a building that is created as the
buildinq shifts from the movement of the earth must be
transferred to adjoining elements (roof sheathing to
rafters to top plates to wall sheathing and studs to bottom plates to floor sheathing and framing and so on, until
the lowest level of floor framing, from which the load
moves to the foundation; in slab-on-grade construction,
the load moves finally from the wall sheathing and studs
to the bottom platesl.
2. The roof diaphragm comprises roof sheathing, roof framing (rafters, top chord of truss, etc.), and blocking.
3. The ceiling diaphragm comprises ceiling finish material
(for example, gypsum wallboard) and ceiling framing
ijoists, lower chord of trusses, etc).
4. Roof-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down anchors to
resist uplift forces and nailing to resist shear forces
5. The wall diaphragm comprises wall sheathing, wall framing, and sheathing fasteners.
6. The floor diaphragm comprises floor sheathing, floor
framing (joists, trusses, etc.), blocking, etc.
7. Wall-to-floor-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down
anchors and shear connectors (for example, nails).
8. Hoor-to-toundaticn anchorage consists of hold-down
anchors to resist overturning forces and anchor bolts (1/2
in. diameter at 6 ft o.c.) to resist shear forces.
TYPICAL WALL SECTION FOR CONVENTIONAL WOOD FRAMING
Connections designed for both lateral and vertical (uplift or

overturning) loads must be used in conventional wood
frame structures designed for seismic areas, Traditional
nailing schedules are often adequate to handle lateral
forces. Vertical forces can be addressed by lapping structural sheathing and/or strapping the roof, walls, and floors
together at appropriate intervals. In addition, the overturning loads in walls must be restrained by anchoring the ends
of the shear panels (whether traditional or perforated) to the
structural wall below.
Nontraditional materials such as LVL, I joists, and structural
composite lumber can be used in seismic design; the
capacities and applicable connection types of these products are available from the manufacturers.
45
SPACING FOR
BLOCKED DIAPHRAGM*
BRACED WALL SPACING
BOUNDARY
PANELS (IN.)
SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY
OTHER
PANELS (IN.)
CAPACITIES
(LB/FT)
6
4
6
6
320
425
2'/,
640
730
* 15/ 32-in. panel sheathing; 10d nails into 2X framing (Douglas

fir, larch, southern pine).
DISTANCE
BETWEEN
BRACED
WALLS
MAXIMUM
NUMBER OF
STORIES
35 ft
35 ft
25ft
25ft
l'
"Two stories for detached one- and two-family dwellings
BOUNDARY
PANELS, TYP
NOTE
NOTES
Each diaphragm in a building must resist the seismic

effects in both directions of all the mass above it as well as
of its own mass. The seismic loads caused by the roof
mass must be transferred to the wall, and the wall must be
designed to resist both the effect of the mass of the roof
and the mass of the wall. These combined loads must then
be transferred to the floor below, which must be designed
to resist the effect of both its mass and the load applied by
the wall above. In turn, walls below must resist these
loads, until the force reaches the foundation, which must
be able to resist the combined loads from the rest of the
building.
1. Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of shear panels,

with 10d nails in 2x framing.
2. Capacities are based on structural I panels of Douglas fir,
larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or
alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood
Association.
3. The aspect ratio (the ratio of the longer dimension to the
shorter) of a floor or roof diaphragm is limited to LiL 1 ::;; 4.
Openings in the diaphragm are limited to either 12 ft or
half the length of the diaphragm, whichever is smaller.
The bracing element is typically a shear panel that is

anchored against both shear and overturning
SEISMIC LOAD TRANSFER
FLOOR AND ROOF DIAPHRAGM
BRACED WALL SPACING
NOTE
David S. Collins, FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
46
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing
4'-0" TOP PLATE

JOINT OFFSET,
TYP
i
H
{)C,,"
PANEL
TYP
~HOLD-DOWNS
LOCATION OF
HOLD-DOWNS
(AT EACH END
OF SHEAR
PANELS, TYP.)
AT END OF WALL
NOTES
1. In traditional shear wall design, parts of the wall that are

sheathed from top to bottom without openings are considered individually as shear panels. Hold-down anchors
are required at both ends of each of these panels. Each
segment must be restrained against the overturning
motion and the shear to which it will be exposed.
2. The capacity of a traditional shear wall is the sum of the
capacities of the individual shear waH segments, which
are determined by multiplying the length of each segment by the capacity of the sheathing (IMin. ft). Example: Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of the shear
panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in. o.c. for 280 IMin. ft.
The capacity of this shear wall would be equal to 280 x (A
+ B + C); 280 x H = uplift (hold-down capacity).
1. For perforated shear walls, the whole wall is considered

as a single shear panel without regard to wall openings.
Hold-down anchors are required only at the ends of the
wall. To determine the capacity of the wall, the lengths
of the full-height sheathed areas are added together and
the sum multiplied by the capacity of the sheathing.
2. Perforated shear walls may require higher capacity
sheathing than traditional shear walls to compensate for
the lack of intermediate hold-down anchors.
3. The sheathed walls above and below the openings in a
perforated shear wall increase the capacity of the wall
The capacity of the shear wall must be adjusted by a factor derived from two variables: the maximum opening
height and the percentage of full-height sheathing on the
shear panel. In the following example, a factor of 0.49 is
applied. The Wood Frame Construction Manual gives
more examples. Example: Use 15132 in. sheathing for the
outside of the shear panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in
O.C. for 280 Ibmn. ft. Shear = 280 x (A + B + C) x 0.49;
280 x 8 = 2240 Ib uplift (hold-down capacity).
TRADITIONAL SHEAR WALLS
PERFORATED SHEAR WALLS
~f>?,,,SJ.~~
MAX.
4' X S' MIN.

SHEAR PANEL
~it1:'c~t~'E,A6~~g,t~NT~L,
STUDS BOTH SIDES
NOTES
1. Shear panels that consist of framing members and
sheathing panel(s) or diagonal sheathing members provide the principal lateral resistance to shear loads.
Sheathing panels are made of plywood and aSB (for
structural panels), gypsum sheathing, or fiberboard. Diagonal wood sheathing boards or strapping can also be
used. The shear capacity of the material depends on the
quality of the framing and sheathing materials and on the
connections. Building codes require a minimum aspect
ratio of H/L,; 2 or 3'1, for the panel. Sheathing both sides
with the same material doubles the capacity of the shear
panel. Tests have shown that sheathing each side with a
different material adds capacity, although this concept is
not accepted by all codes.
2. Use 10d nails at all edges and in field (center area) as follows: for edge nailing, 6 in. o.c. for 280 1!Jllin. ft; 4 in. o.c.
for 430 Ibn,n. ft; 3 m o.c for 550 Ibnin. ft; 2 in. o.c. for
730 lbllin. tt: and 12 in. o.c. for field nailing.
3. This drawing is based on use of structural I panels of
Douglas fir, larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood Association.
WOOD WALL SHEAR PANEL
NOTES
MINIMUM LENGTH OF BRACED WALL

STORY
SHEATHING TYPE*
LOW RISK
Top or only
G-P
8'-0'
Story below top
SW
G-P
4'-0'
12'-0'
8'-0'
Bottom of 3 stories
SW
G-P
16'-0'
SW
8'-0'
HIGH RISK
12'-0'
8'-0'
16'-0'
8'-0'
16'-0'
8'-0'
20'-0'
20'-0'
12'-0'
12'-0'
29'-0'
Not permitted as conventional
G-P---gypsum; SW-structural wood
LUMBER DESIGN VALUES FOR SEISMIC CONDITIONS

ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
DESIGN VALUE*
Fb
F.
2x8
SIZE
REPETITIVE MEMBER 1.15
LOAD 1.6
Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 875 psi

SPF no. l/no. 2; 875 psi
Southern pine no. 2; 1200 psi
1.2 Fb-l050
1210
1210
1380
1930
1930
1930
1930
2210
2210
150
1.2 Fb-l050
SPF no. 1/no.2; 70 psi

F"

Douglas fir-larch no. 2: 625 psi
Fell

* Additional design values for other species and grades of

lumber can be obtained from the Supplement to the
AF&PA National Design Specification.
NOTE
Design values for traditional solid wood products and connections are available in the American Forest and Paper
1.05 F,,=1560
1.05 F,,,-1320
Association's National Desiqn Specification. The values

published for wood products must be adjusted by various
factors, including size (except for southern pine), to determine the appropriate design values for a particular application. Repetitive members, consisting of three members
spaced not more than 2 ft o.c. and sharing a load, must be
increased by a factor of 1.15, while the adjustment for
David S. Collins. FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
150
110
ADJUSTED DESIGN VALUE (PSI)
110
145
145
625
425
565
2185
1850
2480
2185
1850
2480
seismic and Wind conditions IS a factor of 1.6. These factors

are applicable only to solid wood products and glued laminated timbers. Connections have similar adjustment factors.
Lighting Design
GENERAL
47
LIGHT SOURCE SELECTION GUIDE
Lighting design involves selecting lighting fixtures (luminaires) and determining their locations and control devices
to realize the desired effects. Basic lighting designs are
fairly generic and require but a modest level of effort to
achieve a workable result. Attractive and/or complex lighting designs, on the other hand, can require significantly
more design work and detail in specifying products and
locations. Typical steps in the process are these:
<2500
2700-3000
1. Establish project criteria: Determine the quantity and

quality of illumination, color of light, and luminairs type
(style, appearance) wanted. Check applicable codes and
standards, and find out the cost and power limits.
2. Create design concepts: Select the types of luminaires to
be used, outline desired controls, and propose locations.
Test cost and power budgets.
3. Refine the design: Make calculations and adjustments,
sketch details, draft specifications, and coordinate
mechanical and structural work.
4. Prepare working drawings: Draw lighting plans, make fixture schedules, and plan layout and circuit controls.
. Determine emergency, life safety, and egress lighting.
APPLICATIONS
Bulk industrial and security (HPSllighting

Low light levels in most spaces 10 FC); general residential lighting; hotels, tine dining and family restaurants,
theme parks
2950--3200
Display lighting for retail and galleries; feature lighting
350Q--4100
General lighting in offices, schools, stores, industry, medicine; display lighting; sports lighting
4100--5000
Special application lighting when color discrimination is very important; not commonly used for general lighting
5000-7500
Special application lighting when color discrimination is critical; uncommon for general lighting
MINIMUM LAMP CRI'

<50
Noncritical industrial. storage, and security lighting
50-70
Industrial and general illumination when color is not important
70--79
Most office, retail, school. medical, and other work and recreational spaces
80-89
Retail, work, and residential spaces when color quality is important
90-100
Retail and work spaces when color rendering is critical
CCT-correlated color temperature

2 CRI-eolor rendering index
1
As with all creative processes, it is not unusual to repeat

steps until an acceptable result is achieved. With increasing
enforcement of energy codes, traditional designs (especially those using incandescent lighting) will not meet
energy code requirements. Reiterations involving different
light sources or luminaires will often be necessary.
PRECISE WORKING AREA

(CATEGORY "E": 50 TO 100 FC)
READING AREA
(CATEGORY"C"
10 TO 20 Fe)
SETTING DESIGN CRITERIA

Lighting design requires the definition of the following criteria for each application: quantity of illumination, quality of
illumination, color of light. and suitable luminaire styles.
QUANTITY OF ILLUMINATION
Standards for illumination are set by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IIESNA). Illumination is
generally measured in the horizontal plane 30 in. above the
floor. The units of illumination are footcandles (lumens per
square foot) and lux (lumens per square meter). IESNA-recommended levels are summarized on the following page
(Lighting and Lighting Systemsl-more detailed and specific information is given in the IESNA Lighting Handbook
and in other IESNA publications.
Specific lighting levels may be set by codes, such as life
safety codes and health codes. For instance, NFPA 101
(National Fire Protection Association Life Safety Standard)
recommends an average illumination of 1 footcandle (10
lux) along a.path of emergency egress with an emergency
power source. Some owners establish their own lighting
level requirements for specific areas.
Choosing lighting levels involves thoughtful application of
IESNA recommendations to meet the goals of the project.
Too much light will lead to excessive energy use and failure
to meet energy code limits. Use of high lighting levels
(more than 200 footcandlesl is rare and usually is associated with special purpose lighting systems like surgical
lights.
The IESNA recommends exterior lighting levels for specific
applications such as street lighting, sports lighting, and
parking lot lighting. Although the IESNA makes some recommendations for exterior lighting applications that are
more artistic, such as building facades or statuary, most of
these are left to the designer's discretion.
The uniformity of lighting levels is also subject to IESNA
recommendations. For interior lighting, IESNA generally
recommends the following ratios of illumination for comfort:
1. Task proper: 100%.
2. Immediate surround: 33-100%.
3. Distant surround: 10-100%.
When light is designed to maintain these relationships, the
human eye continually adapts to the light level and
responds quickly to visual stimulus. However, visual interest is caused by contrast in which ratios between task and
surround might be 100: 1 or even greater. This is one of the
greatest paradoxes of lighting design: The most appealing
visual scenes are often uncomfortable.
---l
[OJ
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
WAITING
AREA
_ J
GENERAL OFFICE
FUNCTION AREA
(CATEGORY "8":
5 TO 10 FC>
----
L:-----------H
GENERAL OFFICE
WORKING AREA
(CATEGORY "0"
20 TO 50 Fe)
LOBBY
NOTE
In this example, choosing the proper amount of light in

each area not only meets visual needs but consumes only
the minimum necessary energy. Use the high end of the
light level ranges for older people, where finishes are especially dark, or where the work is particularly important or
requires great speed.
1,IGHTING LEVELS FOR TYPICAL OFFICE RECEPTION AREA

QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION
SUITABLE LUMINAIRE STYLES
Quality of illumination remains largely an aesthetic issue.

However, a number of specific quality issues can be
addressed objectively:
Many design problems have reasonably obvious solutions

determined by a combination of budget, energy code, and
industry standards. For instance, most office lighting
designs utilize recessed troffers because they are costeffective and energy-efficient and they meet the standard
expectations of owners and tenants. Choices among troffers require further consideration, although at that point
style is a lesser issue.
1. Eliminate flicker: Light sources should minimize or eliminate flicker caused by AC power or other influences.
2. Eliminate or minimize glare: Shield lamps from view.
Minimize very bright and very dark surfaces. Illuminate
walls and ceilings.
3. Use light sources with good color rendering: Halogen,
high CRI (color rendering index) full size and compact fluorescent, and high CRI metal halide and white HPS
lamps should be used whenever possible.
COLOR OF LIGHT
Both the correlated color temperature (CCT) and color rendering index (CRO for light sources should be used in
choosing light sources. In general, try to match CCT when
mixing sources, such as halogen and fluorescent.
Some situations call for uncommon or creative designs. In

these cases, the distribution of the luminaire and its physical appearance become critical. In particular, luminaires that
enhance the architecture are desired for residences, hotels,
restaurants, and other nonwork spaces. Decorative styles
range from contemporary to very traditional; lamp options
may permit a choice between incandescent and more
energy-efficient light sources, such as compact fluorescent
or low watt high-intensity discharge (HID) luminaires. In
fact. energy-efficient decorative lighting fixtures, both interior and exterior, are one of the fastest growing parts of the
lighting fixture industry as the market for attractive luminaires that comply with energy codes grows.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
48
lighting and lighting Systems

ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR
GENERAL
Most b~ildings are equipped with electric .49htj~g syste~s
for interior uses. Early In the history of Ilghtln!":1. l!h.~mJnatlon
systems were desiqned for minimum use of mtenor space
at night. Today, however, electric illumination systems generally are designed to be used in place of natural light
VARIOUS INDOOR ACTIVITIES

RANGES OF ILLUMINANCE
ILLUMINANCE
CATEGORY
TYPES OF ACTIVITY
FOOTCANDLES
LUX
Public spaces with dark surroundings
20-30-50
2-3-5
Simple orientation for short, temporary

visits
5075-100
5-7.5-10
FUNCTIONS OF LIGHTING
Working spaces used only occasionally

for visual tasks
100-150-200
101520
Light is one of many tools available to help in space design,

In the beginning of any project, it is wise to recall the functions of lighting and to be certain each has been examined:
Performance of visual tasks of high

contrast or large size
200-300-500
20-30-50
Performance of visual tasks of medium

contrast or small size
500 750-1000
50-75-100
Performance of visual tasks of low

contrast or small size
t 000- 1500-2000
100-150-200
Performance of visual tasks of low

contrast and very small size over a
prolonged period
2000-3000-5000
200-300-500
Performance of very prolonged and

exacting visual tasks
5000-7500-10000
50G-750-1000
Performance of very special visual tasks

of extremely low contrast and small size
10000-15000-20000
1000-1500-2000
Performance of tasks: Lighting to perform work, whether

it is reading, assembling parts, or seeing a blackboard, is
referred to as task lighting. Visual work is a primary reason for providing lighting.
Enhancement of space and structure: It is only through
the- presence of light that spatial volume, planes, ornament, and color are revealed. For centuries, structural
systems evolved partly in response to aesthetic as well
as functional desires for light of a certain quality. The
progress from bearing wall to curtain wall was driven by
the push of newly discovered technologies (both in
materials and in technique), by evolving cultural desires
for certain spatial characteristics, and by a desire to admit
light of a particular quality. These developments are
reflected in the Gothic church window, the baroque oculus, and the Bauhaus wall of glass. With the advent of
electric lighting systems, this connection of structure to
light was no longer entirely necessary, but most architects continue to pay homage to this historical tie.
3. Focusing attention: The quality of light in a space profoundly affects people's perception of that space. The
timing and the direction of an individual's gaze are often
a function of the varying quality and distribution of light
through the space. Lighting draws attention to points of
interest and helps guide the user of a space.
4. Provision of security: Lighting can enhance visibility and

thereby engender a sense of security. Lighting can also
be used to illuminate hazards, such as a changing floor
plane or moving objects.
PORTABLE LUMINAIRE (LAMP): a luminalre equipped with

a cord and plug and designed to be moved from space to
space.
LIGHTING FIXTURE: a luminaire that is permanently
attached ("hard wired") to a building
LIGHTING SYSTEM: the lighting fixtures in a building,
sometimes including portable lights, subdivided into
smaller systems (e.g., the lighting system in a room or aU
luminaires of a particular type In a room or building).
ILLUMINANCE: the measure of light striking a surface, in
footcandles (lumens per square meter). Illuminance can be
measured and predicted using calculations; also illumination.
~O"
<,
General lighting
throughout
spaces
Illuminance on
task
Illuminance on
task, provided
by a comb ination of general
and local (supplementaryl
lighting
NOTE
Standards for lighting and illurrunation in North America are
established by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America. IESNA recommendations are summarized in the
IESNA Lighting Handbook, 8th edition, from which this

table is taken.
LAMP: the electric bulb or tube within a luminaire.
its lumens downward will have a higher CU (room cavity

ratio and reflectance values being equal) than one that distributes light in any other direction. A higher CU is not necessarily a virtue; it only ranks fixtures according to their
ability to provide horizontal illuminance.
PHOTOMETRY: the measure

respect to a luminaire.
of light, especially with
PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: a written report that describes

the manner in which light is emitted from a lurninaire, presented in an industry standard format.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY, the measure of how a lighting system compares to standards, in the context of building size
and function.
BASIC LIGHTING TERMS

LUMINAIRE: a structure that holds an electric lamp and its
socket, wiring, and auxiliaries, such as ballasts.
REFERENCE
WORK PLANE
LUMEN METHOD
Lighting design involves determining how many luminaires
are needed for a particular application and where to locate
them. The most accurate means of determining illumination
performance is by computer; a number of point-by-point
lighting programs are available with DXF and DWG file interfaces and other features. (See the annual computer issue
of Lighting Design and Application, an IESNA publication.
for a current list of commercially available proprarns.I It is
also possible to estimate illumination results from a proposed lighting design using the lumen method and photometric reportts) from candidate luminaires.
The lumen method, also known as the zonal cavity system,
is a calculation method that can be used to determine the
horizontal illuminance that will result from a proposed lighting fixture selection and layout or the number of fixtures
required by a proposed fixture selection and its horizontal
illuminance value.
The lumen method/zonal cavity system is limited by the following:

1. It is based on a single number, average value.
2. It assumes a uniform array of lighting fixtures.
3. It assumes all room surfaces have a matte (lambertian)
finish.
4. It assumes the room is devoid of obstruction, at least
down to the level of the work plane.
The light loss factor (LLF) is used to calculate the Hlumi
nance of a lighting system at a specific point in time under
given conditions. It incorporates variations from test condi
tions in temperature and voltage, dirt accumulation on lighting fixtures and room surfaces, lamp lumen output
depreciation, maintenance procedures (mainly frequency of
cleaning), and atmospheric conditions. The LLF is also
known as the maintenance factor.
Tc use a CU table, assumptions must first be made about
the reflectance of major room surfaces. Then the room cavitv ratio (RCR) can be determined according to one of the
following formulas:
For rectangular rooms: RCR
which H is the cavity height
15 x H(L + Will (L x WI.
For odd-shaped rooms: RCR = 2.5 wall arealfloor area
The lumen method is based on the definition of average

footcandles over an area. The method modifies the fundamental equation of 1 fc = 1 lumen/sq ft to account for room
size and proportion; reflectance from walls, ceiling, and
floors; fixture efficiency; and reduction in output over time
due to dirt accumulation, deterioration of reflecting surfaces, and reduction of lumen output.
~
JiUGHT
FIXTURE
The lumen method requires the following information:
\
O'
35"
NOTE
Fixture manufacturers have developed luminaires (mostly
fluorescent) that produce a light distribution that tends to
reduce direct glare and veiling reflections if used in large,
uniform arrays and typical open office geometries. This distribution pattern is called batwing.
LUMINAIRE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
PATTERN
1. Room dimensions (to compute wall area and floor area)

2. Height of fixtures above work plane
3. Reflectance levels of major surfaces (ceiling, walls, floor)
4. An estimate of the light loss factor (LLF)
5. Initial lamp lumens
6. A target illuminance level
The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the percentage of total
lamp lumens that reaches the work plane. As such, it has
nothing to do with the intensity of the fixture but rather
with the efficiency of the fixture (lumens emitted from the
fixture divided by lamp lumens and the direction of the
lamp output-this direction of output is graphically represented by the candlepower distribution curve). For purposes of this procedure, the plane of interest is invariably a
horizontal plane (typically either the floor or desk level).
therefore a fixture that throws the greatest percentage of
Robert Prouse, IALD, IES; H.M. Brandston & Partners, Inc., New York, New York
LIGHTING DESIGN
H
jPOTENTIAL
WORK PLANES
OF INTEREST
NOTE
Anyone of these dimensions may be the cavity height (Hl.
which is the distance from the light fixture to the work
plane of interest.
CAVITY HEIGHT DIAGRAM
Energy Efficiency in Lighting Design
49
GENERAL
COMPLIANCE STRATEGY
TRADEOFFS
Lighting can be desiqned both ~o use minimum energy and

to realize environmental benefits such as reduced air and
groundwater pollution. Electric light sources more efficacious than traditional incandescent lamps have been developed to. meet most lighting needs. The key to achiavinq
efficient design is knowing how and when to choose efficient sources, luminaires, and controls.
To realize design compliance with local energy codes without significant redesign, observe the followinq process:
Energy codes do not regulate lighting design or the amount

of lighting in a particular space. For instance, a designer
could slightly reduce the lighting loads throughout an office
building by using efficient lighting equipment. With the
energy saved, an important space like the main lobby could
be illuminated in a less efficient manner, such as with
incandescent chandeliers, and the project would stilt comply with the energy code.
1. Choose a general lighting system that uses one of these

sources: fluorescent T-8 with electronic ballasts, highwattage compact fluorescent with electronic ballast. or
metal halide or HPS (high-pressure sodium).
2. Make certain the lurninaire and room are reasonably efficient. Use direct lighting for tasks whenever possible,
and make room finishes light. especially ceilings.
3. Design to just barely meet IESNA recommendations for
each space.
4. For downlighting, wall washing" and other traditional
incandescent applications, use compact fluorescent or
HID (high-intensity discharge) sources.
5. Minimize the amount of track lighting by using recessed
fixtures or rnonoooints when 'possible.
6. Use incandescent and halogen sources sparingly, confining them to necessary decorative lighting.
7. Add advanced controls such as motion sensors and daylighting dimming. These allow the reduction of actual
lighting watts and can help bring a design into compliance with energy efficiency requirements.
CODES
The U.S. Energy Policy Act 01 1992 requires states to
develop codes that require efficiency in lighting design.
Each code must meet or exceed the requirements of
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989. In 1996, although in many states
compliance was mandatory and enforced. some states had
yet to adopt such a code, while others had not yet begun
enforcement. For federal government buildings. a version
of 90.1 with more stringent values was in force. Progress
toward regulating energy efficiency in Canada was similar.
All codes presently calculate allowed watts based on building type and area. Codes generally determine allowed interior lighting watts in one of three wavs-s-roorn by room, by
area (groups of rooms), or for the entire building:
1. Room by room: Determine the specific use of each room

and its net area. Multiply the area 01 each room by the
allowed power density (watts/sq It) adjusted lor the
room cavity ratio (RCRI. Add the wattage lor all rooms
together.
2. Area: Determine the use of major portions of a building
or renovation and the gross lighted area of each. Multiply
the gross lighted area by the allowed power density
(watts!sq It) lor each group 01 rooms by type. Add the
figures for all areas together.
3. Whole building: Determine the building type and the
gross lighted area for the entire building. Multiply the
gross lighted area by the allowed power density (watts!
sq It I lor the entire building by type.
Exterior lighting is governed less than interior lighting, and

under some codes it may not be governed at all. As welt.
energy codes in general do not regulate lighting watts in
dwelling units
CREDIT*
Time clock
(with manual
override readily
accessible)
Turns lights on and

off at scheduled
times
0-10%
Dimmer
Reduces lighting
power by manual
adjustment
Daylighting
controls
LINEAR
SLIDE
CONTROL
ROTARY OR
PUSH ON/OFF
CONTROL
TOUCHPLATE
CONTROL
DIMMING CONTROL DEVICES
TYPICAL
OPERATION
Turns lights on and

use
Reduces interior
lighting power
based on amount of
daylight in space
0%
15% (>250sq
Itl to 30%
250 sq It I
20%
(stepped( to
30% (continuous dimming)
Scene preset
dimming
Reduces average
power by dimming
combinations of
lighting systems
10-20%
Tuning
Reduces lighting
power by hidden
adjustment
10-15%
Lumen
maintenance
Reduces interior
lighting power
based on age of
lamps and cleanliness of space
10-15%
Combined
systems
Combinations of
the above are not
directly additive
Up to 45%
"The credit offered varies from code to code and may not
be available.everywhere.
ADDITiONAL CODE REQUIREMENTS
NUM8ER OF LUMINAIRES
AVERAGE FOOTCANDLES
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It)
footcandles desired x room area

CU x LLF x lampslluminaire x lumensllamp
lumensllamp x lampslluminaire x CU x LLF
area 01 room (sq It)
design watts (including ballast)
area of room
where:
CU = coefficient of utilization (percentage of light that actually reaches task)
LLF = light loss factor (time-dependent depreciation lactors)
NOTE
See manufacturer's photometric tables or the Lighting
Handbook 01 the Illuminating Engineering Society lor tables
of values for CU. LLF, lurnens/lamps, etc
LIGHTING CONTROLS IN ENERGYEFFICIENT APPLICATIONS

While most energy codes require switching for all spaces,
some switch types control energy use better through automatic switching and/or dimming. "Control credits" are
often offered by codes that permit the designer to reduce
the watts of all lights connected to certain automatic
devices; this arrangement allows the design to employ
more lighting watts and still comply with the energy code.
DEVICE OR
METHOD
011 based on space
In addition to limiting lighting power in a building, lighting

energy codes also have other requirements. These vary by
state but may include the following:
1. Mandatory use of readily accessible switching in all
enclosed spaces. (Exceptions are allowed for spaces in
which this would be unsafe.)
2. Use of multilamp or electronic fluorescent ballasts whenever possible.
3. Separate switching lor daylighted and nondaylighted
spaces in building interiors.
4. Ability through switching or dimming to adjust lighting
levels in a space exceeding 100 sq ft and 100 watts.
5. Automatic shutoff controls for lights in spaces in larger
bUildings (usually larger than 5000 sq ft).
6. Automatic shutoff controls for exterior lights.
ENERGY-EFFICIENT
LIGHTING CONTROLS
Motion sensor
To find the total allowed watts for the interior of a building,

start with the total wattage as determined by one 01 the
three methods above. Then subtract "credit" watts for
lighting controlled by advanced automatic devices such as
daylighting or motion sensing and add other allowed watts.
if any.
An allowed lighting load can also be determined by using a
building energy simulation program like DOE-2. However,
because the program's algorithm is based on the same
power density assumptions as the allowed amount given
above, it is unlikely the value for lighting determined in this
manner will be significantly different.
Tradeoffs are allowed among interior spaces in the same

building, but they are not allowed between interior and
exterior lighting. In addition, tradeoffs are not allowed
between buildings, even if they are owned by the same
company and stand on the same site.
NUMBER OF FIXTURES
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It)
50 x 25 x 40
0.67 x 0.7 x 4 x 2850
9 x 111
25 x 40
or
10 x 111
25x40
= 9.35 luminaires (use 9 or 10)
0.999 W!sq It (9 luminairesl or

= 1.111 W!sq It (10 luminaires)
TYPICAL EXAMPLES
Room size 25 x 40 It; ceiling height 9 It; illumination level
50 lootcandles (IESNA category 101; 2 x 4 ft. recessed trollers with lour 32-watt T8 lamps 12850 im) each.
CU = 0.67 (plastic lens)

Electronic ballast input watts
LLF = .70
= 111
FORMULAS FOR AVERAGE LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacilic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
LIGHTING DESIGN
50
Workstation Lighting and Lighting Controls
DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF

PARTITIONS ON LIGHTING LEVELS
The illumination that reaches a desk tQP in q"direct lighting
system is a combination of light arriving directly from the
lighting fixture and indirectly via reflectance from various
room surfaces. A partition not only interferes with this indirect component of light but can drastically reduce the
potential direct component.
Consider the example shown in the accompanying diagrams: In diagram "A", the workstation is contained within
42 inch high panels. Extending "sightlines" (as if the desk
top could "see" the ceiling) from the center of the station
out to the ceilmq over the top of the panels, it can be seen
that in a 10 by 10ft workstation, a ceilingarea of 4,225 sq ft
(65 x 65 ft) has the potential for contributinq light to the
workstation. If the lighting fixtures are installed 8 ft apart.
there would be an average of 66 fixtures 14,225 sq ft ~ 18 x
8 ftll that could contribute light directly to the desk top.
If the same lOx j O tt workstation had partitions 60 in. tall,
the projected lines would enclose a ceiling area of 676 sq ft
(26 x 26 ttl This area would include only ten or eleven fixtures [676 sq'tt ~ (8 x 8 ftll. This 80% decrease in the number of lighting fixtures that could possibly contribute light
directly to the desk top does not translate into an 80% drop
in light levels at the desk top. However, it will cause a significant decrease, the amount of which is influenced by factors such as the distribution pattern of the lighting fixtures
and the finishes of the partitions.
<~r/
A
42~
PANELS
/
/
/
_ _li6~II_
"S"
60" PANELS
PANEL HEIGHT COMPARISON
Clearly, task lighting is important to consider when partitions are more than 42 in. high.
LIGHTING CONTROL CHOICES
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS FOR SPACES

WITH PARTITIONS
A rough approximation of the magnitude of the effect of

partition height on lighting levels can be calculated using
the foHowing technique. (However, do not use this technique for totally direct lighting systems unless severalluminaires directly contribute light to the cublcle.)
1. Use the coefficient of utilization (CU) table for the fixture
to calculate the average illuminance at the top of the partitions. Use the distance from the luminaires to the top of
the partitions as the cavity height. and use actual reflectance values except for the floor; use "0" for the floor
cavity reflectance.
2. Determine the transfer coefficient of a virtual ceiling
luminaire: Use the distance from the top of the partition
to the desk top as the cavity height Use the cubicle's
partition reflectance as the wall reflectance, and use the
effective ceiling cavity reflectance of the actual ceiling
cavity above the top of the partitions. Use the table
below to find the transfer coefficient.
3. Multiply the illuminance from the first step (at the top of
the partitions) by the transfer coefficient to find the
approximate average illuminance at the desk top.
Energy codes require readily accessible switching for all

electric lights. The National Electric Code requires switching at specific locations in houses. Traditional switches
meet these requirements. Other lighting controls choices
are discussed here:
SWITCHING
Standard toggle switches are the most commonly used

lighting switches. Three-way and four-way switches permit
control from several locations. Choices include standard
toggle switches and the more modern "decora" or paddle
switches. Electronic touch switches are also becoming
more common.
DIMMING
Manual dimming is popular in homes and many other

spaces. To dim fluorescent lighting, use modern high frequency electronic dimming ballast systems. An energy
credit may be available for using manual dimming under
some conditions.
Lumen-maintenance controls allow lighting to be dimmed

automatically when it is new and, through photoelectnc
sensing, to be increased gradually as lamps age and lurni
naires get dirty. The equipment for these controls is sirnila.
to that for daylighting, and most systems do both.
Adaptation compensation controls (the opposite Clf daylight
ing) increase interior light as exterior light incrases. Tunnels are classic applications for adaptation cOf'1ll)ensation,
but the same principles carl be used to save energy in
supermarkets.
DEMAND MANAGEMENT
Lighting can be dimmed 10-20% with little efhet on productivity but a profound impact on overall buildiilg load. By
sensing incoming electric service for peaks, lightng can be
dimmed when other building systems are pea.Jti3g in load
The result is a ."flattening" of the energy use c~e, which
lowers electric energy cost.
SCENE DIMMING
Scene dimming or multichannel preset dimming systems

are increasingly being used for spaces with four or more
independent dimming channels, such as restaurants, custom-built houses, and boardrooms. Scene dimming systems are like modern theatrical dimming in that there is a
cross-fade between scenes, which are combinations of
preset dim light levels
APPLICATIONS FOR
LIGHTING CONTROLS
Office buildings,
schools
Time scheduling svsterre. for

open office areas, corridars,
halls, and lobbies
TIME SCHEDULING
80
CEILING
WALLS
50
30
50
10
50
30
OCCUPANCY SENSING
1.19
1.19
119
1.11
1.11
1.11
1.03
098
0.94
096
093
0.89
Combined systems (e.g;..

motion and daylightingl
wherever logical
0.89
081
075
0.83
0.78
0.73
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.73
0.66
0.60
0.68
0.59
0.52
0.64
0.57
0.51
0.61
051
0.45
0.58
0.50
0.44
0.55
0.45
039
0.52
0.44
0.38
0.49
0.40
0.34
0.47
0.39
034
0.45
036
0.30
0.43
0.35
0.30
DAYLIGHTING AND RELATED CONTROLS
Daylighting systems use dimming or switching to reduce

interior lighting when adequate daylight is present. In buildings with windows near the work area, savrnqs can be significant, and most codes permit a substantial controls credit
for daylighting.
0.41
0.33
0.27
0.39
0.32
0.27
10
0.38
0.30
0.25
0.36
0.29
0.24
Retail
Motion sensors can be used to control lights according to

space occupancy. Passive infrared sensors are the most
commonly used; ultrasonic sensors are also popular and
work better in spaces with partitions. Sensors have sensitivity and timeout adjustments. Choose wallbox sensors
with internal switches or dimmers for small rooms, ceilingmounted sensors with remote relays for larger rooms. Multiple sensors can be used in the same room to ensure coverage.
Energy credits for using motion sensor systems are fairly

substantial, as these systems save quite a bit of energy in
most applications.
James Robert Benva. PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Dayljghting in areas adj;mmt to

windows or skylights
to
RCR*
""RCR-room cavity ratio
Motion sensors in toilet lIJoms

and storage
Lighting controls that use clocks to switch lights on and off

on predictable schedules are the most commonly used
form of automatic lighting controls. Some energy codes
require automatic controls of this type as a minimum standard. Controls may vary from individual "time clock"
switches to programmable timers and large-scale energy
management systems.
TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Motion sensors in privateoffices, classrooms, and

conference rooms
Time scheduling for steDl!'

windows, general and alilplay
lighting
Motion sensing for stortilJe and
dressing rooms
Daylighting and lumen
maintenance near skyli9ts
Adaptation cornpensatree for
general lighting
Industrial,
institutional
Time scheduling in rnosnareas

Daylighting near windows and
skylights
Motion sensing in restrecms.
little used storage area&.
Outdoor
Choices include photodK:tric

switches, motion sensees,
time switches, and manual
switches
Luminaire Design
GENERAL
LUMINAIRE STYLES
A luminaire IS any device that Includes a lamphoJder, a

means of electrification, and a support. Lighting fixtures are
luminaires that are permanently attached to a building.
Luminaires are characterized by the manner in which light is
distributed. Luminaire types are identified in the chart
below.
Downlights and troffers are discussed below; commercial

fluorescent fixtures, indirect and direct/indirect lighting sys~
terns, architectural lighting fixtures, and decorative lighting
are discussed on the following page.
LUMINAIRE TYPES
Downlights are often called 'cans' or 'tophats.' They are

principally used for general illumination in a wide range of
residential and commercial applications, especially in lobbies, halls, corridors, stores, and other finished spaces
Downlights can be equipped with incandescent, halogen,
low-voltage, compact fluorescent, or HID (high-intensity
discharge) lamps. There are several major types, which
accommodate varying source types, ceiling heights, ptenum heights, room types, and beamspreads. These include
the follovvinq:
TYPE
Direct
LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Emits light downward.

Most recessed lighting
types, including downlights
and troffers, are direct luminaires
OPEN BAFFLE: ridged baffles shield the lamp and minimize

glare.
Emits light upward. so it

bounces from a ceiling into
the space below. Many
styles of suspended luminaires, sconces, and some
portable lamps provide indirect lighting.
OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL: an elliptical reflector allows a small

aperture of1ly; this beamspread is highly efficient.
LENSED (prismatic or fresnel): generally used outdoors or
in wet locations, the lens protects and seals the lamp compartment of this type of downlight.
DIFFUSER: a diffuser distributes light broadly. which is

especially useful in closets and showers.
Diffuse
Emits light in all directions

uniformly. This type includes
most bare lamps, globes,
and chandeliers and some
table and floor lamps.
ADJUSTABLE: adjustable downlights can be used as a

downlight or as an accent light.
PULLDOWN: this feature allows the light to be used as a
downlight or an accent light and permits a wide aim.
Asymmetric
Adjustable
Emits light upward and

downward but not to the
side. Many types of suspended luminaires, and
some table and floor lamps,
offer this type of lighting.
These luminaires can offer
mostly direct or mostly indirect lighting.
For special applications. For

instance, asymmetric
uplights are indirect luminaires with a stronger distribution in one direction, such
as away from a wall. Wall~
washers are a form of direct
luminaire with stronger distribution to one side to light a
wall.
Usually, direct luminaires
that can be adjusted to throw
light in directions other than
down. Examples are track
lights. floodlights. and accent
lights.
THERMALLY PROTECTED IT) downlights are suitable for

all applications except direct concrete pour.
INSULATION-PROTECTED liP) downlights are used when
the fixture may come in contact with insulation. They are
designed to prevent fixture overheating.
INSULATED CEILING IIC) fixtures are used when the fixture is intended to be in contact with insulation.
PARABOLIC troffers have parabolically shaped aluminum or

plastic louvers that shield the lamp to improve visual comfort. These troffers offer sharp cutoff, which makes some
of them suitable for use in computer work spaces. "Parabelies" generally refer to deep-cell louvers 6 in. or larger
across; "paracubes" are shallower troffers with smaller
cells. Larger cells are more efficient. but smaller cells make
it easier to hide the lamps.
Fixtures meeting IESNA recommendations for computer
work spaces are generally identified.
Most troffers are recessed and designed to be laid into
acoustic tile ceilings, with the fixture face matching the size
of the tile. The most common troffer sizes are 2 x 4 ft.
although 2 x 2 ft and 1 x 4 ft are also readily available. Other
sizes exist, often to match a specific ceiling (such as 20'x
60 in. fixtures for a 5-ft ceiling grid system). Different
mounting types are made, including the following identified
by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association:
NEMA "G": for fixtures in a standard exposed inverted T
grid.
NEMA "F": for fixtures furnished with a flange and designed
to be installed in an opening in plaster or wallboard.
NEMA "55: for fixtures in a screw-slot inverted T grid.
NEMA "NFSG": for fixtures in a narrow face slot T grid.

NEMA Z": for fixtures in a concealed Z spline ceiling.
NEMA "Mr: for fixtures in a metal pan ceiling system.
DOWNLIGHT RATINGS
Choice of a downlight depends on the applications for

which it is listed. The primary rating types are these:
Direct/indirect
LENSED troffers use a plastic lens to refract light and distribute it in the desired area. The lens cuts off light distribution to minimize glare and protects lamps from breaking in
food preparation and service areas. Lenses ca~ contain
internal RFI shields for use in hospital operating and laboratory rooms. Lens troffers equipped with highly polished
internal reflectors offer very high efficiency.
DOWNLIGHTS
OPEN CONE: the cone of this type of down light shields the
lamp and develops a beam pattern.
Indirect
51
AIRTIGHT INSULATED CEILING (AIC) down lights are for

applications in which the fixture is in contact with insulation
and air leaks in the ceiling must be prevented.
DAMP LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to moist air but
not to direct water spray or rain.
WET LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to direct water
spray or rain.
SPA OR SHOWER fixtures are designed to be used in a
shower stall or over a spa.
CONCRETE-POUR fixtures are designed to be installed in

direct contact with concrete.
EMERGENCY fixtures are equipped with a backup battery
to produce light for at least 90 minutes during a power outage (generally available only for compact fluorescent luminaires).
Some recessed troffers are also designed to interface with

the building HVAC system: "Heat extraction' troffers have
vents in the top of the fixture to allow return air to be pulled
into the troffer, past the lamps, and into the ceiling plenum.
"Air-handling fixtures" have slots around the lens or louvers
to supply air to a room (by means of a special boot that can
transfer air to the supply air system) or to remove it (by connection to a return duct).
Troffers can also be equipped with emergency battery
packs to power some or all of the lamps during a power
outage or emergency condition.
TROFFER RATINGS
Most troffers are rated for standard dry indoor applications

and must not touch insulation. Some special types include
1. Gasketed: can be damp or even wet rated.
2. Fire-rated: can maintain up to one hour ceiling rating in
certain rated ceilings.
3. Vandal-resistant: equipped with vandal-resistant lens.
4. RFI: lens troffers that are shielded from radio frequencies.
5. Specially gasketed: rated for clean room applications.
Troffers can be equipped with most fluorescent technologies, including dimming, magnetic or electronic ballasts,
and T-12 or T-8Iamps. Special troffers are made for ceiling
systems like the linear metal slat system (4 in. wide).
Recessed troffer depth varies from 3 1/ 2 to more than 7 in.,
so troffers must be coordinated with other elements above
the ceiling.
TROFFERS
CHOOSING LUMINAIRES
DIRECT luminaires tend to be more efficient because they
distribute light directly onto the task area. They generally
create dark ceilings and upper walls, which can be dramatic
but can create discomfort from the high contrast.
Troffers are widely used in offices, stores, schools, and

other commercial and institutional facilities for general lighting in work and sales areas. They 'are the most common
type of fluorescent lurninaire.
PARABOLIC LOUVERED
INDIRECT luminaires generally create comfortable low-contrast soft light, which psychologically enlarges space. They
tend to be less efficient for task lighting.
DIFFUSE luminaires create broad general light that often is
considered glaring due to the lack of side shielding. They
are generally chosen for ornamental reasons or for utilitarian applications.
DIRECT/INDIRECT luminaires are often a good compromise

between the efficiency of direct lighting and the comfort of
indirect lighting.
OPEN
CONE
OPEN
ELLIPSOIDAL
t~j
' - - - ACRYLIC LENS
BAFFLE
LENSED
DOWN LIGHTS
TROFFERS
James Robert Benya, PE. FIES. IALD, Pacific Lightworks: Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinskv. Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
52
Luminaire Design
LUMINAIRE STYLES
INDUSTRIAL RATINGS
Downlights and troffers are discussed on the previous

page. where the subject of lighting equipment is introduced.
Most industnal fixtures are listed for dry locations. Some

have finishes such as glass or porcelain that resist corrosion
caused by airborne gases or particles; others are made of
aluminum or plastic. Certain fixtures are specifically
designed for demanding environmental applications ranging
from wet or saltwater marine luminaires to explosionproof
products for use in petrochemical plants, grain storage, and
other unusual locations.
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
Several types of fluorescent direct luminaires appropriate

for general and utility lighting are employed as commercial
fixtures. Most utilize wraparound lenses or diffusers in
which the lamp is surrounded by the lens; either way, the
lamp is hidden from direct view while radiating light downward and to the sides. Commercial luminaires are among
the lowest cost lighting fixtures and are typically used for
general and utility lighting in modest projects.
COMMERCIAL RATINGS
Most commercial fixtures are rated for dry locations. Some

have damp labels. Most can be equipped with a battery
pack for emergency power.
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
These fixtures generally have a utilitarian or functional

appearance. Fluorescent industrials have strip lights and
open fixtures with simple reflectors that are designed to be
surface-mounted or hung by chains or rods. HID (high-intensity discharge) industrials include high bay down lights and
low bay downlights. Industrial fixtures are generally used in
factories and warehouses and increasingly in schools and
retail stores where a less-finished appearance is desired.
mr
-.
WRAPAROUND
STRIP
INDUSTRIAL
FLUORESCENT
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT

LIGHTING SYSTEM RATINGS
Almost all indirect and direct/indirect luminaires an

intended for dry, relatively clean indoor locations. Many 01
these systems are designed to meet IESNA recommendations for lighting computer workspaces and are rated as
complying with either IESNA fANSI RP-1-1993 or IESNfI

RP-24-1989. These ratings are based on ceiling brightness
and uniformity criteria
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT

LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Most indirect and direct-indirect lighting systems are

designed to illuminate offices and similar finished spaces
In almost all cases, the ceiling should be finished in white
paint or white acoustical tile, as the reflectance of the ceiling plane is critical
Indirect lighting systems only produce uplight. Generally
they should be mounted at least 15-18 in. below the ceiling;
longer suspension lengths can improve uniformity but
potentially will decrease efficiency. To maintain adequate
clearance, ceilings should be at least 9 ft high
Direct/indirect lighting systems are intended to produce
some indirect lighting for its comfort and balance and some
direct lighting for efficient production of task lighting. Similar suspension length and ceiling height considerations
apply. The percentage of upliqht to downlight varies; generally the higher the ceiling, the greater the downlight percentage should be.
Like downlights, architectural lighting fixtures are functional

and inconspicuous rather than decorative. They are used to
illuminate architectural shapes and forms.
WALLWASHERS come rn several types Eyelid wallwasters essentially are downlights with an eyelid-shaped shie!o
on the room side. Recessed lens wallwashers resemble
downlights but use an angled lens to throw light more to
one side. Surface and semi-recessed lens and open wallwashers, which throw light onto an adjacent wall, generally
work best; they can also be mounted to track. Downlight
wallwashers are designed to illuminate rather than scallop
an adjacent wall, although the light they provide is not good
enough for display purposes.
WALL GRAZING FIXTURES. sometimes called wall slots."

are used to illuminate walls in lobbies, corridors, and core
areas. They are especially suited for textured or polished
surfaces.
ACCENT FIXTURESfocus light on art and building surfaces

Recessed accent lights appear as downlights but internally
wmnt:[
INDIRECT
6" TO 8"
permit rotalion and elevation of the light beam. Eyeballs

and pulldown accents resemble down lights that cannot be
adjusted. Track lighting systems are specifically designed
for accent lighting of art and retail displays, with easy relocation of lampholders along the track.
COVE LIGHTS provide uplighting from coves or other architectural elements more efficiently than strip lights and without socket shadows
TYP
SLOT
CEILING
INDIRECT/DIRECT
DECORATIVE LIGHTING
Lighting is the "jewelry of architecture" and, in many building types, plays a significant role in building style, period, or
motif.
14" MIN. FROM

TOP OF LAMP
TO CEILING
HIGH BAY
HID LAMP
TASK LIGHTS are specifically designed to illuminate a desk

area while minimizing veiling reflections.
CHANDELIERS are ornate luminaires that generally com-
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL

FIXTURES
DIRECT
COVE
SUSPENDED
INDIRECT, DIRECT/INDIRECT, AND

DIRECT LUMINAIRES
ROUND 4" TO 9" DIAMETER
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
prise many small incandescent lamps to simulate the effect

of candle flames. Chandeliers are hung from the ceiling and
are used for general illumination in dining rooms, foyers.
and other formal spaces.
PENDANTS are also ceiling-hung decorative fixtures. In
general, the term is used for luminaires that are less formal
than chandeliers, such as those used in offices or restaurants. Most pendant luminaires also use incandescent
lamps, although modern variations are available with HID
and fluorescent sources.
CLOSE-TO-CEILING luminaires are similar to pendants but

are mounted close to the ceiling to allow use in rooms with
conventional ceiling heights.
CHANDELIER
PENDANT
OVOID
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/DOWN)
ELONGATED OCTAGON
(UP, DOWN, OR UP/DOWN)
TRADITIONAL
SCONCE
CONTEMPORARY
SCONCE
(~m_ oj
RACETRACK OVAL
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
SCONCES are ornate or decorative wall-mounted luminaires. Often they match an adjacent chandelier; in other
cases, they are the sole decorative lighting element
Sconces generally exhibit the widest range of styles, from
crystal sconces with flame-tip lamps to modern designs.
LAMPS are traditional portable luminaires generally used
for table or floor mounting. Torcheres are floor lamps
designed for uplighting. Most portable lighting uses incandescent or halogen sources, although compact fluorescent
options should be considered for commercial and hospitality applications.
LANTERNS are outdoor luminaires mounted to ceilings,
walls posts, or poles
DECORATIVE LIGHTING RATINGS
V' OR WEDGE
(UP ONLY)
OPTIMAL FOR USE WITH

VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINAL
(UP/DOWN)
TRADITIONAL
LANTERN
CONTEMPORARY
CLOSE-TOCEILING
DECORATIVE FIXTURES
SUSPENDED LIGHTING SHAPES
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lanterns are generally rated with wet labels. Most other

decorative fixtures are rated for dry indoor use, although a
few sconces also have damp or wet labels.
Lighting for Office Spaces
53
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA
DESIGN CONSIDERATiONS
LIGHTING CRITERIA FOR OFFICES
The lighting levels given are average figures:
LENSED SYSTEMS provide good basic light at the lowest

cost, are the easiest to install, and tend to be the most efficient. Most are not suitable for computer work in large
open rooms.
OFFICE TYPE
CCT 1
CRI'
Most office space
3500 or 4100K
>70 CRI
1. Typical offices: 40-60 tc (400-600 lux) in an empty room

2. Offices, mostly computer work: 20-40 fe (200-400 luxl
in an empty room with task lighting as needed.
Offices, traditional paper tasks: 40-60 fc (40o-BOO luxl in
an empty room with task lighting at work locations to
provide 60-120 fc 1600-1200 lux) for specific tasks.
4. Conference and meeting rooms: 30-50 fe (300-500 lux)
in an empty room.
5. Lobbies and hallways: 10-20 fe 11 00-200 lux) in an
empty room.
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
VISUAL COMFORT PROBABILITY (VCP): This figure IS only

useful for comparing direct (troffer) lighting systems. A minimum of 70 is recommended. (Note that high VCP does not
guarantee visual corntort.)
CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures (CCT) and the
color rendering index (eRI) suitable for common office uses
are shown in the accompanying table.
Executive office -
3000 or 3500K
>70 CRI
Medical/dental office
3500 or 41 OOK
>80 CRI
5000K
>90 CRI
PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS are more attractive and

better for larger rooms where computer work is undertaken. Walls should not be too dark.
Art/graphiCS, dental
operatorv
INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS, which provide a comfortable light, must be properly spaced to avoid light stripes on
the ceiling. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft and generally require the use of task and/or accent lighting.
General office space
0.8 1.2 watts/so ft
Executive office
1.1-1.4 watts/sq ft
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY
Medical/dental office
1.0-1.8 watts/so ft
Drafting/accounting
space
1.4 2.0 watts/sq ft
DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS must be properly

spaced as well, but they offer a good balance between
comfort and efficiency. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft
and tend to be more complex and costly than other lighting
systems.
Meeting rooms
1.0-1.6 watts/sq It
Lobbies and
hallways
0.4-0.8 watts/sq ft
Choose luminaires carefully, taking manufacturer's recommendations into account.
lCCT-correlated color temperature

2CRI-color rendering index
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Approximate design targets

using T8 lamps and electronic high frequency ballasts (not
including task lights) are shown in the accompanying table.
10'-0" OR
----
GREA~
SUSPENDED INDIRECT
(OR DIRECT/INDIRECT)
LIGHTING SYSTEM USED
FOR GENERAL OFFiCE
WORK WITH MODERATE
COMPUTER WORK
2'-0" TO 3'-0"
t-t
L~
I I
r~
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
<.
In this 10 x 10 ft office, two fixtures produce 50-60 fe on

the work area at 1.18 watts/sq ft.
SMALL OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT

2'-0" TO 3'-0"
l.
l.
'-;1
-,
'- AREA STANDARD

2' X 4' CEILING GRID
--'>-
INDIRECT OR
DIRECT/INDIRECT
LIGHTING FIXTURES
NOTE
ing between rows can be made wider. At 12 tt. the design
delivers around 2Q-40 fc. Suspension length is critical
Using two lamps in every fixture, this layout produces 3050 fc in 'an empty room at 1.22 watts/sq ft. Using one lamp,
the design produces 15--30 fc at 0.6 watts/so ft. The spac-
SUSPENDED INDIRECT AND DIRECT/INDIRECT SYSTEMS

s'~o"
RECESSED (OR SURFACE
MOUNTED) DIRECT
FOR MOST GENERAL OFFICE
WORK, ESPECIALLY
PAPERWORK
I
s'-o"
I
I
NOTE
In this 14 x 16 ft room, four two-lamp fixtures produce 2535 fc uniformly at 1.0B watts/so ft. If higher lighting levels
are needed, as in a mailroom, use three-lamp fixtures. In
meeting rooms, consider adding task lights such as downlights or wall-wash luminaires.
'
'I
1"--"- OPEN OFFICE
NOTE
In small offices, maximize comfort and efficiency by having

fixtures straddle the work area. Avoid placing a single overhead fixture. Partial symmetry is better than checkerboard
or other asymmetrical layouts. Maintain approximately 2-3
ft from fixtures to side walls. Lensed fixtures and indirect
lighting systems work best in small rooms.
"
[',
I
OPEN OFFiCE
AREA STANDARD
2' X 4' CEILING GRID
DIRECT LIGHTING
FIXTURE, TYP
NOTE
In larger offices and work rooms, arrange fixtures as symmetrically as possible. Vary the spacing if necessary, for
example, from the standard 8 x 8 ft to 6 x 8 or lOx 8 ft.
Keep the long sides of fixtures within 2-3 ft of the wall.
This layout produces 30-50 fc in an empty room using two

F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 0.92
watts/sq ft. With three lamps, it produces 50-75 fc at 1.38
LARGE OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT
GENERAL DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
to
watts/so ft. Increasing horizontal spacing to

tt with three
lamps produces 40-60 fc at 1.22 watts/so ft. Also consider
2 x 2 fixtures with two F32T8/U or four F17T8.
James Robert Berwe. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks: Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
54
Lighting for Office Spaces
CORRIDOR LIGHTING
In office buildings. corridors require reasonably uniform illumination with minimum glare. Using ordinary troffers is
tempting but generally creates too much light beneath the
fixtures and not enough evenly distributed ligtlt
Downlighting is easy but tends to create deep shadows

and cavehke spaces. Mixing downlights and other lighting
sources, such as sconces or walfwashers. creates a more
attractive design with a better balance of brightness among
walls, ceiling, and floor.
Wall lighting is an alternative to downlights and sconces for

use in corridors. It enhances art and graphics and can reveal
wall textures, such as those of stone and brick. Grazing
lights can highlight polished or shiny surfaces such as granite or wood
so"
NOTE
/DOWNLIGHT
~-
+--------s'Q"-
so"
--- j----I---
--
OJ
I
I-
--f-
NOTE
In this arrangement, sconce quantity can be minimized by

maintaining a nominal 8-ft either-or spacing. Sconces and
o
o
larnps. Designs produce 10-20 footcandles (tc) at 06-0 7

watts/sq It.
/SCONCE
I
I
'I
4---
In this scheme, each round downlight uses 26 watts of

compact fluorescent light (either two 13-watt lamps or one
28-watt lamp). Square down lights use two 16-18-watt
WALLWASHER
DOWNUGHTS
downlights each have two 13-watt lamps or one 26~watt

lamp. Designs produce 10-15 fc at 0_6--D.7 watts/sq ft.
o
o
NOTE
Although asymmetric, lighting one wall of a hall or corridor

can both provide effective light and be an attractive element. potentially highlighting art or graphics. A wall slot
(shown at left) is best for textured or polished surfaces and
PLAN
creates a floating ceiling; wallwashers (right) are better for

lighting art or graphics. While footcandles are about the
same as in the two schemes above, power use increases
to 1.2-1.5 watts/so ft to illuminate vertical surfaces.
NOTE
Fluorescent pendants and sconces produce general light.

Compact fluorescent downlights and wallwashers and halogen art accent fixtures provide more specialized lighting
that showcases the architecture and artwork and creates
an atmosphere.
REFLECTED CEILING PLANS FOR !==ORRIDOR LIGHTING

WALLWASHER
NOTES
MAIN AND ELEVATOR LOBBIES
LOBBY LIGHTING
E -=:5
Lobbies offer a primary opportunity for use of creative or

decorative lighting. Pendants, ceiling fixtures, and sconces
are the primary lighting systems, supplemented by downlights, wallwashers, and other architectural light sources.
To most easily meet energy code requirements, use fluorescent, compact fluorescent and/or low wattage HID
(high-intensity discharge) lamps instead of incandescent.
Main lobbies are a most important venue for ornamental

and decorative lighting design. Wall lighting is especially
useful for providing a sense of spaciousness and cheerfulness. Art objects such as paintings or sculpture may require
accent lighting.
CON FERENCE
(
TABLE
III
f-lJ
rr
LJJ
Architectural and decorative lighting sources are generally

used in combination in lobbies. Incandescent and halogen
lamps are often preferred for specific luminaire types, such
as art display lights. However, whenever possible, use of
more efficacious fighting sources such as fluorescent or
HID fixtures is recommended.
{-D~GHT
LIGHTING FOR CONFERENCE

AND MEETING ROOMS
1. The lighting load total in this plan 01 2_75watts/sq ft 15_25

watts/sq ft for halogen lamps) is not often reached
because, in most cases, not all fixtures are used simultaneously.
2. Wallwashers produce vertical illumination at 30 tootcendies (Ie) on one short wall, using about .5 watts/sq It with
fluorescent lamps and 1.5 watts/sq ft with halogen
lamps.
3_Downlights produce direct light at 10-15 Ie that IS concentrated downward, usually onto the table surface in a
conference room, Compact fluorescent fixtures require
0.5 watts/sq ft, while halogen fixtures require about 1.25
watts/so ft. The ability to the dim lights is a requirement
for most conference rooms.
4. Sconces produce indirect light at appoximately 1Q....15
footcandles. Compact fluorescent lamps require 1 watt/
sq ft to light a room, while halogen lamps require 2.5
watts/sq ft.
5. Incandescent and halogen light sources are often used In
board and other meeting rooms. When a building houses
a number of conference rooms, it is best to use fluorescent sources to avoid overspending in the overall building
energy budget
SCONCE
A combination of lighting systems works best in meeting

rooms. Uplights from sconces or pendants produce general, ambient light. Downlights illuminate the table. Wallwashers light presentation or art walls. Although the
potential combined lighting power is high, preset control
systems minimize simultaneous use.
AVERAGE CONFERENCE ROOM LIGHTING PLAN

James Robert Benva. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Ughting for Office and Commercial Spaces
55
Lighting power density: Listed below are approximate

design targets for whole stores, including back of house.
These targets are based on HID (high-int.ensity discharge)
systems of TB/compact fluorescent lamps and electronic
high-frequency ballasts. including display lights.
SPECIAL LIGHTING
ISSUES FOR OFFICES
FOR COMMERCIAL SPACES
Lighting for computer use. task lighting. and wall lighting

are among the specialized lighting issues in office design.
The lighting levels given are average figures for these commercial spaces:
COMPUTER LIGHTING
1 Grocery store, general light: 70-90 footcandles (fcl, or

700-900 lux, in an empty room, which will result in average center-of-aisle illumination of 50 fe.
2. Wholesale merchandise: 30-50 fc (300-5oo lux) in an
empty room with display lighting added as needed. For
spaces with warehouse-style shelving, use 30-50 fc in
aisles but take shelving into account.
3. General merchandise: 40-60 fc (400-600 luxl in an
empty room with display lighting added at key locations
to provide 70-100 tc (700-1000 lux) for secondary merchandise displays and 150-300 fc (1500-3000 lux) for primary displays.
4. Boutique and specialty retail stores: 20-30 Ie (200-300
lux) in an empty room for general lighting. Display lighting
is added throughout to provide 70-100 fc for most merchandise and 150-300 Ie (1500-3000 lux) for primary displays.
5. Beck-of-house storage and stock areas: 10-20 fc (100200 lux) in an empty room.
Grocery
Wholesale
General merchandise
Department store
Specialty retail
Jewelry, china
PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS appear more expensive and suggest higher quality merchandise. They should
be used in conjunction with valances and/or other perimeter and display lighting.
Lighting for computer workspaces is becoming increasingly

specialized. There are four distinct approaches to thiS' sort
of design:
1. Parabolic troffers optimized for computer spaces: By
meeting specific cutoff and distribution specifications.
some parabolic and small-cell louvered direct lighting fixtures provide lighting acceptable for concentrated computer workspace applications. These lighting systems
are generally fairly efficient but tend to create spaces
with dark upper walls and ceilings.
2. Indirect suspended lighting: Indirect lighting systems
that illuminate ceilings uniformly are also considered
good for computer workspaces. General indirect lighting
tends to be comfortable but bland. Supplemental task
lighting is usually necessary.
3. Direct/indirect lighting: Some direct/indirect lighting systems have been optimized for illuminating computer
workspaces, providing the advantages of the two lighting
systems just described. The greatest disadvantage of
these direct/indirect systems is cost.
The correlated color temperature (CeT) and color rendering

index (CRII measurements for light can be used to help
specify lighting fixtures:
4. Intensive CADD workspaces: CADD workspaces are the

most demanding of all computer workspaces. Neither
parabolic nor indirect lighting, even if optimized for computer workspaces, is acceptable. Task-only lighting systems or very low levels of general light are needed. The
unusual requirements of these spaces are often resolved
by creating a cavelike space and letting employees
manipulate lighting levels and types with switches and
dimmers.
TASK LIGHTING
STRIP LIGHTING ~
SHELVING ......,
For use under cabinets or shelves, continuous fluorescent

task lights are generally the best choice. Good task lights
offer the ability to dim or alter the distribution of light to
minimize veiling reflections.
Table lamps and task lights produce localized task illumination using a portable luminaire. The area of influence is
small but proper location can achieve a successful result.
Use compact fluorescent lamps whenever possible.
1\_L
- --
--
-- -
----
FLUORESCENT STRIP LIGHTS AND LENS TROFFERS provide basic light for the lowest cost and are the easiest to
install. They tend to be the most efficient, as well, but
appear budget-minded.
HID INDUSTRIAL-STYLE FIXTURES also provide goqd
basic light at low cost but appear budqet-conscious. They
can be used to create a warehouse motif in a retail outlet.
TROFFER
LIGHTING
12'-0"
-- -
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR GENERAL

COMMERCIAL LIGHTING
SUSPENDED DIRECT. DIRECT/INDIRECT. AND INDIRECT

SYSTEMS require ceilings taller than 8 ft. These lighting
types playa major role in the appearance and style of a
space and are generally chosen to reinforce a specific marketing motif.
3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI

3000 or 3500K > 80 CRI
3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI
3000 or 5000K> 90 CRI
Wholesale and grocery

Boutique/specialty
General merchandise
Jewelry. art
, .4-2.0 watts/sq It
1.0-1.4 watts/so It
, .2-' .8 watts/sq It
2.0-3.0 watts/so ft
1.8-3.5 watts/so ft
2.5-4.5 watts/sq It
WALL LIGHTING
Office spaces generally require supplemental wall lighting

to compensate for the lack of wall lighting provided by most
general liqhtinq systems. Wall grazing and wallwashing are
two methods used to accomplish this lighting task.
-- --
-- --
--
- -- --
FINAL TOUCHES
Many offices are furnished with partition-style systems furniture. In this case, best results are obtained by coordinating lighting and furniture plans. Try to use fluorescent
lamps of consistent color.
-- -- -
Ii
-f -
I-
(
'-
GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID

CEILING, 12'-0" OR MORE HIGH
GENERAL SALES AREA: 2' X 4' GRID
CEILING, 12'0" OR MORE HIGH
STRIP LIGHTS/STRIP TROUGH LIGHTS

INDUSTRIAL-STYLE
LIGHTING I
I
I
I
I
I
Id
12'<>"
TROFFER LIGHTING
NOTES
o
~
0
WALL SLOT
LIGHTING
WALLWASHER
LIGHTING
II
NOTE
A grazing light such as a wall slot is appropriate for illuminating interior core walls in open office spaces. but wallwashers or sconces can be used as well. Wall slot lighting
accentuates the wall texture and enhances polished surfaces. Wallwashers accentuate wall pigment and work best
for ordinary wall finishes with artwork hanging on them.
<;
GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID

CEILING, 14'-0" OR MORE HIGH
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING
1. Strip lights and strip trough lights are common in large

retail grocery stores and many mass merchandise stores.
The layout illustrated (above left) produces 60-60 fc in an
empty room using two F96T8 lamps in a strip light or
open trough in continuous rows at 1.15 watts/so ft.
Lights usually run perpendicular to shelving to allow rearrangement. but parallel lighting is preferable when
shelves are fixed.
2. Industrial-style lights are commonly used for lighting
warehouse-style discount stores. The layout shown at
left produces 30-40 tc in an empty room using one 100watt metal halide lamp in an industrial-style luminaire at
0.85 watts/so It. Using a , 50-watt metal halide lamp. the
lighting level is about 40-60 tc at 1.27 wattsrsq ft.
3. Trofters in lay-in ceilings are common in the discount
retail industry and serve as general purpose lighting for
hardware and general merchandise. The layout above
produces 60--70 fc in an empty room using four F32T8
lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.15 watts/sq
ft. With high light level ballasts. this arrangement produces 80-100 fc at 1.58 watts/so ft.
WALL LIGHTING
LIGHTING DESIGN
56
lighting for Commercial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS
FOR DISPLAY LIGHTING
IE;---~---:---;------;---~-------:v
TRACK LIGHTING,s the most popular and commonly used

display lighting system. Use halogen, fluorescent, or highintensity discharge (HID} display luminaires.
I<----k-------i'----7I<::-----+----"7k-------i'---7f---OII
I
I
RECESSED DISPLAY LIGHTS are not as flexible as track

lights but can be concealed better. This category includes
adjustable accent lights and wallwashers. Sources include
halogen, low-wattage HID, and compact fluorescent
DISPLAY MONOPOINT LIGHTS are adjustable
installed at fixed locations.
I
I
I
VALANCE LIGHTING rs used for clothing and other displays

in which a niche is created. Full-sized fluorescent lamps
work best for the application.
LOCATIONS OF
MONOPOINTS OR
TRACK UGHING
HEADS
I
I
I
Among these options, track lighting offers the greatest versatility and the lowest installed cost. However, most
energy codes count track light wattage by the foot rather
than by the fixture. This makes it advisable to use other display lighting methods whenever possible so track lights can
be used where really needed.
TRACK LAYOUT
LINE (IF TRACK
IS USED)
I
I
I
I
TRACK OR MONQPOINT
WALL
SHELVING
DOWNLIGHTS AT
POINT'OF-SALE
I
I
/ I
/ I
\~:=t ~ I
~
I
\
\ /
I
WALL DISPLA Y
WITH SHELVES
I
I
DISPLAY CASE LIGHTING is similar to valance lighting

except the light is built into the display cases to illuminate
the task. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent, or low voltage
incandescent or tungsten halogen lamps are used. Fiberoptic lighting systems may be useful in certain situations.
I
I
I
I
VALANCE LIGHTING
WHERE NECESSARY
I,ghls
FLOOR
DISPLAY, TY?
CEILING (GENERAL
LIGHTING FOR
CEILING NOT
SHOWN)
\\ / /\vf-FLOOR
/ Vi
I
/
I
WALL DISPLAY
WITH NICHES
DISPLAY
STORE ENTRY
LAYOUT OF DISPLAY LIGHTING

NOTE
0
The maximum angle of elevation for lighting is 45 except

when walls are being lighted.
VALANCE
LIGHTING ~
DRESSING ROOMS
Good lighting helps sell clothing. For higher quality stores,
provide attractive light with diffuse illumination of the customer; avoid downlights and track lighting. In lower cost
and trendy stores, place the emphasis on fixture style and
survivability.
STORE WINDOWS
Use high-wattage track lighting and/or low-voltage accent
lighting. Run track vertically along the window sides, across
/
/
/
I
/
/
WALL DISPLAY
WITH NICHES
LIGHTING
OTHER SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

Use high color rendering or special purpose fluorescent
lamps for meat cases, fabrics, and similar demanding merchandise. For fine jewelry, consider high color rendering
index, high color temperature fluorescent lamps and/or
blue-filtered halogen lamps to achieve 41 00-5000K.
DISPLAY LIGHTING FOR STORES

LIGHT SOURCE
DISPLA Y CASE
the top of the window, and possibly along the bottom of

the window as well. Provide outlets for portable lighting
inside the window.
DISADVANTAGES
Low cost. ready availability,

excellent color, excellent
beam control, dimmability,
availability in wide range of
sizes/wattages
Not enerqv-etticient. short

lamp life
Recessed accent lights,

track and monopoints.
waHwashers of all types,
portable lighting, low voltage lighting, showcase
lighting, downlrghts
Full-size fluorescent lamps

(primarily T81

very good color, dimmabilitv, energy efficiency, long
lamp life
Very poor beam control.

care required when used in
cold environments
Valance lights, showcase

lights, some types of wallwashers
Compact fluorescent
(including high power T5 twin
tube)

very good color, dimmabilitv. energy efficiency, long
lamp life
Poor beam control, care

required when used in cold
environments
Wallwashers of all types,

some types of floodliqhts.
downlights
Compact hid
(low-wattage metal halide and
white high-pressure sodium are
main choices)
Energy efficiency, very

good beam control, long
lamp life, good to very
good color
High cost. not dimmable,

limited range of sizes and
wattages
Recessed accent lights.

track and rnonopoints.
wall washers of all types,
portable lighting, downlights
TYPICAL DISPLAY LIGHTING

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pac.fic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
LIGHTING DESIGN
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
Tungsten halogen
(for greatest energy efficiency
use halogen infrared reflecting
IHIRllampsl
Lighting for Schools

1. Classrooms with traditional paper tasks: 40-60 footcandies 140G-B00lux) in an empty room.
2. Classrooms with mostly computer work: an average of
2D-40 footcandles 120D-400 lux) In an empty room with
task lighting as needed.
3. Art, music, industrial. mechanics, and laboratory classrooms: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 lux) in an empty
room, with task lighting as needed.
4. Lecture halls: 20-40 footcandles (fe) task illumination
dimmable to 5 fc with cutoff for video/film presentation.
5. Hallways. commons (not including work spaces): 10-20
footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room.
6. Libraries: in active stacks, 20 footcandles minimum vertical illumination; for reading rooms, card files. and catalogs, 50-70 fc in an empty room; computer files and
computer study/carrell areas, 20-40 fc in an empty room.
7. Gymnasiums: general illumination of 50 footcandles (500
lux) throughout; significantly higher levels may be
required for high school or college sports that will be
televised.
8. Typical administrative offices: 4G-B0 footcandles 1400600 lux) in an empty room.
Lighting power density: Listed are approximate design targets using T8 lamps and electronic high-frequency ballasts
or hiqh-intensitv discharge (HID) systems (not including
task lights):
TROFFER SYSTEMS, lensed or parabolic, provide good,

acceptable light at low cost and are commonly used in
schools. Recessed lighting minimizes vandalism and is efficient.
Classrooms
Lecture halls
Arts and industrial education
Gymnasiums (pnmarv-secondary)
Commons and hallways
SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT and INDIRECT SYSTEMS

are favored for better lighting comfort and are suited for
spaces with ceilings higher than 9 ft.
DESIGN OPTIONS
Choose luminaires carefully, considering manufacturer's

recommendations.
IX
LIGHT ABOVE
CHALKBOARD
SUSPENDED INDIRECT/DIRECT
FOR GENERAL STUDIES WITH
LIMITED COMPUTER WORK
/
Il
Il
Il
Il
Il\.
STANDARD
2' X 4'
CEILING
GRID
The correlated color temperature ICCTI and color rendering

index ICRI) measurements for light can be used to help
specify lighting fixtures:
CRI
CRI
CRI
CRI
I~
I~
I~
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
III
Il
III
III
Il
I,
70
70
80
80
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
More information about these lighting systems is available

in the section on lighting for offices.
3500 or4100K >

3000 or 3500K >
3500 or 41OOK>
4100-5000K>
0.8-1.2 W/sq
1.2-2.0 W/sq
1.2-1.8 W/sq
1.2-1.6 W/sq
0.4-0.8 W/sq
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING SYSTEMS are often used in

industrial education, arts, gymnasium, and other spaces
requiring plentiful, inexpensive, durable lighting. If using
HID sources, provide quartz auxiliary lamps on some fixtures or an independent instant-on lighting system.
Visual comfort probability (VCP) is useful only for comparing

direct (troffer) lighting systems. A minimum of 70 is recommended. INote that a high VCP does not guarantee visual
comfort.)
Most classrooms
Commons, lunchrooms
Medical/dental classes
Art/graphics classes
57
TYPICAL
DESK
LOCATION
'~
I~
I~
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
-:
IL-J
IL-J
'-----'
1'-----'
1'-----'
SUSPENDED
DIRECT/INDIRECT
LIGHTING FIXTURE
- 'WINDOW
WALL
16'-0" TO 22'-0"
-t
NOTE
A layout with four F32T8 lamps and an electronic ballast in
each suspended classroom fixture produces 40-50 fc in the
seating area and 20-30 vertical fc on the chalkboard at 0.97
I
I
USED FOR CLASSIC
I
0
.z,
:9
:9
'"
0
l-
<, . /
io
PAPERWjRK
STANDARD
2' X 4'
CEILING
GRID
lIIf
I
-1
I
I
RECESSED (OR
SURFACE MOUNTED)
DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEM
(TROFFER) USED FOR MOST
CLASSROOMS, ESPECIALLY
I
I
II
I
SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
I
I
<,
watts/sq ft. The direct/indirect fixtures are designed for traditional classrooms. An indirect lighting system might be
used in a computer classroom.
TYPICAL
DESK
LOCATION
I
H - - - + - - - - + - - - . j - - - - - f - - - - f - - - + - - - - + - L DIRECT
LIGHTING
FIXTURE (TROFFER)
WINDOW
WALL
NOTE
NOTE
In a 10,000 sq ft gymnasium, average lighting would be 4050 footcandles at 0.95 watts/sq ft provided by 400-watt
metal halide fixtures.
This layout. suitable for traditional classrooms, produces

50-60 fc in an empty room using three F32T8 lamps in a
lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.29 watts/sq ft. With a low
GYMNASIUM LIGHTING
CLASSROOM WITH TROFFERS
light level ballast, it can also produce 40-50 fc at 1.09

watts/sq ft.
For computer classrooms, use computer-optimized parabolics and dimming.
LIGHTING DESIGN
58
lighting for Industrial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS
INDUSTRIAL HID DOWNLIGHT SYSTEMS provide good
acceptable light at low cost and thus are frequently used in
industrial spaces. High-bav downlights are specifically
suited for mounting heights greater than 20 ft. Low-bay
downlights generally have lower wattage and are best for
mounting heights less than 20 ft. Aluminum reflectors and
prismatic glass or acrylic reflectors direct most light downward, although some light is directed upward in certain
luminaires. Special aisle-Iiqhters and other types are available.
FLUORESCENT SYSTEMS are useful for mounting heights

up to about 20 ft. They require more fixtures than HID systems but provide more uniform Irght with softer shadows;
use electronic ballasts to eliminate stroboscopy. Fluorescent systems make good task lights for work stations.
SPECIAL APPLICATION LUMINAIRES come in hundreds of
different types, each optimized for a specific job, work station, environment, or hazard. Examples include explosionproof, vapor-tight, and paint booth luminaires.
Choose luminaires for specific applications carefully, taking
into account manufacturer recommendations.
'\
-t--_x--t )
1/
I
0o
o
o
0--
HID
LUMINAIRE-O
SAFETY: Backup quartz auxiliary lamps are needed for high

intensity discharge (HID) systems. Where rotating machin
ery is used, take precautions to prevent strobosopic prob
lems by using fluorescent lighting systems or rotating
phases of power.
CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures ICCT) and the
color rendering index (CRI) suitable for industrial uses are
listed here:
NEITHER SPACING X NOR Y

SHOULD EXCEED ABOUT 1.8
TIMES THE MOUNTING HEIGHT
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRtTERIA
ATMOSPHEREiENVIRONMENT: The amount and type

dirt and other airborne particles present in an application
can affect luminaire selection. For spaces where hazardous.
corrosive, or explosive vapors or dust are present, specia'
lighting equipment is generally required.
1. Industrial manufacturing-general: 3D-50 footcandles

1300-500 lux) in an empty room with task lighting as
needed.
2. Industrial manufacturing-assembly and rough inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 luxl in an empty room.
3. Industrial manufacturing-fine assembly and moderate
inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-7CO lux) in an empty
room with task lighting as needed to achieve 100-200
footcandles (fc) depending on type of work.
4. Industrial manufacturing-specialized: refer to the IESNA

Lighting Handbook.
5. Lunchrooms and break areas: 20-30 fc 1200-300 luxl in an
empty room.
6. Hallways and circulation areas (excluding work spaces):
10-20 footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room.
7. Warehouses: with high stacks, 20 footcandles minimum
vertical illumination on stacks; for general use, 2G-40 fc in
an empty room.
8. Storage areas: general illumination of 5-10 footcandles
150to 100 luxl.
Heavy industry, storage

Most industrial
Most warehouse
Precise assembly
2100
3000
2100
4100
to
to
to
to
5000K
5000K
5000K
5000K
>20
>50
>20
> 70
CRI
CRI
CRI
CRI
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Listed are approximate

design targets using HID systems or T8 lamps and elec
tronic high-frequency ballasts (not including task lightsl:
Warehouse
Light industrial
Precision industrial and inspection areas
Storage areas
Lunchrooms and hallways
0.2--D.5 W/sq
0.8-1.2 W/sq
1.2-1.8 W/sq
0.1--D.3 W/sq
0.8-1.0 W/sq
ft
ft
ft
ft
It
SUSPENSION
CABLE~
FLUORESCENT
LAMP
NOTE
TANDEM 8'-0" LAMPS

(THREE 16'-0"
LONG FIXTURES)
A low-bay layout using HID lighting requires the fewest

luminaires. HPS offers the longest lamp life and lowest
maintenance costs. Metal halide lighting is preferred for visibility and color rendering.
18'-0" HIGH
sHELVING UNITS
HID LOW-BAY LAYOUT
ROWS SHOULD BE SPACED (X) UP TO

ABOUT 1.5 TIMES THE MOUNTING
HEIGHT WITH GAPS UP TO ABOUT
1.0 TIMES MOUNTING HEIGHT
I"
FLUORESCENT
LUMINAIRE \
A--l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
G
<;>
'o
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L J
APERTURED
REFLECTOR
I"-l
I
I
I
I
I
I
FLUORESCENT DOWNLIGHTING
BALLAST
HOUSING
I
I
L_J
DOWNLIGHTS
REFLECTOR
..y=F=~~::;:;--\-.--HID
LAMP
NOTE
NOTE
Fluorescent luminaires offer superior color and flicker-free

operation with electronic ballasts. No warmup time, instant
restriking, and long lamp life are other advantages of this
lighting type.
FLUORESCENT LOW-BAY LAYOUT
In the left aisle shown. two 250-watt HPS aisle lighter

down lights illuminate the shelving units at 0.6 W/sq ft. In
the right aisle. the task is performed by fluorescent F96T8/
HO lamps at 0.5 W/sq ft. The fixture mounting height is
about 18 ft above finished floor.
ACTIVE AISLE LIGHTING FOR

WAREHOUSES
LIGHTING DESIGN
CLEAR
GLASS
LENS
HID DOWNLIGHTING
Outdoor Lighting Systems

SHARP CUTOFF FLOODLIGHTS resemble shoebox parking lot luminaires with characteristics of Type IV distribution. These luminaires are designed to be elevated slightly
in front to throw light farther. Sharp cutoff floods are especially good for car lots and sports lighting near residential
districts where light trespass must be avoided.
GENERAL
Outdoor lighting systems include a wide variety of lighting
types used to illuminate buildings, parking areas, roads,

landscapes, signs, and other outdoor areas.
STREET AND ROADWAY L1GHTING
LIGHT TRESPASS AND POLLUTION
Four significantly different lighting systems are used to ifiuminate roads and streets (and often large parking lots). All
employ high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps:
LIGHT TRESPASS occurs when outdoor night lighting

encroaches onto adjacent properties. Trespassing light is
often annoying and can be quite offensive. Some cities
have ordinances designed to prevent light trespass,
although few of these are competently written.
Standard roadway lights, called cobraheads, are usually

mounted to a mast arm and suspended over the roadway at mounting heights of 25-40 ft.
2, Sharp cutoff roadway lights, called shoeboxes. are specifically designed to minimize light pollution and trespass.
They are typically mounted between 20 and 40 ft.
3. Traditionally shaped post lights often have a particular
theme or design. They are usually less than 25 ft high.
4. High mast lights consist of multiple high-wattage lamps
atop poles 60-120 It high.
~
mm
LIGHT POLLUTION occurs when light is emitted upwards

into the night sky. It both wastes energy and causes light
pollution, a condition in which the upward light strikes dirt
and airborne pollution and obscures the view of the night
sky. Some municipalities and counties with important
observatories have developed lighting ordinances that regulate light sources, cutoff, and hours of operation in an
attempt to make astronomy more possible.
Both light trespass and light pollution can be minimized or

prevented by using sharp cutoff equipment and careful
design practices. For street and roadway lighting, this
means using shoebox luminaires, including decorative luminaires that employ shoebox-style optics. For floodlighting,
this means using sharp cutoff floodlights and special sports
lights equipped with louvers and visors to prevent upward
light. These high-performance lights require careful layout
to meet design criteria.
LUMINAIRE FOR
FREEWAY
INTERSECTIONS
AND VERY LARGE
PARKING LOTS
U M IN A IR E FOR MOST
ROADS AND PARKING LOTS
ft=:j
'"o
I-
CATEGORY
c:::::::
I-0
:>
Tvpe II
HIGH MAST
SHOEBOX OR
COBRAHEAD
ON MAST ARM
CQ:)
DECORATIVE
LUMINAIRE
ON POLE
Tvpe III
STREET AND ROADWAY LIGHTING
LAYOUT OF STREET AND PARKING LOT LIGHTING. Most

luminaires for street and parking lighting are categorized
according to the lighting patterns they create on the
ground. Types I-V are described in the accompanying chart.
Computer point-by-point calculations are recommended.

However, it is possible to layout roadway and parking lot
lighting using isolux curves (similar to those illustrated),
making sure the overlapping footcandle lines achieve at
least 25% of the intended average footcandle level.
Tvpe IV
AREA FLOODLIGHTING
Floodlighting is used to illuminate exterior fields, lots, yards.

docks, and other similar areas. Special care is often needed
to minimize light trespass and light pollution.
Floodlights are described by their light distribution. The
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
developed a system in which floodlight beams are measured in degrees of vertical and horizontal distribution, then
rated from 1 (very narrow field anglel to 7 (very wide field
angle!.
GENERAL PURPOSE FLOODLIGHTS are usually made in
rectangular boxes and typically have wide distributions (5V
x 6H or 6V x 7Hl. Applications include work yards, general
security and sports lighting. and building floodlighting.
Lamps are usually HID from very low wattage (35 W) to
1.000 watts, but some floodlights use compact fluorescent
and halogen lamps.
SPORTS LIGHTS are designed to throw narrow to medium
wide beams (NEMA 2H x 2V to NEMA 4H x 4V). Most
sports lights are round with standard 4QO..1500 watt HID
lamps mounted in an axial position to create a round beam.
Some advanced designs use special double-ended metal
halide lamps (150Q..2000 watts) for more precise optical
control with less trespass.
'
Roads and streets

where the luminaire is mounted
in the median or
suspended over
the road center.
Spacing is 6-7
MHO
in
'"
Additional information on new and evolving lighting tschnologies is available from Advanced Lighting Guidelines, a publication of the U.S. Department of Energy from Battelle
Pacific Northwest National Labs, and from Specifier
Reports, published by the Lighting Research Center at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
Additional information on design and applications can be
found in a number of textbooks on the SUbject of architectural lighting design, landscape lighting, and related topics.
Popular lighting industry publications offering current
projects and industry news include Lighting Design and
Application, Architectural Lighting, Lighting Dimensions,
and Architectural Record Lighting Supplement.
COMMON EXTERIOR
LIGHTING TYPES
TYPE
USE
Bollards
Walkway and pathway lighting. A typical bollard is 42-48

in. high and uses a lamp
ranging from about 35-watt
to 1On-watt HID (high-intensity discharge!.
Step lights
Walkway and stairway lighting from adjacent retaining

walls. The light is mounted at
or below the rail height
Well lights, direct burial

lights
Illumination of trees and

structures from below.
These are concealed
uplights.
Landscape lights
Includes a wide variety of

low-level lights, such as path,
planter bed, and wallwash
lights and uplights in several
styles. For residential landscapes, most lighting systems are low voltage (12V
typically) for ease of wiring
and safety.
Parking garage lights
Parking garages. These are a

unique type of HID luminaire
designed specifically for the
low concrete ceilings of
garages. They typically are
100- to 175-watt fixtures.
Sign lights
Illumination of signs. These

are designed to be mounted
below and in front of a sign
and to illuminate upwards
evenly.
USE
Type I
'"
LIGHTING INFORMATION SOURCES
The best general purpose reference document for Iightmg

information is the IESNA Lighting Handbook, published by
the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America in
New York. IESNA Recommended Practices provide indepth information on specific applications, for example.
office lighting, roadway lighting, and residential lighting
LUMINAIRES FOR STREET

AND PARKING LIGHTING
LUMINAIRE
FOR MALLS,
BUILDING
ENTRIES,
AND FORMAL
STREET
LIGHTING
Type V
Roads and streets

where the turninaire is mounted
above the road but
to the side. Spacing is 5-6 MH."
Roads and streets

where the luminaire is to the side
and not above the
road; also used
for parking lots.
Spacing is 4-5
MH.'
Parking lots and
service areas
requiring a forward
throw distribution.
Parking lots.
Spacing is 3-4
G)
MHO
"MH-multiples of mounting height.

OTHER COMMON TYPES
OF EXTERIOR LtGHTING
Exterior luminaires are designed specifically for many outdoor lighting applications. Some of the more common
types are described in the accompanying chart.
59
Choose outdoor lighting with consideration for the elements and for the threat of vandalism or other damage.
Some luminaires are composed of plastics or cornposite
materials to resist damage and corrosion. Also keep in mind
temperature extremes and the minimum starting temperatures of the lamp and ballast.
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
Mark Rea, ed., IESNA Lighting Handbook (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 19931
LIGHTING DESIGN
60
Site Lighting
Thelighting levels given here are average figures
Parking lots with pedestrian cross-traffic: from 0.8 fe in
places with low activity to 3.6 fc in places with a high
level of activity; uniformity of 4:1
Parking lots with minimum pedestrian cross-traffic: from
0.5 fc and uniformity of 4;1 in places of low activity to 2.0
fe with uniformity of 3:1 in places of h"lgh activity.
Sidewalks and bikeways: from 0.2 fc with 10:1 uniformity in residential areas to 1.0 fe with 4:1 uniformity in
commercial areas.
4 Building entrances: from 1.0 fc near inactive entrances to
5.0 fe at active entrances
Outdoor industrial areas: 0.2 fe for storage and dump
areas; 2.0 to 5.0 fe for active loading, unloading, and
rough work areas; 10 to 20 fc for work areas such as passenger loading, gas pumps, and railroad hump areas.
6. Outdoor sports: from 5 fc for recreational sport areas to
150 fc for major league baseball. ReIer to the IESNA
Lighting Handbook for more information
COLOR OF LIGHT: White light sources like metal halide,

fluorescent. and compact fluorescent luminaires are recommended for sports, most applications involving pedestrians,
and situations that require color discrimination. Light
sources that provide poor color, such as high-pressure
sodium fixtures, may be better suited for security lighting,
Tungsten sources, including halogen fixtures, offer excellent color rendition but poor energy efficiency and short life.
SURVIVABILITY: Choose fixtures that are physically strong
and resistant to vandals and the weather and environment.
LIGHT POLLUTION: Minimize light pollution by preventing

stray upward light. Use cutoff luminaires.
Short 'pedestrian" poles: similar to parking lot luminaires

these poles are 8~ 15 ft high and use lower wattage:
lamps. Spacing is 4-6 times the mounting height.
Low level 'bollards": these are typically 42-48 in. high
Spacing is about 4 times the height of the bollards.
Step lights recessed into retaining walls
4. Building-mounted wall brackets (wallpacks}.
Keep in mind the overhang of adjacent buildings Canopies
and soffits can serve as locations for recessed lighting to
illuminate walks near the building foundation
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
FOR PARKING AREAS
MINIMUM STARTING
TEMPERATURES
Poles between 12 it and 40 ft high are most commonly

used for parking areas because they provide good acceptable light at low cost. Pole spacing is generally about 4
times the mounting height; optimum pole heights are 1520 It lor spacing along every aisle and 30-40 It lor spacing
along every other aisle.
COMMON LIGHT
SOURCES
STARTING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURE: Fixtures

should be able to start and operate at the lowest expected
temperature on a site. Minimum starting temperatures for
common sources are shown in the accompanying table.
LIGHT TRESPASS: Minimize the light shining onto adjacent
properties by uSing sharp cutoff lighting. Maximum mounting height for a fixture is a function of the cutoff angle.
MINIMUM
TEMPERATURE
Nolimit
Tungsten (incandescent, halogen)
High mast poles higher than 40 ft (up to 100 ftl can be used
to light large parking areas economically. Poles must be
equipped with lowering devices for servicing luminaires.
MH, MV HID Lamps
-20F
HPS lamps
-40F
Fluorescent HO
-20F
Fluorescent T12fTB
O"F'
_10F'
Compact fluorescent
amalgam 126-32-42 wi
Floodligh~s mounted onto buildings are often a low-cost

alternative to mounting poles. To minimize light trespass,
the farthest distance from the building to the edge of the
lot or Illuminated area is about 5 times the mounting height.
32F
Standard compact
fluorescent
"These temperatures are with specific low temperature

ballast; with standard ballast, the temperature may be as
high as 50F.
DESIGN FOR WALKWAYS

Walkways away Irom a building are usually illuminated by
the parking lot lighting system. But near the building (or in
areas like a park when there is no parking lot nearby) other
lighting should be added. Consider these options:
NOTE
In a parking area, typical spacing of 17-ft fixtures is about 68

It across by 60-70 It across. Sides of buildings are good
places to mount lights to illuminate side drives. Bollards are
used near visitor parking to "dress up" the entry.
PERIMETER OF PARKING LOT, USE POLEMOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH ONE

250 WATT FIXTURE (ON TYPICAL
17'-0" HIGH POLE)
/'
4TIMES
HEIGHT
/
OF POLE
/'
_
4 TIMES HEIGHT
OF POLE
MIDDLE OF PARKING LOT, USE POLEMOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH TWO
250 WATT FIXTURES (ON TYPICAL
17'-0" HIGH POLE)
STEP LIGHTS (RECESSED)
"PEDESTRIAN* UGHT POLES

SIMILAR TO PARKING LOT
LUMINAIRES (USE LOWER
WATTAGE LAMPS)
12' TO 40'
HIGH
BUILDINGMOUNTED
LIGHTS SIMILAR TO
PARKING LOT
LUMINAIRES:
ILLUMINATES DRIVES
AND SIDEWALK
4 TO 6 TIMES
HEIGHT
OF POLE
INACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE

TO HAVE 1.0 FC, AVERAGE, LIGHTING
ACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE
TO HAVE 5.0 FC, AVERAGE. LIGHTING
LIGHTS IN SOLLARDS ILLUMINATE WALKS
NEAR ENTRY AND HELP SIGNIFY ~ENTRANCE"
DRIVES AND PARKING AREAS NEAR A BUILDING

James Robert Benya, PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks; Portland, Oregon
LIGHTING DESIGN
Daylighting
GENERAL
SOURCE
Ample daylight is available throughout most of North America for lighting interior spaces during a large portion of the
working day. Daylight is often used for ambient lighting but
may be used for critical visual tasks as well, in each case
supplemented with electric light as needed. Daylight is
thought by most to be psychologically desirable. and there
is growing evidence that it is biologically beneficial and can
contribute to enhanced task performance. The variability of
the intensity and color of daylight over time stimulates the
visual senses, and the view and visual connection with the
outdoors that accompanies many daylighting designs is
almost universally desired. Proper use of daylight can help
reduce unnecessary energy use for electric lighting and
cooling, if the electric lighting system is controlled with onoff switching or dimming.
The origin of all daylight is the sun but the light may reach a
work space via a nun:ber of paths. Direct sunjqht is intense
and vanes substantially as the sun's position changes
throughout the day (up to 10,000 tootcanoles (fell. Daylight
from a clear sky can be 10 to 25% of the intensity of direct
sunlight 11000-2500 fc). Daylight under partly cloudy conditions can be highly variable; daylight under full overcast
conditions can be 5 to 10% of sun conditions 1500-1000fcl.
Data on daylight availability for various cities and building
orientations can be found in several references. Daylight
availability at locations in the United States is influenced by
latitude and weather patterns. Traditionally overcast climates such as Seattle may have sunshine only 40% of the
year while regions like Palm Springs, California, have sunny
conditions for 90% of the year.
Daylight has always been an important element of architectural design, and in the era before cheap electric light it was
often a major determinant of a building's form. In buildings
today daylighting strategies are used in a variety of contexts, both as a strategy to define the quality of experience
in an architectural space as well as in a more utilitarian role
to reduce unneeded use of electric lighting.
Daylighting usually supplements or complements an electric lighting design, so it is essential that the two be fully
integrated. For a given building program and climate, it may
be feasible and desirable to create spaces in which the primary light source is daylight. In others, electric lighting will
be the primary source, supplemented by daylight. The decision to make daylight the primary source will directly influence other design decisions such as the size of the floor
plan, the arrangement of spaces within the floor plan, and
the overall massing and configuration of the building.
Designs intended to maximize daylight use will either provide perimeter access to each space or utilize low-rise
designs that allow skylights to provide daylight. Atriums
and light courts can provide some useful daylight in low-rise
buildings of two to five stories. The best strategy for daylighting in high-rise buildings is to ensure that no spaces on
the floor plan are more than 30 It from a daylighting source.
Orientation has a major impact on available daylight and

influences the degree of difficulty in controlling sunlight on
a facade. North orientations in most North American locations receive direct sunlight only in the early morning or late
evening in summer. South facades have the longest exposure to direct sun. Given the high altitude angle of the sun
in summer, sun control on the south facade is readily
addressed with properly sized overhangs. In winter low altitude sun must be controlled by shades, blinds, or other
means. Low altitude direct sun on east and west orientations causes glare and cooling problems and is the most difficult to control. Exterior vertical fins or interior vertical
blinds provide control but allow some view.
DESIGN PROCESS
To be successful, daylighting requires the integration of all
major building systems. Daylighting issues should be well
defined in the programmatic or schematic phases of design
and monitored through construction to occupancy. Early
planning is essential, since it may be difficult and costly to
add features later in design development. Many architects
and lighting designers are skilled in resolving daylighting
design issues and trade-offs. However, in designs that
push the state of the art, present unusual conditions, or
have quantitative performance expectations that must be
met, it may be appropriate to use a daylighting consultant
with expertise in many of the computer-based tools now
available (see discussion below, Design and Analysis
Tools).
LIGHT SHELF
Exterior conditions (ground, trees, water, adjacent buildings) can all influence interior daylight levels. In some cases
the architect can control these conditions to enhance daylight levels. Nearby trees will filter daylight and adjacent
buildings may obstruct the view of the sky and block direct
sun. In built-up urban environments, windows on lower
floors of buildings adjacent to multistory buildinqs will
receive little useful daylight. The south facade of a light colored building that is struck by direct sunlight can become a
very bright light source for the north facing windows of an
adjacent building.
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Not only does the intensity of daylight and sunlight vary but
the color or appearance varies as well. The characteristic
yellow-white of direct sunlight becomes' redder as the sun
moves lower in the sky and travels through more air mass.
The north sky on a clear day can be deep blue, a result of
scattering processes in the atmosphere. Cloudy 'and hazy
skies typically have a uniform white appearance. Daylight is
a full-spectrum source that, notwithstanding its variability,
will faithfully render the color of most materials, something
that not all electric lamps can do. The sun and sky are powerful sources of ultraviolet light that can damage pigments
in paintings and turnishinqs. Design in light sensitive applications such as museums must pay particular attention not
only to the UV characteristics of daylight but also to the visible light portions, which are responsible for some fading.
Certain glazing options will reduce these negative effects of
light to acceptable levels.
H = HEIGHT
1~
IH
'-----------'-'---' -t
3H
REDIRECTED DAYLIGHT PENETRATION

INTO A SPACE
A window of a given size will provide the most daylight
deep in a space when it is located as high as possible on
the wall. Light-eolored walls and ceilings maximize the daylight levels in the rear of a space. Deeper spaces need
larger windows to provide more light but larger windows
have other drawbacks. The uniformity ratio between the
daylight level in the front and back of a room becomes
larger as the room becomes deeper and should not exceed
a ratio of 10:1. A splayed window reveal will reduce glare
and ease the transition from bright exterior to darker interior. Sloped ceiling surtaces may improve daylight utilization
but their biggest benefit is typically the greater ceiling
height at the perimeter. Interior walls and partitions will
reduce daylight levels. Use of light colors or glazed interior
partition walts will help mitigate this undesired impact.
Distribution of daylight in a space can be greatly improved if
it is introduced from multiple apertures-for example, windows on two sides of a space, or windows and clerestories, or windows and skylights. In low-rise buildinqs,
diffusing skylights are an effective way to daylight a space.
The skylights are diffusing and their spacing is optimized
based on ceiling height. More elaborate toplighting systems can utilize a variety of roof monitors or clerestories.
FULL HEIGHT WINDOW
-,,
Building envelope and room design details can be thought

of as the light fixture that controls the distribution of daylight in a space. Envelope decisions include the size, shape,
and location of the fenestration and the type of glazing and
shading system. Room geometry, size, and surface properties also influence achievable daylight levels.
, -,
-,
~~~~.;~~~~~~ ~-----
There are practical limits to room size beyond which conventional window systems are ineffective. The depth limitation of a daylighted zone with windows becomes a
fundamental constraint and design determinant. for
designs that use diffuse daylight from the sky, clouds, or
surrounding environment, it is difficult to provide adequate
daylight when the depth of the space is more than 1.5 or 2
times the height of the head of the window. (Designs that
redirect daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using light
shelves or light redirecting glazings might be able to extend
this to 3 times the ceiling height.)
H = HEIGHT
~ ...-, _~RELATIVE INDICATOR
r "'"
:::
'-(
OF LIGHT LEVEL
L..---------'-='=---
2H
l
-"~,---~~---+
'I
LIGHT PATHS TO A WqRK SPACE
LlGHTCOLORED
ROOM SURFACE
.... ......................
ENVELOPE AND ROOM DESIGN

Although critical design decisions related to plan and section will be determined early, many seemingly small decisions are made in the final stages of design and bid
preparation that can influence the success of a daylighted
space. These include issues such as interior finishes, furniture specifications, and installation details for controls. After
construction is complete, most daylighting systems involving controls and operable systems should be calibrated and
commissioned. The final step in the process is to ensure
that facility managers and occupants understand the operation of the complete system.
61
DIFFUSE DAYLIGHT PENETRATION

INTO A SPACE
IH
-t
!~~
(
DEEP OVERHANG
RELATIVE INDICATOR OF LIGHT

LEVELS WITH VARIOUS DESIGNS
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
LIGHTING DESIGN
62
Daylighfing
New types of light redirecting systems such as prismatic
glazings provide shading at a task location by redirecting the
sunlight to the ceiling. Light shelves can also provide shadIng as well as some control of daylight levels and light distribution. Simple, flat light shelves with white, diffuse
surfaces will provide some shading near the window and
brighten the ceiling near the window but will not redirect
light deep into a room, The size, shape, location, and surface properties of light shelves will have a significant influence on their ability to redistribute light in a space.
H '" HEIGHT
5 "" SPACING
S < 1.5 H
LIGHT LEVELS WITH SKYLIGHTS
~:g~F
--'~SOUTH
jo~i:'M
EXTERNAL
BLINDS
BLINDS
BETWEEN
GLASS
INTERNAL
BLINDS
INTERNAL
SHADES
SHADING DEVICES NEAR GLAZING

SURFACE
TOPLIGHTING SYSTEM TYPES
GLAZING AND SHADING DESIGN

Selection of a glazing system can have a tremendous
impact on the performance of a daylighting system. The
glazing controls the amount of light admitted, its intensity,
and its directionality as it enters a space. The challenge is to
admit adequate light to achieve illumination objectives without creating glare or causing overheating or large cooling
loads. Numerous glazing systems are available to control
solar gain and the transmittance, distribution, and color of
light.Conventional clear and tinted gJazings are still offered
but low-E coated glass or plastic and spectrally selective
low-E glazings are becoming more popular. These glazings
reduce winter heat loss and reduce cooling load in summer
with little additional loss of daylight. They are excellent for
admitting daylight but glare control must be provided with
shading systems. In an insulating glass unit, both low-E and
tinted glazings can be used to optimize performance. Highly
reflective glass with very low transmittance has a role in
highly glazed facades with limited sun control options, but
occupants complain about poor views through these glazings on overcast days or at night. Glazings with a frit layer
provide some sun and glare control.
Some new options available to designers promise greater
optical control capability. Prismatic glazings can redirect
light, and between-glass elements can provide varying
degrees of light control and solar control.
Adequate control of sun and glare is often difficult to provide with glazing selection alone. Architectural shading
solutions are typically part of the exterior facade. Other
shading devices can be positioned outside the glazing,
between glazings, or at the interior surface. Shading svsterns can be static or operable, controlled either by occupants or with motorized, automated controls. Shading
systems that are intended to block sunlight alone can be
dark, but light-eolored systems should be used if the intent
is to provide diffuse daylight. Overhangs, fins, shade
screens, venetian blinds, vertical blinds, miniature louvers,
and roller shades are commonly used systems. Operable
systems are often preferred because they can take advantage of the variability of sunlight and daylight. In open plan
offices it may be desirable to use motorized, automated
shading controls; in sif1gle-person offices it is likely that the
occupant will use the shading controls as needed.
ttr
111
OVERHANG
LOUVERED
OVERHANG
LIGHT SHELF
AWNING
SKYLIGHTS AND SLOPED

GLAZING
Light distribution from skylights is intrinsically more uniform
than that from windows. Skylight solutions range from simple vacuum-formed plastic domes to sophisticated, multilayer glazing products. Skylights in work areas with office
tasks should provide diffuse light so that its distribution is
relatively uniform. Nondiffusing glazings will result in visual
hot spots and glare. Light diffusion can be achieved by
using diffusing plastic bubble skylights, high transmission
glazing with a diffusion screen below, some of the fritted
glasses or laminates with diffusing layers, or exterior shading systems. Light wells provide a transition from the roof
plane to the lower ceiling plane or the space below. The
geometry and surface properties of the wells determine the
total light loss. Light wells can reduce the amount of light
entering a space from as little as 10% to as much as 85%.
Splayed wells with high reflectance finishes are the best
performers. Adequate daylight in most climates is provided
with skylight areas of about 4 to 8% 'with relatively high
transmittance glazing. Larger areas with proportionally
lower transmittance will work as well. A completely glazed
roof or sloped glazing may be used but the transmittance of
the glazing should be about 5%. The importance of controlling heat gain depends in part on the occupancy of the
space and the climate. In most skylight and sloped glazing
designs, safety codes require laminated glass or alternative
safety solutions; consult code authorities or manufacturers.
CLEAR
TINTED
DIFFUSING
/
/
I
/
DAYLIGHT DISTRIBUTION WITH

SKYLIGHT TYPES
OVERHANG
WITH LOUVERS
VERTICAL
LOUVERS
WINDOW SHADING DEVICES
INEFFICIENT
LIGHT WELL
LIGHT WELL DESIGN
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
INTEGRATION AND CONTROLS
Because people respond to the overall luminous environment, it is important that electric lighting and daylighting be
designed and specified as a well-integrated system. The
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
LIGHTING DESIGN
EFFICiENT
LIGHT WELL
overall lighting concept includes the controls used to man

age the electric lighting system. Many designers behevr
that an indirect lighting system that illuminates the ceihr.:
and wall surface is a better complement to a daylighteu
space than a direct lighting system. Such an indirect ambient system might be used with task lights to produce
higher illuminance levels where needed. Electric lightin~;
sources may be chosen for their compatibility with colo'
temperature in a daylighted space, their ability to dim, anc
the ability to quickly restart if switched off
A well-daylighted space will only save energy if lighting can
trois are used to turn off or dim electric lighting. For most
systems the control options are on-off switching, multilevel
switching, or dimming. Dimming is the preferred strategy
because it changes light levels smoothly, often mak.n.
changes in electric light levels unnoticeable in the space
Oaylighting controls may also be combined with othe
forms of lighting control to achieve even greater energy
savings. To guarantee energy and cost savings, automatic
controls are preferable to manual controls, although occu
pants should be able to override any automatic system
Switching or dimming systems must be designed with care
to capture daylighting savings. The layout of circuits for fix
tures must be coordinated with the pattern of available day
light. These zoning issues are more important in open plan
spaces than in perimeter single offices. Photocell sensors
in automatic control systems must be properly located in
the space, and the entire control system must be calibrated
after installation. A users' manual for occupants is recom
mended.
TOTAL BUILDING ENERGY

CONSUMPTION
Final daylighting design decisions must account for the
interaction of other systems, such as heating and cooling
impacts of the glazing and the cooling impacts of electric
lighting use. Although the specifics vary with climate and
other building design and operation details, the general
trend of the lighting-HVAC trade-off is well known. It is useful to estimate the energy savings as a function of ..ettec
tive aperture" (EAl. defined as the fraction of the wall that
is glazed (window-to-wall ratios, or WVVR) times the visible
transmittance (Tv) of the glazing system. An EA of .35 or
greater is adequate to provide large daylighting savings;
higher levels increase cooling loads with only minimal additional lighting energy savings. Optimal EA values for skylights are even smaller; an EA of .05 provides substantial
energy savings.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOLS

Since many critical architectural decisions that affect daylighting solutions occur early in the design process, it is
essential that the design consequences of those decisions
be predictable. It is also important that the design intent of
a daylighting solution be communicated to all members of
the design team so that decisions made later in the process
will support and reinforce the original intent. Relatively simple changes late in the process, ranging from a change in
paint color to improper sensor position, can have a significant impact on the success of a daylighting plan. However,
a number of tools are available to help predict the performance of a daylighting system.
Physical Scale Models: Since lighting scales perfectly, day
lighting levels in a small-scale model placed outdoors will
be the same as the full-size building space (assuming the
model faithfully reproduces all of the parameters that influence light levels, such as geometry and surface reflectances), It is important to account for the effects of
partitions and furnishings, which can significantly influence
light levels. The continuous variability of the outdoor sky
also must be accounted for when trying to compare results
of successive measurements. One alternative is to use
simultaneous measurements in side-by-side models. In all
model measurements, care must be exercised in construction details, and accurate light measurement equipment
must be used.
Software: Computer-based tools are increasingly used to
estimate daylight levels and their impacts. Some calculate
lighting and daylighting quantities only; others calculate daylighting as part of a complete building systems energy analysis. The most sophisticated lighting tools are linked to
CAD software. They use either radiositv or raytracing techniques to produce photorealistic images that are not only
quantitatively accurate but also assist the designer in understanding the qualitative aspects of daylighting design under
a variety of sun and sky conditions. Some whole building
energy simulation tools also model daylighting impacts
Those that can account for the hourly operational characteristics of light sensors and shading device operation can
assist with understanding the lighting and thermal tradeoffs involved in developing efficient building designs
Principles of Sound
63
GENERAL
Sound is energy produced by a vibrating object or surface
and transmitted as a wave through an elastic medium. Such
a medium may be air (airborne sound) or anv solid common
building material, such as steel. concrete, wood, piping, gypsum board. etc. (structure-borne sound). A sound wave has
amplitude and frequency.
y))
The amplitude of sound waves is measured in decibels (dB).

The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale based on the logarithm of the ratio of a sound pressure to a reference sound
pressure (the threshold of audibility). The values of a logarithmic scale, such as the decibel levels of two noise sources,
cannot be added directly. Instead, use the simplified method
described in the table immediately below:
Difference between
sound levels (in dBI
CH
2-3
4-9
>10
Add this number to

higher sound level
SOUND
SOURCE
FREQUENCY
SOUND AND FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
For example, 90 dB + 20 dB
= 90 dB; 60 dB + 60 dB = 63 dB.
RANGE OF
OCTAVE (Hz)
The frequency of sound waves is measured in Hertz (Hz, also

known as cycles per second) and grouped into octaves (an
octave band is labeled by its geometric center frequency). An
octave band covers the range from one frequency (Hz) to
twice that frequency (f to 2f). The range of human hearing
covers the frequencies from 20 to 16,000 Hz. Human hearing
is most acute in the 1000 to 4000 Hz octave bands
22-44
The human ear discriminates against low frequencies in a

manner matched by the Aweighting filter of a sound level
meter, measured in dBA, or A-weighted decibels. This is the
most universally accepted single number rating for human
response to sound.
SUBJECTIVE REACTIONS TO
CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL
OCTAVE BAND CENTER

FREQUENCY (HZ)
CHANGE IN
SOUND LEVEL*
31.5
44-88
63
88-175
125
1 to 2
175-350
250
350--700
500
CHANGE IN
APPARENT LOUDNESS
Imperceptible
Barely perceptible
700--1400
1000
1400--2800
2000
2800--5600
4000
5600--11,200
8000
5 or 6
Clearly noticeable
10
Significant change-twice as loud

(or hall as loud)
20
Dramatic Change-four times as

loud (or a quarter as loud)
*Measured In decibels (plus or minus)
FREQUENCY OF COMMON SOUNDS

TYPE OF SOUND
FREQUENCY OR PITCH (HZ)

LOW FREQUENCY
I
16
Low pedal stop on organ
31.5
63
125
250
HIGH FREQUENCY
MIDFREQUENCY
I OCTAVE"I
500
'j
1000
2000
8000
16000
.-
Highest note on piano

Range of human speech
Area of most speech intelligibility
Ballast hum from fluorescents and
harmonics
4000
.-
.1
Desktop computers with disk drive

Office equipment (printers, typewriters,
telephones)
Trucks, buses
Human hearing
Octave-a frequency ratio of 2:1
TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS

SOUND
LEVEL (dBAI
ENVIRONMENT
SUBJECTIVE
EVALUATIONS
OUTDOOR
INDOOR
140
Deafening
Near jet engine and artillery fire
130
Threshold 01 pain
Threshold 01 leeling
Jet aircraft departure (within 500 ttl

Elevated train
120
Jet Ilyover at 1000 It
Inside propeller plane
Power mower, motorcycle at 25 ft, auto horn at 10ft
Crowd noise in arena
110
100
Very loud
90
Hard-rock band
Propeller plane flyover at 1000 ft, noisy urban street
Full symphony or band, food blender, noisy factory

Inside auto at high speed, garbage disposal. dishwasher
80
Moderately loud
Diesel truck at 40 mph at 50 It
70
Loud
Moderate
Heavy urban traffic
Face-to-face conversation, vacuum cleaner, electric typewriter
Air-conditioning condenser at 15 ft, near freeway auto traffic
General office
50
40
Quiet
Large transformer at 100 ft
Large public lobby, atrium
Bird calls
Private office, soft radio music in apartment
30
Very quiet
60
20
10
0
Just audible
Quiet residential neighborhood
Bedroom, average residence without stereo
Rustling leaves
Quiet theater, whisper
Still night in rural area
Recording studio
Threshold of hearing
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
31500
64
Sound Absorption Properties of Materials
GENERAL
NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT
All materials and surfaces absorb some sound greater than

0% and less than 100%. The percentage of incident sound
energy that is absorbed by a material, divided by 100, equals
the coefficient of absorption, designated a. which ranges
from 0 to .99. The coefficient varies as a function of frequency, Hz.
The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is the arttbmet average of the absorption coefficients, a, at four designated trequencres: 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2,000 Hz. These
frequencies have been selected because they represent the
middle range of most representative sound sources pertinent to architectural applications. Because the NRC value is
meant to be only a general indication of a material's efficiency at absorbing sound, it is rounded off to the nearest
.05 value and often represented as a .10 range (for example,
50 to .60). NRC ratings can never be less than 0 or greater
than 1.00. The following formula can be used to compute
the NRC for a particular application:
Any material can be tested in a proper laboratory to determine its ex values, as per ASTM C423. Some tests give values greater than 1.0. but this is an anomaly caused by the
testing procedure; such values should be corrected to be not
more than 1.0, since no material can absorb more than
100% of the incident energy that strikes its surface.
SOUND ENERGY ABSORPTION

MECHANISMS
There are three mechanisms by which sound energy is
absorbed or dissipated as it strikes a surface. In all cases,
sound energy is converted to heat. although never enough
heat to be felt.
NRC
= (a250
+ a500 + a1000 + a2000)/4
GJ.ss FIBER
z
o
.80
37 V
o,
'o"
III
-c
IL
o
Z
NRC=
l----
z
o
;:
ll.
'o"
o"
W
1/
IL
TYPE E MOUNTING
I- 0.5
/ /
iL
IL
"
"
../
r'--CARPET
125
250
500
"
"
o
l/
2~
/'
-r
ACOUSTICAL
TILE
1000 2000 4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN HZ)
PANEL ABSORPTION involves installation of thin lightweight panels like gypsum board, glass, and plywood.
Sound waves cause panels to vibrate. Sound absorption for
a panel is greatest at that resonant frequency.
TYPICAL VALUES FOR PANEL ABSORPTION

10
TYPE D MOUNTING
75
.32
37
30
III
/'
IL
~:::::
MOUNTING
DEPTH
I--""
-TEST ROar-.'
? .-
.65 + 72 + .80 + .83
iJ
TYPE A MOUNTING
MOUNTING
FRAME OR
FIXTURE
iL
10
SOUNDABSORBIN(,
MATERIAL
-.
1.0
I- 0.5
TYPICAL VALUES FOR POROUS

ABSORPTION
SAMPLE DERIVATION OF NRC
;:
POROUS ABSORPTION entails the use of soft, porous,

..fuzzy" materials like glass fiber, mineral wool, and carpet.
The pressure fluctuations of a sound wave in air cause the
fibers of such materials to move, and the friction of the
fibers dissipates the sound energy.
~ ~~~~I M EN
WAWNNL
125
TYPICAL MOUNTING TYPES
ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE PER

MOUNTING ASSEMBLY
/"
NRC-
25 + .30 + _87 + .32
250
500
- .30
1.0
SAME MATERIAL
TYPE E MOUNTING
1000 2000 4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
The sound-absorbinq coefficients for a given material may
vary depending on the thickness of the material. how it is
supported or mounted, the depth of the air space behind the
material, and the facing in front of the. material. In general.
thicker porous materials absorb more sound; the air space
behind a material will increase the absorption efficiency,
especially at low frequencies; and thin facings degrade high
frequency absorption.
MOUNTING ASSEMBLIES
For consistency in comparing test results, there are set standards for the mounting assembly used in testing absorbent
materials. These mounting conditions should be reported
along with any and all test data so that the data accurately
reflect field conditions. Mounting types A, D, and E are typical for standard sound-absorbing materials. A numerical suffix is used to specify the mounting depth in millimeters; for
example, E-400 indicates mounting type E with a 400 mm
airspace (a typical 16 in. plenum). Mounting types are specified by ASTM E795.
'o"
m
o"
"..
III
IL
t- 0.5
w
U
-"--------
-- /
ii:
,................ ;'"
r-,
-,
PERFO~~
FACING
iL
IL
.
"
I-- TYPICAL ACOUSTICAL
MATERIAL: TYPE A
MO,NTINi
125
250
500
1000
2000 4000
NOTE
Acoustical performance varies with mounting assembly and
facing.
SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
z
o
TYPICAL DATA/MATERIAL
n,
Marble
;:
'o"
m
"o
in.
t25 Hz
250 Hz
500 Hz
1000 Hz
2000 HZ
4000 HZ
NRC
.01
.01
01
.01
.02
02
.00
29
.10
.05
.04
.07
.09
.05
III
Gypsum board,
IL
Wood, 1 in. thick, with air space

behind
.19
.14
.09
.06
06
.05
.10
Heavy carpet on concrete
.02
.06
.14
.37
.60
.65
.30
Acoustical tile, surface-mounted
.34
.28
.45
66
.74
.77
.55
Acoustical tile, suspended
.43
.38
.53
.77
.87
.77
.65
/ ' THIN GLASS
I- 0.5
.>: ~ V
I \ "r-...
~ -, J I--J
iL
IL
LIGHTWEIGHT
WOOD PANELS
"
o
125
--
250
500
1/ 2
Acoustical tile, painted (sst.)
.35
.35
.45
50
.50
.45
.45
Audience area, empty, hard seats
.15
.19
.22
.39
.38
.30
.30
Audience area, occupied, upholstered

seats
39
.57
.80
.94
.92
.87
80
Glass fiber, 1 in
.04
.21
.73
.99
.99
.90
.75
---j
1000 2000 4000
CAVITY ABSORPTION entails the movement of air pressure

fluctuations across the narrow neck of an enclosed air cavity,
such as a space behind a perforated panel or a slotted concrete masonry unit. also called a Helmholtz resonator. The
natural frequency at which the resonator most efficiently
absorbs sound is related to the volume of the cavity, the size
of the neck opening, and the presence of any insulation in
the cavity.
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Glass fiber, 4 in.
.77
.99
.99
.99
.99
.99
.95
Thin fabric, stretched tight to wall
03
.04
.11
.17
.24
.35
.15
Thick fabric, bunched 4 in. from wall
.14-
.35
55
.72
.70
65
.60
NOTE
This table gives representative absorption coefficients at
various frequencies for some typical materials. To determine values not provided here, refer to manufacturer's data
or extrapolate from similar constructions. All materials have

some absorption values that can be determined from
proper test reports.
Room Acoustics
GENERAL
65
UJ
SOUND ABSORPTION
UJ
83>3 2>8 1
The total sound absorbing units (a) provided by a given material are a function of the absorptive properties (0;) and surface
area (S) of that material as defined by the formula
-'
W
m
UJUJ
11l u,
-'
= S"
>
Ql
in which a = sabins (units of sound absorption), S = surface

area (measured in sq m or sq ttl. and a = the coefficient of
absorption.
8o
The total sabins in a room can be determined by adding

together the sabins of all the surfaces. which vary as a function of frequency. Since most materials absorb more high~
frequency sound waves than low-frequency ones, it is typical to find more sabins in a room at high frequencies than at
low frequencies.
...i
w
>
w
-'
--"'0
-,
UJw
W 0::-'
6
12
...i
w
a,
>
'j
az
-,
(
20
40
0::
80
SOURCE
STOPS
DISTANCE
Outdoors, sound drops off 6 dB each time the distance from

a source is doubled (Inverse Square Law). Indoors, the reflecting sound energy in a room reaches a constant level as a
function of the sound absorbing units (saoins) in the room.
The noise level in a room can be reduced by adding more
absorption, as shown in this formula:
Noise reduction (NR) = 1 log
TIME, IN SECONDS
SOUND OVER TIME
SOUND OVEij: DISTANCE
The sound properties distance and time are described here:
OUTDOORS
0= DISTANCE FROM SOURCE
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
az
" ' - SHORTER

REVERBERATION
8
TIME
a11l
g!
a3
OUTDOORS
Z
:J
11l
In general, sound energy that is not absorbed will be

reflected, thus surfaces with low coefficients of absorption
can be used to encourage sound reflection when appropriate.
a,
~ j1-
NOISE REDUCTION
INDOORS)
~6~~gl~~SORPTION ~
Z
:J
SOUI"JO ABSORPTION
8 3 >8 2 >a 1
11l
CCJ
NOTE
NOTE
The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the lower

the noise levels {approaching the drop-off with distance outdoors)
The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the

shorter the reverberation time.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
The reverberation time for the sample room with an acoustical tile ceiling is calculated as follows:
AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF
ABSORPTION
a2/a1
One measure of the quality of sound in a room is the average coefficient of absorption (or average noise reduction
coefficient-NRC) for all surfaces combined, as determined
by this formula:
TIME
Outdoors, sound ceases when the source stops. Indoors,

sound energy lingers and this decay is called reverberation.
The reverberation time (Rn is defined as the length of time,
in seconds, it takes for sound to decay by 60 dB. Reverberation time is directly proportional to the volume of a space
and inversely proportional to the units of absorption (sabins)
in it. as expressed in this formula
alS
RT
= .049V/a = .049 x 9000 cu ft/699 = .63 sec
The average coefficient of absorption (a.) in the sample room

changes significantly from sample 1 to sample 2. The room
with a gypsum board ceiling is rather live and noisy, while
the room with an acoustical tile ceiling is comfortable, with
wen-controlled noise. The calculations that show this follow:
in which ft. = the average coefficient (at a given frequency or

average NRC), a = the total sabins (sound absorbing units),
and S = the total surlace area in the room (metric or English
units; be consistent).
Belore:
Aher:
a = alS = 243/2700 = .09

= a/S = 699/2700 = .26
ii
RT = KV/a
As determined by using the average coefficient of absorption, the quality of sound in a room can be evaluated as .1,
.2, or .3. A room with an average coefficent of .1 is rather
"live,." loud, and uncomfortably noisy; one with an average
coefficient of .2 is comfortable, with well-eontrolled noise;
and one with .3 is rather ..dead," suitable for spaces in
which the emphasis will be on amplified sound, electronic
playback, or a live microphone for teleconferencing.
in which RT = reverberation time in seconds, K = .161 (if volume is in m 3) or .049 (if volume is in cu ttl. V = volume in m 3
or cu ft. and a = total absorption in sabins (metric or English
units).
Shorter reverberation times greatly enhance speech intelligibility and are imperative in listening environments for people
with hearing impairments and for rooms with live microphones for teleconferencing.
SOUND ABSORPTION
CALCULATION OF AVERAGE COEFFICIENT

OF ABSORPTION
(Sample at 1000 Hz)
Sound-absorptive- materials (such as acoustic tile, glass fiber,

wall panels, carpet, curtains, etc.) can be added to a room in
order to control or reduce noise levels or shorte-n reverberation time. Noise control is especially helpful when the noise
sources are distributed around a room, as in a gymnasium,
classroom, or cafeteria.
While sound-absorptive materials can be added to any surface in a room, the greatest area available for coverage is
usually the ceiling. Because many soft porous materials are
fragile, they should not be located on surfaces that are susceptible to abuse. For these reasons, sound-absorptive materials are often installed on ceilings.
SAMPLE
ROOM~
i
OUTDOORS
>o0t / / / l , ""
><>"
2~~~
See the accompanying chart for guidelines on the use of

sound absorption treatments.
The volume of this sample room is 9000 cu ft (l x w x h).
GUIDELINES FOR USE OF SOUND

ABSORPTION
ROOM TYPE
TREATMENT
Classrooms, corridors and

lobbies, patient rooms, laboratories, shops, factories,
libraries, private and open
plan offices, restaurants
Ceiling or equivalent area;

add additional wall treatment
if room is quite high
Boardrooms, teleconferencing rooms, gymnasiums, arenas, recreational spaces,

meeting and conference
rooms
Ceiling or equivalent area;

add wall treatments for further noise reduction and
reverberation control and
eliminate flutter or echo
Auditoriums, churches, etc.

(list)
Special considerations and

complex applications
SAMPLE CALCULATION 1
SURFACE
MATERIAL
Floor
Carpet
AREA (50 FT)
600 sq ft
.37 222
Ceiling
Gypsum board
600 sq It
.01
All 4 walls
Gypsum board
1500 sq It
.01
15
2700 sq h
Total
243
The reverberation time for the sample room with a gypsum

board ceiling is calculated as follows:
RT
= .049V/a = .049 x 9000
cu 1t/243
= 1.8 sec
SAMPLE CALCULATION 2
SURFACE
MATERIAL
AREA (50 FT)
INDOORS
o.
Floor
Carpet
600 sq h
.37 222
Ceiling
Acoustical tile
600 sq tt
.77 462
All 4 walls
Gypsum board
Total
1500 sq ft
.01
2700 sq tt
15
699
NOTE
Outdoors, sound waves expand spherically, becoming more

dispersed li.e., quieter) over distance and time. Indoors,
sound waves reflect off surrounding surfaces, building up
energy so sound drops off less quickly over distance or time.
SOUND PATTERNS
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
66
Transmission Loss Properties of Materials
GENERAL
The property of a material or construction system that blocks
the transter of sound energy from one side to another is
transmission loss (TL), which is measured in decibels (dB).
Specifically, TL is the attenuation of airborne sound transmission through a construction during laboratory testing
according to ASTM EgO. Transmission less values range
from 0 to 70 or 80 (or higher). A high TL value indicates a
better ability to block sound; that is, more sound energy is
"lost" as the sound wave travels through the material
Sound transmission class (STC) is a single number rating
system designed to combine TL values from many frequencies. STC values for site-built construction range from 10
(practically no isolation, e.g., an open doorway) to 65 or 70
(such high performance is only achieved with special construction techniques). Average construction might provide
noise reduction in the range of STC 30 to 60.
It is very difficult to measure the STC performance of a single wall or door in the field because of the number of flanking paths and nonstandard conditions. Field performance is
measured with noise isolation class (NIC) ratings, which
cover effects from all sound transfer paths between rooms.
DERIVATION AND USE OF THE STC CURVE
To determine the STC rating for a particular construction, the

STC curve shown in the accompanying figure is applied over
the transmission loss (Tl) curve for a laboratory test of the
construction. The STC curve is then manipulated in accordance with prescribed rules to obtain the highest possible
rating. The procedure states that the TL curve cannot be
more than 8 dB less than the STC curve in anyone-third
octave band, nor can the TL curve be more than a total of 32
dB less than the STC curve (average of 2 dB for each of 16
one-third octave band frequencies). Any values from the TL
curve that are above the STC curve are of no benefit in the
rating. The object is to move the STC curve up as high as
possible and to read the STC rating number from the point
where the STC curve at 500 Hz crosses the TL curve
The STC curve has three segments: the first segment from
125 to 400 Hz, rises at the rate of 9 dB per octave (3 dB per
one-third octave); the second segment, from 400 to 1250
Hz, rises at the rate of 2 dB per octave (1 dB per one-third
octave); and the third segment, from 1250 to 4000 Hz, flat.
Design of construction and materials for high transmission

loss builds on three principles:
MASS: Lightweight materials do not block sound. Sound
transmission through walls, floors, and ceilings varies with
the frequency of sound, the weight (or mass) and stiffness
of the construction, and the cavity absorption. Theoretically,
the transmission loss increases at the rate of 6 dB per doubling of the surface weight of the construction. A single solid
panel behaves less well than the mass law would predict
since the mass law assumes a homogeneous, infinitely resilient material/wall.
SEPARATION: Improved TL performance without an undue
increase in mass can be achieved by separation of materials.
A true double wall with separate unconnected elements performs better than the mass law predicts for a single wall of
Noise reduction also depends on the relative siZ!eof a room

If the noise source is in a small room next to a ilJrge receiv
ing room {like an office next to a cvrnnasrumn. the nois.
reduction will be greater than the TL oertorrnsnceot the we
alone because the sound radiating from the ccrJJnmon wa
between office and gym is dissipated in such a tlirge space
On the other hand, if the noise source is in a largJeroom next
to a small one (as from a gym to an office nel door). the
noise reduction will be far less than the TL of thte wall alone
because the common wall, which radiates sourna is such a
large part of the surface of the smaller room. AnlarJjustment
for this ratio, plus the contribution of the absorptive finishes
in the receiving room, enters into the catculatioa of act;
noise reduction between adjacent spaces.
ABSORPTION: Use of soft, resilient absorptive materials in

the cavity between wvthes. particularly for lightweight staggered or double stud con~truction, increases transmission
loss slgn!flcantly. Viscoelastic (somewhat resilient but not fully
elastic) materials. such as certain insulation boards, dampen
or restrict the vibration of rigid panels such as gypsum board
and plywood, increasing transmission loss somewhat. Follow
manufacturer-recommended installation details.
NOISE REDUCTiON
Noise reduction (NR} depends on the properties of a room

and is the actual difference in sound pressure level between
-.
<.
GRAPHIC TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE COMPOSITE TRANSMISSION LOSS

(COMBINING TWO DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS)
tg
!:
G
z
Z
w
a.
o
0:
~
c
<i
8
9
10
z
3'
o
o
o
u,
o
t::
..J
20
:J
~
o
..J
t::
u,
I~
"""
<;
30
<,
~
50%
<,
<,
..J
TRANSMISSION LOSS
two spaces. It is the amount of sound blocked by all inter

vening sound paths between rooms, including ttfIe cammal
wall but also the floor, ceiling, outside path, dOOJl'5. etc
the same weight The transmission loss tends to increase

about 5 dB for each doubling of the airspace between
wythes (minimum effective space is approximately 2 in.).
Resilient attachment of surface skins to studs or structural
surfaces provides a similar benefit, as do separate wvthes
PERCENT OF TOTAL AREA OCCUPIE[

BY DOOR, WINDOW OPENING
,'' ' <,

<,
............20
------- ----
"-
<,
r-,
<,
r-,
<,
<,
r--
r-,
<,
r-, ~
i'- r-,
l'--I'I-r- r-- r-,
~ t----
--
I---
~
~
~
r- r--r-- r-
r- t-r-- -f::::: f:: f::::: r---
40
t--
10
301-----+--+--+-----1'----+----1
[CD
AIRSPACE, IN IN
:i''''
~~
~~
STC RATING VALUE
201----+---+--+--1----+--:>--"'1
o0:
1/
a.
a.
-c
125
250
500
1000
2000
....... i.--
.......
4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)
NOTE
If two layers of dense material are separated by an airspace

(rather than being continuous), they create two independent
walls. The improvement in transmission loss depends on the
size of the airspace and the frequency of sound., Avoid rigid
ties between layers in all double waH construction. The graph
above indicates the approximate improvement in TL when a
wall of a given weight is split into two separate walls
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
~~
F-
30
40
<,
50
60
combining the TL (or STC) values of the corneonents or

the wall alone, in accordance with the chart attJlve.
2. Note that small gaps and cracks such as the pm:imeter of
an ungasketed door can dramatically degrade, ale perfor
mance of a high TL construction.
NOTES
1. When a wail or surface of a room is made up of two or

more different structures (e.q., a window in an outside
wall or a door in an office). the TL performance (or STC)
of the composite construction should be evaluated by
z>w
>
s-.
dB TO BE SUBTRACTED FROM TL OF WALL TO OBTAIN TL OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC) RATING CURVE
:i'
20
BENEFIT OF AIRSPACE IN IMPROVING

TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL)
~ '-~
r----:::::::::
50
60 1
~~
0
00
8~
2_ N8
~
N
2~ 8~ 8~ g~ 8m
0
~
00
N
-
8~ 80
N
0
0
~
N
8N 80
~
ONE-THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (HZ)
0
~
8~ 80
m 00
Sound Isolation and Noise Reduction

SOUND ISOLATION CRITERIA
GENERAL
RECEIVER ROOM
ADJACENT
SOURCE ROOM OCCUPANCY
SOUND ISOLATiON REQUIREMENT

(MIN.) FOR ALL PATHS BETWEEN
SOURCE AND RECEIVER
Executive areas, doctors' suites. personnel

offices, large conference rooms; confidential privacy requirements
Adjacent offices and

related spaces
STC 50-55
Normal offices, regular conference rooms for

group meetings; normal privacy requirements
Adjacent offices and similar activities
STC 45-50
Large general business offices, drafting areas,

banking floors
Corridors. lobbies. data

processing; similar activi-
STC 40-45
Privacy index
Shop and laboratory offices in manufacturing labo- Adjacent offices; test

ratory or test areas; normal privacy
areas, corridors
Any spaces
Neighbors (separate occupancy)
Bedrooms
Bathrooms
Kitchens
Living rooms
Corridors
Living Rooms
Bathrooms
Kitchens
School buildings
Classrooms
STC 40-45
STC 50-60+ 1
Mechanical equipment rooms

Multifamily dwellings
Living Rooms
STC 48-55 2
STC 52-58 2
STC 52-58 2
STC 52-57 2
STC 52-58 2
STC 48-55 2
STC 50-57 2
Large music or drama area
STC 60 3
STC 55 3
Interior occupied spaces
Exterior of building
STC 35-60"
Any and all adjacent
Use qualified acoustical consultants to assist in

the design of construction details for these critical
occupancies
Use acoustical consultants when designing mechanical

equipment rooms to house equipment other than that
used for air handling (e.g., chillers, pumps, and compressors) and heavy manufacturing areas that house equipment
that generates noise at or above OSHA allowable levels or
generates high vibration levels.
2 Ratings depend on nighttime, exterior background levels
and other factors directly related to the location of a building. Grades I, II, and III are discussed in "Guide to Airborne,
Impact, and Structureborne Noise Control in Multifamily
Dwellings:' HUD TS-24 (1974l.
3 The STC ratings shown are guidelines only. These spaces
typically- require double layer construction with resilient
1~
connections between layers or, preferably, structurally

independent" room-within-a-room" construction. The level
of continuous background noise, such as that provided by
the HVAC system or an electronic masking system, has a
significant impact on the quality of construction selected
and must be coordinated with the other design parameters.
4 Ratings depend on the nature of the exterior background
noise-its Ievet, spectrum shape. and constancy-as well
as the client's budget and thermal considerations. Use
qualified acoustical consultants for analysis of high noise
outdoor environments such as airports, highways (especially those with heavy truck traffic), and industrial facilities.
MIN.
++
BATT INSULATION.
THiCK MIN,
++
GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
xlJ:-'::""'9tt- FURRING
XL-JC-=""'=tT- CMU WALL
~v'\;X7\;;ti::::;;:::::;!+-CHANNEL
R ESILIENT
3~
STUD WALL WITH

INSULATION
2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
DOUBLE STUD WALL
Testing for IIC ratings is a complex procedure using a standard tapping machine. Because the machine is portable, it
cannot simulate the weight of a person walking across a
floor. Therefore, the creak or boom footsteps cause in a timber floor cannot be reflected in the single-figure impact rating produced from the tapping machine. The correlation
between tapping machine tests in the laboratory and field
performance of floors under typical conditions may vary
greatly, depending on the construction of the floor and the
nature of the impact.
Often the greatest annoyance caused by footfall noise is the
low-frequency sound energy it generates, which is beyond
the frequency range of standardized tests. Sometimes this
sound energy is near or at the resonant frequency of the
building structure.
Whenever possible. to stifle unwanted sounds use carpet
with padding on floors in residential buildings and resilient,
suspended ceilings with cavity insulation. For especially critical situations, such as pedestrian bridges or tunnels, hire an
acoustical consultant.
Slamming doors or cabinet drawers are other sources of
impact noise. If possible. bureaus should not be placed
directly against a wall. Door closers or stops can be added to
cushion the impact of energy from a door so it is not
imparted directly into the structure. Common sense arrangements can help minimize problems in multifamily dwellings.
For example, kitchen cabinets should not be placed on the
other side of a common wall from a neighbor's bedroom.
CONSTRUCTION NOTES
ISOLATION BOARD
~ FINISH FLOOR
PLYWOOD
~~~~!j~~i .----~~P:;D
SUBFLOOR
~~L.------~~ci~~~EF~::~NG
- - - - - - WOOD FRAMING
ISOLATOR
4.
Floors are subject to impact or structure-borne sound transmission noises such as footfalls. dropped objects, and scraping furniture. Parallel to development of laboratory sound
transmission class (STC) ratings for partition constructions is
the development of an impact insulation class (lie). This is a
single-number rating system used to evaluate the effectiveness of floor construction in preventing impact sound transmission to spaces beneath the floor. The current lie rating
method is similar to the STC rating.
DOUBLE WALL--CMU AND STUD
>4---------- CMU WALL
-,
Normal privacy, in which you are aware of a neighbor's activity but not overly distracted by it, can usually be achieved
with a privacy index of 68 or higher. Confidential privacy, in
which you are aware of the neighbor, usually requires a privacy index of 75 or higher.
1" MIN.
SEPARATE WOOD OR
METAL STUD WALLS
ON SEPARATE FLOOR
PLATES OR TRACKS
AVOID
BACKTO BACK
WALL OUTLETS
noise reduction + background noise
IMPACT NOISE DESIGN CRITERIA
STC 50
STC 50
STC45
Theaters. concert halls. lecture halls. radio and 1V

studios
:=
A quiet environment with little or no natural.background

sound (from HVAC systems) between neighbors requires a
higher degree of sound separation construction to achieve
the same privacy as that in a noisier environment with louder
background sound.
STC 48-50'
Adjacent classrooms
Laboratories
Corridors
Adjacent music or drama
area
Music practice rooms
Music practice rooms
One of the most common goals in the design of sound isolation construction is achievement of acoustical privacy from a
neighbor. This privacy is a function of whether the signal
from the neighbor is audible and intelligible above the ordinary background noise level in the environment.
Noise reduction is measured as a field performance where it

is evaluated and given an STC value. Background sound levels from steadv mechanical heating and ventilating systems.
a constant part of our environment, are measured in accordance with ASH RAE standards by a set of uniform curves
called noise criteria (NC) ratings. These NC curves are constantly refined, so check the latest ASH RAE quides.
ties
Bedrooms
67
BATT
~ STRUCTURAL
INSULATION
FLOOR
WOOD FURRING
RESILIENT
HANGER
FRAMING
CHANNELS
1. Edge attachment and junction of walls. partitions, floors,

and ceiling can cause large differences in transmission
loss (Tl) performance. The transverse waves set up in
continuous, stiff, lightweight walls or floors can carry
sound a long distance from the source to other parts of
the structure with little attenuation. Curtain walls, thin
concrete floors on bar joists, and wood framed structures
are particularly SUbject to this weakness.
2. Properly designed discontinuities such. as interrupted
floor slab/toppings are helpful in reducing structural flanking.
3. A resilient (airtight) joint between exterior wall and partition or partition and floor can appreciably improve TL
4. Continuous pipes, conduits. or ducts can act as transmission paths from room to room. Care must be taken to isolate such services from the structure.
\ { " - , . . - - - . INSULATION
2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION--CONCRETE
FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION-WOOD
TYPICAL HIGH SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
.68
Mechanical System Noise and Vibration Control
GENERAL
Mechanical system noise, as a major component of acoustics in modern buildings, must be addressed in developinq
mechanical design and acoustical goals.
RECOMMENDED BACKGROUND NOISE CRITERIA FOR TYPICAL

OCCUPANCIES
USES
NC RATING RANGE
A-WEIGHTED
DECIBELS
Sensitive listening spaces
Broadcast and recording studios, concert halls
TYPE OF SPACE
Background sound levels from mechanical systems are measured and evaluated by means of noise criteria (NC) ratings
as well as by actual A-weighted decibel levels The noise criteria curves provide a convenient way of defining the ambient noise level in terms of octave band sound pressure
levels. The NC curves consist of a family of curves that
relate the spectrum of a noise to the environment being
specified. Higher noise levels are permitted at lower frequencies since the ear is less sensitive to noise at these levels. The complete octave band frequency of an acceptable
ambient noise level can be specified with one NC number.
NC-15 to NC-20
25 dBA
Performance spaces
Theaters, churches (no amplification),

video and teleconferencing (live
microphone)
NC-20 to NC-25
30 dBA
General presentation spaces
Large conference rooms, small auditoriurns. orchestral rehearsal rooms,

movie theaters, courtrooms, meeting
and banquet rooms, executive offices
NC-25 to NC-30
35 dBA
NC-30 to NC-35
40 dBA
Mechanical equipment creates noise and vibration from the

rotation of the equipment motor. Four aspects of the noise
and vibration to be addressed are described here:
Offices, small conference rooms,

classrooms, private residences, hospitats. hotels, libraries
Public spaces
Restaurants, lobbies, open plan

offices and clinics
NC-35 to NC-40
45dBA
Service and support spaces
Computer equipment rooms, public

circulation areas. arenas, convention
floors
NC-40 to NC-45
50 dBA
MACHINE NOISE: Sound isolation requirements for the

walls and floors of a mechanical equipment room depend on
the type of equipment to be housed and the sensitivity of
adjacent spaces. Chillers can be extremely loud, requiring
double walls and extra thick floor slabs. Air-handling units
may only require regular wall construction, perhaps STC 50
systems. Major secondary sound paths are duct penetrations, open curbs under rooftop units, and doors; all potential
sound paths must be controlled.
FAN NOISE: Rotation of the fan motor and the fan itself generates noise, which is transmitted along the duct path (both
supply and return) to the listening space. Typical fan noise
control elements include package silencers (inserted into a
straight run of duct, often at the wall of the mechanical
equipment room) and internal acoustical duct lining (glass
fibers adhered to the duct walls). The degree of fan noise
attenuation can be determined by calculations based on the
size and sound power levels of the fan, the length and configuration of duct runs, the attenuation of the duct systems,
the number and type of diffusers, and the room finishes in
the listening space.
AIR NOISE: Movement of air through a duct generates turbulence, which creates noise. For sensitive spaces and quiet
noise levels, the airflow must be at low velocity (hence the
need for large ducts) with smooth inlet and outflow conditions. For extremely quiet noise levels, air velocities at diffusers or terminal devices may need to be below 400 fpm.
Volume dampers to control flow for such spaces are critical;
keep dampers 10ft from diffusers, and avoid opposed blade
dampers at diffusers. A simple duct layout that provides
even distribution of air to all diffusers in a room can eliminate
many problems (see preferred duct layout below).
VIBRATION ISOLATION: Rotating equipment generates vibration, which can travel through a structure and be radiated
as noise in a distant location. Vibration isolation may entail
use of neoprene pads, spring isolators, or inertia bases,
depending on the size and power of the rotating equipment,
the proximity of sensitive spaces, and the stiffness of the
supporting structure. Piping attached to rotating equipment,
especially chilled water piping, must also be isolated from
the structure to prevent transmission of sound energy. The
effectiveness of a vibration isolator depends on the static
deflection of the isolator under load; lower frequency
mechanical equipment rotation requires greater static deflection isolation to be effective.
/
DIFFUSER. TYP
Quiet areas
NOISE CRITERIA SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL TABLE*

SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (DB)
NC
63 Hz
125 HZ
250 HZ
500 Hz
1000 Hz
2000 HZ
4000 HZ
NC-70
83
79
75
72
71
70
69
68
NC-65
NC-60
80
75
71
68
64
63
77
71
67
67
62
63
58
66
61
58
64
60
57
58
54
50
45
54
59
54
49
62
57
40
36
41
36
31
31
27
26
22
17
CURVE
NC-55
NC-50
74
71
67
NC-45
NC-40
NC-35
64
NC-30
57
NC-25
54
60
52
48
49
45
37
44
41
33
50
47
36
29
"For convenience In uSing norse criteria data, the table lists the
NC-20
NC-15
56
51
46
41
53
48
8000 Hz
52
47
42
37
44
39
34
43
38
33
32
29
24
28
27
22
21
19
17
16
22
14
12
11
sound pressure level (SPU In decibels for each NC curve.
NOISE CRITERIA CURVES

20
75
75
150
150
300
300
600
600
1200
1200
2400
2400
4800
4800
9600
90
80
SUBJECTIVE
iL
='0
EVALUATIONS
70
OJ
<r
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W
-'
VERY
NOISY
60
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DUCT, TYP.
Ul
Ul
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50
NOISY
<r
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Z
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Ul
-----r:OOERATELY
40
JNOISY
0
Z
"
>
"
<D
IU
QUIET
30
20
VERY
QUIET
FAN
NOTE
All diffusers are equidistant from the fan. The system is selfbalancing. The duct layout does not need volume dampers.
PREFERRED DUCT LAYOUT
Doug Sturz; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
10
31.5
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES (HZ)
4000
8000
Performance Spaces
area of absorption can be calculated to predict RT. The bigqest design factor aHecting RT is ceiling height. The relationship between the volume of a hall and the number of seats
is often a good approximation of sound quality in the room.
GENERAL
Performance spaces are rooms in which good hearing conditions are particularly critical to the use of the space and
exchange of aural information. Such spaces include classrooms, lecture halls, recital halls. theaters. cinemas. concert
halls, churches and synagogues. Critical design of a performance space may require assistance from an acoustical consultant. but the primary tools at the architect's direction are
outlined here:
In wide halls with high ceilings,seats in the center of the

orchestra often suffer from lack of early reflections. Reflecting canopies or arrays over the front rows can bring reflected
sound to these seating areas, which otherwise may suffer
from poor articulation. Often. seating at the rear of the balcony does not experience this problem, and these seats
have excellent acoustics.
LOUDNESS
Audience and performers should be in the same space, and

any sound generated by a speaker or musician should be
projected efficiently to the audience and captured within the
space. The "sending end" of the room (i.e., the stage)
should be acoustically hard. Walls near the performer should
be angled or splayed to enhance projection and prevent
"flutter echoes" at the stage. Walls and ceilings where the
audience sits should be hard so they can reflect sound,
unless absorptive treatment is needed to eliminate problematic reflections or focusing or to reduce reverberation time
VOLUME/SEAT
(RT)for particular program needs.
Less than 200
Less than 6
Quite dead, suitable for

speech and cinema
300 to 350
8to 10
Good for music
ORCHESTRA PIT
Greater than 500 Greater than Good for organ music only,
too reverberant for speech
14
QUIET
Good hearing environments should maximize the signal-tonoise ratio; in other words, in addition to the desired signal
being well projected (see loudness), unwanted noise should
be eliminated. To accomplish this requires very low back-
ARTICULATION
Much of the clarity of sound that audiences need for speech

intelligibility and clear musical attacks comes from the sound
reflected off hard suriaces that reaches listeners within 50
to 80 milliseconds of the direct sound (which always reaches
the listener first). To enhance articulation of acoustics in a
hall, the design must ensure there are enough surfaces to
reduce the time gap between the initial (direct) sound and
these early reflections; the initial time delay gap should be
ground sound levels INC-20 perhaps) from mechanical

equipment. Sound lock vestibules eliminate intrusive noise
from a lobby and allow latecomers to enter without acoustical interference to the show, and carpeted aisles help
reduce footfall noise. Noise from exterior environmental
sources should also be considered. Avoid lightweight roofs,
which will transmit rain noise.
less than 50 milliseconds. Sound travels 1120 fVsecond lin

SI units. 333 m/secondl. so the initial time delay gap for
prime seating locations should not exceed 50 ft (13 mJ.
SPACIOUSNESS
Because of the lateral configuration of our ears, sound sig-
nals that are slightly different in each ear allow the listener to
hear an acoustical quality called spaciousness, which is usually highly desired, especially for classical music. This sense
of spaciousness can be enhanced if the distribution of sound
speakers are added around the hall as needed. The sound

control location must be well placed within the audience
area covered by the loudspeakers. Additional transmitters
using infrared signals or FM radio signals can be used to
meet ADA requirements.
FOCUSING
Focusing concentrates sound waves in one area. causing

"hot spots" where the sound is louder or unnatural in quality. Concave surfaces either in plan or section can present
major focusing problems if they are not identified and
treated.
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
Refer to the accompanying charts on optimum reverberation

times and preferred volume/seat ratios. Room volume and
SOUND SYSTEM
Electronic sound systems may be used for amplification

(making the source louder for a big hall), for playback or
recorded material, or for both. Depending on the source, the
amplification) or on the left and right sides (for musical stereo playback or amplification of the orchestra pit). Additional
loudspeakers may be needed under a balcony or at the rear
of the hall to cover the upper balconies. Special effects loud-
Following are several other features to be considered when

designing performance spaces.
reflections from many facets of the side and rear walls. This
diffusion can be enhanced by protrusions and angled surfaces on the side walls.
The surface over the orchestra pit should be angled to

project sound out to the audience but diffuse so that some
energy is reflected back to the performers on stage. The
front wall of the orchestra pit should be a hard surface so the
front rows of the audience do not hear direct sound and so
that more energy is reflected back to the performers on
stage. Also. both the front and back walls may need to be
treated with movable curtains to vary and control the degree
of sound reflected off these surfaces.
loudspeakers used to distribute the sound should be located

at the center slightly in front of the speaker (for speech
OTHER FACTORS
through a large hall is diffused. and the ear literally hears
the empty hall RT more dead than it would be when fully

occupied.
Balconies bring additional persons into a given volume and

create more intimacy between audience and performer
However, seating under a balcony can be cut off from the
main volume of sound if the balcony overhang is too great. A
reasonable rule of thumb is that the overhang depth should
not exceed the height of the opening (greater ratios are
acceptable where live music is not part of the program).
SOUND QUALITY
OF SPACE
SEATS
The largest area of sound-absorbinq surface in a performanee hall is the seating. If the seats are made of a soundreflecting material (wood, vinyl. plastic. etc.), their absorptive
properties will change dramatically when they are occupied.
since a person introduces about 5 sabins for each seat
which significantly affects reverberation time. Use of uphOI~
stered seats or pew cushions makes the RT similar whether
the seats are empty or fully occupied and will never make
BALCONIES
PREFERRED VOLUME/SEAT
RATIOS
CU FT
69
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIMES AT MIDFREQUENCIES (500-1000 Hz) FOR PERFORMANCE SPACES
INCREASED BLENDING
INCREASED ARTICULATION AND INTELLIGIBILITY
MUSIC
l.iturgical-orchestra. chorus, or organ *

Classical symphony
Secular choral works
Opera
Contemporary orchestral works. recital. and chamber music
"Semiclassical" concerts and choral groups with sound systems
Musicals and operettas
Rock concerts
SPEECH AND MUSIC
Churches*
General purpose auditoriums
High school auditoriums
Small theaters
Movie theaters
SPEECH
Lecture and conference rooms

Playhouse (intimate drama productions)
Elementary classrooms
Recording and broadcast studio (speech only)
0.4
0.6
0.8
10
1.2
'.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
26
2.8
3.0
3.2
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
*May go up to 8 seconds in reverberation time
NOTE
The breadth of RT range for each room type is a function of

the room volume: the larger the room volume. the closer to
the longer end of the range and vice versa.
Carl Rosenberg. AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
3.4
3.6
70
Open Plan Office Acoustics

MAXIMUM SPACING
OF OFFICE WORKERS
-/----.
GENERAL
Open plan offices can provide great flexibility in office arrangements and work flow. However. because .workstations or
cubicles do not have full-height partitions. noise can be a
major problem in such offices. The extent to which speech is
distracting depends on the degree to which it is intelligible. An
overheard conversation can be annoying or distracting, while
an inaudible murmur is not. When desig.ning open plan
offices. the need for communication between workstations
should be evaluated in light of work functions and practical
separation.
Speech intelligibility and acoustics in an open plan office can
be rated in terms of an articulation index (All. which is a
measure of the ratio between a signa! (a neighbor's voice or
intrusive noise) and steady background noise (ambient noise
from mechanical equipment, traffic, or electronic sound
masking). AI values range from near 0 (very low signal and
relatively high noise; no intelligibility or good speech privacy)
to 1.0 (very high signal and low noise; excellent communication or no speech privacy). When communication is desired
(e.g., in classrooms or teleconference rooms), it is preferable
to have a high AI so people can hear well. In an office, however, it is preferable tv have a low AI so people can be freed
from distraction and will be better able to concentrate. Average noise requirements for various office functions are
shown in the accompanying chart.
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI) FOR

OPEN PLAN OFFICES
AI VALUE
NOiSE REQUIREMENTS
>.65
Necessary when communication

Good
communication is desirable (conference rooms,
classrooms, auditoriums, etc.)
.35
Freedom from Reasonable work conditions not

distraction
requiring heavy concentration or
speech privacy; hear and understand neighboring conversations
Normal
Occasional intelligibility from a
speech
neighbor's conversation; work
privacy
patterns not interrrupted
.20
<.05
Confidential
Aware of neighbor's conversespeech privacy tion but it is not intelligible
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Low AI ratings for open plan office spaces can be achieved
in three primary ways: by blocking sound, by covering (masking) sound, and by absorbing sound.
BLOCKING SOUND
Partial-height barriers or partitions are necessary to block

direct sound transmission between workstations. The barriers must be high enough and wide enough to interrupt the
line of sight between a source and a receiver; hence, the
first 4 ft or so of barrier height do not help speech privacy at
all. Barrier heights of 5 ft are a minimum requirement for
acoustical separation, and heights of 6 ft are typical for normal privacy. The barrier should be able to block sound at
least as well as the path for sound traveling over the barrier,
which means a minimum laboratory sound transmission
class value of 24. Barriers or screens should extend to the
floor or leave only an inch or so open at the bottom. There
should be no open gaps between adjacent panels. Barriers
may need to have sound-absorbing facings to reduce reflections to the next workstation.
CLOSE ENOS
OF BARRIER
oJ i
7~
-tI
I
I
SOUND
ABSORBING
CEILING
I
I
I
OFFICE
WORKER. TYP
I
I
I
PARTIAL
HEIGHT
BARRIER
TREAT
REFLECTING
PATHS
PLAN
SECTION
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS FOR SOUND CONTROL IN OPEN OFFICES

The sound should be evenly distributed throughout the
office so no areas are louder than others. In addition, the
sound should not vary in the open plan area by more than 3
decibels in any octave band. Masking sound should be neither too loud nor too quiet, perhaps between 45 and 50 dBA.
It should be loud enough to cover intrusive noises but never
loud enough to be distracting in itself. Conference rooms
and private offices, which require lower levels of background
noise, should have plenum treatments so they are shielded
from direct exposure to the masking sound.
Normal air conditioning and ventilation could generate
enough background noise to mask sound between offices,
but this sound source is not well designed for this purpose.
Most office buildings use variable volume air distribution, so
noise from the HVAC system may be erratic and uneven in
distribution and change over time and season. The preferred
solution is to install an electronic sound masking system
Sound masking systems comprise a noise generator, an
equalizer to shape the sound spectrum properly. amplifiers,
and loudspeakers hidden above an accessible acoustical tile
ceiling. Such systems generate a broadband, pleasant sounding, evenly distributed masking noise. The sound in the plenum filters down through the ceiling and provides an even
blanket of sound that will mask the intrusive sound from a
neighbor. Avoid untreated sound leaks if! the ceiling such as
openings for return air; these become noticeable "hot
spots" and draw unwanted attention to the sound from the
ceiling. Masking sound from two channels can improve spatial uniformity. Ceiling height and plenum conditions (fireproofing, beams, ducts, etc.) will determine loudspeaker
spacing and location. Electronic sound masking should be
professionally designed and installed.
may be necessary on some barriers or reflecting surfaces

(e.g., walls, file cabinets).
Carpet helps reduce footfall and impact noise and is a great
benefit in open offices. Finally, voice levels should be kept to
a minimum; even the best acoustical treatments cannot prevent disturbances caused by loud voices.
All the factors outlined in the paragraphs above are interrelated. For example, doubling the distance between adjacent
workstations will reduce a nearby conversation by 5 dBA
while raising the height of a 5-ft barrier to 6 ft may reduce
the sound path over the top by 3 dBA. Changing from a minerai-fiber acoustical ceiling tile to a glass-fiber ceiling tile may
reduce reflected noise by 5 dBA. Adding sound masking
may change the ambient level by 10-20 dBA.
An acoustics consultant can evaluate proposed layouts and
materials as part of the design process. The acoustical outcome of a design should be analyzed before construction. As
a rough initial guideline, offices in which freedom from distraction is the only criterion will require highly efficient
sound-absorbing ceilings and an electronic background
masking sound at levels between 45 and 50 dBA. For normal
speech privacy, these conditions should be augmented by
keeping workstations 8-10 ft apart and adding partial-height
barriers at least 5 ft high, with increased attention to office
layout and reflecting sound paths. Confidential privacy
requires higher partitions and more attention to related
details and is extremely difficult to achieve in an open plan.
ABSORBING SOUND
The ceiling in an open plan office is the most important surface to treat with highly efficient sound-absorbing material.
Glass-fiber ceiling panels often have NRC values of .85 or
higher and are the preferred material for open plan spaces.
Regular mineral-fiber acoustical panels have typical NRC values of about .55-.65. Hard sound-reflective materials such as
exposed structure or gypsum board will dramatically reduce
privacy and raise annoying sound levels in an office. Most
ceiling tile manufacturers provide extensive NRC data for
their products and have special products with high absorptive performance for use in open plan spaces. Materials
must also be selected for their ability to reflect light.
POOR LAYOUT
COVERING SOUND
The character and level of background sound is perhaps the

most important acoustical design consideration for an open
plan office. A modest level of background or ambient sound
will cover, or mask, annoying, intrusive sounds. The masking
sound must be pleasant and neutral with an even tonal spectrum (like the sound of a comfortable ventilation system)
that drops off at the high end of the frequency range. There
should be no pure tones or annoying characteristics (like the
hum of a fluorescent light bellast).
BACKGROUND SOUND LEVEL FOR OPEN
PLAN OFFICES
50 r----r-..,-.=:-r-,--,---,--,
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>
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40
0:
:0
OTHER FACTORS
Ul"
wo.
0:'"
20
ON
ZW
:00:
om
Ul~
FAIR LAYOUT
SAC= l:1006a250+ 0.15a"oo+ 0.24aHXlO + 0.32u2000 + 0.23ct.woo1
30
Ul~
0.0
Most sound-absorbinq materials are measured in a reverberation chamber in accordance with ASTM C 423 to determine
their random incidence sound-absorption coefficients (a) and
from these data, manufacturers tYPically report the noise
reduction coefficient (NRCI. The NRC value is a good first
approximation of the ability of a material to absorb sound
from the human speech range. For office acoustics, however, a more useful value is the ability of a material to absorb
sound at an incident angle of 40-60 0 from a flat ceiling and at
frequencies weighted to reflect the relative contribution to
speech intelligibility. Therefore, a more effective tool for
evaluating the effectiveness of ceiling materials for sound
absorption is the speech absorption coefficient (SAC), which
can be calculated from standard sound absorption coefficients as follows:
10
31.5
125
63
250
1000
4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)
Christopher Savereid; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Arrange offices so that entrances are offset. and eliminate

direct line of sight or an open view through doorways from
one workstation to another. Workstations should be 8-10 ft
apart so voice levels are adequately reduced over distance.
Higher ceilings can help reduce noise transfer. Light fixtures
in the ceiling plane should not have hard lenses or be placed
directly above a partition because the fixture can then act as
a mirror for sound across the barrier. Absorptive material
PREFERRED LAYOUT
OPEN OFFICE CONFIGURATIONS
Electronic Sound System Design

GENERAL
1---11
IMICROPHONES
II
Sound systems are used primarily to provide better listening

conditions through sound amplification that increases the
loudness of a sound source. Secondary uses of sound systems include recording and playback of audio signals, distribution of audio signals to remote locations. and satisfaction
of ADA requirements for provision of assistive listening systems for hearinq-impaired individuals.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L
Sound systems are recommended in all places of assembly,

including auditoriums. churches, classrooms. and lecture
halls with more than 60 seats; large conference rooms;
courtrooms; legislative chambers; and sports arenas. particularly if these facilities will be used by inexperienced speakers. Sound amplification systems should not be used as a
substitute for good room acoustical design. The sound system equipment chosen, its location in a space, and the
reproduction quality it provides depend on the acoustical
properties of that space.
I
I
SOUND
MIXER
I
I
I
I
IN
OUT
IN
LOUDSPEAKER
fff
IN
IN
I
I
I
.;
OUT
ASSISTIVE
L:STENING
SYSTEM
-.JL
INPUT SIGNAL
SOURCES
Sound amplification systems should be used when one or

more of the following conditions occur: (1) the room volume
exceeds 50,000 cu ft; (2) the distance between source and
farthest receiver exceeds 50 ft indoors and 25 ft outdoors;
(3) the receiver is located beyond 70 0 horizontally from the
source; (4) the room reverberation time exceeds 1.5 sec;
and (5) the ambient noise levels are greater than NC-40
indoors or 55 dBA outdoors.
71
SIGNAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
AMPLIFIERS
OUTPUT DEVICES
BASIC SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEM
l.------t--
LOUDSPEAKER
SYSTEM
TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS

Sound systems are designed to serve a wide variety of functions, program types, and spaces. The primary functions are
voice and music reinforcement, assistive listening, paging
and emergency announcements, sound masking, and audio
recording/playback.
ELEVATION
Voice and music reinforcement systems amplify the spoken

word or a music program. Voice reinforcement systems are
used in virtually all places of public assembly, but use of
music reinforcement systems is usually restricted to auditoriums, amphitheaters, arenas, and churches. Loudspeaker
locations are dictated by ceiling height and stage layout.
Spaces with ceiling heights greater than 25 It normally have
a large "central cluster" loudspeaker system located above
and forward of the stage. Low-eeiling spaces, such as classrooms or under balconies in a theater, normally have small
(4- or 8-in. diameter) ceiJing-mounted loudspeakers in a "distributed" speaker layout. Music reinforcement typically uses
large loudspeakers located on either side of the stage, either
set on the floor or hung from the building structure.
ASSISTIVE LISTENING
Assistive listening systems provide localized sound reinforcement. to listeners who have difficulty hearing the program. These systems are used to comply with ADA requirements. An electrical output from the sound system is
routed to a transmitter, either FM or infrared. which radiates
a modulated audio signal that is picked up by a receiver carried by the listener. A small in-the-ear headset is connected
to the receiver.
PAGING AND EMERGENCY
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Paging and emergency announcement systems distribute

voice or alarm signals. Codes may require that emergency
announcement systems be dedicated. use equipment certified by Underwriters Laboratories (ULl, or be capable of
operating from emergency power sources. The audio program is transmitted via a distributed ceiling loudspeaker system in a 70.7-volt configuration.
SOUND MASKING
Sound masking systems radiate pink noise, the frequency

content of which is adjusted to make speech less intelligible,
thus increasing speech privacy. These systems are commonly used in open office environments, where partialheight workstations may make speech privacy difficult to
achieve. Loudspeakers in a 70.7-volt configuration are located in the ceiling plenum, and the sound radiates through
the ceiling tile into the space below. Precision adjustment
and tuning of sound masking systems is crucial to their
acceptance by employees.
AUDIO RECORDING/PLAYBACK
Audio media recording/playback systems provide for amplification of sources such as audiotape or compact disc (CD).
These systems can function as an element of a larger sound
system or they can stand alone. Recording systems use
electrical output from the sound system to record the program content to cassette tape or digital audiotape (OAT).
Reproducing systems amplify sound from signal storage
media, such as cassette tape, OAT, CD, digital video disc
(DVO), tape carts. message repeaters, or from a distant origin. such as radio or 1V transmissions.
SECTION
CENTRAL CLUSTER
VOICE AND MUSIC REINFORCEMENT
LOUDSPEAKER
. SYSTEM
<,
<;
<,
-<,
<,
<,
<;
<;
<;
<,
<;
ELEVATION
SECTION
SPLIT CENTRAL CLUSTER
rm.-
rm
/
\
\ " - - LOUDSPEAKER
SYSTEM
(RECESSED)
/
V
/
ELEVATION
DISTRIBUTED CEILING
SECTlON
LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM TYPES
LOUDSPEAKER INSTALLATIONS
SPLIT CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
To provide good sound coverage, loudspeakers must be

properly integrated into the architectural design of a space.
Most spaces have an optimum loudspeaker configuration
that should be examined before exploring other options.
Loudspeakers can be recessed behind architectural elements. assuming a suitably large opening with acoustically
transparent grille cloth is provided.
The split central cluster loudspeaker system is similar in

design and operational concepts to the central cluster system, but separate loudspeaker clusters are located at stage
right and stage left locations, as might occur in a church with
a separate pulpit and lectern or in a music reinforcement
system. Each loudspeaker cluster is designed to cover the
entire listener seating area. When the talker is at the stage
right location, only that loudspeaker operates, likewise for
the stage left location. This system provides greater source
localization than the central cluster system since it uses the
ability of the ear to localize sound in the horizontal plane.
The major loudspeaker installations include central cluster,

split cluster, and distributed ceiling types.
CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
The central cluster loudspeaker system is located just forward of center stage and elevated a minimum of 20 ft above
floor level. Separate low frequency and midjhigh frequency
loudspeaker components, either individual horn systems or
multiway loudspeakers, are used. Listeners must have lineof-sight relationships to loudspeakers in order to receive
good sound coverage.
Central cluster systems are not recommended for spaces
with ceiling heights less than 20 ft due to sound level differences between the front and rear of the space. Advantages
include low cost and naturalness of reproduction because of
the inability of the ear to localize sound in the vertical plane.
DISTRIBUTED CEILING LOUDSPEAKER
Distributed ceiling loudspeaker systems use 4-, 8-, or 12-in.

diameter, full-fange, transformer-eoupled cone loudspeakers,
typically in a 70.7-volt configuration installed in the ceiling
plane. These systems are normally used in spaces with a ceiling height less than 20 ft. The size of the loudspeaker depends on the ceiling height and whether the system will be
used for voice or music reproduction. In spaces where the
unamplified source to receiver distance exceeds 30 tt. it is
often necessary to electrically delay the signal to the loudspeaker so the listener hears the unamplified sound first, followed in several milliseconds by the sound from the amplified
ceiling loudspeaker. The signal processing technique of this
system type helps to preserve source localization.
Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
72
Electronic Sound System Design
SOUND SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Sound systems comprise input signal sources, signal processing equipment to alter the properties, of the signal,
amplifiers to increase weak signal levels, and loudspeakers
to convert electrical signals to acoustical signals.
MICROPHONES
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves

into electrical AC voltage corresponding to the acoustical
characteristics of the source. Microphones can be classified
by type, transducer element, or polar pattern. The major
microphone types are thin profile lectern, performer's handheld, boundary layer, and lavaliere,
routed from these enclosures to audio wall plates that connect to input and output devices. Normally, metal conduit is
used to minimize signal interference and to protect cables
ELECTRICAL POWER
REQUIREMENTS
Sound systems should have dedicated power circuits separate from other building electrical services. The major electrical power load comes from the amplifiers, which can easily
exceed the power requirements of all other sound system
components by a factor of 100. When computer-controlled
sound systems are used, provide electrical power surge protection and a source of uninterruptible power.
LINE LEVEL SOURCES
'\/
Line level signal sources include audio formats such as magnetic tape, audio and optical discs, video, telephonic devices,
and radio. These sources are classified as recorded audio
(magnetic tape. audio discs, and optical discs) or real-time
audio (videoconferencing, telephone, and radio),
SOUND MIXERS
Sound mixers combine the electrical output of microphone

and line level sources into a composite output Signal for distribution to other components of the sound system. Sound
mixers are classified as manually operated or automatic
hands-off types. Manually operated mixers require placement in the same sound field the audience experiences so
the operator can properly adjust the sound system. Automatic microphone mixers control turning on/off of microphones, adjusting gain. and routing of signals.
AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOMS

Equipment rack enclosures are often housed in a dedicated
audio equipment room. In this case, clearance should be left
around the enclosures to permit maintenance work. When
power amplifiers create a large sensible heat load, audio
equipment rooms may require fOlced air cooling
Locate audio equrpment rooms as close as possible to the
microphones and loudspeakers to minimize cable length
Often a separate equipment room is required so the power
amplifiers can be located close to the loudspeakers.
2"
"\~ DIAMETER
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DIAMETER
HANDHELD
PERFORMER'S
MICROPHONE
BOUNDARY LAYER
MICROPHONE
AIR
VENT.
TYP.
2'-0"
SIGNAL PROCESSING
2'0"
Signal processing equipment provides the means for altering

the frequency. magnitude. delay time, and distribution of
audio signals received from the mixer. Signal processing
equipment includes frequency equalizers, crossovers, signal
delay lines, and distribution amplifiers. These items can be
discrete components, or computer-eontrolled digital signal
processing (DSP) can be used to execute their functions.
AUDIO EQUIPMENT RACK

EQUIPMENT RACK
ENCLOSURE
2'-0"
-'-1:
ACCESS
SPACE AT
FRONT~-+--.........,r
AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers increase the voltage of the audio signals received

from the signal processing devices and distribute the stronger signal to the loudspeakers. Amplifiers are configured as
either low impedance output for driving 4,8, or 16 ohm loudspeakers or as 25, 70.7. or 100 constant voltage output driving transformer-eoupled loudspeakers.
2 0
.1
1--'--!---1---T
WALL
LOUDSPEAKERS
Loudspeakers convert electrical AC voltage into sound

waves. Sound reinforcement loudspeakers have either fullrange cone drivers, commonly used for ceiling distributed
systems, or multiway loudspeaker systems with separate
low frequency and midlhigh frequency drivers. Typically,
midjhigh frequency systems use compression drivers connected to a horn system to provide controlled directional
sound coverage output.
20"
PLAN
THIN PROFILE
LECTERN
MICROPHONE
LAVALIERE
MICROPHONE
AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOM
MICROPHONE TYPES
BACKBOX
INFRASTRUCTURE
TRANSFORMER
Sound system equipment is normally installed in standard

19-in. wide equipment rack enclosures. Signal cables are
NOTE
Plan for space at each side, in front of, and behind equipment rack enclosures to allow for maintenance and access
LOUDSPEAKER
FINISH
CEILING
FULL-RANGE CEILING LOUDSPEAKER
~4"
I ~
-/'
DIAMETER
COMPRESSION
DRIVER
0~=----''''))I ~:~FREQUENCV
.~y/;~>
COMPRESSION DRIVER WITH HORN

HIGH-FREQUENCOY
HORN
8"
AUTOMATIC MICROPHONE MIXER

LOWFREQUENCY
LOUDSPEAKER
~"
'-.......''-....~,
MANUAL MIXER
HORN LOADED
LOW-FREQUENCY LOUDSPEAKER
SOUND MIXERS
LOUDSPEAKERS
Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
MULTIWAY LOUDSPEAKER
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design

GENERAL
WELL-LIT ENTRY WITH

CLEARLY MARKED UNIT
NUMBER DEFINES
PRIVATE REALM OF UNIT
LOCKABLE WINDOWS
FROM DWELLING
SURVEY DEFINED
COMMON AREAS
Crimes such as vandalism, terrorism, burglary, shopliftinq,

employee theft, assault, and espionage endanger lives and
threaten the built environment. Despite this, security as a
design consideration has often been inadequately
addressed and poorly funded. Now. however, in many jurisdictions police authorities require security plan reviews as
73
part of the building permit process in the same way they

review life safety and fire prevention plans.
LOW LEVEL
PLANTING BUFFERS
UNIT FROM SIDEWALK
Security design is more than bars on windows, a security

guard booth, a camera. or a wall. Security involves the systematic integration of design, technology, and operation for
the protection of three critical assets-people. information.
and property. Protection of these assets is a concern in all
building types and should be considered throughout the
design and construction process, from programming, schematic design. design development, preparation of construction documents, and bidding, through construction.
RECESSED
ALCOVE AND
LEVEL CHANGE
HELP DEFINE
UNIT BOUNDARY
The most efficient, least expensive way to provide security

is during the design process. Architects called on to
address security and crime concerns must be able to determine security requirements, know security technology, and
understand the architectural implications of security needs.
'x'--...//O:::--~- LIGHTING AND
Designing without security in mind can lead to expensive

retrofitting, which may require more security personnel
than security equipment designed in from the start. As
well, installation of retrofit security equipment can distort
key building design elements and inhibit building function.
Most important, planning without security can lead to suecessful claims against owners, architects, and building
managers.
COLLECTIVE
SEMIPRIVATE
ARE~/
The process of designing security into architecture is

known as crime prevention through environmental design
(CPTED). It involves designing the built environment to
reduce the opportunity tor and tear of stranger-to-stranger
predatory crime. This approach to security design recognizes the intended use of space in a building and is different
from traditional crime prevention practice. which focuses
on denying access to a crime target with barrier techniques
such as locks, alarms. fences. and gates. CPTED takes
advantage of opportunities for natural access control. surveillance, and territorial reinforcement. It is possible for natural and normal uses of the environment to meet the same
security goals as physical and technical protection methods.
CHANGE IN
TEXTURE AND
ESTABLISHMENT
OF SETBACK
CREATE TRANSITION
FROM PUBLIC TO
SEMIPUBLIC AREA
BELONGING TO
RESIDENTIAL CLUSTER
A design concept intended to make intruders easily observable, natural surveillance is promoted by features that maximize visibility of people, parking areas, and building
entrances. Examples are doors and windows that look onto
streets and parking areas, pedestrian-friendly sidewalks and
streets, front porches, and adequate nighttime lighting.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
Physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence.

In this setting, users develop a sense of territorial control,
while potential offenders perceive this control and are discouraged from their criminal intentions. Territorial reinforcement is promoted by features that define property lines and
distinguish private spaces from public spaces such as landscape plantings, pavement design, gateway treatments,
and fences.
MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE
CPTED STRATEGIES
Operational and management concepts that maintain buildings and facilities in good working order and that maintain a
standard of care consistent with national and local standards contribute to the security effort. Equipment and
materials used in a facility should be designed or selected
with safety and security in mind.
LEGITIMATE ACTIVITY SUPPORT
CPTED CONCEPTS
Concepts involved in crime prevention through environmental design are described below.
DEFENSIBLE SPACE
Oscar Newman coined the expression "defensible space"

as a term for a range of mechanisms. real and symbolic barriers. strongly defined areas of influence, and improved
opportunities for surveillance that combine to bring the
environment under the control of its residents.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
Natural access control involves decreasing opportunities for

crime by denying access to crime targets and creating a
perception of risk in offenders. It is accomplished by
designing streets. sidewalks. building entrances. and neighborhood gateways to mark public.routes and by using structural elements to discourage access to private areas.
' - PLANTS
BUFFER
AND LOW
WALL DEFINES
COLLECTIVE
SEMIPRIVATE
AREA
" ' - PUBLIC AREA
SETBACK CREATES
SEMIPUBLIC AREA
SECURITY LAYERING OF SPACES

NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
CPTED strategies are implemented by

1. ELECTRONIC METHODS: mechanical security products.
target-hardening techniques, locks, alarms, CCTV, gadgets
2. ARCHITECTURAL METHODS: architectural design and
layout site planning and landscaping. signage, circulation
control
3. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS: manpower, police, security guards, receptionists. doormen, and business block
watches
COLUMN DEFINE
ENTRY PORTAL
DESIGN CURB
TO DETER
INAPPROPRIATE
TRAFFIC
Legitimate activity for a space or building is encouraged

through use of natural surveillance and lighting and architectural design that clearly defines the purpose of the structure or space. Crime prevention and design strategies can
discourage illegal activity and protect a property from
chronic problem activity.
ADA AND BUILDING SECURITY
2. Door hardware, such as handles, pulls, latches, locks,

and other operating devices, must be shaped so they are
easy to grasp with one hand. Lever, push-type, and Ushaped mechanisms are acceptable, knobs are not.
3. Elevators must have visual signals to indicate when each
call is registered and answered. Elevator doors must
remain open for at least 3 seconds.
4. Regulations require counters to be 28 to 34 in. off the
floor.
5. Alarm systems for evacuation must provide warnings for
the blind, deaf, and nonambulatory staff of the building.
Announcements must be louder than 15 dB but not
exceed 120 dB for 30 seconds. Visual alarms must flash
and be tied into the emergency power circuit. Fire alarms
should also incorporate visual strobes to alert individuals
who are hearing impaired.
6. ATM controls must be at least 15 to 54 in. high and have
operating instructions in braille. Night deposit mechanisms must not require a tight grasp (no knobs).
7. Security vestibules must be accessible to individuals in
wheelchairs. A maneuvering clearance of at least 4 ft
must be provided.
Areas affected by ADA requirements for building security
include vaults. safety deposit box rooms. front desk
counters, security desk and information counters, control
rooms, life safety equipment safe-refuge areas, turnstiles
and security screening checkpoints, all door and locking
hardware, and access control devices.
ACCESS
CONTROL
ELEVATOR
CONTROLS
""O"J
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) affects

architecture, life safety design, and building security technology dramatically. Sample regulations are listed below.
For specifics. please see the act itself.
Instructions for access control card readers must be provided in braille for the visually disabled.
FLOOR
LEVEL
"
SECURITY CONTROLS FOR ADA
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
74
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
PROJECT-RELATED SECURITY
EVALUATION
Security needs for an architectural project should be determined early, preferably as part of the programming and
needs definition stage. Surveys of similar existing operations and interviews with personnel at these sites can help
.~identify security concerns.
Once a client, owner, or security consultant has identified
the security objectives of a project, the architect must
ensure the design supports these objectives. Basic decisions about circulation, access, building materials, fenestration, and other design features can support or thwart overall
security aims. The architect's role is to incorporate the
basic security requirements and programmatic objectives
into the project
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The first step in determining site-related security requirements is to identify the location. building type, style of operation, and economic aspects of the project. Security levels
(high-low) can be defined by determining which areas,
items of equipment, buildings, and activities and personnel
are most sensitive or vulnerable,
3. Determine the threats to the project.

a Consider threats from sabotage, espionage, terrorrsm,
street crime, disgruntled employees, workplace violence. among others.
b. Consider the value of the assets to be protected, the
objectives of potential aggressors, the perceived
deterrence of security measures, and the risk level at
the site.
4 Determine what modes of attack may threaten the
project. Among those to be considered are these:
a _Covert entry
b. Insider alone
c. Insider with others
Bombing
e. Surveillance
f. Demonstrations
g. Aerial attack
h. Standoff attack
i. Theft. burglary, robbery
j. Destruction
k. Contamination
I. Unauthorized entry
5. Determine the severity of the potential attacks. Which of
the following would the perpetrators be most likely to
SITE SELECTION AND

EVALUATION FOR THREATS
AND VULNERABILITY
Security objectives should be considered when choosing a
site. For example. crowded sites can make it difficult to provide an adequate buffer around the perimeter or to control
and check on-site circulation
Once a site has been selected, the crime prevention
through environmental design (CPTED) and security analysis process can identify measures to overcome any security
deficiencies. The architect should consider conditions on
and off the site. including topography; vegetation; adjacent
land uses; circulation patterns; sightlines; potential areas for
refuge or concealment; existing lighting conditions; and the
types and locations of utilities, including -their vulnerability
to tampering or sabotage.
Steps for determining the threats to and vulnerability of a
project and site are outlined here:
1. Identify a mission statement for the project.
a. Identify the assets to be protected.
b. Determine what is to be protected according to the

categories of people. property, and information
c. Determine the replacement value of the information
and property to be protected.
2. Determine how critical security is to the design of the
project.
a. Analyze the mission of the project.
b. Determine present posture/operation positions.
c. Determine the ease with which the property and information to be protected could be replaced.
d. Analyze the value of what is to be protected.
use?
a. Tools
b. Weapons
c. Explosives
6. Determine the vulnerability of the site. considering the
state of the following security measures at the site:
a. Security force capabilities
b. Penetration delay
c. Detection capabilities
d. Assessment capabilities
e. Access controls
f. Procedural controls
g. Mission requirements
7. Identify the constraints that will affect what security
measures are implemented:
a. Financial
b. Operational
8. Determine the protection required for the project:
a. Where is security critical?
11At the outer perimeter?
2) At the inner perimeter?
3) At the asset?
b. What security measures will be implemented?
1) Barrier/delay
2) Detection
3) Assessment
4} Access control
5) Command and control
61Manpower
7) Security procedures
SECURITY LAYERING
Once the risks, threats. and vulnerabilities of a project have
been assessed, analyze the security measures that could
be used for the project. The choices fall into three classifi-
cations: organizational (people strategies). electronic (tech

nology and hardware), and architectural (design ami
circulation patterns). These classifications should be comic
ered for eacl: level of defense or security layer:
, First level--outer perimeter and site
2. Second level-c-buildinq exterior
3. Third level-s-interior control and point security

In defensible space, these security layers are defined as
public. semipublic. semiprivate. and private spaces.
LIGHTING FOR SECURITY

Security lighting does not prevent or stop crime, but it car
help owners protect people and property. Good pedestriar
lighting offers the natural surveiHance people need to fee'i
comfortable walking ahead or across a parking lot to their
cars. Lighting can prevent surprises from jump-out criminals or g'lve pedestrians the opportunity to request assis
tance, to turn and go another way. or to retreat.
Security lighting goals should be to achieve a uniform, can
sistent level of light on both pedestrian and vehicular paths
of travel. Lighting is critical for the illumination of street anc
building names and numbers for effective response by
police. fire, and emergency personnel. Design lighting to
avoid light intrusion into residential settings.
The quality of lighting may be an important security feature
True-color, full spectrum light rendition can help with identi
fication of vehicles and persons. Car lots and gas stations
are examples of building types where metal halide luminaires are used for tul! spectrum light rendition.
NOTES
1. Proper beam control saves a system from glare. loss of
light energy. and light intrusion.
2. Fixtures should be installed to cast a light pattern over a
broad horizontal area rather than a tall vertical area.
3. Light surfaces reflect light more efficiently than dark surfaces.
4. Keep in mind the line of sight between the location of a
light fixture and objects that may cast a shadow. Careful
placement will avoid dark. corners behind doors, trashcans, and other features.
RECOMMENDED
LIGHTING LEVELS (IN
LUMENS) BY BUILDING TYPE
...J
...J
...J
f-
f-
a:
a:
III
:;:
0
III
:>
:;:
0
Z
a:
30-100
30
10
Bathrooms
30
30
30
Elevators and stairs
20
20
20
Public spaces
30
30
Private spaces
20
20
20
Entrances
10
Interiors
Self-parking
1.0
1.0
1.0
Attendant parking
2.0
2.0
2.0
Sidewalks
0.9
06
0.2
( L I G H T SOURCE
ENTRY
LIGHT
PARKING
RESIDENTIAL
1
COMMERCIAL
PROPERTY
LOW LIGHTING SOURCE
CLASSIFICATIONS FOR VARIOUS

LEVELS OF DEFENSE
ADJACENT
ZONING
COMMERCIAL
PROPERTY
TALL LIGHTING SOURCE
SECURITY LIGHTING FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami. Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
RESIDENTIAL
--.----.-.------r~
. - -..
ADJACENT
ZONING
Security Systems Design

TYPES OF SENSORS
AND CONDITIONS OF USE
A SYSTEMS APPROACH
TO SECURITY
ULTRASONIC MOTION DETECTORS are used when air

turbulence is low and when there are external noise
sources that could affect a motion detector that radiated
energy outside of the protected area. Use low frequency
detectors if audible noise is not objectionable.
An interdependent arrangement of security barriers, technology systems, and security response capabilities yields a
responsive and complete security delivery system.
The physical security process primarily consists of fences,

building walls. inner walls and doors, and safes and vaults.
MICHOWAVE MOTION DETECTORS are used when air

turbulence is present in the protected room and when
there are no potential false alarm sources outside of the
room and in the field of the detector.
The proliferation of electronic security devices and systems. coupled with rapid and substantial advances in the
capabilities of these systems, has resulted in a wide array
of choices in security technology. To choose effectively
among these. architects must gain a basic understanding of
the principles and applications of crime prevention through
environmental design (ePTED). security design, and operational security.
PASSIVE INFRARED DETECTORS are used when air turbulence is present in an area or point to be protected. Temperature changes do not affect this type of device, but
abrupt changes in light level may cause false alarms.
DETECTORS FOR ROOM BOUNDARIES are used when
detectors are needed to give the earliest possible warning
of an intrusion. They are used only in conjunction with
space detectors for the interior of a room; vibration detectors, acoustic detectors, break beams, and breakwires are
suggested.
Use of alarmed surveillance systems can greatly reduce

property loss. Reports have shown that even when actual
breaking and entering incidents have increased, the amount
of property stolen has decreased. This is due in part to the
use of alarms, perimeter protection, and intrusion detection
systems. However, Integrated systems-those that
employ the proper procedures, equipment, and people in
combination-are the most effective.
MULTIPLE SPACE DETECTORS are used jointly when

detectors are not affected in the same measure by external
noise sources and when false alarm rates can be reduced
drastically while still maintaining a reasonable probability of
detection.
In general. the security response capabilities at a particular

facility depend on the efforts of the on-site security team.
However, architects must design buildings that permit
security staff to respond efficiently to incidents requiring
their action.
Multiple space detectors are used singly when one type of

detector can protect one part of a room and another detector can protect another part of a room because external
noise sources are specifically located.
SENSOR SECURITY SYSTEMS
VIBRATION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence,

acoustical noises, and motion outside the room are,
present. These devices are best suited to protect room
boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
Sensor security systems are commonly designed to protect

perimeters or to monitor interior space.
PERIMETER SENSOR SYSTEMS may include the following

features: continuous line of detection, in-depth protection,
complementary sensors, alarm combination, priority
schemes, clear zone, site specific system, sensor confiquration, tamper protection, self-test compatibility, suitability
for physical and environmental conditions, integration with
video system, and integration with barrier delay.
ACOUSTIC DETECTORS are used when light air turbulence, vibration, and motion are present outside the room.
These devices are most effective in protecting room boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
Physical and environmental conditions that affect exterior

sensors include topography, vegetation, wildlife, background noise, climate and weather, and soil and pavement.
THERMAL DETECTORS are used to detect temperature

rises in small enclosures such as vaults when an intruder
uses a torch or burning bar to gain entrance. This device
would normally be used in a system that includes other
types of intrusion detectors.
The conceptual design stage of a perimeter sensor system

involves identifying targets, defining threats, establishing
security requirements, and developing basic security features.
The final design stage requires defining the clear zone surface, determining sensor locations. completing system
engineering and specifications, locating perimeter fencing,
and designing power and signal distribution.
Tasks in the construction stage include procuring materials,
performing surveys, installing conduit and wiring, applying
surface material, and installing outer fences and sensors.
Operation tasks are maintenance, testing, training, and documentation.
INTERIOR DETECTION SYSTEMS offer in-depth protection,

detect intruders in time for adequate response, detect tampering, and are able to self-test. As well. they must be properly installed (no loose mountings, wiring in conduits,
sensors in proper location for detection).
ENTRY VESTIBULE
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON SENSORS
Environmental conditions that affect interior sensors

include the electromagnetic energy, nuclear radiation,
acoustic energy, thermal energy, optical effects, seismic
phenomena, and meteorological conditions.
75
INFRARED CARDS depend on encoding information with

varying density patterns that are read by infrared detectors
The patterns are optically detected and not visible to the
human eye.
MAGNETIC SLUG CARDS have magnetic slugs or metal
pieces embedded or layered in them; they are read by magnetic sensing devices. Also known as shim cards, they are
generally limited to a single code, making them most suitable for parking operations.
MAGNETIC STRIPE CARDS have stripes or layers of a magnetic material embedded between layers or on a card's surface in vertical columns or horizontal rows. Areas or
patterns on this magnetic material can be magnetized in
coded patterns and read by magnetic sensing devices.
OPTICAL MEMORY CARDS depend on varied transparency
densities arranged in rows, columns, or spots. These patterns are read by a system of light sources and photodetectors.
PROXIMITY CARDS incorporate embedded or laminated
RF circuits that utilize electrically tuned circuits that resonate when activated by a transmitfer sweeping through the
RF range. A receiver picks up the resonating frequency and
activates the code deciphering system. Unlike other access
cards, the proximity card can be worn or carried and
detected at various ranges depending on the design capabilities of the system.
SMART CARDS contain an onboard computer chip and a
power supply, normally a lithium battery capable of storing
up to six pages of text.
WATERMARK MAGNETIC CARDS contain small oxide particles physically oriented into zones of varying widths. The
particles are set while the iron oxide slurry is still fluid: the
binary structure spacing of this computer-generated pattern
is then oven-eured to create an unalterable 10- or 12-digit
code number but leaving another layer of the magnetic
stripe available for encoding soft conventional data.
WIEGAND CARDS utilize magnetically embedded unstable
ferromagnetic wires formed in a permanently tensioned
helical twist. The wiegand card reader uses a magnetic coil
that picks up the flux reversal characteristics of the wires
and converts them to binary pulses.
VIDEO SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
The major components of a video system are the camera,

lens, and mount; lighting system; transmission system;
synchronization system; video switching equipment; video
recorder; video monitor; and video controller.
TRANSMISSION
MEANS (COAXIAL
OPTICAL. 2-WIREl
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

The following statements describe features of a good
access control system:
1 They cannot be bypassed.

2. They allow observation by a protective force guard.
3. They protect the guard.
4. They block passage until access and material control
procedures have been performed.
5. They provide secondary inspection of those who cannot
pass the automated inspection.
6. They accommodate peak loads.
7. They accommodate vehicles and people.
8. They perform access and material control.
9. They are under surveillance by a central alarm station.
10. They are designed for both entry and exit.
VIDEO
MONITOR
PRINTER
VIDEOCASSETTE
RECORDER
CARD TECHNOLOGIES
BAR CODE cards have a series of vertical or horizontal

stripes and spaces printed in a manner that represents
coded data. The spaces between the stripes are read optically by a photodetector cell.
EMBOSSED CARDS exhibit pattern codes that are raised or

indented in the card's surface and read by their relative
position in the card reader.
LOCATION
OF SENSORS
HOLLERITH CARDS have a pattern of small holes punched

into the card that presents specific data to the card reader.
This card can be read optically or mechanically. The optical
reader depends on the light patterns passing through the
holes, while the mechanical reader uses electric reed,
brush, or switch contacts to read the coded patterns.
SAMPLE LAYOUT OF INTERIOR

SENSORS
.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A VIDEO

SECURITY SYSTEM
Randall L Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
76
Security Design Strategies
GENERAL
Basic security design strategies for building perimeters,
interiors, lobbies, stairwells. loading docks. and roofs are
outlined here. Also given are specific strategies for practicing crime prevention through environmental design
(CPTED) and for addressing the need for bomb resistance.
BUILDING PERIMETER
1. Reduce the number of stairwells that exit to the outside.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
Make the exit through the lobby whenever possible.

Entries should funnel people toward the control point.
Don't place any entries behind the control point.
Define public vs. private areas.
Project the image of a secure building.
INTERNAL AREAS
1. Place occupant services within protected floor space.
2. Control access to critical operation areas.
3 Provide buffer/reception zones In executive areas
4. Provide multiple paths of entry/exit for executives.

5. Consider creating safe havens in senior executive
offices.
10. Limit the number of facility exit doors based on operational necessity and fire loading regulations.
11 Clearly mark site entrances with signs that indicate visitor and vendor processing points
12. Establish physical control over loading docks, equipment sheds, boiler rooms, and trashbins
13. Provide adequate lighting and surveillance of employee
and visitor parking lots.
14. If possible, separate employee and visitor parking.
15. Provide tenants with the means to control their own
office areas.
16. Provide reception personnel with a means of covertly
signaling duress situations.
17. Establish a uniform means of identification and access
for multitenant sites.
18. Utilize primary and secondary authentication methods
for access to highly sensitive areas.
19. Clearly delineate employee, visitor, vendor, and contractor status on badges along with the locations and times
they are allowed access.
20. Design floor layout plans with security in mind
STRATEGIES FOR BOMB

RESISTANCE
Key defensive architectural design considerations for bomb
resistance are listed here:
BUILDING LOBBY
1. Position the control point between the entry and access
to other floors.
2. Move flow past control point.
3. Place restroorns in public areas.
4. Make it possible to secure the lobby level
COMMON STAIRWELLS
1. Designate stairways for emergency use only whenever
possible.
2. Prevent access to floors from the garage and public
areas.
3. Place stairs so they exit into the lobby.
4. Use internal stairwells for floor-to-floor transit.
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building as far

from the building as possible.
2. Use poured-in-place reinforced concrete for all framing,
including slabs, walls, columns, and roofs.
3. Roof and base slabs should be at least 8 in. thick, exterior walls 12 in. thick, and columns spaced no more
than 30 It apart.
4. Use seismic detaili.ng at connection points.
5. Reinforce floor slabs and roofs using a two-way reinforcing scheme.
6. Design windows that comprise no more than 15% of
the wall area between supporting columns.
7. Reduce the flying glass hazard by using a plastic mylar
coating on the inside face of the windows.
8. Install specially designed blast curtains inside the windows to catch pieces of glass, while permitting the airblast pressure to pass through the curtain.
LOADING DOCKS
1. Restrict access to authorized personnel.
2. Control access from the dock into the building.
3. Provide comfort area for drivers on the dock.
4. Make it possible to close off the dock
5. Place dumpsters within controlled dock area
6. Give vehicle staging a separate area
ROOFS
1. Minimize entry points onto the roof
2. Minimize entry via skylights by using multiple mullions
Solid or fixed diffusers in the light weI! can also prevent
access.
3. Protect roof equipment, such as HVAC cooling towers,
from vandalism with roof enclosures with lockable louvered doors spaced far enough from the equipment to
allow proper ventilation.
4. Restrict the height of parapets to allow for surveillance
from the gro.und.
SPECIFY HIGHER
SECURITY FEATURES
FOR WINDOWS
ADJACENT TO
CANOPY
9. Design artistically pleasing concrete barriers as planters

or works of art and position them near curbs at a dis
tance from the building
10. Design buildings in a simple geometric rectangular lay
out to minimize the defraction effect when blast waves
bounce off If-shaped or L-shaped buildings and cause
additional damage.
11 Drastically reduce or eliminate ornamentation on build
ings that could easily break away and endanger building
occupants or pedestrians at street level. All external
cladding should be of lightweight materials to minimize
damage if they become flying objects after an explo
sian.
PARKING GARAGES
1. Garages should be attended or monitored openly with

cameras and sound monitors marked with signs.
2. Place all pedestrian entrances adjacent to vehicle
entrances.
3. Stairwells should be visible, without solid walls.
4. Place elevators close to the main entrance so the entire
interior of the elevator is in view when the doors are
open.
5. Elevators must not have permanent stop buttons.

6. Design the ground floor to provide a view of the garage
use wire mesh or stretch cable.
7. Limit access to no more than two designated, monitored entrances.

1. All elevators should be monitored by cameras and

sound or clear materials should be used for the entire
car.
2. Replace retaining walls with stretch cable railings for
maximum visibility.
3. Parking areas and driving lanes should be well lighted

MANAGEMENT
1. Prohibit free access to adjacent buildings without direct

monitoring.
2. Designate public and private parking spaces.
3. Operate during hours similar to those of local businesses.
4. Secure the garage when it is closed.
ELEVATOR MONITORED
BY VIDEO CAMERA WITH
SOUND PICKUP
~e,",u,)
BUILDING
SIGNAGE
(CLEAR
VIEW, AT
LEAST
6" HIGH)
ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
STRATEGIES
1. Establish a physical boundary separating public from private property.
2. Design vehicular and pedestrian traffic patterns to maximize natural surveillance of arrivals and departures.
3. Clearly indicate primary and secondary entrances for
employees, as well as a primary entrance for visitors.
4. Ensure that visitors will be processed at the main reception area before they proceed to secondary areas of the
facility.
5. Erect physical barriers to separate public reception from
private office areas.
6. Establish physical and electronic control over exterior and
interior access points.
7. Compartmentalize and electronically control access to
critical areas such as computer rooms, executive areas,
power and telephone closets, and other restricted areas.
8. Physically separate shipping and receiving areas.
9. Restrict access to inventory storage areas
DESIGN COLUMN TO PROHIBIT

CLIMBING BY AVOIDING
DECORATIVE FEATURES SUCH
AS WROUGHT IRON AND
RUSTICATED MASONRY
ROOF AND CANOPY DESIGN
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP: Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.; Miami, Flonda
BUILDING SECURITY
SHAFT WALLS
AND WALLS OF
ELEVATOR CABS
SPECIFIED WITH
TRANSPARENT
MATERIALS FOR
VISIBILITY TO
ADJACENT PUBLIC
SPACE
ELEVATORS
Commercial, Office, and Industrial Security Strategies

EXTERIOR OF BUILDING
SHOULD BE WELL LIT
WINDOWS SHOULD
FACE REAR
PARKING AREA
FOR SURVEILLANCE
BUILDING SIGNAGE
77
AWNING
WITH
LIGHT
BUILDING
SIGNAGE
/
/
./--
--/
~/L
COMMERCIAL
BUSINESS
PARKING
AREA
-----\---~
/
/
-;L
\..;L-~----,c-'\
NOTE
Clear visibility should be maintained from store to sidewalk,

street, parking areas, and passing vehicles. Window signs
should cover no more than 15% of any window area.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY
7. Windows and doors should have views into hallwaysincluding peepholes and vision panels.
8. Assign parking spaces to each employee and visitor.
9. Parking areas should be visible from the windows; side
parking areas should be visible from the street
COMMERCIAL SECURITY
Designing safe stores and malls is critical to ensuring

strong business draw and retention. Commercial security
measures and design must protect the patrons. property,
and business information of a business.
, . Make restroom doors visible from main pedestrian areas

and keep them away from outside exits.
2. Parking areas should be well lighted. Use high-intensity
lighting in parking garages to minimize hiding places. In
addition, all levels of the parking garage should be visible
from the street or ground floor.
10. Keep shrubbery below 3 ft and tree branches at least 10

ft above the ground for good visibility.
3. Loading areas should not create dead-end alleys or blind

spots.
COMMERCIAL STOREFRONTS
1. Locate cash registers in the front of the store near the

main entrance.
2. Clearly mark public paths.
3. Signs should direct patrons to parking and entrances.
4. There should be no easy access to the roof.
5. Shops with rear parking lots should have rear entrances.
1. Define property perimeters with landscaping, post-andpillar fencing, and gates.

2. Keep the number of entrances as low as possible and
make them obvious and celebrated.
MANAGEMENT
1. Plan for good visibility: Windows should face rear parking

lots. Signs in windows should cover no more than 15%
of the window area. Interior shelving and displays should
be no higher than five feet. Unobstructed views should
be available from the store to the street. sidewalk, parking areas, and passing vehicles.
2. The building exterior should be well-lighted.
3. Loading areas should not create hiding places.
4. Drainage retention areas should be visual amenities, a
landscaped pond or smaller waterway rather than a
fenced area, but to be secure they should be visible from
nearby buildings ano streets.
5. All entrances should be under visual surveillance or monitored electronically.
1. Where possible. mark property boundaries with hedges,

low fences, or gates.
2. Distinguish private areas from public spaces.

3. Identify shops with wall signs for those parking in the
rear.
4. Specify awnings over rear doors and windows.
COMMERCIAL SHOPPING MALL

1. Use signs to mark public entrances clearly

2. Clearly mark sidewalks and public areas with special paving and/or landscaping.
3. Separate loading zones from public parking zones; designate limited delivery hours.
4. The parking garage should provide no exterior access to
adjacent rooftops.
1. Define the perimeter with landscaping or fencing.

2. Design fences to permit visibility from the street.
3. Make exerior private areas easily distinguishable from
public areas.
4. Position a security and/or a reception area to screen all
entrances.
1. Assign close-in parking for nighttime employees.

2. Help business associations work together to promote
shopper and business safety.
COMMERCIAL DRIVE-THROUGHS
1. Locate ATMs in front of banks facing main roads or as a

drive-through in the drive-in teller lanes.
2. Place the ordering station for a restaurant within sight of
the restaurant interior.
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Office building security focuses on the safety and security
of people, goods, and services. Office building security can
assume a high or low profile based on the type and number
of building users.
1. Clearly define public entrances with walkways and signs.

2. Accentuate building, entrances with architectural elements, lighting, and landscaping and/or paving stones.
1. Place restrooms where they can be observed from

nearby offices.
2. All exterior doors and hallways should be well-lighted, as
well as all parking areas and walkways.
3. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding
places.
4. Windows and exterior doors should be visible from the
street or to neighbors.
5. All four facades should have windows.
6. Do not obstruct windows with signs.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Industrial enterprises need to protect the assets in their
facilities. Special security consideration must be given to
receiving and outgoing areas to reduce theft. Individual
building tenants should have security technology availability
for continuous monitoring and supervision of their space.
1. Avoid creating dead-end spaces.

2. Make site entrances easy to secure.
3. Control entrances to parking areas with fences, gates,
or an attendant's booth.
4. Parking should be assigned by shifts and planned so
late workers have the close-in spaces.
5. Restrict access to railroad tracks.
6. Plan storage yards for vehicular access by patrol car.
7. Avoid access to roofs via dumpster, loading docks.
poles, stacked items, etc.
8. Delivery entrances should be separate, well-marked,
and monitored.
9. Place employee entrances close to employee parking
and work areas.
10. Separate nighttime parking areas from service
entrances.
11. Avoid providing access from one part of the building
into other areas.
1. All entrances should be well-lighted, well-defined, and

visible to public and patrol vehicles.
2. Parking areas should be visible to patrol cars, pedestrians, parking attendants, and/or building personnel.
3. Position the parking attendant for maximum visibility of
the property.
4. Give reception areas a view of parking areas
5. Use walls only when necessary.
6. Blind alleys, storage yards, and other out-ot-the-vvav
places should not offer hiding places.
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Alias Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
78
Residential Site Security Strategies
GENERAL
Designing CPTED (crime prevention through environmental
design) and security features into residential buildings and
neighborhoods can reduce opportunities for and vulnerability to criminal behavior and help create a sense of community. The goal in residential design is to create safe dwelling
places through limited access to properties, good surveillance. and a sense of ownership and responsibility.
_ - SIDEWALK SCALE LIGHTING
PORCHES.
SIDEWALKS. ETC
ENCOURAGE
INTERACTION
BETWEEN
NEIGHBORS
\
J
r
\
STREET DESiGNED TO DISCOURAGE

CUT-THROUGH TRAFFIC
SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLINGS
v'~----STREETLAMP
LIGHTING (PROVIDE
ADEQUATE DISTANCE
FROM TREES)
NATURAL ACCESS
CONTROL AND SURVEILLANCE
, Use walkways and landscaping to direct visitors to the

proper entrance and away from private areas
2. All doorways that open to the outside as well as side-
walks and all areas of the yard should be well-lighted.

3. Make the front door at least partially visible from the
street and clearly visible from the driveway.
OPEN GREEN SPACE

OBSERVABLE FROM
NEARBY HOUSES
FENCE TO
BACKYARD
PAVING TREATMENTS.
ARCHITECTURAL
TREATMENTS.
ETC. DEFINE
PUBLIC FROM
PRIVATE ZONES
4. Windows on all sides of the house should provide full

views of the propertvThe driveway should be visible
flam the front or back door and from at least one window.
5. Properly maintained landscaping should provide good
views to and from the house.
HOUSE
1. Front porches or stoops create

between the street and the house
a transitional area
2. Define property lines and private areas with plantings,

pavement treatments, or fences.
3. The street address should be clearly visible from the

street with numbers a minimum of 5 in. high and made
of nonreflective material.
SUBDIVISIONS
PAVING TREATMENTS
DEFINE SUBDIVISION
AND TRAFFIC CALMING
LOW LANDSCAPING
DEFINES PROPERTY
LINES WITHOUT CREATING
BLIND SPOTS OR HIDING PLACES
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
FEATURES DEFINE
SUBDIVISION (PROVIDE
ADEQUATE LIGHTING)
1. Limit access to the subdivision without completely disconnecting it from neighboring areas. However, try to
design streets to discourage cut-through traffic
2. Paving treatments, plantings and architectural design
features such as columned gateways can guide visitors
away from private areas.
3. Locate walkways where they can direct pedestrian traffic
and remain unobscured.
1. Landscaping should not create blind spots or hiding

places.
2. Locate open green spaces and recreational areas so they
can be observed from nearby houses.
3. Use pedestrian-scale street lighting in areas with high
pedestrian traffic.
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL

DESIGN-PLANNING FOR SUBDIVISIONS
BUILDING SIGNAGE 5" HIGH
(MIN.) WITH 70% CONTRAST
FROM BACKGROUND
PRIVATE
ZONE
ARCHITECTURAL
FEATURES, LIGHTING,
ETC. ACCENTUATE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
PUBLIC
ZON..=E
__
1. Design lots, streets, and houses to encourage interaction

between neighbors.
2. Accent entrances with changes in street elevation, differ~
ent paving materials, and other design features.
3. Clearly identifv residences with street address numbers
that are a minimum of 5 in. high and well-lighted at night.
(-----
4. Property lines should be defined with post-end-pillar

fencing. gates, and plantings to direct pedestrian traffic.
5. All parking should be assigned.
3'-0"
+-_-tIH
MAX.
MULTIFAMILY DWELLINGS
1. Balcony railings should never be made of a solid, opaque

material or be more than 42 in. high.
2. Define parking lot entrances with curbs, landscaping,
and/or architectural design or a guard booth; block deadend areas with a fence or gate.
3. Hallways should be well-lighted, and elevators and stairs
should be centrally located.
4. Common building entrances should have locks that automatically lock when the door closes.
5. Limit access to the building to no more than two points
No more than four units should share the same entrance.
1. Make exterior doors visible to the street or neighbors,

and ensure they are wetl-lighted.
2. All four building facades should have windows. Site
buildings so the windows and doors of one unit are visible from those of other units.
PROPERTY LINES DEFINED

AND REINFORCED BY
FENCING AND LANDSCAPING
SIDEWALK
lSTREET
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL

DESIGN-PLANNING FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY
3. Assign parking spaces to each unit and locate them next
to the unit. Designate special parking spaces for visitors.
4. Parking areas and walkways should be well-lighted.
5. Recreation areas should be visible from a multitude of
windows and doors.
6. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding
places.
7. Elevators and stairwells should be clearly visible from
windows and doors. In addition, they should be welllighted and open to view-not hidden behind solid walls.
8. Shrubbery should be no more than 3 ft high for clear visibility and tree canopies not lower than 8 ft 6 in
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Secunty Design, Inc, Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
a-o"
(PREFERRED)
1. Define property lines with landscaping or post-and-pillar

fencing, but keep shrubbery and fences low to allow vis!
bility from the street.
2 _Accent building entrances with architectural elements
and lighting and/or landscape features.
3. Doorknobs should be 40 in. from window panes.
4. Clearly identify all buildings and residential units witf
well-liqhted address numbers a minimum of 5 in. high
5. Common doorways should have windows and be key
controlled by residents.
6. Locate mailboxes next to the appropriate residences.
Site Security Planning for Terrorism

SITE SECURITY PLANNING AND
DESIGN CRITERIA
The safety and security of a building, its site. and its users
should be an important design criteria, similar.to such
health and safety issues as structural integrity, accessibility,
and fire safetv Increased threats to people and property
from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and street
crime make it important to identify security issues and
establish a plan to manage the risks.
SECURITY ASSESSMENT
An assessment of the security requirements should be
made as early as possible. preferably as part of the programming phase and certainly before the design phase.
Determining the security requirements is mainly a matter of
managing the perceived risks. Although the assessment is
the owner's responsibility, the architect should ensure that
the security requirements have been identified before the
design begins. Failure to identify security issues will surely
result in design changes, delays, and cost increases for
both the owner and the architect.
DISTANCE SHOULD BE
GREAT ENOUGH SO THAT
COLLAPSE OF THE TOWER
DOES NOT AFFECT THE
OTHER FACILITIES
TOWER FACILITY
CENTRAL FACILITY
POTENTIAL
THRE~.T
SECURE.
->
SERVIC:ERIMETER. T Y P . \ / . / / / /
BUILDING
./
/
/
100'0",
MIN.
~:.j~t//::'~~:CEPT'ON
"'>'""'-
The security assessment will answer four questions:

1. What are the assets-persons, places, information, property-that require security protection?
2. What are the criminal or other threats-street crime,

workplace violence, terrorism, sabotage-against which
the assets must be protected?
3. How vulnerable are the assets to the threats (e.g., if
workplace violence is identified as a threat. can unauthorized persons enter private work spaces unchallenged)?
4. What countermeasures are required to mitigate the
threat (e.g., is the circulation pattern designed to channel
visitors through controlled site-access portals)?
The cost of achieving the correct level of site-based protecnon may be very high, depending on the nature of the protected assets and the perceived threatto them. After the
recommended countermeasures have been identified,
organize them according to their priority and ask the owner
to select those that are prudent and cost-effective for the
project. In the case of federal projects (and many state and
local government projects as well), the assessment results
in the assignment of a defined level of protection (LOP).
with specific countermeasures attached to each level. See
the discussion below of the GSA Security Standards.
Risk assessment and security design are especially relevant
in schools, hospitals, airports, office buildings, and multifamily apartment buildings. In recent years, terrorists have
targeted such buildings because of their: "architectural vul~erability," ~o it is clearly important to address security
Issues in their design.
~~~~~~I~"""',
<,
./
POTENTIAL
THREAT
/
/
'J
100'0", MIN.
they should be implemented for various levels of security.

For example, a level-one facility might not require an entry
control system whereas a level-four -facility would require
electronic controls with CClY assessment.
Several state and local governments also have reviewed
the standards and applied them to new construction. Consult local and state authorities for specific requirements.
The standards take a balanced approach to security, considenng cost-effectiveness, acknowledging acceptance of
some risk, and recognizing that federal buildings should not
be bunker- or fortress-like. but open. accessible, and attractive. Prudent, rather than excessive, security measures are
appropriate in facilities owned by and serving the public.
The architecture and engineering team should address the
following issues for renovations or new construction on any
federal building (and often for state and local buildinqs):
SECURITY PLANNING
1. Security risks and needs of building tenants

2. Mylar film on exterior windows
3. Blast standards for current projects and new construction
4. Design standard for blast resistance and street setback
for new construction
The security standards also address the functional requirements and ~esired application of security glazing, bombresistant design a0d construction, landscaping and planting
designs, site lighting, natural and mechanical surveillance
opportunities (e.q.. good sight lines. no blind spots, window
placement. and proper applications of CelY). The recommendations are further subdivided according to whether
FACILITY
<,
SECURITY LAYERING
In response to bombings of federal office buildings. the federal government has developed security standards for all of
its facilities, and an interagency security committee has recommended their adoption as government-wide standards.
These standards, known as the GSA Security Standards.
encouraqe a defensible space/crime prevention through
en~lronmental design
(ePTED) approach that clearly
defines and- screens the flow of people and vehicles
through various layers of public and private space. Edges
and boundaries of a property should clearly define the
desired circulation patterns and movements. Various
screening techniques can be used to separate legitimate
u~~rs of a building from those who are looking for opporturunes to commit crime, workplace violence, or acts of terrorism.
././ ._<.
./././'~
././././/100'-0". MIN.
One way to think about security requirements IS as a layering process The first layer, the site perimeter of the property, is the first. not the last. line of defense. The U.S.
Department of State seeks setbacks of at least 100 feet for
new buitdinqs. ~nd even at that distance securing the
perimeter IS difficult in most urban settings. The building
skin of the structure is the next layer. Sensitive areas within
~ building are deeper layers requiring protection, and.
finally. at the center of all the layers. are the particular persons. information, or property that may require point protection.
.
GSA RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

SECURITY STANDARDS
79
PERIMETER AND EXTERIOR SECURITY
1. Parking area and parking controls

2. CCTV monitoring
3. Lighting. including emergency backup
4. Physical barriers
ENTRY SECURITY
1. Intrusion detection system

2. Upgrade to current life safety standards
3. Screen persons as well as mail and packages
4. Entry control with CCTV and electric door strikes
5. High-security locks
INTERIOR SECURITy
1. Employee 10, visitor control

2. Access to utilities
3. Emergency power for critical systems
4. Location of day care centers
APPLtCATION OF GSA SECURITY
STANDARDS TO ALL BUILDING TYPES
Many of the issues addressed in the GSA standards apply

to all building types. Among the important security design
issues are establishment of (1) hierarchies of public and private spaces; (2) traffic patterns of the site and the building;
and (3) opportunities for natural observation of surroundings. Hierarchies of space should proceed from open, pub-
lic areas, to semipublic. to semiprivate, to private spaces.

Areas unassigned- in the hierarchy become a sort of ..no
man's land," left unmonitored and unprotected. Traffic patterns of pedestrians and vehicles onto the site and into
buildings should be carefully thought-out and controlled.
And. finally. all buildings should be designed so that users
have a good, unobstructed view of their surroundings.
The following design and planning considerations address
both low- and high-threat situations. If neither a high nor a
low threat is specificed, then the design consideration
applies to both situations.
PLANNING
1. Vehicular control
Low threat: not required
High threat: install barriers to stop a vehicle of a specified size
2. Perimeter vehicle inspection
High threat: install sally port with vehicle arrest device
3. Site lighting
4. Signage to control site circulation
5. Landscaping
Avoid dense landscaping in both low and high threat.
6. Minimize the number of entrances to a building.
Secure entrances when building is not in use.
Clearly identify the function of each entrance (e.g.,
employees only, deliveries. etc).
7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground
floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and
skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unauthorized access and funnel movement along desired paths.
8. Control access for servicing and deliveries.
9. Use graffiti-resistant exterior finishes and/or landscape
with creeping vines.
PARKING
1. Inside the building

Low threat: government vehicles, building employees.
High threat: government employees who need security
2. On-site controlled
Low threat: no restriction
High threat: 100-ft standoff
3. Parking on adjacent streets
Low threat: government and key employees only
High threat: use structural features to prevent parking
4. Parking on adjacent properties
Low threat: 5-ft standoff
High threat: 10o-ft standoff
Site Security Planning for Terrorism continues on the next
page.
Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D., CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc., Miami, Florida
Anth~ny DjGr~gano: Applied Research Associates: Washington, D.C.
Amencan Societv for Industrial Security; Alexandria, Virginia
BUILDING SECURITY
80
Site Security Planning for Terrorism
Site Securitv Planning for Terrorism is continued from the
2. Design concrete barriers as flower planters; positior

them at curbs, spaced less than 4 ft apart.
3. Build new buildings in a simple, geometric, rectanqul.
layout to minimize the "detraction effect" when bias'
waves bounce off U-shaped or L-shaped buildings caus
ing additional damage.
4. Reduce or eliminate ornamentation on buildings, an
use lightweight materials for exterior cladding. During "
bomb blast (or even a hurricane). such ornamentation I~
likely to break away from the building and may iniur
building occupants or pedestrians at street level.
5. Eliminate potential hiding places near the facility.
6. Provide unobstueted views around the facility.
7. Site the building within view of other occupied facilities
8. Locate assets stored on site but outside of the buildinc
within view of occupied rooms of the facility.
~
9. Minimize signage that indicates what assets are on the
property.
10. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the build
ing.
11. Minimize the number of vehicle access points.
'2. Eliminate or strictly control parking below Luildings.
FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING
previous page.
1. Secured water supply

2. Dual fire pumps (electric and diesel)
Not required in low- or high-threat projects
3. Secured standpipe connection
PARKING (CONTINUED)
5. Parking facility security systems

6 Minimize the number of entrances to a building
Functions of the entrances should be clearly identified
(e.g., employees only, deliveries, visitors)
Secure entrances when the building is not in use
7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground
floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and
skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unauthorized access and funnel movement along desired paths.
8. Control access for servicing and deliveries.
9. Use graffiti-res~stant exterior finishes and/or landscape
with creeping vines.
ELECTRONIC SECURITY
1. Operational control center, fire command center, and

security control center located together
2. Backup control center
High threat: locate in manager's or engineer's office
3. Electrical utility closets, mechanical rooms, and telephone closets
Low threat: entry with key should be maintained, with
some method of noting times of entry and departure,
such as marked by a watchman's clock system
High threat: access to mechanical, electrical, and telecommunication rooms should be authorized, programmeG, and monitored at the security control center
through preidentification of maintenance personnel
SITE
1. Generous wiring and backup power

2. Intrusion detection devices
3. Boundary penetration sensors and motion detection systems
4. Access control systems
5. Contraband, weapons, and explosives detectors
6. Credential readers and positive personnel identification
systems
7. Security control and information display systems
13. Locate parking as far from the building as practica:

(while still addressing ADA spaces and proximity), and
place parking within view of occupied rooms or facili
ties.
14. Illuminate the building exterior and other areas where
assets are located.
15. Secure access to power and heating plants, gas mains
water supplies, and electrical and phone service.
4. Elevator recall
5. Door lock
Low-threat: key-locked security keying system
High-threat: high-security keying system with electronic locks
6. Intrusion detection
Low threat: magnetic reed switches with optional sensor to detect breaking glass
High-threat: same as for low threat, with balanced
magnetic contact switch set and sensor to detect
breaking glass
7. Monitoring
Low threat: commercial central station
High threat: on-site, proprietary security control center;
review roof intrusion detection
B. CClY
9. Duress alarms
Low threat: install in key public contact areas, executive offices, and garages as needed
High threat: same as low threat
EXTERIOR ENTRANCE
1. Lobby
Protection from forced entry
2. Employee entrances
Same as lobby
3. Garage and service entrances
Vehicle arrest devices
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Except for lighting (#5) and vehicle access control (#61.

none of the following is necessary in low-threat projects.
1. Exterior connector for emergency power
2. Exterior surveillance
3. Emergency generator
4. Protected utilities and feeders
5. Adequate lighting (including site lighting)
6. Vehicle access control (parking)
7. Emergency communications (parking)
8. CClY (parking)
CONCLUSION
The design of a building can significantly affect how secure
it .is from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and other
cnmes. The goal for architects is to use architectural design
features and elements in a manner that enhances a building's security without compromising its aesthetics and
functionality. While there are instances in which a fortresslike structure is the only solution to various security issues,
in many cases a simple, well thouqht-out plan will yield the
best results.
MORE INFORMATION
1. GSA security standards: www.gsa.gov/pbs
2. American Society for Industrial Security; \'V\'VW.asison
line.com
3. CPTED: www.cpted-secunty.com
4. National Criminal Justice Reference Service: www
ncjrs.org
5. Illumination Engineering Society of North America (secu
rity lighting): W\NW.iesna.org
SUMMARY OF KEY DEFENSIVE

ARCHITECTURAL SITE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS FOR BOMB RESISTANCE
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building that is

as far from the building as possible. Setbacks of 100 It
are desired.
ELECTRONIC SECURITY SELECTION MATRIX

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:::lZO
Ow_
mo..f-
~<.?~<.?
>:::::l -z
MAJOR CAUSES OF NUISANCE ALARMS
Pressure
dial
X
X
X
X
Source. BaSIlJ. Steele, Amencan Society for Industnal Securitv. Alexandna. Virginia
Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
Anthony DiGreggario; Applied Research Associates; Washi"'gton, D.C.
BUILDING SECURITY
Improper installation
Air movement
RFI
Unstable thermal
background
X
X
Stay-behind
intruder or
entry through
unprotected
area
Gross changes in
humidity, temperature, or pressure
Cover when
sensor is in
"access"
mode
Disable
electronics
Commercial Site Development
81
DESIGN GUIDELINES
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
Each commercial development project will have its own set

of requirements. This outline is intended as an overview of
the subjects the architect, engineer, and owner should consider when planning a small to medium commercial development.
A geotechnical engineer should be retained at the inception

of a project to provide a thorough subsurface investigation
of the property. The key information provided by such a survey includes the following:
The maximum height buildings on a particular site can

reach is usually defined in terms of both stories and feet
above the finished grade. These criteria are set by local
ordinance and building code.
Soil quality/type: Soils are described, ranging from their

composition to drainage.
2. Bearing capacity: A variety of field and/or laboratory testing, considered in conjunction with anticipated structural
dead loads, goes into analyzing how a planned building
wilt react to the soil conditions on a site. Settlement is
one issue to be considered here.
3. Foundation recommendations: The geotechnical engineer uses analytical data about the soil quality/type and
the bearing capacity of the soil to make recommendations regarding the most efficient/cost-effective foundation system.
LOCAL PLANNING REGULATIONS
As with all new projects. the designer should research the

laws. codes, and ordinances that govern development in
the jurisdiction. This may include municipal, township.
county, state. and federal regulations as they pertain to land
and building development.
ZONING
Confirm that the zoning classification of the property permits the intended use. For example, to build a warehouse
the tract of land would have to be zoned for industrial use.
The zoning classification also determines what level of
development is allowed on a particular tract of land.
The architect should find out what relevant codes/laws

require in regard to life safety, welfare, and accessibility.
These requirements should provide minimum criteria by
which to measure the design and construction of a project.
The intended use and type of construction will dictate
allowable heights and areas.
BUILDING ENTRANCE
Public exposure, topography, orientation, and parking

should Q considered in designing and siting the main
entrance. To maximize a building's presence on the site
and help orient users, the main entrance should be obvious
and easily visible. Site topography and the intended use of
the bUilding will determine orientation of the entrance, with
consideration of sun angles and views. The main entrance
should be readily recognizable from the main parking area.
TRAFFIC SURVEY
Codes vary around the country, so architects must consult

the local government for all applicable codes/laws and local
amendments. Pertinent laws include the BOCA, UBC,
SBCC, NFPA, ASHRAE, ANSI. and the ADA universal
accessibility law.
PROPERTY SURVEY
Property surveys verify the property boundaries, street

lines, contours, pertinent landmarks, rights-of-way, and
easements (construction restrictions) of a piece of property.
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
Environmental issues such as wetlands preservation,

potential groundwater contamination, and preservation of
native flora and fauna should be considered. Local groups
can provide information regarding local environmental
issues.
When properties share a common storm water basin, local

authorities can hold easements to allow for storm water
drainage across multiple properties. Drainage easements
are not required when individual property owners are
responsible for storm water management.
/"
MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
UTILITIES
The architect must determine which utilities are required,

which are available, how site access will be designed, and
where the utility lines will enter the building. Utilities
include water, sewer, gas, electric, and telephone.
LOT COVERAGE
Zoning laws regulate the amount of physical construction

that can occur on a given piece of land. Physical construction covers buildings and paved, impervious surfaces (e.g.,
sidewalks, blacktop). Another measure affecting the allowable building footprint is building setback, the distance that
must exist between a structure and the property line. Building setbacks are typically described in terms of front, rear,
and side yards; rights-of-way; and property easements.
Local municipal ordinances describe required setbacks,
which vary based on location and intended use.
BUILDING CODES
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
PARKING REQUIREMENTS
Parking requirements typically are a function of intended

use and building size le.g., one space per 250 sq It of building areal. In suburban office park planning, this is commonly the governing factor when maximizing buildable area
on small and constricted sites.
/"
-r-,
<.
/ / / ./'
N82
A typical traffic survey analyzes traffic patterns, densities,

generators, and peak periods. This information is used to
determine the guidelines/procedures required to provide
safe and effective flows of vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Local governing agencies determine the scope and extent
of survey required.
SERVICE ACCESS
Architects must consider vehicular service access to both

the site and the building. Site design and building orientation must allow for maneuverability of service, delivery, and
sanitary vehicles.
19'20~W
':;:J
264.86'
SERVICE ACCESS
LOT COVERAGE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
UTILITIES
<
PARKING
PROPERTY
SURVEY~~ "-1
BUILDING SETBACK
L1MIT~
N 82 79'
266.00'
20~
W
~
GEOTECHNICAL
ANALYSIS
WATER MAIN
TRAFFIC SURVEY
SITE DEVELOPMENT DIAGRAM
Greenfield Architects, Ltd.; Lancaster, Pennsylvania
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
82
The Town Planning Process
INTRODUCTION
The following pages provide the essential elements of
town design. Included are an abstract, a set of diagrams,
and criteria for town and community design.
Site planning for development projects should be a sequential process that begins with information gathering and
ends with detailed design drawings. The process involves
three stages: analysis. design. and implementation. The
chart below indicates a planning process; however, this can
vary to accommodate the specifics of a particular project.
Physical site characteristics, urban or suburban location,
and community criteria modify the process. The site planning process includes both architect and landscape architect and. in some cases, biologists, civil engineers, and
others. An integrated approach to site development and
architecture helps create a quality environment. The text on
this page is presented as a checklist for structuring a
project.
CLIENT CONTACT AND INPUT

The first step is contact between the client and the site
planner. The client may have some development objectives
based on financial capabilities and market feasibility. It is
important for the site planner to obtain all client data relative to planning the site.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Site planning covers a variety of situations from rural and
suburban to high~ntensity urban.
There is substantial literature on planning sites and design

ing neighborhoods of all densities. Recent publications demonstrate a return to the basic town planning principles that
have produced orderly community design throughout history.
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Early in the planning process, contact community groups
with an interest in the proposed project. Such efforts yield
useful information for community design and are particularly important when a proposed project is adjacent to existing development. Compatibility issues are typically resolved
with community participation.
One method of involving the community is the "eharrette."
a participatory planning process with a limited time frame,
usually one day to a week, in which residents, municipal
staff, elected leaders, and others participate in the physical
design of a project. The planner receives local information
useful for the design, and individuals and groups bring their
interests to bear at the beginning of the design process,
thereby expediting final approvals.
the pedestrian are typical of today's public works regula

tions. Such standards should be modified to allow cohere-.
neighborhood design,
PUBLIC SERVICES AND UTILITIES
Other information that may require additional researc'

includes
1. Availability of potable water, including local and state reg
ulations on wells
2. Availability of public sewer service, access to trunk lines,
and available increases in flow. If sewage lines are not
immediately available, determine projected phasing of
these services, as well as alternatives to sewage collection and treatment, including septic tanks.
3. Access to public roads, existing and projected carrying
capacities, and levels of services of the roads. (State am
local road departments can provide this inforrnation.)
4. Availability and capacities of schools and other public
facilities, such as parks and libraries
SITE ANALYSIS
REGIONAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL
PLANNING
Some areas of the country have established regional agencies for intercommunity issues, such as water management, transportation, population studies, and pollution
control. Some communities have adopted regional planning
guidelines.
State and/or federal criteria can also affect projects.. State
plans may address broad issues applicable to large sites or
impose constraints on sites involving issues of statewide
concern. Also, some states require environmental impact
statements for large-scale projects. The U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers is responsible for environmental review of proposed dredge and fill operations in navigable waters and
wetlands. The Federal Flood Insurance Program establishes
minimum elevations for potential flood areas. Other state,
regional, and local authorities also may oversee the protection of air and water quality and other environmental issues.
LOCAL PLANNING INFORMATION

The planner must collect local planning information. Personal contact with planning and zoning agencies is important in order to comprehend local criteria. Following is a list
of information to review.
PLANNING DOCUMENTS
Many communities have adopted comprehensive plans

that indicate the particular land use and intensity of the site.
In addition, information on the availability and/or phasing of
public services and utilities, environmental criteria, traffic
planning, and population trends can be found in most comprehensive plans. Some communities require that rezoning
meet the criteria provided in their cOmprehensive plans.
In addition to the comprehensive plan, communities may
also adopt neighborhood or area plans that refine the comprehensive plan as it relates to a particular locale. Many of
these studies stipulate specific zoning categories for individual parcels of land.
URBAN DESIGN PLANS
Some communities have adopted urban design plans for

creating a harmonious physical environment. These documents may range from conceptual to those that incorporate
specific requirements. Some provide bonuses in land use
intensities for incorporating urban amenities such as plazas
and squares. There may also be criteria for retrofitting existing areas, a critical need in American cities where a substantial amount of urban area is deteriorated or developed
incoherently.
ZONING
Land zoning prescribes the intensity and type of land use

allowed. A zoning change is required if the planned project
differs. Regulations often need to be modified to allow
good community design. Common examples of regulations
discouraging good urban form include excessive setbacks
and restricted mixed-use development.
PUBLIC WORKS STANDARDS
Local public works criteria significantly affect the design of

large sites. Roadway layout, cross sections, and drainage
are typical requirements. Excessive roadway standards
designed for automobile convenience, with little regard for
TOWN PLANNING PROCESS
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNIN, AND URBAN PLANNING
Site analysis is one of the planner's major responsibilities

All the on- and off-site design determinants must be evaluated before design begins. For details, see the following
pages on environmental site analysis.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
At the program development stage, background research,
citizen input, and site analysis are combined with client
input and synthesized into a set of program strategies
Basic elements for program development include market
and financial criteria; federal. state, regional. and local planning information; local political climate development costs;
the client's objectives; and site opportunities and constraints as developed in the synthesis of environmental site
determinants. Balancing the various determinants will lead
to an appropriate approach to site development. Consider
dwelling unit type, density, marketing, time phasing, and
similar criteria, as well as graphic studies of the site, to
finalize the program. Develop clear graphic representations
of design concepts to present to the client and others who
may have input to the process. If the project cannot be
accomplished under the existing zoning or public works
requirements, requesting a regulatory change becomes a
part of the program.
ALTERNATIVE PLAN
PREPARATION
Once the program has been accepted by the client, develop
several design solutions to meet the program objectives
When an alternative has been accepted, develop it into the
preliminary plan. This plan should be relatively detailed,
showing all spatial relationships, infrastructure, landscaping, and other relevant information.
PUBLIC REVIEW
A zoning change requires public review. Some communities require substantial data, such as impact statements
and other narrative and graphic exhibits, while others may
require only an application for the zoning change. Local
requirements for changes can be complex, and it is imperative that the planner and the client's attorney are familiar
with local criteria.
FINAL DESIGN PLANS

At this stage, the preliminary plans are refined into final site
development plans that include fully dimensioned drawing'S, landscape plans, and site details. Final development
plans also include drawings prepared by the engineer or
surveyor, such as legal plats and utilities, street, and drainage plans. Upon approval, final design plans are recorded in
the public records in the form of plats. Homeowner association agreements, deed restrictions, and similar legal documents must also be recorded, and they become binding on
all owners and successive owners, unless changed legally.
Bonding may be required for infrastructure and other public
facilities. In some instances, the planner may develop specific design standards for the total buildout of the project
Environmental Site Analysis
83
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY
RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
O L D CUTLER ROAD
I
2630_15'
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL SITE
60
65
-S-Bg:-"T30TL;~""7"-- ------\
/.
./ /'
/'
.,/ PROVIDE PEDESTRIAN \
./ /' /'
LARGE
L1NKA~G~E====/,
r
Air movement: Prevailing breezes characteristic of-a

region may be greatly modified by urban high-rise structures. Predominant air movement patterns in 'a city may
be along roadways and between buildings. The placement, shape, and height of existing buildings can create
air turbulence caused by micro air movement patterns.
These patterns may influence the location of building elements such as outdoor areas and balconies. Also, a building's design and placement can mitigate or increase local
wind turbulence.
Sun and shadow patterns: The sun and shadow patterns
of existing structures should be studied to determine
how they would affect the proposed building. This is particularly important for outdoor terraces and balconies
where sunlight may be desirable. Sun and shadow patterns also should be considered as sources of internal
heat gain or loss. Building orientation, window sizes, and
shading devices can modify internal heat gain or loss.
Studies should include daily and seasonal patterns and
the shadows the proposed building would cast on existing buildings and open spaces.
3. Reflections: Reflections from adjacent structures such as
glass-clad buildings may be a problem. The new building
should be designed to compensate for such glare or. if
possible, oriented away from it.
URBAN CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS
229.46 AC
--DISTANT VIEW OVER
REGIONAL PARK
DEVELOP VIEW AS MAJOR
FOCAL POINT
KUGETRACT
(UNDEVELOPED)
PREVAILING BREEZE
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
SURVEY DATA
The first step in any site analysis is the gathering of physical
site data. An aerial photograph and an accurate survey
showing the following information are basic to any site analysis process:
1. Scale. north arrow, benchmark. and date of survey
2. Tract boundary lines
3. Easements: location. width, and purpose
4. Names and locations of existing road rights-of-way on or
adjacent to the tract. including bridges, curbs. gutters.
and culverts
5. Position of buildings and other structures such as foundations, walls. fences. steps. and paved areas
6. Utilities on or adjacent to the tract-location of gas lines,
fire hydrants, electric and telephone poles, and street
lights; and direction, distance to, and size of nearest
water mains and sewers and invert elevation of sewers
7. Location of swamps. springs, streams, bodies of water,
drainage ditches, _watershed areas, flood plains, and
other physical features
8. Outline of wooded areas with names and condition of
plant material
9. Contour intervals of 2 to 5 ft, depending on slope gradients, and spot elevations at breaks in grade, along drainage channels or swales, and at selected points as
needed
Considerable additional information may be needed,
depending 'on design considerations and site complexities
such as soil information and studies of the geological structure of the site. Federal regulations for wetland mapping
and conservation may also be relevant.
SUBURBAN SITE ANALYSIS

The site analysis is a major responsibility of the site planner.
The physical analysis of the site is developed primarily from
field inspections. Using the survey, the aerial photograph,
and. where warranted, infrared aerial photographs, the site
designer, working in the field and in the office, verifies the
survey and notes site design determinants. These should
include. but not be limited to, the following:
1. Areas of steep and moderate slopes

2. Macro- and microclimatic conditions, including sun
angles during different seasons; prevailing breezes;
wind shadows; frost pockets; and sectors where high
or low points give protection from sun and wind
3. Solar energy considerations. If solar energy appears feasible, a detailed climatic analysis must be undertaken
considering factors such as detailed sun charts; daily
averages of sunlight and cloud cover; daily rain averages; areas exposed to the sun at different seasons;
solar radiation patterns; and temperature patterns
4. Potential flood zones and routes of surface water runoff
5. Possible road access to the site, including potential conflicts with existing road systems and carrying capacities
of adjacent roadways (usually available from local or
state road departments)
6. Natural areas that from an ecological and aesthetic
standpoint should be saved; all tree masses with name
and condition of tree species and understory planting
7. Significant wildlife habitats that would be affected by
site modification
8. Soil conditions relative to supporting plant material,
areas suitable for construction, erosion potential, and
septic tanks, if relevant
9. Geological considerations relative to supporting structures
10. Exceptional views; objectionable views (use on-site
photographs)
11. Adjacent existing and proposed land uses with notations on compatibility and incompatibility
12. Potential noise sources, particularly noise generated
from traffic that can be mitigated by using plants, berming. and walls and by extending the distance between
the source and the receiver
1. Building typology and hierarchy: An analysis of the particular building type (residential, commercial, public) relative
to the hierarchy of the various building types in the city is
useful in deciding the general design approach of a new
building. For example, public buildinqs may be dominant
in placement and design. while residential buildings are
subdominant. It is important to maintain any existing
hierarchy that reinforces visual order in the city. Any predominant architectural solutions and details characteristic
of a building type incorporated in the new building's
design can help maintain a recognizable building type.
2. Regional character: An analysis of the city's regional
architectural characteristics is appropriate in developing a
design solution that responds to unique regional characteristics. Regional characteristics may be revealed
through unique architectural types, through vernacular
building resulting from local climatic and cultural characteristics, and from historically significant architecture.
Historic structures should be saved by modifying them
for the proposed new use or by incorporating parts of the
existing structure(s) into the proposed design.
3. City form: The delineation of City form created by road
layout. location of major open spaces, and architecturecreated forms should be analyzed. Elements that delineate city form should be reinforced by architectural
development solutions for a particular place within the
city. For example, a building proposed for a corner site
should be designed to reinforce the corner through building form, entrance, and design details. A building proposed for midblock may be a visually unifying element
providing connection and continuity with adjacent buildings. Sites at the ends of important vistas or adjacent to
major city squares probably should be reserved for
important public buildings.
4. Building scale and fenestration: It is important to analyze
building scale and fenestration of nearby structures
Reflecting, although not necessarily reproducing, such
detailing in the proposed building can provide visual unity
and continuity in the architectural character of the city.
One example is the use and placement of cornice lines
to define the bLiilding's lower floors in relation to adjacent
buildings. Cornice lines also can define the building's
relationship to pedestrians in terms of scale and use.
5. Building transition: Sometimes it may be appropriate to
use arcades and porches to provide transition between
the building's private interior and the public sidewalk.
Including them may be especially worthy if adjacent
buildings have these elements.
6. Views: Important city views of plazas, squares. monuments, and natural features such as waterfronts and
parks should be considered. It is important to design the
proposed structure to enhance and preserve such views
for the public and for inhabitants of nearby buildings, as
well as incorporating them as views from the proposed
buildinq.
URBAN SITE ANALYSIS

Although much of the information presented for suburban
sites may apply equally to urban sites, additional site design
criteria may be necessary. The urban environment has
numerous design determinants in the form of existing
structures, city patterns, and microclimatic conditions.
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz; Miami, Florida
84
Environmental Site Analysis
[=05%
_1015%
~5'10%
SLOPE
SANDY LOAM
SILTY CLAY LOAM
_ORGANIC
SOILS
SCATTERED
GROWTH
_
_
MATURE MIXED HARDWOOD

AND COASTAL MARSH
(ALONG LAKE EDGES)
MIXED HARDWOOD--
YOUNG
r - - l MINIMAL IMPLICATIONS
~ IF MODIFIED
~I
SEVERE IMPLICATIONS
IF MODIFIED
LAKE
VEGETATION
ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ANALYSIS

PROCESS
If a site has numerous environmental design determinants,
~he. ~ite pla.nner may analyze each environmental system
individually In order to comprehend the environmental charact.af of the ~ite more clearly. This can be a complex process, and a Site planner/landscape architect with expertise
in environmental analysis should be retained to coordinate
such an effort.
By preparing each analysis on transparencies, the site planner can use the overlay approach. Values are assigned to
each sheet based on impact. ranging from areas of the site
where change would have minimal effect to areas where
change would result in severe disruption of the site. In
essence, the separate sheets become abstractions with
values assigned by the site planner and associated professionals. As each sheet is superimposed, a composite develops that. when completed, constitutes the synthesis of the
environmental design determinants. Lighter tones indicate
areas where modification would have minimal influence
darker tones indicate areas more sensitive to change. Th~
sketches shown simulate the overlay process. The site
planner may give greater or lesser weight to certain parameters depending on the particular situation. In assigning values that help determine the site design process, the site
planner should consider such factors as the value of maintaining the functioning of the individual site systems, the
uniqueness of the specific site features, and the cost of
modifying the site plan
COMPOSITE
1. SLOPE: The slope analysis is developed on the contour

map; consideration should include the percentage of
slope and orientation of slope relative to the infrastructure and land uses.
2. SOIL PATIERNS: Consideration may include the analysis
of soils by erosion potential, compressibility and plasticity, capability of supporting plant growth, drainage capabilities, possible sources of pollution or toxic wastes,
septic tank location (if relevant), and the proposed land
uses and their infrastructure.
3. VEGETATION: Consideration of indigenous species (vatues of each in terms of the environmental system)
includes size and condition, the succession of growth
toward climax conditions, uniqueness, the ability of certain species to tolerate construction activities, aesthetic
values, and density of undergrowth.
4. WILDLIFE: Consideration of indigenous species includes
their movement patterns, the degree of change each
species can tolerate, and feeding and breeding areas.
5. GEOLOGY: Consideration of underlying rock masses
studies the depth of different rock layers and the suitability of different geological formations in terms of potential
infrastructure and building.
6. SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WATER: Consideration of
natural drainage patterns covers aquifer recharge areas,
erosion potential, and flood plains.
7. CLIMATE: Consideration of rrucrocfimatic conditions
includes prevailing breezes (at different times of the
year), wind shadows, frost pockets, and air drainage patterns.
Following is a Jrstof the environmental design determinants

that, depending on the particular site, may be considered
and included in an overlay format:
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharm, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
COMPUTER APPLICATION
The above process is labor intensive when developed by

hand on individual sheets of mylar; however, this particular
method of environmental analysis is easily adaptable to the
CAD (computer-aided drafting) system. Commercial drafting programs suitable for the overlay approach are readily
available. Simplified, the method is as follows:
1. A map, such as a soil map, is positioned on the digitizer

and the information is transferred to the processor
through the use of the stylus. One major advantage to
the use of a computer is that the scale of the map being
recorded will be transferred to the selected scale by the
processor. A hatched pattern is selected, with a less
dense pattern for soil types that would have minimal
influence and more dense patterns for soil types more
sensitive to change. Once this information is programmed into the computer, it is stored.
2.The same process is repeated for development of the
next overlay; for example, vegetation. Once again any
scale map may be used. This process is repeated until all
overlays have been stored. At any time one or all overlays can be produced on the screen.
3.The individual overlays or any combination of overlays can
be drawn on mylar with a plotter. If appropriate for the
particular analysis, the plotter will draw in color. The
resulting overlay sheets take considerably less time than
by hand and may be more accurate. Other benefits are
that the site can be studied directly on the computer
screen and any part of the overlay can be enlarged for
greater detail.
4.The overlay process can be recorded by videotape or by
slides from the screen for use in presentations.
RurolVillogeDesign
SITE
MAP
ANALYSIS
Locate natural, cultural, and scenic features first. These

include manv buildable areas, such as farm fields. pastures,
meadows. and mature w@dland: special teatures, such as
stone walls, springhouses, cellar holes and views into and
out o{ the site: and unbuildable areas, such as steep slopes.
wetlands, springs, streams, and ice ponds.
MEADOW
LAYOUT OR
CONVENTIONAL
..YlELD Pr AN"
Sketch an unimaginative but legally correct conventlonal

lavout to demonstrate the density that could realistically be
a;hieved on the site and, by comparison, to show local officials and abutters how ditferent a rural village approach is
The sketch here shows how, under 1 .s-acre zoning, a 520acre site would ordinarily be checkerboarded into 300 lots,
each with a required minimum area of 60,000 sq ft, leaving
no open space whats@ver.
VILLAGE
85
HILGIDE
PASTURE
PLAN
Desagningthe developmenl as a traditional village,with lots

ranoinq from 5000 sq h to 1 acre, achreves slightly greater
aen-siti on less than one{ua.ter of the land and presefres
nearlv 4OO acres. This layout is based closely on the site
analysis map, with the village located to avoid disturbing
the woodlands that provide the only natural habitat in this
larqelv aqricultural community. Ihe most specral site fea'
turEs are protected by designrng around them. Nine "con'
seryancy lots." varying in area from 20 to 60 acres, are
limited to one principal dwelling plus tvvo accessory units.
This assures significant open space around the perimeter of
this 3oGlot village. Permanent conseryation easements
protect these lands from Iunher subdivision and preserye
the 1 50 acres of undivided open space and its trail system,
which connects the old springhouse to the lakeshore and
leads back to the schoolYard. This open space could be
owned by the village government, a local land trust, or a
homeownrs' association (with automatic membership and
authoritv to place liens on properties of members who lail
to pay their dues). Rural views outward from three village
streets have also been preseryed, with open countryside
terminating their vistas. Terminated vistas are also provided
by three large public or semipublic buildings (churches,
libraries. etc.) positioned at the ends of several strets.
SITE ANALYSIS
CONVENTIONAL
WOODED
MARSH
s\oPE
.]'r_
\il/
\
THE
COMMONS
TRAIL
MAP
LAYOUT
-;/fr
(=r.,i:
\-Ll
'BROOK
NORTH
MEADOW
RURAL VILLAGE OESIGN

FandallArendt,MRTPI;NaturalLandsTrust:Media,Pennsylvania
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie;Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
PLANNING
AND URBAN
COMMUNIry,
SITE,
86
Elementsof Urbonism
THE
NEIGHBORHOOD.
DISTRICT,
AND
THE
THE
CORRIDOR
The tundamental elements 01 urbanism are the neighbol

hood, the district, and the corridor. Neighborhood"s
iie
urbanized areas with a fuil and balanced iange of human
activity. Districts are urbanrzed areas organizled around a
predominant activity. Neighborhoods and distrjcts are
connected and isolated by corridors of t.ansportation or open
space.
Neighborhoods, districts, and corridors are comotex urban
elements Suburbra. In co4trast, rs the result oi srmplistrc
zoning concepts that separate activities into residential sub_
divisions, shopping centers, o{fice parks, and open space.
THE NEIGHBORHOOD
Cites.and towns are made up of multip'e neighborhoods_A
neighborhood isolated in the landscape is a village.
The nomenclature may vary, but there is general agree
ment regardrng rhe physical composition of a neighbor
hood. The neighborhood unit of the 1929 New-york
Regional Plan, the quartiet identified. by Leon Krier, traditiona' nerghbo'hood desrgn {TNDt. and transttorienled
development (TODI share sjmrlar attr butes. The population,
conliguration, and scale may vary, but all of these models
propose the following:
1. The neighborhood has a center and an edge. This combi_
nataon of a focus and a limit contributea to the social
identity of the community. The center is a necessity, the
edge less so. The center is always a public space_a
squa.e, a green. or an important street intersection_
l@ated near the center of the urbanized area, unless
compelled by geography to be elsewhere. Eccentric loca_
tpns are justified by a shoreline, a transponation corridor, or a promontory with a compelling view.
The center is the locus of the neighborhood,s public
buildrngs. Shops and worlplaces are usualty here, espe_
crally In a vtllage. In lhe aggregalrons of neighborhoods
InaI create towns and cities, relail butldings and work_
places
_areoften at the edge, where they Can combine
wtth others to draw cuStomers
The edges of a nerghborhood vary In character. In vil
lages, the edge rs usually defined by tand designated tor
cultivation or conservation of its natural statel ln urban
areas, the edge is often defined by rail lines and boulevards, which best remain outside the neighborhood.
2. The neighborhood has a balanced mrx of activ[ies:

shops, work, school, recreation, and dwellinos of all
lvpes Thrs 's oa.lrcularty use{ut t6r ygga9. old lro tow
income populations who, in an automobile based eovironment, depend on others for mobility.
The neighborhood provides housing for residents with a
variety of incomes. Affordable housing types include
oacKyaro apartments, apartments above shoos. and
apa.lmenl buildtngs adiacent lo workplaces.
3. The optimal size of a neighborhood isrL mile from center
to edge, a distance equal to a tive-minute walk at an easy
pace. lts ljmited area gathers the oooulation within walkIng drstance o{ many of its daily needs.
The locatron of a transit stop within walking distance of
most homes increases the likeiihood of rts use. Transit_
onented neighborhoods create a regional network of vtf
lages. towns, and cities accessible to a oopulation unable
10 rely on cars. Such a system can provtde the mator cul.
lural and social institutions, varrety of shopprng, and
broad Job base lhat can onlv be suppo(ed by itrJiarger
populatron ot an aggregation of nerghbo'hOOOs
4. The neighborhood consists of blocks on a network of
small thoroughfares_Streets are laid out to c.eate blocks
ot appropriate building sites and to shorten pedestrian
routes. An interconnecting street pattern provides multi_
ple routes, drffusing traffic. This pattern keeps locat lral.
trc otl regtonal roads and through tralfrc ofl local srreels
Neighborhood streets ot varying types are detailed to
provrde equitably for pedestrian comiort and automobile
movement. Siowing the automobile and increasing
peoestfian actrvtty encourage lhe casual meetings lhat
rorm lne bonc,s ot communitv.
5. The neighborhood gives priority to pubtrc space and to
appropriate location of civic buiidrngs. public spaces and
public buildings enhance community identity and toster
civic pride. The neighborhood plan creates a hierarchy ot
useful publc spaces: a formal square, an informal pirk,
ano many ptaygrounds.
THE
The strJcture ot.the distnct parallels lhat ot the nerghb,

hood An rdenti{iable locus encourages o.ientat,oi o
identity. Clear boundaries facilitate thelormation of spec
taxrng or management organrzations. As in the neighbo
hood,_the character of the public spaces creates a comm..
nrly ot users. even if they reside elsewhere Interconnectp
circulation encourages pedestrians, supports transit viab
rty. and ensures security. Districts benefil from transit sv:
tems and should be located within the regional network
THE CORRIDOR
The corridor is the connector and the separator of neighbor
hoods and districts. Corridors include natural and lec-hnica
components ranging from wildlife trails to rail lines The
between ts not the haphazardly residual space remainrn(l
outsrde subdivisions and shopping centers in suburbia. lt i
a crvrc etement characterized by its visible continuity an.j
bounded by neighborhoods and districts, to which ii pro
vides entry.
The transponation corridor's trajectory is determined by its
anlensity. Heaq/ rail cotridors should remain tanoeni t.
towns and enter only the industrial drstricts of citiei. Lio,
rarl and trolley corr,dors may occur as boulevards at ih.
edges of neighborhoods. As such, they are detailed fo
pedestnan use and to accommodate building sites. Bus cor
ndors may pass into neighborhood centers on conventional
streets.
The corridor may also be a continuous parkway, providing
long.distance walkrng and bicycling trails and nitural hab
tat. Parkway coiridors can be formed by the systemal,.
accretion of recreational open spaces, such as parks
schoolyards, and golt courses. These continuous sDace5
can be part of a larger network, connecting urban oper
space wth rural surroundings.
DISTRICT
The district is an urbanized area that is functionally specjal_

ized. Although disrricts preclude the fuil range of aciivities
of
.a reighblrhood, they are not the sjngle-aclivity zones of
suburbia. Rather, multiple activities support its primary
identity. Typically complex examples are thearer disrricts,
caprtal areas, and college campuses. Other districts accom_
modate large-sle transportation or manufacturing uses,
sucn as arrpons, container terminals, and refineries
AREA: PREFERABLE I60ACRES

TO HOUSE ENOUGH PEOPLE TO
o
E
.U
5
o
BOULEVARO
AN URBAN
NEIGHBORHOOD
,",iirfltT?l;fl;r,les
(PART OFA
TOWN)
platerZyberk,Kamat
Duany.Elrzabeth
Zaharin,
tskandar
Shafie;Miami.Ftorida
SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
A RURAL NEIGHBORHOOD
(A VILLAGE)
RegionolTypes
87
GENERAL
ln its short hrstory as a discipline, regional planning has generated a substantial number of models, usually presented
as dragrams. Redrawrng thp main lYpes 'n a standard
graphic form reduces options to a few fundamental models. Most regional plans are hYbrtds of these few.
Most cities expand through incremental decisrons, not by
following clear regional plans. But even when lollowed
closely, such ptans tend to be implemented in distoned
form, due to pressures from natural and man-made condts
tions. The diagrams of each planning model to the right are
accompanied by examples of their application to actual
praces.
GARDEN
CITY/NEIGH
BORHOODS,
TOWNS AND VILLAGES

This is the ancient natural pattern. A cleady defined core
city, composed of neighborhoods, is surrounded by towns
and villages that are separated by open landscape. ldeally,
each element is relatively sell-sufficient. This historical pattern has been oveMhelmed as mechanical transponation
has permitted the city to absorb the surrcJnding landscape
and to erase its neighborhood structure.
A rationalization of this pattern, designating fixed greenbelts and creating independent new towns (garden cities),
was proposed by Howard, and restructurtng the core ctty
was proposed by
neighborhoods
into selfrontained
Saarinen and Perry.
MADISON
TO\^/NS AND VILLAGES
I993
The garden city has been the underlying concept for suburban growth, although its current form is unrecognizably
degenerated. With the late arrival o{ the office park into the
residential/retail suburb, the functional elements of the city
are now available in the suburb, and the core city has lost
its importance. As @nceptualized by Fishman and Garreau,
this regional pattern is no longer centroidal. The automobale
is able to move equally in all directions. although it tends to
reinforce maior intersections. These intensified points support commercial developmenl, around which residential
areas ousrer.
by
This automobile model can be made pedestrian{riented
traditional neighborh@d development (TND), which reconfigures the activities of the shopping center, office park,
and housing subdivision into the form of towns and villages. Of the three models described, this is the one most
in{luenced by market conditions.
LINEAR
AND
CITY/CORRIDORS
WEDGES
The linear city evolved wrth the advent of lhe streetcar.
Moving along defined axes, the streetcar extended the
boundaries of the centroidal city, creating corridors whose
width was limited by the walking distance to the tracks.
The arrival ol the automobile. with its ability to go anywhere, destroyed the disciplined edges of the corradors,
creating undif{erentiated sprawl.
The remedial model (corridors and wedges) was conceptualized by Olmsted and MacKaye. Through legislation. the
urban tabric is channeled along the lransportation axes
while wedges of open landscape are preserued between
these corridors- The wedges are ideally continuous, formed
by an irregular agglomeration of valuable natural features.
This is the model m-st influenced by ecological concerns.
TRANSIT-ORIENTED
BALTIMORE
LINEAR CITY
I95O
DESIGN
This pattern emerged naturally with the advent of the railrmd. Moving along a single axis like the streetcar, but
unable to stop as frequently, the railroad creates nodal
Doints ot commercial develooment with residential settlement around them. The advent of the automobile permitted
the expansion of these settlements beyond any limit, consuming the landscape.
This model was rationalized and modernized bv Calthoroe
and Kelbaugh as transit{riented design (T.O.D.). The
T.O.D. creates nodes at interyals most etficient for rail
transportation. These mixed-use areas, limited in size by
walking distance, are usually surrounded by a residential
hinterland connected to the rail systm by feeder bus. The
commercial uses aod other businesses at the nodes mav
not oller all the seruices that would make the area self-sufficient (i.e., a town). However, together, several areas
linked by rail may b self-sutticient.
This is the model most influenced bv the requirements oJ
transportation.
PORTLAND
TRANSIT.ORIENTED
2O2O
DESIGN
Garv Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Platerzyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie. Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
PLANNING
SITE,
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
fl
88
PlonTypes
MWMI
WB@WffiM
rw_ffiiM@wm
MWmwwtwm
MWWMM
mtWt
WAWA
mru%
%v%ffi
%ffiam
lm-]F24576=741
tmtlh_tuztl\
dllb_Lnl
ADVA NTAG E S
AOVA NTAG ES
1. Excellent directional orientation

2, Lot shape controllable
A DVANTAG
1. Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic

2. Even dispersal oI traffic through the grid
3. Street hierarchy with end blocks tor through traffic

4. Even dispersal of traffic through the grid
5. Srraight lines enhance rollng terrain
3. Diagonals respond to the terrain

4. Diagonals interrupt monotony of the grid
6. Efficient doubleloading of alleys and utjlities
D ISAOVANTAG
DI SA OVANTAG ES
'|
Monotonous unless penodically interrupted
2. Does not accommodate environmental intetruptions
3. Unresponsive to steep terrain
ORTHOGONAL
GRID
ES
1 . Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic

2. Even dispersal of traffic through the network
ES
3. Diagonals respond to terrain

4. Intrinsically interesting by geometric variety
5. Controllable shape oI blocks and lots
1. Uncontrollable variety ot blocks and tots

2. High number ol awkward lot shapes
6. Efficient double-loading of alleys for urilities

7. Diagonal intersections spatially well defined
3. Diagonal intersections spatially ill defined
OISADVANTAGES
I Tends to be disorienting
GRID WITH
DIAGONALS
DIAGONAL
NETWORK
ADVA NTAG E S
ADVANTAG
1. Street hie.archy wtrh long routes for through traffic

2. Even dispersal of traffic through nerwork
1. Intrinsicallyinteresting by deflecting vistas

2. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
3. Intrinsicallyinteresting by geometrrc vaflery

4. Responsive to terrain
3. Highly responsive to terrain

4. Even dispersal of traflic through the network
4. Haghlyresponsive to p terrain
O I SADVA N TAG ES
DISADVANTAGES
1. Little directional orientation
1. Concentration of traffic by absence of network

6. Short streets. terminated vistas
O I SADVANTAG
ES
1. None
ORGANIC
NETWORK
ES
A OVA NTAG ES
2. Uncontrollable variety of lots

3. No natural hierarchy of streets
CURVILINEAR
NET\/VORK
Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Ehzabeth plaler.Zybert Kamal Zaharin. lskandar Shafie,

Rafael Diazj Miami. Florida
The Crntas Founrain
u
.2
1. Street hierarchy with collectors for through traffic

2. Controllable variety of blocks and lots
SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING
DISCONTINUOUS
NET\^/ORK
BlockTypes
89
GENERAL
The urban plan must be assembled of blocks betore building frontage and landscape types are assigned. The disposition of blocks has distinct socioeconomic implications.
wm
%
%
THE SQUARE BLOCK

in
Thistypewas an earlymodellor plannedsettlements
America. panicularly in Spanish colonies. lt was sometimes
ass@iated with agricultural communities, providing four
large lots per block, each lot with a house at ats center.
When the growth ot the community produced additional
subdivision, replatting created irregular lots (Fig. 1). While
this may provide a useful variety, it is more often regarded
as a nuisance bv a societv accustomed to stdndardized
products. A lurther disadvantage is that dtscontln-uous rear
iot lines make alleys and rearaccess utilities impractical.
Despite these shortcomings, the square block is usetul as a
specialized type. When platted only at its perimeter, with
the center left open, it can accommodate the high parking
requirements of certain buildings. The open center, well
insulated from tratfic, may also be used as a common gard e e o r a p l a y g r o u n d( F i g . 2 ) .
wq
Wq
%
%
&
b d
wd
I, SQUARE BLOCK
THE
ORGANIC
&
u
%
%
%
wq
%
%
wd
2. SQUARE
BLOCK
BLOCK
This typ is characterizedby its irregularity;its variationsare

unlimited.The originalorganicblock was the subdivisionof
residualland between well-worn paths (Fig.3). lt was later
rationalizedby Olmsted and Unwin to achievea controllable, picturesque effecl and to negotiate sloping terrain
gracefully.The naturalisticblock, despite its variety,gener
ates certain recurringconditionsthat must be resolvedby
sophistited platting.At shallow curyes, it is desirableto
have the facades follow the frontage smoothly. This is
achievedby keepingthe side lot lines perpendicularto the
frontageline (Fig.4-1).At the same time it is important{or
the rear lot line to be wide enough to permit vehicular
access(Fig.4-2).At sharpercurves,it is desirableto have
the axis of a single lot bisect the acute angle (Fig.4-3). In
the event of excessiveblock depth, it is possibleto colonizethe interiorof the bl@k by meansof a close (Fig.4-4).
t
T
3. ORGANIC
THE ELONGATED
4. ORGANIC
BLOCK
BLOCK
BLOCK
The elongated bl@k overcomes some of the drawbacks of

the square block. More efficient and more standardized,
elongated bl@ks provide economil double-l@ded alleys,
with short utility runs, to eliminate the uncontrollable variable ot lot depth and maintain the option ot altering lot
width. By adiusting the block length, it is possible to reduce
cross streets toward rural edges or to add them at urban
centers. This adiustrent alters the pedeslrian permeability
of the grid and controls the ratio of street parking to building
capacity. The elongated bl6k can "bend" somewhat along
its length, giving it a limited ability to shape space and
negotiate slopes {Fig. 6).
Unlike the square block, the elongated block provides two
distinct types of frontage. Residential buildings are placed
on the.quieter sides of the block (Fig. 5-l). Commercial
buildings can be set on the short end of the block, platted
to face the busy street: the amount ot parking behind these
properties is controlled by the variable depth {Frg.t2).
5. ELONGATED
BLOCK
6. ELONGATED
BLOCK
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlaterzyberk,Kamal zaharin. lskandar Shafie: Miami, Florida

A
-1
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING

SITE,
90
Open Spoce Types
GENERAL
Public open space provides ofientatton, hierarchy, and com
munal structure to a neighborhood. The specialtzed open
spaces shown he'e are denved tron the elonoated biock
types. They cdn atso be adtusted to frr borh iquare and
organic block types.
LANE
Children otten make lanes behind houses into informal olav
grounds. The paved surface in front of garages is conve,
nrent for ball games Lanes are particularlysuccessful when
they are designed ro eliminate lhrough traffic (right). Garage
apartments provtde superyision.
PLAYGROUND
Playgrounds can be easily extracted from any block by
assrgnrng ane or several lots to this use. There should be a
playground within 500 ft of every residence. The plavground should provide both sunny and shaded play areas,
as well as an open shelter with benches tor parents. plav
grounds must be fenced, lockable, and lit. if thev are not to
become a nuisance at ntght.
NURSERY
A nursery can be inserted in the middle of a block. awav
from major lhoroughtares. It requires a |mrted amount of
parkrng but substantial vehicular drop{ff
space. The
attached playground should be securely fenced and have
both sunny and shaded areas. Children's games may be
noisy, so it is advisable to locate nurseries where adjabent
houses are buffered by outbuildings.
CLOSE
A close is a space shared by buildings inside the block. lt
may be pedestrian, or it may have a roadway loop around a
green area. lts minimum width must coincide with emergency vehicle turning standards. The close is a superior
allernative lo the cul{e-sac, as the locus is a green rather
than pavement. lt is especially recommended for communal subgroups such as cohousing or assisted-living cottages. the close provides additional frontage for deep
square and organic blocks.
ATTACHED SQUARES
Squares
are greenspacesthat providesettingsfor civic
buildings and monuments, which are located at the center

or edge o.f the square. Buildings play a part, but the space is
largely deliaed bV iormal tree ptantrng. Squares should be
marntained to a higher standard than playgrounds and
oarks
DETACHED
SQUARES
Squares detached on all sides by roads are particularlv for

mal. Srnce adjacent buildings provrde much of the popu,atron that uses a public space. detached squares are less
likely to be used than other types. This separation atso limrts the mount of natural security provided by adjacent win,
dows. The delached square remains approp.ate as a
means to symbolically enhance important places or jnstitu_
!ons.
OPEN SPACE TYPES-DETACHED
OPEN SPACE TYPES
SQUARES
Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Elizabeth PlatetrZyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shatie; Mjami, Florida
'al
SITE,
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
PLANNING
OpenSPoceTYPes
MARKET
9l
PLAZ-A
Plazas are public spaces that are prrmarily paved rather lhan
green. They can sustain very intense use by crowds and
even by vehicles. Parking lots should be designed as plazas
that happen to have cars on them, rather than as single purpose areas. A smaller shoppang center can be transtormed
into a town center if it has been designed so at can be
seamlessly attached to the block system and detailed as a
praza.
CIVIC
PLAZA
Civic buildings are often no larger than the private ones that
surround them. and their legibility as more important buil+
ings cannot depend solely on architectural expression
Their setting within the block system must communicate
their elevated status. Sites on squares or at the terminations of avenues are ideal but not always available. Thus
the most dependable technique is to organize and detail the
parking areas ol civic buildings as plazas.
GREEN
The green is an urban. naturalistic open space. Lke the
square, it is small. civic, and surrounded by buildings.
Unlike th square, it is in{ormally planted and may have an
irregular topography. Greens are usually landscaped with
trees at the edges and sunny lawns at the center. Greens
should contain no structures other than benches, pavilions,
and memorials; paths are optaonal.
MARKET
CIVIC PLAZA
PLAZA
PARK
Parks are naturalisticopen spaces, like greens, but larger
and tess tended. They are most successlulwhen qeated
from virginw@dland. Parkshave grassYareasonly periodillv. A knoll or a pond can be used as an imponantorganrzing featlre. Parks exist within the urban {abric of large
cities, but their inherentsizeusuallyputs them at the edges
of towns and villages,Parksmay be edged by publicdrives
or by houses on very large lots, as long as connectionsto
publicpaths occur at every block.
BUFFER
The buffer has the basic elements of a green, with the
added purpose of buffering the impact o{ traftic from a
highway or boulevard.Shown is a small lot development
fronting a green. On the opposite side are larger lots on
which houses are placed further back from the roadway
edgo as anotherbufter technique.
/
GREEN
z-'. O
BUFFER
PARK
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizaberh Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE,
92
BuildingTypes
GENERAL
The traditlonal increment for platting lots in Norlh America
has been the 50Jt. width This subdivision dtmension was
ef{icient for many years, creating 2s-ft rowhouse and shoptront lots. as well as 50-, 75, and 100Jt lots suitable for
houses. Howevei, the advent of the automobile added a
set of dimensional constraints that requ;red new platting
standards. The 50 ft width is wastelul. sinc the basic
increment of efficient parking is the double row at 64 ft.
The 64Jt increment, when divided by four, provides the
absolute minimum rowhouse lot of 16 ft, which allows one
car to be parked with additional room for pedestrian Dassage. The minimum side yard lot is 32 ft. The minjmum
perameter yard lot is 48 ft. The 64-ft lot elficiantlv grovides
for the high parking requrrement of shopfronts, apartments,
and oft'ce buiidJngs
The platting module of 16 1t corresponds to the traditional
measure of the rod. Plaiting in rods, without knowing what
building types will occupy the lots, maintains flexibility and
ensures maxlmum denstty through parking efficiency.
Four building types acaommodale the common residential,
retarl, and workplace uses of urban life. Some buildinos_
however, cannor be categonzed lyoologically. Buildi;gs
dedicated to manufacturing and transportation mav be dis_
torled by large-scale mechanrcal traiectories. Civic burldIngs. which must express the aspirations of the institutions
they embody, should also be exempt from the discipline o{
tvoe-
COURTYARD
4 RODS
COURTYARD
3 RODS
2 ROOS
BUILDING
BUILDING
This type of buildingoccupiesall or most of the edges of its

lot and definesone or more privatespacesinternally.This is
the most urbanof types as it is abteto completeiyshield
the privaterealmfrom the publicrealm.lt is commonin hot
clrmates,but its attributesare usefuleverywhere. Because
ol its ability to accommodateIncompatrble
activttiesin
close proximity,it is recommendedlor workshops,hotels,
and_schools.
The high securitythe boundaryprovidesis
usetul for recolonizingcrime-proneurbancores.
SIDE YARD BUTLDING
This type ol buildingoccupiesone side of the lot. with the
primaryopen spaceon the other side. The view of the side
yard on the street front makes this buildingtype appear
freestanding,so it may be interspersedwith perimeteryard
buildingsin less urbantocations.lf the adiacentbuildingis
alsoa side yardtype with a blankpartywall. the open sp;ce
can be quite private.This type permitssystematiccli;atic
onentation.
with the longsideyardelevationfacing the sun
or the breeze.
B
3 RODS
3 RODS
c
2 RODS
o
2 ROOS
SIDE YARD BUILDING
REAR YARD BUILDING

Thistype of buildingoccupiesthe front of its lot, full width,
leavingthe rearportionas a privatespace.This is a relatively urbantype appropriatefor neighborhood
and town
centers.The buildingfacadedefinesthe edgeof the pubtic
space.while the rearelevationmay reflectdifferentfunclonal purposes.In its residentialform, this type is repre
sentedby the rowhousewith a reargardenandoutbuilding.
In its commercialform, the depth of the rear vard can conparkrngfor retailandotltceuses.
tainsubstanttal
PERIMETER
YARD
B
2 RODS
4 ROOS
BUILDING
This buildingstandsfree on its lot. with substantiallront

andrearyardsandsmallersideyards.lt is the leasturbanof
the types, so it rs usuallyassrgnedto areasaway from
nerghbo.hood
and town centers.Thisbuildingtype is usu_
ally residential,
but when parkingis containedwithin the
rear yard atlends itself to limited oflice and boardinguses.
The rear yard can be secured for privacyby lenceJ and a
well-placedoutbuilding.The front yard is intendedto be
semipublic
and visuallycontinuouswith the yardsof neighbors.The illusionof continuityis usuallydegradedwhin
garagetrontsare alignedwith the facades,as carsseldom
pullin beyondthe d.iveway.To avoida tandscape
of parked
cars,garagesshouldbe set backa minimumof one car,s
length from the facade or entered srdeways through a
walled forecourt
5 RODS
REAR YARD BUILDING
%
,4 %
Wry
ru
3 RODS
PERIMETER
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elzabeth plaleczyberk
The Cintas Foundaton
YARD BUILDING
KamalZaharin,IskandarShafie;Miami,Florida
SITE,
COMMUNlry,AND URBANPLANNING
3 RODS
D
1 ROD
SpotiolDefinition
93
GENERAL
Building delineates public space in an urban setting Suc'
cessfufsoatial delinition is achieved when bounding buildinos are alioned in a drscrp|ned manner and the defined
spice doesiot etceed a certarn herght-to-wdth ratro
Alrgnment occurs when burldrng lacades coopelate lo
deiineate thb oublic space, as walls form a room Uiban
buildrna aniculalron lakes place prrmarily in lhe venical
olane o-rfacade. lf appendages such as porches, balconres,
bay windows, and loggias do not obliterate the primary sutr
face of the facade, they do not destroy alrgnment
The herght-towidth ratio of the space generales spatral
enclosure, which is related to the physiology o{ the human
eve. lf the width of a public space is such that the cone ol
vision encompasses less street wall than sky opening, the
degre of spatial enclosure is slight. The ratio of 1 increment of height to 6 of width is the absolute minimum, with
1 to 3 being an effective minimum if a sense oJ spatial
enclosure is to result- As a general rule, the tighter the ratlo,
the stronger the sense of place and, often, the higher the
real estate value. Spatial enclosure is particularly tmportant
for shopping streets that must compete with'shopping
malls, which provide very eflective spatial definition. In the
absence of spatial definition by lacades, disciplined tree
planting is an alternative. Trees aligned for spatial enclosure
are necessary on thoroughfares that have substantial lront
yards.
PROPORTIONS
OF BUILDTNG HEIGHT TO PUBLIC SPACE
NOMENCLATURE
THE
FRONTAGE
LINE
The lot boundary that coincides with a pubiic thoroughfare

or public space. The trontage line may be designed indepndently of th thoroughfare, to create a specific sense of
place.
FACADE
The vertical surface oI a building set along a lrontage line.
The elevation is the vertical sudace set along any other
boundary line- Facades are subiect to control by building
height, setback lines, recess lines, and transition lines. Elevations are only subiect to building height and setback
Iines.
SETBACK
BUILOING
HEIGHT
The detined limit to the venical extent of a building The

buildrng herght should be stated as a numbel of stotres,
rather ihan iprescribed dimensron. Thrs prevents the compression of internal ceiling heights. Height may be determined by density and view and not by the requirements of
soatial definit;on, which are addressed bY the recess lrne
RECESS
BY RECESS LINE
BY FACADE
The mandatory distance between a frontage line and a

facade or a lot line and an elevation
,l
J
LINE
A line prescribed tor the lull width ol the tacade, above

which the facade is set back. The recess line effectively
delines the enclosure of public space. lts location as deterratio of that space,
mined bv the desired heighctcwidth
compatibility with the average height of existing buildings,
or provision for daylighting at the street level.
TRANSITION
LINE
TECHNIQUES
OF DELINEATING
PUBLIC SPACE
A tine prescribed for ihe full width ot the facade, expressed

bv a variation ol material or by a limited proiection such as a
cornice or a bal@ny. The transition line divides the lacade,
permitting shopfronts and signage to varY over time without destroying the overall composition.
CURB LINE
SECTION
DEFINITIONS
AndresDuany Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin. lskanda. Shafie; Miami, Florida

GaryGreenan,
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE,
94
FrontogeTypes
GENERAL
Buildrng type is independent of frontage type For example.
a c o u r l y a r d b u r l d t n g m a y h a v e a n a , c d d e . a S n o p l r O n t .a
sloop. of a porch as rts frontage lype Irontaqes can be
ranked trom most urban to most rural.
ARCADE
The facade overlaps the sidewalk, whtle the storefront
remains set back. This type is excellent for retail use, but
only when the sidewalk is fully absorbed so the pedestrin
cannot bypass the arcade. An easement for public use of
private property is required.
SHOPFRONT
The facade is aligned directly on the frontage line, with the
entrance at grade. This type is conventional for sidewalk
retail lt is often equipped wjth an awning or a porch. A
transition line should separate the signage from the facade
above. The absence of a setback and elevation from the
srdewalk prevents residentjal use on the ground floor,
although it is appropriate above.
STOOP
ARCADE
SHOPFRONT
The facade rs al,gned drrectly on the trontage Lne, with the

lfsl lloor elevated to achieve some ptivacv for the win_
dows. I his type is suitable for resrdenlial usei such as row_
nouses and apartment buildings. An easement may be
necessary to accommodate the encroaching stoop. This
type may be interspersed with the shopfront.
FORECOURT
The facade is set back and replaced by a low wall at the
trontage line. The forecourt thus created is suitable for oardens, vehrcular drop{ffs, and workshop loading and siorage. jt should be used sparingly ano in conju;ction with
lhe shopfront and sloop types, as a contrnuous bltnd wall is
boring and unsafe tor pedestrians Tree canopres within the
lo.ecourt should overhang the sidewatk
STOOP
DOORYARD
The facade is set back from the frontage line. with an elevated garden or terrace between. This type can effectively
buffer residential quarters from the side;alk, while remoJ_
rng the yard from public use. The terrace, when roofed. is
suitable for restaurants and cafes, as the eye level of ihe
srtter is level with that ot passersbv.
PORCH AND FENCE
FORECOURT
With an encroaching habitable porch, the facade is set back

substantially from the frontage line. The porch should be
wrthrn a conversational distance of the sidewalk. A fence at
the frontage line marks the boundary of the yard.
FRONT LAWN
The lacade is set back substantially from the frontage line.
l ne ront tawn thts creates should be unlenced and vrsually
continuous with adjacent yards. The ideal is to simulate
buildings sitting in a rural landscape. A front porch is usuallv
not appropriate, since no social interaction with the street i;
pol.ible at slch a distance.The large setback can provide a
butler trom heaw traffic, so thrs type ts sometimes founcl
on boulevards.
DOORYARD
PORCH
FRONT
AND FENCE
LAWN
Gary^Greenan,
AndresDuany,ElizabethptatetrZyberk,
KamalZaharin.lskandarShalie;Miami,Florida
The CinlasFoundarion
tl
SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
LondscopeTyPes
95
GENERAL
The urban landscape is a set of rnterdependent elements
that creates a controlled sense of place. lt includes thor
oughfare 1ype, building type, frontage type, and the form
and disgosition of landscape.
Public landscaping plays many roles above and beyond that
of ornamentation:
1. To correct inadequacies of spatial definition caused by
buildrng trontages. Planttng steady rows of trees at the
edges usually reduces the herght-to-wrdth ratio of the
street space. Grids of trees are used to fill gaps left by
unbuilt lots and surface parking.
2. To adiust the microclimate by providing the appropriate
level of shade or sun for buildings and sidewalks. For
thoroughfares running east-west. this may involve the
use of asymmetrical Planting.
3. To suppon the intended urban or rural character of the
public space. Selecting approprrate speqes and varyrng
the species planted, as well as the regularity of their disposition, can alter the landscape significantly.
4. To create a pleasing visual composition, being careful to
mask the aesthetic failure of certain buildings as well as
to reveal the successes. Consider seasonal changes ot
each species.
5. To create a harmonious whole of specific character by
coordinating public and private plantings. Selection
should vary, to ensure resrstance to pests, but not resuit
in an incoherent collection o{ specimens. Native species
should Dredominale to reduce maintenance, with an
emphasis on species that support wildlite compatible
with human senlement.
RURAL ROAD
RESIDENTIAL
ROAD
COMMERCIAL
STREET
RURAL ROAD
This type is appfopriate for buildings at the edges of the
neighborhood and along parks and greenbelts. There is no
public planting line. The tree species should be episodic,
but in coherent clusters. There are no curbs; the drainage is
by open swale. Bicycle paths may be paved in asphalt.
ROAD
RESIDENTIAL
This type is appropriatefor housesoutside of neighborh@d
centers. Since the frontage usually includes a substantial
setback. the tree canopy may be quite wide. The rural
aspect may be supported bY planting several species in
imperfect alignment.Roadsare detailedwith open swales'
and, where possible,drainageis through percolation.
STREET
RESIDENTIAL
at neighbotr /
for residentral
buildings
Thistype is appropflate
'
h@d and town centers I rees ale in continuousplanlrng
strips, since the sidewalkdoes not require unusualwidth.
Planta singlespeciesof tree in steadyalignment.A thin.
venical canopy is necessary to avoid nearby building
with
interchangeable
facades.This type is dimensionally
the commercialstreet tYpeand may alternatein corresponwith
are
detailed
dence to the building facade. Streets
raisedcurbs and closedstorm drainage.
RESIDENTIAL
STREET
tl
tl
tl
tl
STREET
COMMERCIAL
This type is appropriatelor commercialbuildingsat neighborh@d and town centers.Trees are confinedby individual
plantingars, creatinga sidewalkof mximum width with
areas accommodatingstreet furniture. Plant a single species of tree in steadyalignment.CIeartrunks and high canopies ar6 necessary to avoid interference with shoplront
signageand amings. Streetsare detailedwith raisedcurbs
with closed storm drainage.
tl
AVENUE
This type is appropriatefor approachesto civic buildings.
The general principle is a thoroughfareof limited length,
with a substantialplantedmedian.At town cente.s,the
median may be wide enoughto hold monumentsand even
areas,the medianmay be planted
buildings.In residential
naturalisticallyto becomea parkwayor green.
BOULEVARD
This type is appropriatefor hightapacity thoroughlaresat
neighborh@dedges.The detailingis similarto that of a
commercial street. The effect of the mediansis to segregate the slower traffic and parking activity, al the edges,
from through traffic,at the center.
tl
ll
BOULEVARD
AVENUE
Gary Greenan. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
SITE,
ThoroughforeNomenclqture
96
GENERAL
ffi
mwl
W'
ffi
W
m^HWAp
v-at\:+G<"
u )\:\----l,^
Thoroughlares are endowed with two attribules: caoacrtv

and chardcler Capacrty refers lo the number ot vehtcles
that can move safely through a segment within a given
time. lt is physically manifested by the number of lanes and
their width and by the centerline radius, the curb radius,
and the super elevation of the pavement Character relers
to a thoroughfare's suitability for pedestrian activatiesand a
variety of building types. Character is physically manifested
by the thoroughfare's associated building. trontage, and
landscape types and sidewalk width.
Convenlional traftic engineering practice uses terms such
'arterial,"
as "collector" and
whjch denote only capacity.
This is too simplistic and tends to create an environment
inhospitable lor pedestrians The following nomenclatu.e
more adequately describes the combination of caOacitvand
character necessary to create true urbanism_
NK
NOMENCLATURE
HIGHWAY:A Iong{islance,mediumspeedvehicular
corridor that traversesopen country.A highway shouldbe relatively free ol intersections,drivewavs, and adiacent
buildings;otherwisert becomesa stilp, which tnterferes
with trafficflow. (Relatedtermsincludeexpressway,
a high
speed highwaywith intersectionsreplacedby grade sepiration,and patkway.a hrghwaydesignedwrth narura'istrc
landscaping,
partiallyaccommodatedwtthin a wtde and
varyingmedian.
BOULEVARD:A longdistance.medium speed vehicular
corridorthat traversesan urbanizedarea. lt is usuallvlined
by parallelparking,wide srdewalks,or side medianspianted
wth trees.Euildingsuniformlylinethe edges.
AVENUE;A shoniistance, medium speed connectorthat
travrsesan urbanarea.Unlikea boulevard,
its axisis terminatedby a civicbuildingor monument.An avenuemay be
concervedas an extremely elongated square. {A related
term is all6e, a rural avenue spatially defined by trees
alignedon either side but devoidof buildingsexcept at the
Iermrnus.,
DRIVE:An edgebetweenan urbanand a naturalcondition,
usuallyalonga waterfront,park.or promontory.One side of
tho drive has the urbancharacterof a boulevard,with sidewalk and buildings,while the other h6 the aualitiesof a
parkway,with naturalisticplantingand ruraldetailing
STREET:A small-sele, low speed local connector.Streets
provide frontagefor high-densitybuildingssuch as offices,
shops, apartment buildings, and rowhouses. A street is
urbanin character,with raisedcurbs. closeddrainage,wide
sidewalks,parallel
parking,treesin indjvidual
plantingareas,
and buildingsalignedon shortsetbacks.
ROAD:A small-scale,low speed connector.Roadsprovide
lrontagefor lowiensity buildingssuch as houses.A road
tends to be rural in character with open curbs, ootional
parking,continuousplantrng.narrowsidewalts, and butldings set well back.The ruralroadhas no curbsand is lined
by pathways,irregulartree planting,and uncoordinated
buildingsetbacks.
ffi
ROADS,
LANES,
ALLEY:A narrowaccessroute servicingthe rearof buildings on a street- Alleys have no sidewalks,landscaping,or

buildingsetbacks.Allys are used by trucks and;ust
accommodatedumpsters, They are usuallypaved to their
edges. with center drainagevia an jnvened crown.
LANE: A narrow access route behind houses on a road.
Lanesare ruralin character,with a narrow strip of pavingat
lhe center or no paving.While lanes may not be necesslry
with front-loadedgarages,they are stjll usetul for accommodating utility runs, enhancingthe privacy of rear yards,
and providingplay areasfor children.
PASS,AGE:
A very narrow, pedestrian{nlv connector cutting between burldrngs.Passages provrde shortcuts
through long blocks or connect rear parkrngareaswrth
street frontages.Passagesmay be rooled ovei and linedbv
shoofronts.
PATH:A very narrow pedestrianand bicycleconnectortraversinga park or the open country.Pathsshouldemerge
from the sidewalk network. Bicycle paths are necessa-.y
along haghwaysbut are not requiredto supplementboulevards, streets, and roads,where slower traffic allows sharing ol the vehicularlanes.
PATHS
MORE RURAL
Gary,Greenan,
Andres Duany, Elizabethplater?yberk, KamalZaharin, lskandar Shafie: Miami. Florida
The CintasFoundation
SITE,
STREETS,
ALLEYS,
MORE URBAN
PASSAGES
97
ThoroughforeTYPes
GENERAL
Caoacrtv and character are combined and adJusted to
achieve a complete series of useful thoroughfare types-. The
series rs best regarded In pairs: keeping the trghtof-way
wdth (B O.W) constant. each oair illustrates one type surl
able in two wavs, one for a relativelY rural condition and another suitable for a more urban condition.
HIGHWAY
BOULEVARD
'
zo'urru
'
'vaRtEs'
zr'
130
130 R.O.W
24'
20'MlN
R O.W
H IG HWAY
AOULEVARD
AVENUE
MAIN STREET
ffi
MtN
11
4o'MrN.
zo'
20'
80'MlN. R.O.W.
AVENUE
MAIN STREET
STREET
+_+__++
40'
lo
lttlll
lffi-r
5'
lo
t4'
60'R.O.W
14' 5'
22'
60'R.O.W.
ROAD
STREET
RURAL
MINOR STREET
ROAD
nn
L#J
J
2 LANES
%:m2
tlttl
tttl
ffi
IO'
lffi
30'
lo'
t3 19 MlN. 13
50 R.O.W.
50' R O.W.
RURAL ROAO
MINOR STREET
+3;;-
PASSAGE
PASSAGE
PATH
MORE URBAN
MORE RURAL
ChesterChellman,P.E.:Ossipee,New Hampshire
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie:Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan.Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
PLANNING
AND URBAN
SITE,
COMMUNIry,
|l
98
TrodilionolNeighborhoodDesign
INTRODUCTION
The traditional neighborhood development (TND) ordinance
produces compact, mixed-use, pedestrian t{endly commu
nities. lt can be incorporated in municipal zoning ordjnances
as an overlay or aS a separate districl. lt is intended to
ensure the following conventrons
Traditional neighborhoods
tics:
i'if.Tll
tEl
ffi
%
share the following characteris-
COMMERCIAL
1. The neighborhood's area is limited to what can be traversed in a 1o-minute walk-
HIGH
2. Residences, shops, workplaces, and civic buildings are

located in close oroximitv
3. A hierarchy of streets serves the pedestrian and the automobile equitablv.
4. Physicallydefined squares and pa.ks provide places for

formal social activity and recreation.
ffi
LOW
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
5. P.ivate buildings torm a clear edge, delineating the street

space_
6. Civic buildings reinforce the identity of the neighborhood,
providing places of assembly {or social, culturat. and religrous aclrvfles.
Traditional neighborhoods pursue certain social oblectives:
1. To provide the elderly and the young with independence
of movement by locating most daily activities within
walking distance
2. To minimize traffic congestion and limit road construction
by reducing the number and length of automobile trips
3. To make public transit a viable alternative to the automobile by organizing appropriate building densities
4. To help citizens come to know each other and to watch
over their collective security by providing public spaces
such as streets and squares
5. To integrate age and economic classes and form the
bonds of an authentic community by providing a full
range of housing types and workplaces
6. To encourage communal initiatives and suppon the baf
anced evolution of society by providing suitable civic
buildings
SPECIAL
DEFINITIONS
Terms used in a TND ordinance may differ in meaning from

their use in conventional zoning ordinances:
ARTISANAL USE: Premises used for the manufacture and
sale of items that are made employing only handwork and/
or table-mounted electrical tools and creating no adverse
impact beyond its lor.
BLOCK: The aggregate of lots and alleys circumscribed bv
public use tracts, generally streets.
EUILDING HEIGHT: The height measured in stories. Attics
and raised basements do not count against building height
limitations.
CITIZENS'ASSOCIATION: The organization o{ owners of
lots and buildings associated under articles. The articles
shall reference an approved master planj set standards lor
building location, construction, and majntenance; orovide
for maintenance on public trdcts: and provide for the con.
struction of new civic buildings by an ongoing special
assessment.
FACADE: The building wall parallel to a frontage line.
FRONTAGE LINE: The lot line that coincides with a street
tract.
GREEN EDGE: A continuous open
neighborhood proper. The area shall
turty as a natural area, golf course,
fields, or it shall be subdivided into
than 20 acres each.
area surrounding the

be preserved in perpeor growing or playing
house lots no smaller
LIMITED LODGING: Residentiat premises providing no

more than eight rooms for short-term etting and food servrces before noon only.
LIMITED OFFICE: Residential premises used for business
or professional services, employing no more than four fulf
trme employees, one of whom must be the owner.
LOT: A separately platted portion of land held privatelv.
TND
LANO
ALLOCATION
MEETING HALL: A building designed for pubtic assembly,

containing at least one room with an area equjvalent to 10
sq ft per dwelling, or 1300 sq ft, whichever is greater.
NEIGHBORHOOD PROPEE: The built-uo area of a TND
including blocks, streets, and squares but excluding green
edges.
OUTBUILDING: A separate building, additional to a principal
building, contiguous with the rear lot line, having at most
two stones and a maximum habitable area of 450 sq ft
Outbuildings may be residential retail units. Outbuildings
are exempt from building cover restrictions or unit counts
PARK: A public tract naturalistically Iandscaped, not more
than 10% paved, and surrounded by lots on no more than
50% of its perimeter.
PROHIBITED USES: Uses not oermitted in rhe standard
zoning ordinance, as well as automatic food, drink. and
newspaper vending machines and any commercial use that
encourages patrons to remain in their automobiles while
receiving goods or services (except service stations).
SHAREDPARKING:A parkingplace where daylnightor

weekday/holidayschedulesallow the use of parkingspaces
by more than one user, resultingin a 25yo reductionof the
reouiredsoaces.
SOUARE:A publictract, spatiallydefinedby surrounding
buildings,with frontage on streets on at least two sides
Commercialuses shallbe permitted on all surroundinglots
STORY:A habitablelevlwithin a buildinqno more than 14
ft in height from lloor to ceiling.
STREETLAMPS:A light standardbetween10 and 16 tt in
heightequippedwith an incandescent
or metalhalidelighl
source.
TREE:A decrduoustree that resrstsroot pressure
STREET
and is of provenviability,in the regionwith no lessthan 4
in. caliperand 8-ft cleartrunkat the time of planting.
STREET
VISTA:The view, framedby buildings,
at the termr,
nationof the axis of a thoroughfare.
TRACT:A separatelyplatted portion of land held in com
mon, suchas a thoroughfare,
a square,or a park.
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany, ElizabethPlater-Zyberk,

Kamal Zaharin, lskandar ShaIie: Miami, Florida
tUl
SITE,
TrqditionolNeighborhoodDesign
GUTDELINES
FOR
TRADITIONAL
AND USE
A1.GENERAL: (a) The TND shall be available as an overlay option for Iand developmenl rn all land use and Toning
categories except industrial. (b) A TND
requires a minimum parcel of 40 contiguous acres and a maximum of 200
acres. Larger parcels shall be developed
as multiple neighborhoods withpach Individually subject to the provisions of
NEIGHBORHOOD
DESIGN
LOTS AND
LAN D ALLOCATION
BUILDINGS
Bl.GENERAL: la) Similar land use categorres

face across streets; dissimrlar categories
abul al reailot hnes (b) Th average perim'
eter of all blocks within the neighborhood
does not exceed 1300 ft. For block faces
longer than 500 ft, an alley or pedestrlan
path provides through access.
Cl.GENEBAL: (a) All lots share a f rontage line wth

a street or square- (b) The main entrances ot all
buildings except outbuildings are on a street or
square. (c) Stoops, open colonnades, and open
porches may encroach into the front setback.
(d) The sides of buildrngs at corner lots are similar to their tronts.
B2.PUBLIC: {a) A minimum o{ 57o of the neighborhood area or 3 acres (whichever is

greater) is permanently allocated to public
use. (b) Each neighborhood contains at
leasl one square, not less than one acre in
size. close to the center. (c) No portaon ot
the neighborhood is more than 2000 lt
from the square. (d) At least half the perimeter of squares, parks, and waterfronts
{ace streets. (e) At least a quarter of the perimeter of waterfronts, goll courses, greenbelts, and other natural amenities face
C2.PUBLIC: (al Balconiesandopen colonnades are

permitted to encroach up to 5 ft into thorough{ares and other tracts. Such encroachments
shall be orotected bv easemenls.
the TND.
42.PUBLIC: (a) Includes streets. squares.

parks, playgrounds. andthe like. (b) Civic use lots may be placed within tracts
designated lor public use. (c) Largescale recreational uses such as golf
courses. schoolyards, and multiple
game fields are located only at the edge
of the neighborhood.
vv
STREETS
AND
PARKING
GENERAL: (a) All streets termrnate at other

streets. (b) Streetlights are provided along all
thoroughfares at 35- lo 50 ft intervals. (c) On
street parking is allowed on all local streets
ld) Parking lots are located behind or beside
building facades. (e) Parking lots and garages
are not adracent to street intersections, crvlc
use lots, or squares and do not occupy lots
that terminate a vista. {f) Shared parking re
duces local parking requirements.
D2.PUBLIC:{a) Parkingsharedbetween public

and privateuses is encouraged.
Streets.
A3.ClVlC: (al Contains community buildings such as meeting halls, libraries,
post offices, schools, child care centers, clubhouses, religious buildings,
recreational facilities, museums. cultural societies, visual and performance arts
buildings, municipal buildings. and the
like.
83.ClVlC: (a) A minimum of 27o ol the neighborhood area is reserved for civic use. (b)
Civic lots are within or adjacent to squares
and parks or on a lot terminating a street
vista. (c) Each neighborhood has a minr
mum of one meeting hall and one child care
lacilitv.
haveno heightor set- D3.ClvlC: (a)The majority(75yo)of the off-street

C3.ClVlC:{a)Civicbuildings
parkingtor civic structuresis behindthe buildbacklimitations.
ings.
(a)A minimumof 27oand C4.COMMERCIAL: (a) Buildings are built out to a

A4.COMMERCIAL:(a) Containsbuildings B4.COMMERCIAL:
minimum of 807o of their frontage at the fronta maximum ol 309o ol the neighborhood
Drimarilvfor businessuses, such as reage line. (b) Buildings have no required setback
areais designatedtor comrercial use. (b)
tail, entertainment,restaurant,club, offrom the side lot lines. (c) Buildings do not exCommerciallots havea maximumfrontage
fice, residential, lodging, antsanal,
ceed four stories in height and are no less than
ot 32 ft. (c)A maximumof lour lots may be
medical, etc. (b) At least 25yo of the
two stories in herght When fronting a square,
building.
consolidatedto constructa single
buildingarea is designatedfor residenbuildings are no less than three storles In
tialuse.
height. (d) Building coverage does not exceed
709o of the lot area.
(a)Containsbuild- 85 HIGH RESIDFNTIAL: (a) A minimum ot

A5.HIGHAESIDENTIAL:
2O9o and a rrCximum ot 607o of the neighings tor residentialuse, limited office
borhood area is designated for high resiuse, cafes, retail, lodging,and artisanal
dential use. (b) High residential lots have a
uses. {b) All of the buildingarea above
marrmum f rontage of 16 ft. (c) A maximum
lor
resi
ground
flooris designated
the
of eight lots may be consolidated for the
dentialuse. (c)Outbuildingsare permitpurpose of constructing a single building
ted.
containing one or more residential units.
D4.COMMERCIAL:(a)Lots front streets no more

than four laneswide; parallelparkingand sidewalks minimum 15 ft wide. (b) Rear lot lines
coincidewith an allev. {c} Streets have curbs
with a radiusat intersectionsof 5 to 15 ft. (d)
Street trees are alignedon both sides of the
street at 35- to 5Gft interyals;when open colonnadesare provided,no street trees are necessary.{e)The majority(75yo)of the off-street
parkingis behindthe buildings.
(a)Lots frontstreetsno
(a)Buildingsare builtout D5.H|GHRESIDENTIAL:
Cs.HlGHRESIDENTIAL:
more than three laneswide, with parallelparkat a conto a minimumof 70% oI theirfrontage,
15 ft wide. (b)
minimum
ing and sidewalks
tinuousalignmentno furtherthan 10 ft from the
Street trees are alignedboth sides ol streets
lrontageline. (b) Buildingshave no requrred
at 35- to 50-ft inteNals. (c) Rearlot linescoando not
setbackfrom sidelot lines.(c)Buildings
cide with an alley. (d) All off-street parkingis
exceedfour storiesin heightand,when fronting
rn
behindthe buildings.
less
than
three
stofles
are
no
a square,
height. (d) Buildingcoveragedoes not exceed
50% of the lot area.
(a) Lots front roadsno

(a)Containsbuild- 86.LOW RESIDENTIAL:(a) A maximum of C6.LOWRESIDENIIAL:(a)Buildingsare builtout D6.LOWRESIDENTIAL:
46.LOW RESIDENTIAL:
more than two laneswide with optionalparalto a minimum of 40% of their frontageat a con60% of the neighborhoodarea is designatings lor residentialuses, includangart
parking
minimum 6 ft wide.
lel
and
sidewalks
ft
Iurther
30
from
the
(b)
no
than
alignment
tinuous
Lots havs a
ed tor low residentialuse.
studios,limited offices, limited lodging,
{b) Street trees ar installedon both sides ol
frontagelin. (b)Sidesetbacksare no less than
maximum frontage of 64 ft. (c) A maxiand the like. (b)All of the buildingarea
'I
the street at no more than 50-ft intervals. (c)
0 ft in aqgregatand may be allocatedto one
mum of two lots mav be consolidatedfor
abovethe groundfloor is designatedfor
Rearlot lines mav coincidewith an alley. (d)
side. Buildingsare set back no less than 20 ft
the purposeo{ constructinga single buildresidential use. (c) Outbuildingsare
All ofl-street parking is to the side or reat ot
from th rear lot line. Outbuildingshave no repermatted.
ing.
the building. Where access is through the
quired setback. (c) Buildingsdo not exceed
frontage, garages or carpons are located a
three storiesin height. (dl Buildingcoverage
minimum of 20 ft behindthe facade.
d@s not exceed 50% ol the lol area.
(a)Contains
tor
buildings
AT.WORKPLACE:
uses such as corporateollice, light industry,artisanal.warehousing,automo
tive.and the like.
(a)A minimumof 27oanda CT.WORKPLACE: {a) Euildings are built out to a

BT.WORKPLACE:
minimum of 707o ol their fronlage at a continu
maximum of 30% of the neighborhood
ous alignment no {urther than 10 ft from the
for workplaceuse. (b)
areais designated
g
(c)
line. (b) Buildings have no setbacks
lrontage
ft.
Lots havea maximumfrontageof
from side or rear lot lines. (c) Buildings do not
A maximumof four lots may be consolidatexceed three stories in height. {d) Building coved for the purposeof constructinga single
erage does not exceed 70yo ot the lot area. (e)
building.
DT.WORKPLACE: (a) Lots front streets as wide

as necessary to accommodate truck traffic.
(b) Street trees are aligned on both sides ol
the street at 35. to 5Gtt intervals. (c) Rear lol
lines coincide with an allev. (d) All oll-streel
parking is to the side or rear of the building.
Lots are separated from other use tYpes al the

side and rear lor lines by a wall of between 3
and I ft high.
KamalZaharin'lskandarShafie;Miami,Florida
Platerzyberk,
GaryGreenan,AndresDuany,Elizabeth
The CintasFoundation
PLANNING
ANDURBAN
COMMUNW,
SITE,
4
U
PUBLIC
STREET
\ _\
--
e#
+* +
FIRE
APPARATUS
'll
ACCESS
RESTRIcTEo
L]
'
L]
REMOVE FOR
F|REappaRATUs
ACCESS
L\
|
\_-
--eounno
"
fiffiIffifl
swtNc GATE
1-
DE , SAC
ro'.o"rorz'.o"
J
l'
WITH MIRRORS
ACCESS
Fire apparatus (i.e., pumpers, ladder vucks, tankers) should

have unobstructed access to buildings. Check with local tire
department for apparatus turning radius (R), length (L), and
other operating characteristics. Support systems embedded in lawn areas adjacent to the building are acceptable.
l -' -w-
\-{f
PAVED SURFACE
DESIGNED TO
SUPPORT LOAD
OF FIRE
APPARATUS
OBSTRUCTIONS
Bollards used lor traffic control

should allow suffrcient open road
frre apparatus. Bollards and gates
dard fire department keyed locks
having iu.isdicrion).
DRIVE\^/AY
and Jences tor securitv
width tn4 for access bv
can be secured by stan(check with department
LAYOUTS
Long dead ends (grealer than 150 ft) can cause time con
suming. hazardous backup maneuvers. Use t-turns, culsde
sac. and curved driveway layouts to allow unimpeded
access to buildinos.
AREAs
Buildings constructed near clilfs or steeo slooes should not

reslr'ct access by tire apparatus to only one side of the
building. Grades greater than 10% make operation of fire
apparatus difficult and dangerous. Avoid parking decks
abutted to buildings. Consider pedestrian bridge overs
Insteao.
FIRE OEPARTMENT
FACTOR
RESPONSE
TIME
Site plannrng factors that determrne response trme are

sireet accessibility {curbs, radii, bollards, T-turns. culsdesac, street and site slopes, street furniture and architectural
obstructions. driveway widths), accessibility for firfighting
(fire hydrant and standpipe connection layouts, outdoor
lighting. identi{ying signs), and tocation (city, town, village,
farm). Check with local codes, fire codes, and fire deo;rtment for area regulations.
STREET FURNITURE AND

ARCHITECTURAL OBSTRUCTTONS
ORIVEWAY
Utilitypoles can obstructuse oI aerialladdersfor rescue

and fire suppression
operations.
Kiosks,outdoorsculoture,
lountains,newspaperboxes,andthe lke canalsoselously
impde fire fightingoperations.Wide podium basescan
prevent ladder access to the upper stories of buildings.
Canopisand other nonstructuralbuildingcomponentsc;n
also preventfire apparatusoperationsclose to buildings.
For full extension of arial ladders at a safe climbing angle

(e). sufficient driveway width (W) is required. Estimate the
required width in feet by: W = (H-6) cote + 4, where preter.ed climbing angles are 60 to 80". Check with local fire
department for aeri3l apparatus operating requirements.
including widrh of aerial device with stabilizing outriggers
extended.
WIDTHS
HIGHLIGHT
REFLECTANCE
COLOR
FOR MAX. VISIBILITY
ZONE OF MAX.
LIGHT INTENSITY
BONNET
"STEAMR"
CONNECTION
FACING STREET
PAVEMENT RING
FUNGE
OUTDOOR
LIGHTING
FIRE HYDRANT
CONNECTION
Streets that are properly lighted enable fire tighters to

locate hydrants quickly and to position apparatus at night.
Avoid layouts that place hydrants and standpipe connections in shadows. In some situations, lighting firtures can
be integrated into exterior of buildings. Alt buildings should
have a str@t address number on or near the main
entrance.
SUFFICIENT
SEPARATION
DISTANCE
FROM
EXPOSING
FIRES
ESSURE I
AD ---.1
ACCESS
F|NING
/ GUTTERAT 6'
BELow roP
\
GRAVITY
TANK
\=-*-
. SUPPLY
OUTLET
(..
IRCUUTING
TANK
Gravity tanks can p.ovide a reliable source of pressure to

building standpipe or sprinkler systems. Available pressure
head increased by 0.434 psilft increase ol water above tank
discharge outlet. Tank capacity in gallons depends on fire
hazard, water supply, and other factors. Tanks require oeriodrc maintenance and protection agalnst freezing during
cold weather. Locations subject to seismic forces or high
wtnds requrre specjal consideration Gravitv tanks also can
be integrated within building design.
ON-SITE
SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING
NUMERAL
NUMERAL
WHITE BACKGROUND
AND
LINE
LINE
Man-made and natural on-site lakes are used for orivate fire
lighting in suburbs. on farms, and at resorts A prped suppiy
system to a dry hydrant is preferred for its quantity, flexibility, better maintenance, and accessibilitv. Man-made lakes
with roservoir liners can be berm-supoorted or sunk in the
ground. Lakes and ponds are natural water supplies dependent on the environment. See local codes, fire codes. and
fire departments tor on-site lake regulations.
REACTIVITY
(IN YELLOW)
SPECIFIC HAZARD
SYMBOL (E.G . DO
NOT USE WATER)
LAKES
D. L. Collins and M. David Egan, P. E., College of Architecture, Clemson University; Clemson. South Carolina
Nicholas A. Phillips, AIA; Lockwood Greene; New york. New york
PLACEMENT
FUMMABILITY
(IN
NUMERAL
HEALTH
TRENCH AROUND
AOTTOM PERIMETER
FOR POROUS
DRAINPIPE
HYDRANT
Fire hose connections should be at least 1 5 in. above grade

Do not bury hydrants or locate them behind shrubs or other
vrsual barriers- Avoid locations where runoff water and
snow can accumulate. Bollards and fences used to protect
hydranls from vehicular traffic musl not obstruct fire fight
ers access to hose connections. "steamer" connection
should usually face the side of arriving fire apparatus.
(IN BLUE
zl I
t.5 L
OF
RISER
CONTAINING
PIPING
GRAVITY
FIRE
KEY VALVE
LOCATION IN
CURB AOX
TANK (UKE)
ASSEMBLY
ELEVATION
DISCHARGE
OUTLET
BUILOING
AND STANDPIPE
LAYOUT
Locate tire hydrants at street intersections and at intermediate points along roads so that spacing between hydrants
does not exceed capability of local fire jurisdiction. Hydrants
should be placed 2 to 10 ft from curb lines. Siamese con,
nections lor standpipes should be visible, marked consorcuously, and be adtacent to the pnnctpal vehicle access point
to allow rapid connection by lire fighters to the pumping
engrne.
SIGN
OR
PLACARD
WHITE NUMBERS ON COLOR

SUBOIVIDER, BACKGROUND ALSO ACCEPTABLE
NFPA
7O4
DIAMOND
SYMBOLS
Standard diamond symbols provide information fire fighters

need to avoid injury from hazardous building contents. zero
{0) is the lowest degree of hazard,4 is highest. Locate sym,
bols near building entrances. Correct spatial arrangement
for two kinds of diamond symbols are shown. Consider
integrating symbols with overall graphics design ol building
(Refer to "ldentification of the Fire Hazards of Materiats."
NFPA No. 704, available from the National Fire Protection
Association.)
ControlofFloodDqmoge
FLASH FLOOD: a local flood of great volume and short
duration. Flash floods di{{er from fiverine floods in extent
and duration. Flash tloods gene.ally result from a totrentjal
rain or "cloudburst" covering a relatively small drainage
area. Flash tloods may also result from the failure ot a dam
or sudden breakup of an ice jamb.
FLOOD DAMAGE MANAGEMENT

Flood hazards are caused by building in flood-prone areas.
Fl@ds cannot be prevented, but the damage they wreak on
man-made Droperties can be managed, either by altering
the flood potential of an area or by avoiding construction in
lotions subiect to flooding. Historically, flood damage
management in the United States has locused on the
former management lechnique, attempting to diven floods
with structural flood controls-dams, levees, and channel
modilications. However, such flood control measures have
proved unsatisfactory over time.
FLOOD
Structural flood control proiects have tended to encourage

development in high hazard areas. often without appropriate land use planning. When a storm exceeds or violates
the design parameters of a tlood control structure, the damage that results from a flood can exceed what would have
@curred if the structure had not been built. For example,
tl@dplain invasion often occurs where lwees have been
built with the intention ol reducing damage to agriculture.
Although in some regions levees have reduced the number
of high-frequency floods, in general they cause conditions
tavorable for their own failure by altering erosion patterns
and increasing stages.
STANDABD PROJECTED FLOOD (SPF): a flood that may

b expected from the most severe combination of meteorological and hydrological conditions characteristic of the
geographic area in which the drainage basin is located,
excluding extremely rare combanations.
SPFs are used in designing dams and other facilities with
high damage potentaal.
Recognition of the cost of development in high{isk areas.

the uneven distribution of flood hazards on lhe landscape,
and the natural and beneficial values of floodplains have led
to more common adoption of nonstructural flood hazard
managemenl techniques. In particular, land use management and modified building practices are finding widespread acceptance.
FLOOD {PMF): the most severe

PROBABLE MMIMUM
flood that may be expected lrom a combination of the most
hydrological condations reasonmeteorological
and
critical
ably possible in a drainage basin. (This term is not a statisti
cal concept.)
PMFS are used in designing high-risk flood protection
works and in siting structures and facilities thal must be
subject to almost no risk of flooding.
Information on flood damage management and floodplain

and wetland conseryation is available from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Natural Hazards Research Applications and Information Center, the
U.S- Army Corps o{ Engineers, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Park Service, and state and local
agncres.
FLOOD
LAND UsE IN FLOOD ZONES

Land use management is the most effective method of
managing flood damage. State control of land use in hazardclause of the
ous areas, authorized by tha policepowers
U.S. Constitution, is usually delegated to local planning and
zoning boards. L@al, state, and federal governments also
regulate ecosystems essential for flood damage managemenl. such as wetlands, coastal dunes, and mangrove
stands. Land use management often includes setback regulations, which attempt to limit flood-related erosion damthe
regulations
imposed
by
Regardless
of
age.
government, developers should evaluate building sites for
their intrinsic suitability for the intended use.
HAZARDS
Most flood damage is caused by weather conditions such

as hurricanes, fronts associated with midlatitude cyclones,
thunderstorms, and melting snow packs. These conditions
interact wtih surface leatures such as tloodplains, coasts,
wetlands, and alluvial lans. resulting in floods, mudslides.
and erosion. Geologic phenomena such as eanhquakes
may also trigger floods.
Weather and climate in{ormation is available from the
National Climate Data Center. regional climate research
centers, ?nd state climatology oftices. Geologic and hydro
logic information is available from the U.S. Geological Sur
vey and state geological and geographical surveys.
FLOOD.PRONE
AREAS
FLOODPLAIN: The relatively flat area within which a river

moves and upon which it legularly overflows.
RISKS
Flood risk is usuallv exoressed as the estimated annual frequency with which a flood equals or exceeds a specified
magnitude. The llood risk for a future period of time is the
ioint probabiljty of the occurrence of the annual flood risk.
For example, il a hous is situated at the "100-year Jlood"
elevation (1 yo annual exceedance frequency). then its tlood
risk for a 3o-year period is 26% or approximately a one in
four chance it will be llooded to the specified depth or
greater.
7
3
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requires that

participating local governments adopt minimum lloodplain
management plans based on data provided by the federal
insurance administrator. The NFIP does not require local
governrents
to adopt land use or transponataon plans that
require prelerential development of hazar*tree areas or
prohibit development of land in high hazard areas. New
construction in coastal zones is required to be located land
WETLANDS: areas characterized by lrequent flooding or

soil saturation, hydrophytic vegetation {vegetation adapted
to suryival in saturated areas), and hydric soils (soil whose
chemical comDosition re{lects saturation). Wetlands are
oiten found in flmdplains but are more restrictively detined.
FLOOD
RIVERINE FLOOD: great overflows of water from a river

channel onto a floodplain caused by precipitation over Iarge
areas, melting snow, or both. Over-bank flow is a normal
geophysical event that @curs on average every two years
for most rivers.
FLOOOWAYS
Floodwavs include the channel of a watercourse and those
portions of the adjoining tloodplain required to permit the
passage of a llood of specified magnitude at no more than
a specified level above natural conditions. The NFIP
requires lloodways to be large enough to accommodate
floods with a 17o annual exceedance frequency (100-year
flood) without causing an increase in water levels of more
than a soecified amount (1 ft in most areas). Some localities
obiec.t to the acceptability of increased flood levels this
NFIP requirement implies. lnstead, they define the floodwav as the area inundated bv floods with a 4yo annual
exceedance frequency (25-year lloodi.
Uses oermitted in a floodwav are those with low llood damage potential thal do not obstruct flood {lows or require
structures, fill, or storage of materials or equipment. Fill is
prohibited, and most structures are strongly discouraged.
The following uses are generally permitted:
FUNCTIONALLY DEPENDENT USES: facilities and structures that must be located close to water in order to function, such as docking and port facilities and shipbuilding and
repair lacilities. Water supply and sanitary sewage treatment plants must be floodproofed il they must be leated
adjacent to bodies ol water.
AGRICULTURAL USES: general farming, pasture, outdoor
plant nurseries, horticulture. viticulture, truck farming, forestry, sod farming, and wild crop harvesting.
RECREATIONAL USES: golf courses, tennis courts. driving
ranges, archery ranges, picnic grounds, boat launching
ramps, swimming areas, parks. wildlife and nature preseryes. game farms, fish hatcheries. shooting preserves,
target.ranges, trap and skeet rangs, hunting and fishing
areas, and hiking and horseback riding trails.
INCIDENTAL INDUSTRIAL-COMMERCIAL USES: loading
areas, parking areas, and airport landing strips (except in
flash flood areas).
INCIDENTAL RESIDENTIAL USES: lawns, gardens, parking
areas. ano play areasFLOODWAY
FRINGES
Floodway fringes are the portion of the regulatory floodplain

outside ol the floodway. Floodway fringes are treated as
slorage area {or flood waters. Where permitted, proprty
owners on each side of the floodplain may obstruct llood
tlows equally.
INTERFLUVE
BASE FLOOD
ELEVATION
RIVER
SEDIMENTS
)
MEAN
ACCRffION
ZONE
TYPES
Floods may be classified by their l@ations or physical charactenstrcs.
ward of the reach of the mean high ttde. Local land use and
development or floodplain management plans that are
more stringent than NFIP requirements supersede NFIP
requirements. The NFIP divides riverine floodplains into
flmdway and floodway fringes for land use management.
Coastal floodplains are divided into coastal high-hazard
areas and coastal fringes. Land uses in these areas should
always be verifred with local agencies.
FLOODPUIN
Rivers typically meander over their floodplains, eroding the

cutbank and redepositing sediments in accretion zones
such as point bars, meander belts, and natural levees.
Channel shifting may be extreme in alluvial fans. Coastal
tl@dplains, which include barrier islands, shores, and wetlands. hav the same relationshio to the sea that riverine
tloodplains have to rivers.
l0l
INVERTED
SEA
(NGVD I 929)
RIVER VALLEY
INTERFLUVE
INTERFLUVE
FLOODPUIN
SPECIAL
FLOOD
HAZARD
AREA
HEADWATER FLOOD: a riverine llood that results from

precipitation directly in a basin
BACKWATER FLOOD: a riverine flood caused by high
stages on downstream outlets, which prevent drainage
from tributary basins or even reverse the flow.
---.:F=--RIVER
SEDIMENTS -./
FILL
COASTAL FLOOD: overflows onto coastal lands bordering

an @ean, estuary, or lake. Coastal lloods are caused by tsunamis (seismic sea waves). hutrines, and northeasters.
DIRECTION
OF
MEANDER
EROSION
V.SHAPED
ZONE
RIVER VALLEY
Mattie Fincher Coxe: Eaton Rouge, Louasiana
FLOODDAMAGECONTROL
1l
102
ControlofFloodDqmoge
Uses permitted in floodway fringes include those permitted

in floodways and elevated or otherwise flood-proofed structures. Prohtbited or strongly discouraged uses include facilts
ties for storing materials that are toxic or flammable or
explosrve In water, vital lacilities such as hosDitals and civil
defense or rescue facilities, and facilities that are difficult to
evacuate, such as nursing homes and prisons.
FLOOD INSURANCE
RATE ZONES
The NFIP is a program intended to reduce federal expenditures for flood disaster relief. lt provides flood damage
Insurance as an incentive Io. communities to adopt flood,
plain management regulations, especially those governing
floodplain obstructions and building practices in floodplains.
NFIP minimum standards require a low level of flood dam
age management based on historic conditions.
States and localities may establish standards higher than
NFlPas, in which case these supersede NFIP standards. For
example, other governments may control land use in hazardous areas, regulate runof{, have freeboard requirements,
or base regulatory flood elevations on historic floods that
exceeded the base flood or on the oroiected effects ot
future development. The NFIP Community Ratang System
provides insurance rate reductions as an incentive to adopt
higher standards.
tral basements are permitted only in communjties that

meet special NFIP flood criteria and adopt special local standards tor their design and construction. Commercial struc
tures must be elevated or otherwise floodDrooted to the
BFE.
out grade beams should be used only in areas not subiecl

to potential scour Freestanding pole struclures are unsafe
large rotations develop at moment connections, causrn.i
deflection of pilings under sustained lateral loads that can
lead to collaose.
B ZONES
Destruction of coastal dunes and wetlands dramaticaltv

Increases the Inland reach of storm surge and waves and
increases the severity of tlood damage. Buildings mav be
destroyed it dunes and wetlands are inadequatelv oro
tected, even it they contorm to legal building requirements
B zones indicate areas subject to inundation by floods with

an annual exceedance frequency greater than the base
tlood with less than a 0.2% annual exceedance frequencv
{500-year flood). B-zone designations are not used on
recent FIBMS because of the lack of statistical valadityof
mosl estimates of 500-year {loods and the false perception
that they are generally safe. On some maps I zones are
shown as shaded X zones-
E AND M ZONES
c zoNEs
C zones, including all areas that are not in zones A. B, or V,
are not necessarily flood tree. They may include low{isk
interfluvial regions (areas of a watershed above the natural
floodplain), moderate-risk floodplain between the interfluve
and the regulatory floodplain, areas with localized nonriverine flooding. high{isk areas with small contributing drainage
areas, and floodplains with structural flood protection that
may be sub,ect to low frequency catastrophic floods.
SOURCES
CoastalConstructionManual IFEMA-55).Dames & Moore
and Eliss& Nvitrav.lnc.. 1986.
Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA)-s4).Washinoton.
D C AmeflcanInstituteot Archilects,1984
D ZONES
The NFIP bases Flood Insurance Rate Zones on the frequency of flooding and the presence of storm surge and
waves. Local governments are typically required to regulate
building practices in A and V zones as a condition of eligibility for flood insurance.
The most important requirement in A and V zones is that
the tirst floor of new buildings be buill equal to or higher
than the base flood level, which has a 1 yo chance of beino
equaled or exceeded in any grven year ( l 0Gyear flood). Thi
base flood is the still water height for riverine floods. For
the Atlantic Coast and the Gull of Mexico, the base flood
includes storm surge plus wave crest height because of
northeasters and hutricanes. The base flood for the Pacific
Coast includes astronomical rides plus wave run-up caused
by tropical cyclones and tsunamis. For maior lakes, the
base flood includes seiche (sloshing beuse of wind, seismic activity, and storm surge). The base flood elevation
{BFE} is the height of the base flood in reference to mean
sea level as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical
Datum ol 1929 {NGVD 1929).
Local communities may adopt regulatory flood datums
(RFD) in place ot base llood elevations. RFDS are the base
flood plus a lreeboard. a factor of safety expressed in feet
and used to compensate for uncenainties that could contribute to greater flood height than that computed for a
base flood. Freeboard allows for hazards excluded from
consideration in tiguring the base llood and uncertainties in
analysis, design. and construction. Severe structural subsidence, increases in floods because of obstructions in the
floodplain, urban runoff, or normal climatic variability, as
well as long-term increases in sea level and storms, are
olten excluded from consideration in determining base
flood levels. Urban conditions. low accuracy base maps,
and unplanned development are other common sources of
uncertainty that justif y f reeboard.
Some qommunities require up to a 3-ft lreeboard to compensate for inaccurate flood insurance rate maps (FlRMs).
The margin of error of base maps may be estimated as plus
or minus one-halt of the contour interual. Most FIRMs are
developed from maps with a contour interyal of 5 ft, and a
margin of error ol -2 12 lt. Field survey maps with a contour interval of 2 ft or less are used in some communities;
the smaller interyal reduces the uncertaintv of the risk and
the need for freeboard.
D zones are areas of possible blt undetermined flood hazard.
Elevating to the Wave Crest Level: A Benefit: Cost Analysis

(Fl46),Shaelfer& Roland,Inc..1980.
x zoNEs
Federal Emergency Management Agency. Answers lo

Questions About the National Flood lnsurarce Program
(FlA-2).,
Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
X zones includeall areas not in zonesA or V, combiningB

and C zonesfound on older maps. On some maps.X zones
that wer tormerly B zones and X zones within levee systems are shaded.
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency. The Fl@dway:A

Guide tor Cffimunity Pemit Officials. Community AssistanceSeriesNo.4. Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
v zoNEs (v, vE, vt-v3o, vo)

VelocityzonesV and VE (formerlyV1-V30)are coastalhigh
hazardareasidentified as susceptibleto inundationby the
base flood, includingstorm surgeswith high velocitywaves
greater than 3 ft. Generally,zone V indicates the inland
extent of a 3-ft breakingwave, where the still-waterdepth
during the loGyear flood decreasesto less than 4 ft. VO
zones are proposed alluvial fan zones with high velocity
shallowflow (1 to 3 ftl and unpredictableflow paths.
FloodLoss ReductionAssociates.Fl@dplain Management

Handb@k.U.S.Water ResourcesCouncil.1981.
Fbodpr@fing Nonresidential Structures {FEMA)-102).
B@kerAssociates.Inc.,1986.
Hayes, W. W., ed. Facing Geologic and Hydrolagb Hazards: Eafth-Sciene Considentions. Washington, D.C.l
U.S.Geological
Suruey,198 1.
Elevation
and structuralrequrrements
are most stringentin
coastalhigh hazardareas.Fillbelowbuitdingsis p.ohibited.
lf construction is permitted by the local government.the
lowest horizontalstructuralmember of the lowest habitable
floor must be built above the base flood elevation.Rioid
framesor semirigidtrameswith gradebeamscanresisrihe
impact of storm surge and waves. Semrrigidframes with-
GENERI\L
(E, M}
E zones are areas adjoining the shore of a lake or other

body of water that are likely to suffer flood-related erosion
M zones are areas with land surfaces and slopes of uncori
soirdated material in which the history, geology. and climate
indicate a potential for mudflow. Setbacks and special buitd
ing requirements are used in E and M zones.
LIMITS
OF
Pemit Olticials' Handbook tor the National Fl@d lnsurance

Prognm. 3rd ed. Baton Rouge LouisianaDepartment of
Transponationand Developmnt,1993.
FLOODPROOFING
METHOD
WARNING
REQUIREMENTS
Advance warnang
of floodgatesin openings
hr
installationof closures
tme
to higher ground
evacuatron trme requrred
NOTE
Information presented is general and warrants caution. Time availabl for warning may be severely limited by a llood's rate of rise
The NFIP classifies land either as special flood hazard areas

(SFHA)--*righJrequency
f lood, {l@d-related erosion, and
mudslide zones{r
low-risk and undetermined flood hazard zones. Zone names that include actuarial risk factors,
such as A1-A30 and V'l-V30, are being replaced by AE and
VE designations with flood depths.
COASTAL
a zoNEs
PRIMARY
Zones A and AE (formerly A1-A30) are highjisk riverine

areas susceptible to inundation bv the still-water base
flood. AO zones are areas of shallow flooding (1 to 3 ft)
without detined channels, usually sheet flow on sloping terrain. AH zones indicate shallow flooding, usually with water
ponding. AR zones are areas in which structural flood protection is deficient. A99 zones are areas in which structural
fl@d protection syslems are near compteron.
The finished floor of the lowest habitable level of residences, usually including basements, must be elevated to
the base flood elevation in zone A. Flood-resistant residen-
COASTAL
Mattie Ann Fincher: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
COASTAL
HIGH HAZARD
FRINGE
(A, AE, At -A3O, .AO, AH, AR, A99)
FLOODDAMAGE CONTROL
DUNES AND BEACHES
DUNES
OCEAN<ONSTRUCTION
PROHT gtTED
VehicleDimensions 103
GENERAL
, l
ln setting design paramelers. the designer assumes that all

vehicles present are "design vehicles." Design vehicbs are
selected to represent approximately the 85th percentile vehicle in a range from smallest to largest. In the recent past,
small or comoact ca. stalls were often separated from large or
standard stalls in parking designs. However, a deciine in
smaller car sales and the increasing use ol light trucks, vans,
and utility vehicles (LTVUS) for personal transportation have
made small{aronly stalls ineffective as a design l@1. There
fore, while smll car and large car design vehicles-as well as a
composite encompassing both small and large-have been
given here for relerence, parking design must be based on a
composite passenger vehicle that includes not only cars but
light trucks, ns, and sporvutility vehicles.
lf-t
'
ACCESSIBLE
ll
LIff-\
l" To 3'-o ;F_i-
ACCESSIBLE
Llff
-t
_
A-_-,---J
3 -s ro 4 - r o" -J-\_L_W_L
LIFT VAN
vt/HEELCHAIR
BOAT TRAILER
a"To 14'
CAR
PASSENGER
TRAILER
RV-CONVENTIONAL
LIGHT TRUCK
WHEEL
RV_FIFTH
STRETCH
SPORT/UTILITY
DESIGN
VEHICLE
RV_FOLDING
(PICKUP-BASE)
SLIDE-IN
TRAILER
CAMPER
SHUTTLE VAN
LIMOUSINE
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
(L)
WIDTH
HEIGHT
(H)
WH EELBASE
(wB)
OVRHANG FRONT
(oF)
OVERHANG
(oR)
(FT-rN.)
tt0
5-7
24
Composite passenger
| 6,9
64
Gl0
9-5
3-O
Light truck
| 7-9
64
11{
e3
G10
Sporvutilityvehicle
r6{
64
6-2
Wheelchair lift van (oersonal use)
l7
8{
Boat trailer
204
8{
6-O
See detail
See detail
214
7-O
9,0
34{
8-6
t24
RV*folding trailer
r6{
7S
5-O
prckupcamper
18-1
10{
7-3
limousine
24-6
6-0
5-O
van (11 passengersl
2M
6-6
&10
lrarler
lsmall
car classes 5 through 7 per Parking Consultants

Council (PCC).
GROSS
\NEIGHT
(LB)
Small carl
RV-fifth wheel (pickup-based)
REA.R
4S
2850
4-0
8600
10{
2-9
2,9
4-0
4600
3{
3-8
6000
2-6
3-8
6000
3-0
8{
4000
8{
6000
3-0
124
5000
224
12-2
3500
1-6
1500
2900
1ffi
44
5-0
9000
3{
5-6
I 1,000
2 A composite passenger vehicle is a design vehicle that

encompasses passenger cars, light trucks, vans, and sporv
utility vehicles. lt is the vehicle for which a parking {acility

should be designed.
lnc.;Indianapolis.
lndiana
Mary S. Smith.P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
fl
r04
VehicleDimensions
']
CLASS
M()TOR
HOME
INTERCITY/CHARTER
BUS
CLASS B MOTOR HOME
CLASS
C MOTOR
PARATRANS
DESIGN
ARTICULATED
ITIS H UTTLE BUS
AMBULANCE
PARAMEDIC
HOME
scHooL
VAN
FTRE TRUCK_AERIAL
UNIT
VEHICLE
BUS
FIRE TRUCK_PUMPER
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
(L)
VEH ICLE
WIDTH
(w)
HEIGHT
(H)
WH EELBASE
(wa)
OVERHANG FRONT
(o F )
OVERHANG
(oR)
( F T - tN . )
30-0
80
ClassB motor home {vanconversion)
204
6-8
8-6
Class C motor home (van cutaway)
r9{
7-6
9{
ParatransiVshuttle
bus {20 passengers)
25!
6-10
8-9
lntercitv/charter bus
404
86
GROSS WEIGHT
(LB)
m
m
| 7.000
11 . 0 0 0
9-0
lo
41,OOO
8{
47.000
41,O@
204
44
t{
2-6
2-6
30
2G6
REAR
9000
11.000
Citybus*
40{
11,2
25-O
74
Articulated bus'
60{
8-6
1G4
See detail
8-6
School bus
40{
8{
10{
22-O
8,0
t0{
19-10
G8
9S
2-A
22.$
7-8
96
132
2-A
74
r1.500
van
Paramedic unit
31-0
8-O
9-8
18-8
5-0
7-5
35.000
lruck-aerial
45-9
8{
10-2
20-3
6-2
19-4
52,000
Mary S. Smith. P.E; Walke. Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis. Indiana
II
9400
truck--pumpel
*Generally in
conformance with standards of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (MSHTO)
50.000
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
r05
Rqdii
VehicleTurning
(
lt
f-t
i{/
Il
||l
irl
COMPOSITE
GARBAGE
BUS
INTERCITY
CAR
TRUCK
(-_\
',L'/
BOAT
AMBULANCE
TRAILER
FIRE TRUCK-PUMPER
VAN
MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS FOR DESIGN VEHICLES (FT-IN.)

EHICLE
TYPE
MIN. TURNING
RADIUS (RT)
OUTSIDE FRONT
RADTUS (Ro)
Composite private vehicle
24-o
2ffi
Wheelchair lift van
24-9
2GA
Eoat trailel
244
24-11
INSIDE REAR
RADIUS (R,)
STRAIGHT
LANE
wtDTH (Ws)
1ffi
o{
0{
&5
tratler
23-10
254
5-7
Motor home
39-7
42+
27$
limousine
32-7
34-10
23-8
van
24-10
ParatransiUshuttle
bus
2+2
bus
35-3
145
23-5
TANGENT
LENGTH (T)
13
12$
24-7
125
14-0
244
{
{
1 6 11
-o
-o
19{
234
41-2
14-6
2G2
34t
13-6
13-4
29-7
13
'17-10
13-4
294
18-7
60{
t1{
-o
26-1I
INSIDE CURB
RADIUS (R)
CURVED LANE
(\|r'r)
wrDTH
1&4
G10
60-9
4-l
424
466
244
274
214
60{
38{
43{
14{
22-O
1t{
624
Schoolbus
41-9
436
297
-0
t7-8
2+3
564
Garbagetruck
31-O
334
20
38-0
24-9
27-2
t4
r3-5
18
Ambulancevan
24
-o
13-5
294
unrl
28-5
3G.10
18
156
33-0
41-O
27-7
244
444
ty bus
bus
truck-pumper
Jb-t
Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (MSHTO).
124
"o
-o
N OTES
1. Minimumturn radiiat lessthan 10 mph.
2. Obstructions
{columns,walls,light poles,etc.)shouldbe
| 6-4
held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of

the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on
driveways and roadways.
Indiana
Inc.;lndianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
u
A
AND PARKING
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
VehiculqrDesignpolometers
106
GENERAL
neers can be u\ed as a toot for adaplrng desrgns to the specrlrc needs ol use's Level ol servrce (LOS) A whrch rs rhe
most comiortable, allows vehrcle movement with little or no
constrarni. As the level of service decreases, from A to D,
the comfort level decreases. LOS D is the minimum dimension for safe maneuvering of a vehicle at low speed.
Public skeets and highways are designed to accommodate a

vanety ot vehicles, up to and including SemitrAler trucks.
When private driveways and roadways will only serve passenger vehicles, it may be appropriate to use smaller dimen,
srons In some instances. Nonetheless, be certain Drivate
roads are wade enough to allow passage o{ fire and emergency vehicles.
The
'level
of seryice"
approach employed
COMPARISON
LT
The level ot serv(ce selected for a particular application

should rellect lhe needs oi the users and ol the owner ot a
property. Make adiustments according to the local vehicle
sazeand mix and any concerns pa(icular to the location.
by traffic engi,
OF LEVELS OF SERVICE
LEVEL OF SERVICE
LOS D
LOS A
Typeof users
Familiar.young adults
Unfamiliar, elderly
Short term
Length of stay
Long-term
Turnover
Lessthan2 per day
More than 5 per dav
Type of generator
lndustrial
Retail
Location
Urban
.Fural
lmage
Spec office
Corporate headquarters
smail cars
High
Low
light tfucks, vans, and uttlrty vehrcles
Low
High
RECOMMENDED
CONCAVE
TRANSITION
SLOPES
DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR VEHICULAR CIRCULATIONI

DRAWING
LOS C
LOS B
LOS A
Lane width, straight

One lane2
10'{'
Multiple lanes
9'{'
Clearanceto obstructions
Radius,turning(outsidefront wheel)
R1
9'S'
11 ' - 0 '
lt{
10'-0'
r0''
36'{',
42'4'
ONE-WAY
24'o',
30',0'
r2'-0'
12'4'
Lane width, turning4,b

One lane
tJ t
Each additional lane

Circular helix4.6
Single-threadedT
Outside diameter
Do
60'4'
74'-O'
88'-0'
Inside diametef
Dr
24',4'
36'{'
48',-0'
102'4'
60'{'
NONCONCENTRIC
TWO.WAY
Double-threadede
Outside diameter
Do
80'{'
95' 0'
11 0 ' { '
lnside diameter9
Dr
M\0'
57'-0'
70'{'
16Vo
14yo
l2v.
t-
10'-0'
| 1'-0'
t2'-0'
ramp slope
ansrtronlength
r25'-0'
83'{'
LANE WIDTH
(TURNING}
1jvo
Gated/controlled widthlo
8'-9'
9{'
9',3'
Source:Mary S Smith, Parkng Structures:Planning,Design,Maintenance and Repair, 2d ed. (Chapman and Hall, 1996).
1 The design parameters recommended
5 For all levels of
are for design
service, use a 20Jt lane to allow room to
speedsrangingfrom 10 mph (LOSD) to 2b mph {LOSA).
pass a brokendown vehicle. per AASHTO '1990 figure
Additionaldimensionsfor parkingaccessaislesand lurn1 1 1_23.
ing bays are providedon the AGS page on parkingdesign
6 The
diameters given measure from outside face to outparameters.
side face of the walls (6-in. walls assumed).
2 For all levelsof service,use a 1
s-ft laneto make room lor
7 Turning radii/iane width
,ncreased 3 ft because of multiple
passtnga brokeniown vehicle_
Turns.
3 The clearancegiven is from
the edge of a lane to a wall,
8 Decrease
3 lt 6 in. to provide 2o-tt lane in order to leave
column, parkedvehicle, or other obstruction,as cited in
room to pass broken-down vehicles.
American Associationof State Highway and Transporta9 Ramp slope,
minjmum lane width. and clearance to walls
tion Officials,A Policyon Geometiic Designof Higiways
control dimensions for double-threaded helix.
and sr/eers (r gg0l IASHTo 19901,figure 11 t,25.
l0
a The dimensionsgiven for
The dimensions given assume a straight approach to lane;
LOS D are {rom AASHTO'1990
check turns into lanes with temolate.
figure 111-23, exceptthe clearancecited in that figure has
beenreducedto 2 ft, per tigure111-25.
ADDED 3'.O' FOR

MULIIPLE TURNS
(TO OUTSIDE)
FULL
ROADWAY
AND
RAMP
WIDTHS
Mary S. Smith,
P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.j Indianapolis,
lndiana
fl
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
HELIX
CIRCULAR
HELIX
(TURNING)
Drivewqysqnd Roqdwqys
dure for developing any drive configuration, given the design
vehicle and its turning radii (R). The tangent (TG)dimension is
an approximate minimum required for transition from one
turn direction to another.
GENERAL
Veh,cledimensaons
are shown on the AGSpageon design
a procevehicles.The U-shaDed
driveshownhereillustrates
UNLOADING
107
NOTE
tor Rr Br, Ro, Wq, Wr, and Tc, see lhe AGS page on vehl
cle tuinrng ridrr. Fbr L. OB. and W. see lhe AGS page on
design vehicles.
AREA -
BUS WILL NOT BE

AT STOP
STRAIGHT
UNLESS
TANGENT
{TC)
IS
OIMENSION
BETWEEN
PROVIOED
RADII
I o'-o"
RADIUS
I O',-O"
RADIUS
LP+
CENTERLINE
r---
OF STREfl
PRIVATE ROADS INTERSECTING

PUBLIC ROADS
U-SHAPED DRIVE
INTERSECTIONS
AND
DRIVES
+-r +
I
CENTER
ON DOOR
l/'\
i" \.1
FORWARD
R"/t
CUL-DE-SAC
DIMENSIONS
SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR

DRTVEWAY LAYOUTS (FT-rN.)
90'
STRAIGHT
NOTE
Use this three-maneuver entrance for single car garages
only when space limitations demand it. The drawing is based
on dimensions tor a large car.
PRIVATE
DRIVE\iVAYS :TO RESIDENTIAL
OUT (ICAR}
IN_BACK
8-9
9{
r0{
11{
124
25-D
24$
234
23-O
224
IN_BACK
OUT
9{
10{
124
r6{
26{
254
23
24.o
24
3-0
34
144
GARAGES
14-5
14
204
NOTE
The R values for vehicles intended to use these culsde-sac
should not exceed Rb.
CULS-DE-SAC
Indiana
lnc.;Indianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers.
ROADS,AND PARKING
AUTOMOBILES,
108
PorkingDesignPorometers
r3s .O'
+301O"
+2O-o
tr
+lO'-O
TWO TURNS AT 360" TO TOP
TURNS
ON E.WAY
IN PATH OF TRAVEL
FLOOR
TO
sc
+ --
+:
FLOOR
+ t+
ooD L|NES
\,,
LLjlll_uilfl|i||tI
if-tilfnT ttilTiflTtlf
. ' z \
NOTE
lf the bay run is greater than the "small car" dimension, pre
vide a short circuit to help traffic flow.
CLEARANCES FOR VEHICLES
SHORT CIRCUIT IN LONG BAY
RECOMMENDED DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR WAYFINDING

AND USER-FRIENDLINESS IN PARKING FACILITIES
LEVEL OF SERVICE
DESIGN
STANDARD
FOR
Maximum walking distance

Within parking lacilities
Surtace lot
Structure
From parking to destination
Climaterontrolled
Outdoors, covered
Outdoors. uncovered
Height from floo.to-floorI

Longspan,posttensioned
Longspan,precast
(LOS)
B
r400'{'
1200'{'
1050'{'
900'-0'
700',0'
600'{'
350 -0'
300'-0'
5200',0'
2000 -0'
r600 -0'
3800'{'
1500 -0'
1200'-0'
2400'4',
1000'-0'
800'{'
1000'4'
500 -0'
400'-0'
9',S'
10'-6'
r0''
l1-6'
116'
300/o
60v"
1 3 '
Percentage of parking spaces on flat lloors
ovo
Parkingramp slope
6.57.
6qo
5.57.
Number of 360" turns to top
5.5
90%
5vo
2.5
Short circuit in long run {SC)
400'-0'
350!0'
300'{'
250',4'
Travel distance to
750'-0'
600'{'
450 -O'
300{'
800
500
400
250
Number of spacessearchedor compartment

Angled
Perpendicular
BAYS
KEY TO DRAYI/INGS
1600
1000
1200
750
Radius,turning(R
24'-O'
26'-0'
Turning bays, clear (T)5

One lane
Two lanes, concentric6
Two lanes, nonconcentric
26'S',
29'{'
24',4'
28',4'
30 -0'
17-0'
18',3'
31 -0'
34'{'
Source: Mary S. Smith, Parkng Structures: Planning. Design. Maintenance, and Repair,2d ed. (Chapman & Hall. 1996)
lMinimum venical
4 Due to lower
clearance for van accessibility is 8 ft
design speeds, the turning radius in parking
2 in.. which .equires minimum fl@rtefloor heights per
areas is less than that required for throughrirculation eleLOS C.
ments.
2 A short
5 Clear between face
circuit in a long run is used to shorten the exit path.
of columns, curbs, or obstructions:
3 In
check clearance at back of parking stalls with turning temone-way designs. it is necessary to continue on the
prare.
inbound travel path before conneclion to the outbound
6 lf flow is largely in
path.
one direction, the turning bay for a twc
lane, concentric design can be reduced by 3 ft.
Mary S Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
TURNING
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
r09
PorkingSpoce Dimensions
pARKING spAcE
ALL
LEVELS
ANGLE
DlMENsloNs
t
rrt--tru.)
OV
"f
i1
OF SERVICE
VEH ICLE
PROJECTION
OF PARK
OF CURB
WALL
OFFSET
OVERHANG
STRIPE OFFSET
1G3
13-8
SP
1--"
75
90
LEVEL OF SERVICE A
STALL
PROJECTION
ANGLE OF PARK
0
0
8,9
8,9
45
24
50
I l-c
MODULE
AISLE
0-o
424
25-0'
0{
49{
14-10
15-7
0-8
51-9
60
0-1
53-4
65
&6
174
70
9-4
55-9
18-5
75
9-'l
57-O
l9l 0
90
8-9
61-O
260
ANGLE
OF SERVICE
2S
22
110
0{
OF PARK
STALL
PROJECTION
MODULE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
8$
30{
13{r
0{
0{
86
40{
234r
t2-o
48{
13-10
50
I t-l
49
55
10-5
5G9
KEY
e = angle of park
A = aisle width
i = interlock reduction
OV = overhang
M = module
SL = srall length
2-10
50
55
LEVEL
INTERLOCK
14-Oz
BASIC LAYOUT
SO = stripe oflset
SP = stripe projection
SW = stallwidth
VP = vehicleprojection
WO = wall offset
WP = srall projection
DIMENSIONS
3{
2-9
2-5
60
9-10
524
15
2-2
65
95
53
1il
1 - 10
70
9-1
54-9
17-5
1-5
75
8-10
56{
1810
90
6r
254
04
MOOULE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
28
124',
0{
21-03
0,0
12-10
2-11
LEVEL OF SERVICE C
ANGLE
OF PARK
STALL
PROJECTION
8-3
0
0
8-3
45
11 - 8
474
50
10-9
48
4$9
13-7
96
51-4
146
65
9-1
52$
154
70
8-9
53-9
rG5
75
5il
l7-10
90
8-3
59{
24.o
24
1-9
0{
LEVEL OF SERVICE D
STALL
PROJECTION
MO DU LE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
8{
274
t1{'
0{
8{
35-O
r 9{r
04
45
I 1-4
4m
50
tG5
47-6
2-2
2-7
55
9-9
48-9
-7
24
60
93
5G4
24
65
8-r0
516
70
8$
52-9
t5
75
8-3
54{
6-10
90
8-O
58{
ANGLE
OF PARK
' All dimensrons are rounded to the nearesl rnch.

2 These are minimum aisle widths for one-wav traffic at each levelof seryice
3 Figures given are widths for twcway traffic.
to provide the
SHORT SPAN CONSTRUCTION

DETAILS
23
60
55
NOTE
Stalls adjacent to columns must be wider
same level of service of turn.
10
2-10
234
14
l{
0{
NOTES
1. Parkingstallsfor a design vehicle6 ft 4 in. wide and 16 ft
I in. long shouldhave a stripe prcjectionof 16 ft 3 in. and
parallel
stalllengthof 20 ft 9 in.
Smalkarnly stalls (7 ft 5 in. wide by 15 ft long) should
only be used at constrained lGtions
or in remnants of
space. The number of these stalls should not exceed
parking
10% of total
capacity at a site.
Angles between 76 and 89" are not recommended for
one-way design because these angles permit drivers of
smaller cars to back out and exit the wong way.
for use with twe
Angled parking is not recomrendd
wav aisles as drivers often attemot to make a U-turn into
stalls on the other side of the aisle.
Add 1 ft to the module for surface parking bays without
curbs or other parking guides (freqrent poles or columns
or walls) in areas with frequent heaw snowfall.
To maintain the same level of seruice (LOS), reduce the
module (M) by 3 in. for each additional inch in stall width
(SW) while maintaining minimum aisle width (see toot'
notes 2 and 3 to accompanying chan), For example,
I ft I in. @ 90'on 61-ft module = LOS A
9 ft 0 in @ 90'on 60-ft 3-in. module = LOS A
Columns and light poles may protrude into a parking mod
ule a combined maximum of 2 ft as long as they do not
affect more than 25yo ot the stalls in that bay For example, a 2-ft encroachment by a column on one side of the
aisle or 1 ft each from columns on both sides is permissiote.
Mary S. Smith. P.E.j Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
AND PARKING
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
PorkingLofEntryqnd ExitDesign
I l0
GENERAL
ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guide

lines for Buildings and Facilities,36 CFR 1 191. July 26, 1991 I
requires all cashier booths in new construction (and in alterations that result in the removal of existing islands) to be
accessible "to and through" the door This mandate is found
under the requirements for employee work areas or stations. A booth can meet this requirement if it is recessed in
the pavement so the interior floor is at the same elevation as
the driving lane. An accessible cashier booth can also have a
curb ramp and appropriate latch side clearance for the rear
swinging d@r.
gorurc.
i
o
ii!
I
b
ADMG recommends-but
d@s not require-that
at least
one booth be a fully accessible workstation {have a s-ft
drameter wheelchair turning space, adjustable counter, ac
cessible controls, etc-). A booth can meet this requirement
with accessible doors on both sides, which allows T turning
movemenls.
DffECTOR
LOOP, TYP,-\
I
KEY TO DRAWINGS
TERM
ABBREVIATION
Autogate
AG
Ticket dispenser
TD
SYMBOL
.-
E
ENTRANCE
CR
Card reader
\^/ITH TICKET
DISPENSER
LFS
T----1
L___J
Bollard
10'x
CARD
RAMP (USE HANDRAIL

IN LiEU OF FURES
TO KEEP ISGND
WIDTH TO A MINIMUM)
tcl
6" DIAMffER
GALVANIZED
STEEL PIPE
FILLED
WITH
CONCRETE
{
roop
#tul
-I t - l t___l
"Lot full" sign
316"
NTRAN C E O R E X I T W I T H
E A D E R ONLY
I ol
tul
lal
tol
l<l
I'tl 0- a ll
z |
=l I
ll
10" x 5/s"
WIH
FOUR 3ADIAMETER
EXPANSION
(ALL
ANCHORS
GALVANIZED)
1
PUTFORM AT
BOOTH FLOOR
HEIGHT
elfNt
SEAUNT ALL
AROUND
RECESS BOOTH IN
ISUND SO FLOOR
IS LEVEL WITH TOP
OF ISUND AT DOOR
lz -[-
l=l
lt sgl l
NOTE
"l:l '
l=l
lil
lt ln l
%- NEOPRENE
PAD
?
BOLURD. TYP.
6L
Place bollards so they are plumb

N
PIPE BOLLARD
EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE CASHIER

BOOTH AND CARD READER
/////////,/
P
\N
lt tl-N\
-+
ta
tI
,+
J---rj--rr t
PI.AN WITH INAOEQUATE TURNS
RECOMMENOED
+t
5ECTION
AT
BOOTH
EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE

BOOTH
RECOMMENDED
LOT ENTRY CONFIGURATIONS
Inc.;Indianapolis,
Indiana
A
tUl
PUN
CASHIER
PARKING
+ +-
I --tl
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
PorkingLotDesign
sw*r'-o"-\,
io.o
tvP+t-o
,/-i-wHEELCHAIR
I RAMP
- LIGHT
POLE
RADIUSI
I STALL
PEDESTRIAN
LIGHT TRAVEL
RADiUS
OV
1l
ii
o
o
'
5', O"
RADiUS
,l)
lu
SIDEWALK
- to-o"
RADI6
PEDESTRIAN
TRAVEL
PEDESTRIAN
NN
3','6
URGER
OFT
b+
FACE OF
c
l''
I
ill
UJ
SMALL LOT WITH ONE.WAY TRAVEL
LOT DESIGNS
WITH
MULTIBAY LOT WITH TWO-WAY ENO AISLE
ISLANDS
20010"
._::":':'
l+
t-)
tl
+
r)*
LJ
:
l+
ANGLED PARKING
,l+
I]
: -=>
rT----\
l,
ltl
l:
j+
:+
1I
PARKING
NOTES
N OTES
1. GPA = 200 ft x 56.33 ft x 2 = 22,532 sqlr

2. Capacity = 80 vehicles
1. GPA = 200 ft x 60.5 It x 2 = 24.200 sq lt

2. Capacity = 80 vehicles
3. Etliciency = 24,200 sq ftl80 vehicles = 302.5 sq ruspace
3. Efficiency = 22,532 sq fV80 vehicles = 281.7 sq fvspace
SMALL
LOT DESIGNS
0'.6- RADIUS, TYP. -\
ISUND
TYPE I\
-#
TYPICAL
ISUNO
TYPE II
ii
PARKING
KEY TO DRAWINGS
CONCRETE BUMPERS CREATE

TIPPING HAZARD AND ARE
NOT RECOMMENDED
BAY,WITH
ISLAND
TYPES
Inc.:lndianapolis,
lndiana
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
112
PorkingLotDesignGuidelines
CONSIOER
DEEPER
ASPHALT
OR REINFORCED CONCRETE
PAVING AT AREA WHERE
(
F
I
RE TRUCKS
HEAVY VEHICLES
BUSES,
FTC ) ARE COMMON
VEHICUUR
TRAFFIC
CONTROL SIGNS.
CAUTION
STRIPES,
SPEED HUMPS OR
BUILOING
ENTRY
PASSENGER/LOADING
ZONE
SPEED AUMPS
AVOIOING CURBS AND WHEEL STOPS

ALLOWS
EASY SNOW REMOVAL
AND REDUCES
PEDESTRIAN
IRIPS AND SLIPS
SPECIAL UNOSCAPE
AND
PAVING DESIGN EMPHASIS
AT MAJOR ENTRANCE
ACCESSIBLE
PARKING
AREA AND
RAMP CLOSE TO ENTRY
LANE
*^;t;;;==INTERMEDIATE
ISUND. TYP
PARKING AISLE
ORIENTED
TOWARO
DESTINATION
{BUILDING ENTRY)
NOTE
TRAFFIC
Confirmrequirements
for fire lanesadiacentto buildings.
Consultlocalcodes
GOMMERCIAL
NOTES
PARKING
ON OESIGN
ARRANGEM
FLOW
ENT
GUIOELINES
1. Determine an e{Iicienl means of laying out the parking lot

{see vehicle and parking space dimension data on other
AGS pages on parking). A smaller paved area costs less
to build and maintain, of{ers a shorter walking distance
from car to building, lessens water runoff problems, and
leaves more space for site landscaping.
2. Provide safe and coherent site circulation routes.
3. Provide access tor tire rescue and mass transit vehicles.
Consult local requirements.
4. Parking lots should offer direct and easv access for peo
ple walking between their vehicles and the building
entrances. Pedestrians usually walk in th6 aisles behind
parked vehicles; aisles perpendicular to the building face
allow pedestrians to walk to and from the building withparked cars. Walking areas
out squeezing between
should be graded to prevent standing water.
5. Accessible design is now mandatory. requiring designated parking spaces and curb ramps near building
entrances. See AGS page on accessible curb ramps and
passenger loading.
of landscaping, consider the screening capabilities of plants.

Low branching, densely foliated vees and shrubs can soften
the visual impact of large parking areas. High branching canopy trees do not creale a visual screen at eye level but do
provide shade. When possible, create islands large enough
to accommodate a mixture of cancpy trees, fiowering trees,
evergreen trees, shrubs, and flowers. Consider using evergreens, and avoid plants that drop fruit or sap.
AT SIOEWALKS
SPEED BUMP
6'.0' MIN, FOR TREE PUNTING
(CAN BE REDUCED
IF SHRUBS
LANDSCAPING
AND GROUND COVER ONLY)
Plants in parking areas can help relieve the visually overwhelming scale of large parking lots. To maximize the ef{ect
F|RE UNE:
(CHECK
27:O" TO 30 -O"
LOCAL
COOES)
5!O
Y''
,iv1'
CONSlOER
SBADE.TOLERANI
GROUND
COVER, STONE.
OR HARD SURFACE
SPEED HUMP
N OTE
Use of a speed hump eliminates the need for an accessible
curb ramp.
FIRE LANE
SPEED CONTROL
Mary S. Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
DEVICES
AT PUNTING
AREAS AND BERMS
*See the AGS pages on design vehicle
dimensions for per
pendicular dimension of overhang; adjust for angled parking
AUTOMOBILE
OVERHANG
REQUIREMENTS
il3
+35 -O',
+3O'-O"
NOTES
+25 .O"
1. Floorto flry crrculation In a parkrng structure is typrcally

provrded either by parkrng ramps or express ramps
ithose
without parking) or a combination of both.
2. Almost all ramp systems are based on helical patterns,
whether a lully circular express helix or a combination of
strarght runs and turning bays at the end.
3. The two fundamental helical panerns a,e the srnole_
threaded helix, which rises one fuil floor rn each 360; of
revolutaon, and the double-threaded helix, which rises
two floors with each complete revotutron.
4. Express helices can be either single threaded or double
threaded. Parking ramps can also be configured in singleand double-threaded patterns.
+20'-O"
SINGLE.THREADED
HELIX
+3O-O"
+3O'-O
5. On a site that can accommodate two parking modules in

width but is short (less than 200 ft), a single-threaded
helix can be used only with tweway traffic flow and 90"
parl(ng.
+2O -O
+ I O'-O"
6. Application of a twebay single-threaded helix arranoe,

ment may be limited by the desirable number of turis,
spaces passed, etc. of the selected level of service and/
or by flow capacity considerations.
+ | O'-O"
o
DOUBLE.THREADED
HELIX.SHAPED
HELIX
PI\RKING
BAYS
DOUBLE.THREADED
TWO-WAY
TWO.BAY
SINGLE-THREADED
CIRCULAR
HELIX
FLOW
HELIX
NOTES
1. The twobay double-threaded helix can be taller and
accommodate more spaces than the two-bav sinolethreaded model: however, it requires a longer srte (tfpically more than 200 ft in length). Because thrs desrgn
may offer less desirable wayfinding and user-friendlineis
to unfamiliar users, it is most often used for predominantly employee parking.
2. A two-bay double-threaded helix may have either oneway or tweway traffic flow. The former has one up and
one down route, while the latter provides two up routes
and two down ones.
TWO.WAY
TV\/O-BAY DOUBLE.THREADED
FLOW
HELIX
NOTES
'1.
The split-level design
threaded helix in which
sped ramps are used
level parking structures
way traffic flow.
is a modification of the singtethe parking bays are flattened and

to accomplish a vertical rise. splitmay have either two-wav or one-
2. Although they provide a level lacade, split-level parking

structures have a number of disadvantaqes. The main
ones are loss ot stalls (compared to a typrcal twebay sin
gle-threaded helix), difficult design for turns and speed
ramp. and poor efficiency (the square footage of parking
area per stall is roo high).
SPLIT
LEVEL
Mary S. Smith,P.E,, WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,

lnc.; Indianapolis.
lndiana
WilliamT. Mahan,AtA; SantaBarbaia,California
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
I l4
PorkingStructureDesign
NOTES
,-J,
/t'-
1. On wider sites, a combination ol sloped parking bays a!rc

flat bays in single-threaded patterns can provlde leve
facades with superior wayfinding and user-lriendliness
These facilities may be limited primarily by height (too
much height yields an excessive number of turns) or flon
capacity {the number of spaces passed on the path ol
travel).
2. On longer sites. single-threaded helices can be combined
in a camelback helix to provide one-way traffic llow. This
one way llow offers better wayJinding tor unfamiliar
users than a double-threaded helix. However, because
there are more turning bays, the efficiency (sq fvparking
space) of the garage will be affected.
FOUR.BAY SIDE.BY.SIOE
THREE-BAY SIDE-BY-SIDE
CAMELBACK
ENO.TO.END
SINGLE.THREADED
HELIX COMBINATIONS
NOTES
1. Traffic can be routed in either a single-threaded or double
threaded pattern on the same configuration of tlat and
sloped parking bays.
2. The three-bay double-threaded helix option provides
quicker vertical circulation and better flow capacity. How'
ever, because the flow is different on every other floor,
making ir confusing for unfamiliar users, this design
works besl for employee parking.
3. The interlocked helix offers better wayfinding (because t
has the same flow pattern on every floor) but reduced
flow capacity. The flow capacity is especially low during
periods of high turnover because inbound and outbound
traffic must merge at every floor
THREE-BAY DOUBLE.THREAOED
HELIX
THREE-BAY
SINGLE-THREADED
INTERLOCKEO
COMBINATION
SLOPED
AND
FLAT
HELIX
BAYS
NOTES
1. As a parking structure footprint becomes wider, it is gen
erally preferable to add llat parking bays and keep the
Iloor-to-floor circulation at the far end of the structure
Similarly, when a parking structure is longer than needed
Ior floor-to-floor circulation, keep the ramps at one end
and add tlat areas close to the ultimate destination of
those using the facility.
2. Totally flat floor parking combined with express ramps
yields the best combination of wayfinding, user-friendli'
ness, and security. Express ramps may be designed to
require tralfic to circulate through the floors or to allow
vehicles to oass directlv trom floor to floor. The latter
arrangement provides the greatest flow capacity and
ease ol access in very large structures (those with more
than 2000 parking spaces).
FOUR-BAY SIDE-BY.SIDE
HELIX WITH END FUT BAYS
FOUR-BAY SIOE-BY-SIDE
WITH SIOE FUT BAYS
--2,--l
{-=->
SINGLE-THREADED
FLAT FLOOR
EXTERIOR
EXPRESS
RAMPS
-_7-,-_\'\
$Y\';=::
->--\
i
FLAT
FLOOR
WITH
PARKING
Inc.; Indianapolis,
Indiana
4
tUl
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
EXPRESS
--''
RAMP
Truckqnd TroilerSizes
DESIGN
VEHICLE
VEHICLE
TYPE
unrttruck'
WIDTH
HEIGHT
(H)
7',-11
1 0{ '
13'-2'
see table
oerow
13 t23',tA'16',t426 t4
10'no't10'tla'
30'{'
50'-o'
60 -o'
WB-50truck'
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
LENGTH (FT-IN.)
DIMENSIONS
LE N GTH
(L)
OVERHANG
FRONT (OF)
WHEELBASE
(wB)
20
8'6'
8','
il5
OVER HANG
REAR (OR)
WEIGHT
4 -O',
6',0'
60'
20.000tb
3',{)'
2o',
80.000tb
2',4'
5 -O"
SEMITRAILER
AND TRACTOR
*Generally in conformance with AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Stteets
l'19901
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
HEIGHT AND WIDTH
(FT.IN.)
VEHICLE HEIGHT
VEHICLE
TOTAL HEIGHT
TOTAL
WIDTH
WIDTH
8-6
14{
ao
AK.CA,HI, ID, KS,MT. NM, NV.ND,OR,UT
14-6
NB
NOTE
Width is B ft 0 in. or B ft 6 in.accordingto stateregulations
MINIMUM
VEH ICLE
TYPE
TURNING
RADIUS
MIN.
TURNING
RADIUS
( Rr)
OUTSIDE
FRO NT
RADIUS
( Ro)
FOR
below
8{
DC, GA, IL, KY,LA. MI, MD, MO,

NC, PA,\^^/
9-{)
HI
CT, FL. MA, NV
Length and area restrictions vary by state and locale..Verify

exact dimensions and restrictions
DESIGN
INSIDE
REAR
RAOIUS
(Rr)
M D , M S , M T . N B ,N H , N J ,I N ,I A ,
OH, OK, PA,SC,SD,WA
(FT-IN.)
VEHICLES
STRAIG H T
LANE
WIDTH
(Ws)
C U RVED
LAN E
WIOTH
INSIDE
CURB
RADI US
(Rc)
(wr)
TANGENT
LENGTH
(T)
truck
31-0
JJ-
124
14
184
38{
Singleunittruck
424
M4
244
124
20{
25-o
4G10
WB{o truck
40-o
41
l9{
124
254
16{
WB-50truck
4il
46{
194
24
30{
16{
I tod
WBSo truck
4H
4ffi
224
124
274
19{
65{
DOUBLE
1. Minimum turn radii at less than 10 mph.

2. Obstructions {columns, walls. light poles, etc.) should be
AND TRACTOR
STATE
held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of

the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on
drivewavs and roadwavs.
NOTES
SEMITRAILER
59{
60{
61-0
65{
AR, IL
N B ,N M , N Y
N D .I D
OF
TRACTOR
AND
AK. OR
SEMITRAILER
MA, NH, NJ
AZ, IN. IA, KS,MT, NV,OH. RI
wB
oF
SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK
oR
STRAIGHT
PATH OF LEfr
FRONT WHEEL
PATH OF LEil
zF
FRoNrWHEELTa.44
1'' \1
/)
I,
/,
42',-O',MtN
TURNING
RADIUS
i / rI , ' 4 s ' - o ' M r N

/TURNING
nnotusL/ | 7
0
I
PArH oF
RIGHT
REAR
*HEELT
ffT]
SEMITRAILER
AND
TRACTOR'
tI
-/
so'ESTGN
ffiffi-- *"
SEMTTRAILER
r"A
|
|
OF
TRIPLE
":
I
24 .3'
MIN.
PATH
||
- -
>*--
46 -3"
BODY TRUCKS
Az, CO. OH. MT, IN, SD
coMBrNATroN
tl
tl
m0
IntII
WB.5O SEMITRAILER DESIGN VEHICLE
TURNING
SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK OESIGN VEHICLE
RADIUS
I Two axles-35 lt; three axles---4oft

'Maximum
allowable length not permitted. except in
those stateslisted.
Mary S. Smith,P.E., WalkerParkingConsultanls/Engineers,

Inc.;Indianapolis,
Indiana
WilliamT. Mahan.AIA: SantaBarbara.
California
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
tl
U
I l6
TruckDocks
NOTES
1. Allow for off,street
driver parking.
employee
and
2. Entrances and exits should be of reintorced concrete when excessive twisting and turning
of vehicles are
expected.
3. Average gate (swing or slide) 30 fr
O in. wide for two-way tratfic. People
gate 5 ft 0 in. wide with concrete walkway 4 ft 0 in. to 6 fr O in. wide.
4. For yard security use a 6 It 0 in. high
chain link lence with barbed ware on
top.
5. On-site fueling facilities are desirable
for road units.
6. Provide general yard lighting from lixtures mounted on building ot o^ 24 tl
0 in. high minimum poles at fence line.
Mercury vapor or high pressure sodium
preferred.
CArcPY
ryERHEAD
CONCRETE
OPTIONAL
TYPICAL
PLAN
OF CLOSEO
OOUILE Dc'c)R I PREFERREO } 22,-o.
X
14'.6I'
il'-o'wroE
HIGH.
x
SING|LE
t4'-6"
DOC)R
HlGH
L + ro -o
TO NEAREST
OBSTRUCTK)N
PROVIDE
EXHAUST
DOCK
WIDE
t OPTIONAL
UNDING
RAMP
TYPICAL
PLAN
STNGLE
OOC)R
HIGH.
DOUBLE
ro'-o'
x
HrGH
7. Tractor parkirig requires l2 ft O in.

wide x 2O ft 0 in. long slot mrnimum.
Provide motor heater outlets for diesel
engines in cold climates.
8. Trailer parking requi.es l0 ft 0 in. wide
slot minimum. Provide 10 ft 0 in. wide
concrete pad for landing gear. Score
concrete at 12 ft 0 in. o.c. to aid in
correct spotting of trailer.
9. 4 tt 0 in. wide minimum concrete ramp
from dock ro grade. Slopes ot 3 to 1 5%
{ 10% average}, score surlace for traction.
1O. Vehicles should circulate in a counterclockwise direction, making le{t hand
tu.ns, permitting dfiver to see rear oI
unit when backing inro dock.
1 1. Double trailers are backed into dock
separately.
OF
OPEN
OOCK
I pREFERRED
) |.-Or. W|OE
I OPTIONAL
Oc)c)R
)
2O'-O'
tO'X
WI DE
On
L+5-O'
5-O
MEANS
FUMES
TO
FERRED
LONGEST
EXECTTD
VEHICLE
AS
SET
CUSHION
SHELTER
OEFLECT
RAIN
gY
STATE
OR
OR
CANOPY
SNOW
LAW
5 -O
o
I
SLOPE
FLOOR
TO
TRENCH
DRAIN
OO
NOT
IO'l.
EXCEED
GRADE.
I'/.
AO
2'/.
PREFERRED
ROTECTTVE
SLOPE
TYPICAL
AECTION
OF
GRADE
CLOSEO
POST
AWAY
FRC)M
USE
LOAO
FOR
LEVELERS
IN
TRAILER
OIFFERENCES
FL@R
HEIGHTS
ro -o
LNDING
DOOR
HEIGHT
ABOVE
6'
Tc,P
SLOPE
\./. ao
IN
3'l.
EXCEED
IDHI
c)F
MUST
TRAILER
CLEAR
SUILOING
DOCK
TYPICAL
SECTION
OF
OPEN
PAO
wrDE
coNcRETE
TRAILER
GEAR
OF
FOR
FROM
MCK
AWAY
GROUND
2./.
tN
coNcRETE_
2"/.
TO
NOT
BLACKTOP
OO
IO'l.
GRAOE
OOCK
AVERAGE VEHICLE DIMENSIONS
4'-O" to 4'-6"
4'.O" ro 4'-2"
3'.8" to 4'-2"
2'-O" to2'-8"
NoIE: Refer
NOTE:
Reler to other pagesfor truck and trailer sizes.
AVERAGE WIDTHS OF DOCKS

TYPE OF
OPERATION
Dock width (A)

Work aisle(B)
RobertH. Lorenz,AIA; PrestonTruckingCompany,lnc.;preston,Maryland

The Operations
Council,AmericanTruckingAssociation;
Washington,
D.C.
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
TWO-WHEEL
HANO TRUCK
FOUR.WHEEL
HAND TRUCK
AUTO SPUR
DRACLINE
to 14010"
15'-0"
1010" to 1510"
1010"to 1510"
tl7
Rqilroods
o'
t-/
NOTES
l. Given clearances are the .ecommended minimums ol
the American Railway Engineering Association. Ac'
tual reouirements varv from state lo state.
2. Clearances shown are for the tangent track and new
construclion. Clearances for reconstruclion work or
for alteration a.e dependent on existing physical conditions and, where reasonably possible, should be im'
proved
for
new
to
meet
the
requi.ements
conslrucllon.
3. On curved track, the lateral clearances each sade of
track center line shall be increased 1'/, i^. pet deg.ee
of curvalure.
4. Common state requiremenl lor laleral clearance of
p o l e s i s I t t 6 i n . ( v a r i e st r o m 8 t o l 2 t t ) .
5. Standard American railroad gauge ol 4 fr 8% in. is
measured between the inner faces of the rails.
\
RACK
SINGLE
R= 6 -O'
I
0
tr
F
L
o
o
-o
o'- o" 3
dl
eRtDGts/
,\
-J-ryl19
CENTERS
ro6,g5
TRACK
FOR
PLATFORMS
LOW
BUILOING
OOORS
PLATFORMS
TRACKS
ONLY
PLATFORMS
PASSENGER
PLATFORMS
8
MAX.
IRECOMMENDED
HEIGHT FOR AVERAGE CAR
.. sTANoaRo
HETGHT FoR passENGER
cAR
5l
(l
il
il
NOTE
'fhe
6 tt 4 in. dimension will accommodate cars with
either flush sliding d@rs or plug doors. Cars with hinged
double doors reouire lull clearance oI I fi. Where 6 lt 4
in. plattorm is used, full clearance should be provided on
opposite side, except inside buildings. (Several states
allow a platfofm height of 4 ft 6 in. for refrigerator cars
only, if the tull lateral clearance of 8 ft is provided.)
RAILWAY
REFRIGERATOR
HIGH
SIDE
Ramp travels laterally on rail mounted to edge of dak

tor positioningto rail car opening.lt adiustsabde and
below dck lsel and lmks to the rail wtren in the lowered position. Self-storesin vertical oosition when not
in us. Availablein varyinglengthsand widths.
CLEARANCES
RAIL
TENSION
OOCK
RAMPS
EARS
SHOCK
FREE
____'-.T
/
2r2" ao
*Q
------Trlnqlfg
---Ar{ll
,uoo
FLAT
VERTICAL
SURFACE
7 12'
I45 LB
STEEL
WELOMENT
ATTACHED
WITH
BOLTfJ
OR
LAG
SCREWS
OF
TRACK
TYPE
I
ELEVATION
TYPICAL
BUMPING
TYPE 2
ELEVATION
POSTS
L:44-3"
H : 14 - 9'
w:rO.9
AOXCAR
PIOCYEIACK
gTOCK
CAR
L :55
H : l5
w:lO
RFRIGERATOR
- 4'
- l
-8'
CAR
: q a . F
-io
w:,o
o-tOO
c)-
EEC)oooil
tw.,^,-^.,
- l
e}=g)E
LOG
CAR
TRILEVEL
AUTO
CARRIER
TANK
CAR-
2O.OOO GAL
L :70- B
-O"
H:8
L :5r'
PASSENGER
CAR
B'
a"
L:59
H:15
w: lo
CABOOSE
TYPICAL
GONOOLA
RAILROAD
CAR
TYPES
CAR
ANO
SIZES
OPEN
I ACTUAL
CAR
SIZES
HOPPER
VARY
CAR
GREATLY
COVEREO
EVEN
AMONG
LIKE
HOPPER
CAR
-3'
-r"
CAR
TYPES
Ed Hesner.Rasmussen& llobbs Architects;Tacoma,Washington

N. ClaibornePorterJr., AIA; Anchorage,Alaska
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,AND BOATS
I l8
Conoeing,Koyoking,Rowing,Surfing,ond WindSurfing
AOJUSTABLf,
SEAT
AND
BACKREST
PAOOLE
RUDDER
AND'
LINES
T IEDOWNS
FORWARO
HATCH
CARGO
SEA
KAYAK
Kayaksare specializedboats developedin North America

and Greenland
by variousIndiantribes.Today.insteadof
a framecoveredwith animalhide,the frameis covered
with synthetic tabric, or lhe kavak is builr of wood or,
more commonly,fiberglass.The two types are sea kayaks. longer and heavier,and river (white waterl kayaks,
sm8lle.,lighter,and moremaneuversble.
Seakayaksrange
in length from 10 ft. 6 ins. ro 23 ft. Their beam varies
lrom 33 ins. to 17% ins. White waterkayaksare shorter
and narrowerto be moreresponsive
in riverrapids.
KAYAK
OAR
LOCK
WATER
OINGHIES
SELF-ADJUST
ING BLOCKS
Dinghiesare smallboats used as auxiliariesto largercralt.

They alsocan be sailedand racedon their own. They vary
in lengthirom 6 ft. to 16 ft., andthey are 2 ft. 10 ins.to
5 ft.6 ins. in beam.Thy are constructedof wood or
fiberglass,and they can be riggedfor sail, rowing, or motoring.
2X4
PRESSURE \
TREATED
LUMBER
FASTENINGS
5 3ze cauvaNrzEo
BOLTS
COUNTERK
FOR
ALL
MEMBERS
RO\^/ING
eiHELL
|TORAGE
RACI<
Storagefor rowing shellsrequires:two racks8 teet apart

for singleand double;three racksI feet apan for eightosfed. Shellsused daily should not be storedhigherthan
6 fr. Storageracks can be adaptedeasilyro hold kayaks
or canoesby adjustingthe spacingbetwenracksand the
height betweenho.izontalmmbers.
CANOE
Canes haveshallowdraft, and they rangein length from
'12
ft. to 35 ft. They can be psddled,sailed,or motored,
and they can b loaded with equipment.They are consirucredof wood, fiberglas, o. aluminum.
Racingshells,built primarilyof carbonfiber or plaslic, are

narrow and uostablein the water. Thereare two rowing
styles: sweeprowing, where oarsmenwork one oar with
both hands;and sculling,where eachoarsmanworks two
oars, one in each hand. Sweepsare 12 ft. to 13 ft. long;
scullingoars are 9 ft. 6 ins. to 10 ft. long.
SCULLING
CONCRETE
FOOTI
NG
TYPICAL
VAN IZED
POST
ANCHOR
BAY
Q.
OAR
DINGHY
STORAGE
RACI<
Dinghy racks store the small boats year round, and should
be weather-treated. The rack mmbers are fastened with
coontersunk bohs to avoid damaging dinghies. Racks must
be able to support the weight of the boats and anyone
climbing on the racks.
RO\^/ING
SHELL
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington. D C
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
Sqilboqls
il9
CATBOAT RIG
Traditionallv puts a lot ol sail area on one short masl, as
shown here, which is stepped far forward an the boat.
SLOOP
Design with two basic sails, mainsail and headsail; the
latter, called a "l.actional rig," is set either to the masthead or some distance below the masthead.
SHROUDS
ON
EOTH
(ONE
SIDES
OELETED
FOR
CLARITY
)
CUTTER
HEAOSTAY
Like the sloop, a cutter rig has one mast carryrng lwo
headsails instead of one. The inner sail as the fore.
stav sail and the outer sail is the jib.
Unlike the sloop or cutter. the yawl is a two masled rg

consisling of a mainmast and a mizzen masr that is stepped
abaft (behindl the rudder post. The mizzen sail rs much
s m a l l e rt h a n t h e m a i n s a i l .
KETCH
RUOOER
Like the yawl, the ketch as also a two masred rig; however, the mizzen mast is stepped forward o{ the.udder
post and is larger than the vawl's mizzen. This placemeor
dictates a saller mainsail.
SCHOONER
FULL
DEFINITIONS
'1.
greatest len$h excluding
Length overall-LOA*boat's
bowsorils rudder or other extensions.
2. Length of water line-LwL-boar's
greatest length at
the wate. level excluding extensions such as rudders.
Beam-boat's
maximum
3.
breadth.
KEEL
4. Draft-distance lrom the waterline tothe boilomof the

boai's keel determining the least depth of water the
boat can oDerate in: i.e., the amount it draws.
5. Displacement-weight
Dlaces.
FIN
A combination of mast and rigging placement (where the

mast as steppedl, along with size, type and number of
sails, make up the main differences in sailboat rigs. Today
the most common is the marconi.ig distinguished by a
triangular mainsail, but it is not unusual for boats to be
rigged with a lraditional gaff. which is a foursided sail
that hangs from a spar called a gart. ln some insrances
marconi and gaff rigs are used together as shown on the
schooner below.
LATEEN
Headsails are triangular sails set ahead of the mast. Basic

headsails are the iib, working iib, staysail, and 9enoa. The
working iib, unlike other jibs, does not overlap the mast
and is often aitached to a boom tor easier control. Jibs
and genoas do overlap the mast and mainsail. The forestavsail is combined with the iib to create a double-head
sail and is used prima.ily on cutters and schooners.
Ancestor of the tore and aft rigs shown here. lt dates back
thousands ot years and is strll used In many parts of the
world.
Spinnakers, usually the largest sail set before the mast,

come in several different shapes and sizes according lo
use.
NOTES
}<ETL
of the water rhal the boat dis-
Usually two-masted bul can be three-masted. Commonly

the foremast is the shorter of the two, and may be gaff
or marconi rigged or at times a combination of both.
FOR
BASIC
RIGS
/
EXAMPLES
AEAM
FIN KEEL/CENTER
CENTER
EOARD
25'-10"
45',-3'
F I N K E E LA O A T S
Tanan 28
O'Day 35
35',-0"
FIN/CENTERBOARO
CapeDory 12701
Tartan 37
BOARO
MONOHULL BASIC UNOTRWATER
FULL KEEL BOATS

Folkboat
CapeDory 45
HULL
SHAPES
ORAFT
191tO"
-O
13',-O-
23'.3"
28'-9"
9',-10"
1 1',,3-
JJ
27',-3"
37'-3"
20'-9"
2a'-6"
Suniish
Laser
l Toro
l 3 ' .r o "
r3 ' - 1 0 "
8'-O"
t 3 ' -1 0 "
t2'-6"
MULTIHULLS
Hobie16
16'-7"
tt-Y
CENTERBOARD
3'-11"
6'-3"
5'-7"
UP
3',-0"
4',-2'
oowN
7',O"
1',-9"
UP
DOWN
2'.8'
4'-Vr'
4',-6'
3',-10"
z',-a1',-lo-
MULTIHULL
CUTTER
EIASIC
BOAT
RIGS
Timothy B. McDonald: Washington, D.C
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
TRUCKS,
r20
Dock ond MorineDevelopment
STEPS AS NECESSARY
TO FINGER
MAIN
WALKWAY
t
OPEN JOINTEO
(r/4" MAXIMUM
FINGER PIER. TYP \
WALKWAY
WOOD DECK
GAP BETWEEN
SUPPORT
BoARDS)
JOISTS
WOOD LEDGER,
TO WOOD PILE
FASTENED
OPEN JOINTED WOOO DECK

( r / d ' M A X ! M U MG A P
BETWEEN
PROTECTION CAP
ON WOOO PILE
i.'o,'
TOP OF OECK -----=rXu

WOOD LEDGER FOR
FINGER PIER SUPPORT,
FASTENED TO WOOD PILE
PRESSURE-TREATED
WMO
PILE
TWO 2X WOOD BEAMS
TYPICAL
FIXED DOCK
NOTES
>i
\
\
6'' MIN
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
ON 6'' COMPACTED
SUBGRAOE
SUB
NOTE S
l - Launchingrampsare for shelteredwaters only.
2. A finger pier or courtesy pier may be providedalongside
BOAT LAUNCHING
the ramp. In tidal waters, these piers should be o{ floating construction.
RAMP
AISLE
HEADER PIER
5 -O' MtN.
WIDTH
l.5TO r.75X
roNcesr sure
L
MOORING FOR
LARGg VESSEL
TEE PIER
5 -O" MrN
1.Wood marine constructionmust be pressuretreated

with a preseryative. Wood preservatives for use in
marineappliGtionsfall into two generalcategories{reosote and waterborne.To select a specificpreseruative,
the wood-attackingagents in localwaters must be identts
lied. A preservativemay then be chosen based on the
standardsol the American Wood Preseryer'sAssociation.In some saltwaterlocations,
wood construction
may
not be a viableoption.
2. Waterborneoreseryatives
are recommendedJor decks
becausecreosotestainsshoes and bare teet- Optional
deckmateflalsincludeuntreatedwood materialssuchas
cedarand recycledplasticproducts.
3. The preservativeselected should be approved by the
Environmental
Protection
Agencv.
4. Optionalmaterialsfor piles includesteel,concrete,and
fiberglass.Wood, steel, concrete,alumrnum,and vinyl
may be used for bulkheads.
5. Deck height above water is determinedby averagedeck
levelsand probablewater level.Maintaina 12 in. mini
mum dimension between water and deck. Floatinq
d@ks may be requrredin tidalwaters.Consultmanufac-turers for construclioninformation.
6. Cross-bracingshould be minimized to avoid entanglement ol swimmers.
DIMENSIONS
AND FINGER
loouarr
sLrPS
I
I
,- y,?35')9^.
I STNGLE
8',O'
DOCKING
PLAN
StephenB. Soul6;Souleand Associates,P.C.;Salisbury,

Maryland
fl
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
MrN
FOR SLIPS
PIERS (FT)
FlootingDocks
121
FINGER PIER,TYP
3'.O..WIDE
RAMP.
A,,RIAAED
TREAD PUTE
WITH ROLLER
TYP
DECKING
FLOATING DOCK
FLOTATION
2 X A PRESSURE-TRE
FENDER
ROLLER PILE GUIDE
FLOATING
NOTES
DOCK-DETAIL
TYPICAL FLOATING
ARRANGEMENTS
1. Floatingdocks must be engineeredtor the specific site

and loadingconditions.Dockscan be designedto accommodate b@ts in a wide rangeof sizesas well as all utiliIres_
2. Docks can be anchoredby pilings or by mooringchains
and anchors. Piling material can be steel, concrele, or
treatedtimber. Guide pilesmust be designedso that the
top of all piles is above the 1oo-yearflood elevation.Spe36" TREAD PLATE
cial considerationshould be given to breakwaterslor

wave attenuatton.
3. Flotationshould b designedto provide minimum freeboard at {ull loading.Flcts @n be of made of concrete,
steel,aluminum,andplastic.
4. Docksmay be constructedol steel, aluminum,concrete,
or timber materials.Joints must be desioned to withstand all appliedforces.
DOCK
5. Deckingmaterialcan be timber, concrete, steel, plastic,

or fibrglass.
6. All componentsshould be dosignedin a mannerthat will
minimizeor eliminatecorrosion.
7. Utility systms with accessibleutility chases should be
designedinto the dock structure.
FIXED OOCK
PIPE
HANDRAIL
r/4" x 6" cuRB RAIL BoLTED To

''
HANDRAIL I ABOVE DECK,
EACH SIOE
60".66"
OR 72"
It
q-;
ROLLER
GANGWAY
FLOTATION
AT
ENO OF GANGWAY
FLOATING
DOCK
FLOTATION
GANGWAY-DETAIL
StephenB, Soul6:Soul6andAssociates.
P.C.;Salisbury,
Maryland
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
122
AIA Documents
INTROOUCTION
More than 75 AIA contract and administratrve forms aTe in
print today. The ancestor of all of these was the Uniform
Contract, an owner{ontractor agreement first published in
I888. This was tollowed, in 191 't, by the AIA'S first standardized Gene.al Condttions for constructron. The 1997 edition of AIA Document 4201 is the fifteenth edition of those
General Conditions.
Many practjces common in the construction industry todav
became estabfished through their inclusion In the AIA General Conditions lor Construction and other AIA standardized
d@uments. Arbitration, the one-year correction period, and
the architect's role in decidrng disputes are iust three of
lhese. Whrle the ArA documents have had d piolourJ rniluence on the rndustry, the influence also flows the other
way. The AIA regularly reviss its documents to take into
account recent developments in the constructjon industry
and the law. New standardized documents for design/build
and for different types o,f constructron management were
pub|shed in the late 1990s, and documents for interna
I'onal praclrce are under constderatron
Because lhe AIA documents are trequentty upoaled. use s
should consult an AIA component chapter or obtain a cur
'AlA
rent copy of th
contract Documents price List' to
determine which are the current editions
The relationship of the documents to the industry-influencing at,and in turn being influenced bV it-is paralleled bv
the relationship of the documents lo the law AIA documents are intended for nationwide use and are not drafted
to conform to the law of any one state. With that caveat,
AIA contract documents provide a solid basis of contract
provisions that are enforceable under the law existino at the
time of publicatron. Case law on contracts for desion and
construction has for the past century been based larjely on
the language of AIA standardized documents and contracts
derived from them. These court cases are listed in fhe
American lnstitute of Architects legal Otator. in which
recent cases are summarized with all cases keved to the
specific provisions In the AIA documents to wh,ch they
retale.
The AIA documents are organized in two ways: in a letter
series and in cross-series families:
The document letter series is a system of classification that
cuts across the various families and identifies the specific
purpose of each document. The letter desiqnations indrcate
the following:
A Series{wner{ontractor
documents
B Series<wner-architect
documents
C Series-architect-consultant
documents
D Series-rchitect-industry
G Series-architect's
documents
oflice and project forms
Documents grouped in a family are coordinated to tie

together the various legal and working relationships for the
same project types. Documents within the same family
may be in different series but are linked bv common terminology and procedures. Documents in a tamily may adopt
one another by reference_ For example, the relevani terms
of 4201 are adopted by reference in 4101. A1jj. 4401.
8141,8151.andC141.
The preceding
'standardized
paragraphs contain several references to

d&uments,'a
term that covers most AIA
d@uments. AIA standardized dcuments
are intended to
be used in their original, printed torm. Much of the efficiency these documents bring to a transaction depends on
this use. When people with experience in the construction
rndustry see a standardized document, thev are familiar
with it and can quickly evaluate the proposed ttansaclion
based on the modifications made to it-if those moditications stand out. lf modifications are blended into retvoed or
scanned d@ument text, this advantage as lost.
Modifications used with AIA documents may themselves
be derived from another type of document publ,shed bv the
AlA. I hese are model documents, the language of whrch rs
intended to be reproduced and adapted by users. One such
repository of model text ts A51 1, whi(h rs rntended for use
In developing supplementary condrtions, an rmportant com
ponent of the contract {or construction. 851 1 serves a simi
lar purpose with respect to owner-architect agreements.
AIA documents are currently available in both printed and
electronic form. The software package Al,A Contract Docurents: Electronic Format for Windowsru enables users to
access and print out the AIA documents. Modifications are
clearly shown: deleted language appears with strike,
throughs, and added Ianguage is underscored.
DOCUMENT
SYNOPSES
Thesesynopsesare meantto be usedas a qurckreference
lor determiningthe appropriate
uses for each of the contractdocumentsand administrative
formspublishedbv the
AmerrcanInsttluteof Architects.Ihat pu.posenalurallvpre.
judgmenton the reader'soart,as well
sumesindependent
as advrceof counsel.
A SERIES
The documentsin the A Seriesof AIA documentsrelateto
varioustorms of agreementbetweenan ownerand a con,
IracIor.
A 1 0 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN
OWNER AND CONIRACTOR-STTPULATED
SUM, is a
standardform of agreementbetweenowne.andcontractor
for use when the basis of paymentis a stipulatedsum
(fixedprice).The A101documentadoDtsbv referenceand
is designedfor usewith AIA DocumentA201,GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construction,
thus providingan
integratedpair of legaldocuments.When used together,
4101 and 4201 are appropriatefor most projects.For
projects of limited scope, however, use of AIA Document
A107 mightbe considered.
A101/CMa, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNER ANO CONTRACTOR-STIPULATED
SUM-CONSTRUCTIONMANAGER-ADVISER
EDITION.
is a standardtorm of agreemenlbetweenowner and con.
tractor for use on projectswhen the basisof pavment is a
stipulatedsum (fixedprice)and when, in additionto the
contractorand the architect.a constructionmanagerassists
the owner in an advisorycapacityduring design and construction. The document has been preoaredfor use with
AIA Document MollCMa, GeneralConditionsof the Contract for Construction-ConstructionManager-AdviserEdition. This integrated set of documents is appropriatefor
use on projectswhen the constructionmanagerserues
only in the capacityof an adviserto the owner, rather than
as constructor{the latter relationshiois reoresentedin AIA
documentsA121lCMcand 4131/CMc).A101/CMais suitable for prqects when the cost of constructionhas been
predetermined,either by biddingor by negotiation.
A105, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND CONTRACTOR
FOR A SMALL PROJECT,
and 4205, GENERALCONDITIONS
OF THE CONTRACT
FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF A SMALL PROJECT,are
intended to be used in conjunctionwith one another.The
two documents are only sold as a set, and thev share a
common lnstructionsheet.Theyhavebeen devlopedtor
use when payment to the contractorjs based on a stioulated sum (fixed price) and when the proiect is modest in
size and brief in duration.4105 and 4205 are two of the
three documentsthat comprisethe SmallProjectsfamilyof
documents. They have been developedfor use with AIA
DocumentB'155,StandardForm of AgreementBetween
Owner and Architectfor a Small Proiect.Thesedocuments
are specrtically
coordinated
for use as a set.
Caution:AlthoughA105, 4205, and B't55 may sharesome
similaritieswith other AIA documents, the Small proiects
documents should not be used in tandem with other AIA
document familieswithout carefulside-bv-sidecomoarison
of contents.
4205 is consideredthe keystone document oI the Small
Projectsfamily, since it is specificallyadoptedby separate
referenceinto both A't05 and 8155. 4205 is a viratd@ument, in that it is used to allocateproper legalresponsibilities among the parties, while providing both a common
ground and a means of coordination withjn the Small
Projectsfamily. ln order to maintainthe condensednature
of this document. arbitrationand other alternatedisoute
resolution(ADR)provisionshave been omitted. ADR orovisionsmay be includedin Al05 underArticle6.
A107, ABBREVIATED
STANDARD
FORMOFAGREEMENT
BETWEEN
OWNERAND CONTRACTOR
FORCONSTRUC.
TION PROJECTSOF LIMITED SCOPE-STIPULATED
SUM. As an abbreviated form of agreement between
owner and cont.actor, this document is intended for use
when the basisof paymentis a stipulated
sum {Jixedprice).
It is appropriatefor constructionprojects of limited scope
nol requiringlhe complexityand lenglhot the combinatron
of AIA DocumentsA101and A2Ol. A107containsabbrevts
ated GeneralConditions.lt may be used when the owner
and contractorhavealreadyestablished
a workingrelationshrp (e.9.,a previousproiectof like or similarnature)or
when a project is relativelysimple in detailor short in dura,
tion.
A , I 1 1 .S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TTWEEN
OWNERAND CONTRACIOR_{OSTPLUSA FEEWITHA
NEGOTIATED
GUARANTEED
MAXIMUMpRrCE.Thissrandard torm of agreementbetween owner and contractoris
appropraate
for use on most projectsrequiringa negotiated
guaranteedmaximum price, when the basisof payment to
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Instjtute of Architects. Washington, D.C
A
-lI
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
the contractor is the cost of the work plus a fee. 41.ll

adopts by reference and is intended for use with AIA Docr.
ment 4201, General Conditions of the Contract for Con
structron, thus together the two documents offer a.r
integrated pair of legal documents.
A121lCMc (AGC 565). STANDAD FOBM OF AGBEEMEN.
BETWEEN OWNEB AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEF
WHERE THE CONSIRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO THE
CONSTRUCTOR: This d@ument represents the collabora
tive efforts of the American Institule of Architects and the
Associated General Contractors of America. The AIA desio
nates lhls document A121lCMc, white AGC cails rl ACi
Document 565. A1 21lCMc is intended {or use on oroiects
for whrch a construction manager, In addrlron to serving a
advrser to the owner, assumes financial resoonsrbilrtv l.
colSlrJclron. Ihe conslruclton manager provrdeS lr.
owner wrth a guaranteed maximum plce proposal, whrch
the owner may accept, (eject, or negotiate_ Upon the
owner's acceptance of the proposal by execution of an
amendment, the construction manager is contractuallv
bound to provide labor aod materials for the proiect.
A1 21lCMc divides the construction manager's services int.
two phases: the preconstruction phase and the construc
tron phase, ponions of which may proceed concurrently in
order to fast track the process. 4121lCMc is coordinated
tor use with AIA Document 4201, General Conditions oi
the Contract for Construction and 8141, Standard Form ot
Agreement Between Owner and Architect. Check Article 5
of 851 1 for guidance in this regard.
Caution: Io avoid confusion and ambigujty, do not use thrs
constructton management document with any othe. AIA or
AGC construction management document.
A131/CMC (AGC 566), STANDARD FORM OF AGREE
MENT BETWEEN OWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MAN
AGER WHERE THE CONSTRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO
IHE CONSTRUCTOR-COST PLUS A FEE, NO GUABAN
TEE OF COST: Similar to 412tlCMc, this CM{onstructor
agreement is also intended for use when the owner seeks
a constructor who will take responsibility for providing the
means and methods of construction. However, the method
of determining cost of the work diverges sharply in the two
documents: A121lCMc allows for a ouaranteed maximum
pflce (GMP). while A13l/CMc useJ a conlrot esrimate
413l/CMc
employs the cost-plus-a-fee method, which
allows the owner to monitor cost through periodic review
of the control estimate, which is revised as the proiect pro
ceeds.
It rs rmportant to note that, while the CM{onstructor
is
assuming varied responsibilities, there are still iust three
pnmary players on the prcject-the
owner, the architecl,
and the CMc. The 4201 General Conditions continue to
apply, although they are modified (in part) by the A1 31/CMc
agreement_
Caution: Io avoid contusion and ambiguity, do not use thrs
construction management document with anV other AIA o{
AGC construction management document.
A171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND CCNTRACTOR-STIPULATED SUM-FOF
F U R N I T U R E , F U R N I S H I N G S ,A N D E O U T P M E N T ,i s u s e d
tor acquisition of furniture. furnishings, and equipmenl
{FF&E) when the basis of payment is a stipulated sum
(fixed price). 417l adopts bV reference and is intended for
use with AIA D@ument 4271, General Conditions of the
Contract tor Furntture, Furnishings, and Fqurpment. lt ma!
re used rn any arranqerent
belween the owner and the
contractor in which the cost of FF&E has been determined
an advance, either through bidding or negotiation.
4177, ABBREVIATED OWNER-CONTRACTOR AGREE
MENT FORM-STIPULATED
SUM-FOR
FURNITURE,
FURNISHINGS, AND EQUIPMENT, is an abbreviated docu,
ment that philosophically derives much of its content lrom
a combination of the more complex and lengthy A171 and
A271 documents. lts abbreviated lerms and conditions mav
be used when a conlractor for furniture, furnrshrngs, and
equipment (FF&E) has a prior working relationship with the
owner or when a project is relatively simple in detail or
short in durationCaution.Ittis document is not intended f or use with maior
conslruction work that may Involve lile satety systems o
structurat components.
A 19 1 . O W N E R - D E S I G N / B U I L D E R
A G R E E M E N T S .c o n t a i n s
two agreements tO be Used in sequence by an owner contractrng with one entity serving as a single point of respon
sibility for both design and construction services. Design/
build entities may be architects, contractors, or even buslnesspersons, as long as they comply with governing Iaws,
continues
on following
page
AIADocuments 1 2 3
Document Svnopses, A Series, contnued frcm ptevious
pa9e
especially those pertaining to licensing and public procurement regulations. The first agreement covers prelimjnary
design and budgeting services, while the second deals with
final design and construction. Although it is anticipated that
an owner and a design/builder entering into the first agreement will later enter into the second. the parties are not
obligated to do so and may conclude their relationshipafter
the terms of the first agreement have been fulfilled.
4201, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONIRACT FOR
CONSTRUCTION: The Generai Conditions are an integral
part of the contract for constructron in that they set {orth
the rights. responsibilities. and relationships of the owner,
contractor, and architect. While not a party to the contract
for construction between owner and contractor, the architect d@s panicipate in the preparation ot the contract documents and performs certain duties and responsibilities
described in detail in the General Conditions. Because 4201
is typically adopted by reference into certarn other AIA doc
umen-ts {e.9., owner-architect agreements. ownertontractor agreements, and contractoLsubcontractor agreements),
it is often called the'keystone' document.
Since conditions vary by locality and by project, supplementary conditions are usually added to amend or supplement
portions of the General Conditions as required by a particular projecl. Review the model language provided in A51 1 as
a guide when creating supplementary conditions for A201.
A201lCMa. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT
FOR
MANAGERCONSTRUCTION-CONSTRUCTION
ADVISER EDITION, is an adaptation of AIA Documenr A201
with a
developed for construction management proj*ts
founh player-a construction manager-added
to the team
of owner, architect. and contracto.. Under A2ollCMa, the
construction manager has the role of independent advisr
to the owner- thus the document carries the CMa suffix. A
major difference between 4201 and A201lCMa occurs in
Article 2, Administration of the Contract. which deals with
the duties and responsibilities ol both the architect and the
construction manager-adviser. Another major difference
implicit in A201lCMa is lhe use of multiple construction
contracts directly with trade contractors.
Caution: ll is vital that A201lCMa not be used in combination with documents that assume the construction manager will take on the role of constructor, give the owner a
guaranteed maximum price, or contract directly with those
who supply labor and malerials lor the project.
A2O1lSC, FEOERAL SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS OF
lHE CONTRACT rOR CONSIRUCTION, rs Intended for
use on cenain federally assisted constructron prolects. For /
such protects, A201/SC adapts A2Ol by provrdrng(1) necessary modifications of the General Conditions. (2) additional
conditions, and (3) insurance requirements for federally
assisted construction projects.
4271, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR
FURNITURE, FURNISHINGS, AND EOUIPMENT: When the
scope ol a contract is limited to turniture, furnishings, and
equipment (FF&E),4271 is intended to be used in a manner
similar to that in which 4201 is used tor construction
projects. The document was jointly developed by the AIA
and the Amerin
Sciety
of Interior Designers (ASlDl.
Because the Unitorm Commercial Code (UCC) has ben
adopted in virtually every jurisdiction, A271 has been
drafted to recognize-the commercial standards set forth in
Article 2 ot the UCC and uses cenain standard UCC terminology. Except for minor works, A271 should not be used
for construction involung life safety systems or structural
components.
4305, CONTRACTOR'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT: An
owner preparing to request bids or to award a @ntract for a
construction proiect often requires a means of verifying the
background, history. references, and financial stability of
any contractor being considered. The time trame for construction and the contractor's performance history. previous experience, and financial stability are imponant factors
for an owner to investigate. This form provides a sworn,
notarized statement with appropriate attachments to elaborate on imponant aspects of the contractor's qualifications.
4310, BID BOND: This simple one-page form was drafted
with input lrom the maior surety companies to ensure its
legality and acceptability. A bid bond establishes the maximum penal amount that may b due the owner it the
selected bidder lails to execute the contract and provide
any required performance and payment bonds.
4312. PERFORMANCE BOND AND PAYMENT BONO: This
form incorporates two bonds, one covering the contractor's
performance and one covering the contractor's obligations
to pav subcontractors and others for material and labor. In
addition, 4312 oblrgates the surety to act responsively to

the owner's requests for discussions aimed at anticipating
or preventrng a contractor'S detaUlt.
4401, STANDARD FOBM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
CONTRACTOR AND SUBCONTRACTOR is intended for
use in establishrng the contractual relationship between the
contractor and subcont.actor lt spells out the responsrbili
ties ot both parties and lists their respective obligations,
which are written to parallel AIA Document A20l, General
Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Blank spaces
are provided in which the panies can supplement the
details of their agreement. 4401 may be moditied for use
as a subcontractor-sub-subcontractoragreement.
A491. DESIGN/BUILDER-CONTRACTOR
AGREEMENTS:
This document contains lwo agreements to be used in
sequence by a design/burlder and a construction contractor
The first agreement covers management consulting services to be provided during the preliminary design and budgeting phase ot the project. The second agreement covers
construction. lt is presumed that the design/builder has
contracted with an owner to provide design and construction services under the agreements contained in AIA Document A191.
Although it is anticipated that a design/builder and a contractor entering into the first agreement will Iater enter into
the second, the parties are not obligated to do so and may
conclude their relationship after the terms ot the first agreement have been fulfilled. Panies also may lorgo entering
into the first agreement and pr@eed directly to the second.
4 5 0 1 , R E C O M M E N D E D G U I D E F O R C O M P E T I T I V EB I D .
DING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT AWARDS FOR
BUILDING CONSIBUCTION: This guide outlines appropriate procedures in the bidding and award of contracts when
competitive lump sum bids are requested an connection
with building and related construction. The guide is a joint
publication of the AIA and the Associated General Contractors of America {AGC).
A 5 1 1 , G U I D E F O R S U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I T I O N S i s a
guide for modifying and supplementing 4201, the General
Conditions of the Contract tor Construction. Although A201
is considered the keystone in the legal framework of the
construction contract. it is a standard document and thus
cannot cover all the paniculars of a specilic proiect. A51 1
provides model language with explanatory nots to help
users adapt A201 by developing supplementary condrtions
that address local circumstances.
This document is printed with a column containing the
model text and an adjacent column of explanatory notes.
The AIA Dermits excerotion of the model text under a limited license for reproduction granted for drafting supple,
mentary conditions for a particular project.
A511/CMa. GUIDE FOR SUPPLEMENTARY CONDI'
TIONS-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER.ADVISER EDITION:
Similar to A511, the A51 1/CMa document is a guide ro
model provisions for supplementing 4201lCMa, the General Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Construction Manager-Adviser Edition. A51l/CMa should only be
proiects for which
employed-as
sholld A201/CMa{n
the construction manager is serving in the capacity of
adviser to the owner (as represented by the CMa document designation) and not in situations in which the construction manager is also the constructor (CMc documentbased relationships).
Like A51 1, this document contains suggested language for
supplementary conditions, along with notes on appropriate
usage. In addition, many important distinctions are made to
ensure consistency with other construction manageradviser documents.
Caution: CMc documnts are based on utilization of the
4201 document, which in turn should be modified usinq
A511asaguide.
A52,I, UNIFOBM LOCATION OF SUBJECT MATTER, iS A
joint publication of the AIA and the Engineers Joint Convact
Documents Committee (EJCDC),which is composed of the
National Society of Enginers. American Consulting Engi
neers Council, and American Society of Civil Engineers. By
consensus of these organizations, the AIA and EJCDC doc
uments follow the tabular guide in A521 with regard to the
placement of subject matter among the various contract
and bidding documents. 4521 is a tabulation to guide the
user an the proper placement and phrasing of information
customarily used on a construction project. This document
shows the imponance of maintaining uniformity in location
and language from document to document with respect to
subject matter. Inconsistencies in either area may cause
confusion, delay, or unanticipated legal problems.
A 5 7 1 , G U I D E F O R I N T E R I O R SS U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I TIONS: Similar to A51 1, AIA Document A571 is intended as
preparingsupplementary
conditions
an aid to practitioners
for inleriorsproiects.lt providesinformationto help users
project
when A27'l,
in
requirements
addresslocalvariations
GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Furniture,Furnishings,and Equipment,
is used.
4 7 0 1 ,I N S T R U C T I O N
TO
S B I D D E R Si s, u s e d w h e n c o m
petitivebidsare to be solicitedfor construction
of a proiect.
with A20l and its relateddocuments,4701
Coordinated
containsinstructionsfor proceduresto be followed by bid
dersin preparing
and submittingtheirbids,includingbonding. Specificinstructionsor specialrequirements.
such as
the amountandtypeof bonding,areto be attachedto A701
as supplementary
conditions.
A 7 7 1 ,I N S T R U C T I OTNO
SI N T E R I O RBSI D D E R SS:i m i l atro
A701.A111is used for projectsdealingwith furniture.furnishings,and equipment(FF&E).lt parallelsA701 but con
with 4271 and
tainsminorchangesto maintainconsistency
its relatedFF&Edocuments.
B SERIES
The documentsin the B Seriesrelateto variousforms of
agreementbetween an owner and an architectfor professionalseryices.
BETWEEN
8 1 4 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N T
OWNEBAND ARCHITECT
WITH STANDARDFORM OF
ARCHITECT'S
is a flexiblecontractingpackage
SERVICES,
that allows architectsto offer a broad range of seNices to
clients spanningthe life of a proiect, Irom conceptionto
completionand beyond. lt is structured in a multipan format consistingof an agreementform-the StandardForm
of Agreement,which containsinitialinformation,terms and
conditions,and compensatioHnd a seryices form-the
StandardFormot Architect'sServices:Designand Contract
Administration.which defines th architect's scope of services.The s@pe defined approximatesthe levelof seruices
in the prioreditionof 8141.The separation
of the scopeof
seryices from the rest of the owner-architectagreement
allolvs users th freedom to ch@se alternativescooes of
services.The AIA intends to publish additionalscopes of
seryicesthat correlateto the termsandconditionsof 8141.
FORMOF AGREEMENT
8151, ABBREVIATED
STANDARD
BETWEENOWNERAND ARCHITECT,
is intendedfor use
on constructionprojects of limited scope when the complexityanddetailof AIA Document8141,StandardFormof
AgreementBetween Owner and Architect,are not required
and when seryicesare based on these five phases:schematic design, design development. construction documents, bidding and negoliation, and construction. This
document may be used with a variety ot compensation
methods,includingpercentageof constructioncost, multiple of directpersonnelexpense,and stipulatedsum. B151
is intendedfor use in conjunctionwith 4201, GeneralCon
ditionsof the Contractfor Construction.
8155, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHITECTFOR A SMALL PBOJECT.is
intendedfor use on a project that is modest in sizeand brief
in duration.lt adoptsthe A205 d@ument by referenceas it
pertainsto the architect'sresponsibilities
in administering
the constructioncontractbetween owner and contractor.
8155 is one of three documents that comorise the Small
Projectstamily oI documents. lt has been developedfor
use with AIA Document 4105, Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Contractorfor a Small Proiect.
and 4205, GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construction of a Small Project. These documents are specifically
coordinatedfor use as a set.
Caution:
Although4105, 4205, and Bl55 may sharesome
similarities
with other AIA documents.the Small Proiect
documentsshouldnot be used in landem wrth other AIA
documentfamilieswithout caretul side-by-sidecomparison
of contents.
OWNERAND ARCHITECT
FOR DESIGNATED
SERVICES,
hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
A I A D O C U M E N T8 1 6 2 , S C O P EO F D E S I G N A T ESDE R VICES,hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
FOR DESIGNATED
OWNERAND ARCHITECT
SERVICES,
is the most comprehensiveAIA owner-architect agreement. This three-part document contains, among other
things. a thorough list of 83 possible seruices divided
among nine phass. covering preiesign through supplemental services.This detailed classificationallows the
architectto estimate more accuratelythe time and personnel costs requiredfor a particularproject. Both owner and
architect benefit from the ability to cleady establish the
continues
on following
page
Dale Ellickson, FAIA: The American lnstitute of Architects, Washington, D.C
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
124
AIA Documenls
Document Synopses, B Seles, continued frcm prevtous

page
scope of setvrces requ red tor a projecl. as respons'brlities
and compensation issues are negotiated and defined. The
archatects compensation may be calculated on a time/cost
basis through use of the worksheet provided in the instructionsto 8163.
Part One of the document deals with variables tvoical of
many ownetrarchttect agreements. such as compensation
and scope of seruices. The scope of services is delimited
through use of a matrix that allows the parties to desionate
their agreed upon servrces and responstbilities. part Two
contarns detailed descilptrons of lhe speciIc se'u'""t lornO
In the matrix. Part Three contains general descrptions of
the parties' duties and responsibilitjes The list of servrces
in 8163 has been expanded to include construction management and interiors services.
8171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENI EETWEEN
O W N E R A N D A R C H I T E C TF O R I N T E R I O R D E S I G N S E R VICES, is intended for use when the architect aqrees to
pruvide an owner wtth des'gn and admrnrslratrve:servrces
for the procurement of interior furniture, furnishings, and
equipment (FF&E). Unlike 8141, which is used for buildjng
design, this document ancludesprogramming of the interio;
spaces ano requrements as part ot the overall package of
basic services. The authority to reject goods is left in the
hands of the owner rather than the architect. since the oro,
curement of goods rs govetned by the Unrtorm Commeicia
Code (UCC). which would in turn make the architect,s mis
taken rejection or acceptance ot goods binding upon the
owner. 8171 is coordinated with and adopts bv reference
AIA Document M7l, Generat Cond'lions of the Contract
for Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment. When BtTl is
used. it is anticipated that 4271 will form part of the con,
tract between the owner and the contractor for FF&E.
B177, ABBREVIATED FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR INTE,
RIOR DESIGN SEBVICES, is simitar to Bt71 but has tess
complexity and detail. 8177 may be used when the owner
and architect have a continuing relationship from previous
work togelher or when the prolect is felatrvelv simple rn
detail or short in duration.
818I, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOB HOUSTNG SERVICES. has
been developed with the assistance of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and other {ederal
housing agencies. lt is primarily intended for use in multiunit housing design. 8181 requires the owner, rather than
the architect, to furnish coststimating seruices. 81g1 is
coordinated with and adopts by reference AIA Document
A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction.
8I88, STANDABD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOR LIMITED ARCHITEC.
TURAL SERVICES FOR HOUSTNG PROJECTS. is a unique
addition Io the AIA Documents coilect.on Untite,ls drstant
cousin 8181. 8188 is intended for use when the architect
willprovide limited architectural serujces in connection with
a development housing project. lt anticipates that the
owner will have extensive control over management of the
pro,ect, acting in a capacity similar to that of a developer or
speculative builder of a housing proiect. As a result, the
owner or separate consuttants retaaned by the owner likelv
will provide the engineeflng seryrces, specifv the bran;
nares of materials and equipment. and admtnrster oavmnts to contr&tors. among other project responsibilities.
8188 is not-c@rdinated for use with any other AIA standard
form contract8352, DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIESAND LIMITATIONS OF
AUTHORITY OF THE ARCHITECT'S PROJECT REPRESEN.
TATIVE: When and i{ the owner wants additional oroiect
representalion at the consl.uctton sile on a full- or part trme
basis, B'l4l and other AIA owner,architect agreements reference 8352 to establish the duties, responsibilities. and
limitations of authority of the proiect representative.
The project rep.esentative ts emploved and supervrsed bV
tne archttect. In conlrasl, up untrl the early 1950s 8352
predecessor d@uments called the reoresentative .the
Clerk of the Works,'because such pe,sons were hired by
tne owner but supervised by the archrtecl. The SO||l
between hiring and supervision caused numerous prob
lems, which have been resolved under 8352 by designating
the architect as both employer and superviior. 8152 ii
coordinated for use with both 8141 aod 8163. as well as
with 4201.
8431, ABCHITECT'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT. iS A
standardized outline of information that a client may wish to
revw.prior to selecting an architect for a particular project.
It may be used as part of a request for proposals (RFp) or as
a final check on the credentrals of an architect. Under some
qrcumstances, 8431 may be attached to the
owner_archi-
tect agreement,for example,to show the team of profes,

s onalsand consultantsexpectedto be emplovedon the
owner s prolect_
8 7 2 7 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHTTECT
FORSpECtALSERV|CES,
is rhe
most flexibleof the AIA owner-archttect
aqreements
in that
tne oescriptron
of servicesis lelt entilelyu-pto lhe Ingenurty
ot the parties.Otherwise,manyof the termsandconditions
are very similarto those tound in AIA Document8141.
8727 is often used for planning,teasibilitystudies.and
otherservtces(suchas construction
administratton)
that do
not follow the completephasingsequenceof seryicesset
torth in 8141 and other AIA documents.lf construction
administration
seryicesare to be Orovided.
care must be
taken10coordrnate
B /27 with the appropflate
GeneralCon
drlionsof lhe Contracttor Constructron
8801/CMa, SIANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNER AND CONSTRUCTION
MANAGER
WHERETHECONSTRUCTION
MANAGERIS NOTA CONSTRUCTOR.
is intendedfor use on proiectsfor which constructronmdnagemenlservicesare assumedbV a single
entrtywho rs separateand independent
from the architect
and the contractorand who actssolelyas an adviser{CMa)
to the owner throughoutthe courseof the project.
8801/CMais coordinated
lor usewith AIA DocumentB14ll
CMa, StandardForm of AgreementBetweenOwner and
Architect-{onstruction ManagerAdviserEdition. Both
8801/CMaand 8141/CMaare basedon the oremisethat
lnerewrllbe a separate.and possiblymultrple,
constructton
contractor(s)
whose contractswith the owner are iointlv
adminrstered
by the architectandthe construction
manage.
under AIA DocumentA201lCMa,GeneralConditionsof the
Contract for Constructiorconstruction Manaoer-Adviser
Edrtron
Caution:g801lCMa is not coordinatedwith and shouldnot
be used with documentsin which the construction
man,
ager acts as the constructor(i.e.,contractor)for the project,
suchas AIA DocumentsA121lCMcor A131/CMc
8901, STANDARDFOBM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
DESIGN/BUILDER
AND ABCHITECT.
containstwo aoreements to be used In sequenceby a design/burldera;d an
architect. The first agreement covers preliminarydesign,
and the second coversfinal design. lt is presumedthat the
design/builderhas previouslycontractedwith an owner to
provide design and constructionseNices under the aoreements containedin AIA DocumentA191. Althouohit is
ant'cipatedthat a design/builder
and an architecte-ntering
into the lirst agreementwill later enter into the second,the
partresare not obligatedto do so and may concludetheir
relationshipafter the terms of the first agreement have
beenfulfilled.
Design/buildentities may be architects, contractors. or
even busrnesspersons,
as long as they complywith the
governrng
laws.especially
thosepertaining
to licensing
and
publicprocurementregulations.
Priorto proceeding
in this
fashionor enteringinto eitheragreementcontainedin this
document with any other entity, architectsare advisedto
contacttheirlegal,insurance,
andmanagement
advisers.
C SERIES
The documents in the C Series relate to variousforms of
agreemntbetween an architect and other orofessionals.
including
engineers,
consultants,
and otherarchitects.
C141. STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
ARCHITECT
AND CONSULTANT,
estabtishes
the resoectrve responsibilities
and mutualrightsof the archrtectand
the consultant.C141 is most applicableto engin@rsbut
may also be used for consultantsin other disciolines
who
provideseryicesto architects.
Theprovisions
of Ct41 are in
accordwith thoseof 815'l and4201, GeneralConditions
of
the Contractfor Construction.
C142,ABBREVIATED
ARCHITECT-CONSULTANT
AGREEMENT,adoptsthe terms of a prime agreementbetween
owner and architectby reference.
C727, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
ARCHIIECTAND CONSULIANTFORSPECIAL
SERVICES,
is Intended for use when other C Series documents ar
Inappropriate.
lt is olten used for planning,teasibility
stud,
ies, post{ccupancy studies,and other servicesthat require
specialized
descriptions.
CBO1, JOINT VENTUREAGREEMENTFOR PROFES,
SIONALSERVICES.
is meant to be used bV two or more
partiesto providefor their mutualrightsand obligations.
lt
is intendedthat the joint venture,once established,
will
enter Into a prolect agreement with the owner to provide
professional
seruices.The partiesmay be all architects,
all
engineers,a combination of architects and engineers,or
another combinationof professionals.The document pro-
vrdes a choice between two methods of joint venture oper

'Division
ation The
of Compensation' method assunre
that servtces provided and the compensation received w
be drvided dmong the partres in the proportions ag,eed to a
the outset of the projecl. Each party's profitabitity ther
depends on individual performance of preassigned taskr
and is not directly tied to that of the other panies. The.Dr!
sion of Profit and Loss'method is based on each party per
forming worl and bill;ng the ioint venture at cost plus
nomrnal amount for overhead The ultimate Orofit or loss o.
the joint venture is thus divided at completion of the projecl
between the partjes based on their respective interests.
D SERIES
The documents in the D Series, known as the Architec.
lnduslry documents. are applicable to a broad range ,
prolects.
D1 01, METHODS OF CALCULATING THE AREA AND VOL
UME OF BUILDINGS, estabtishes definitions for and
describes methods of calculating the architectural area anc
volume of buildings. D101 also covers interstitial soacF
olfice, retarl, and res,denltal areas.
D200, PROJECT CHECKLIST, is a convenient lisr of tasks a
practitioner may perform on a given project. This checklisl
wall help fhe architect recognize required tasks and locate
the data necessary to fulfill assigned responsibilities. Bv
providing space for notes on actions taken, assignment of
tasks. and time frames for completion, D200 may also
sefve as a permanent record of the owner's, contractor's
and architect's actions and decisions.
F SERIES
The F Series offered accounting forms for architects. With
the exception of F5002, INVOICE FOR ARCHTTECTURAL
SERVICES, separate editions of F Series forms have been
discontinued due to the preponderance of commerciallv
available computer software on this subiect. F1 001 throuah
F3002 are lncluded rn the book StandardEed Accountinq f"o,
Arch,fecrs bv Boben F Mattox. FAIA.
G SERIES
The documents in the G Series relate to office administra
tion, securing of goods and services, and administering and
closing out ot proiect agreements.
G601, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-LAND SURVEy, ailows
owners to request proposals from a number of surueyors
based on information deemed necessary bv the owner and
architect. G601 also allows owners to fine-tune a request
for proposat (RFPI by checking appropriate boxes and tiillnq
rn project specifics to avoid costs associated with reouest
ing unnecessary intormation. The document may also torm
the agreement between owner and land survevor once an
understanding is reached.
G602, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-GEOTECHNICAL SER
VICES: Similar in both structure and format to AIA Docu
ment G60'1, G602 is an RFP that can evolve to form a.
agreement between owner and geotechnical engineer
G602 allom the owner to tailor th1 proposal reqr_iest to
address the specific needs of a oroiect. In consultation with
the architect, the owner establishes the Darameters of ser
vice required and evaluates submissions based on criteria
such as trme, cost, and overall responsiveness to the terms
set forth in the RFP. When an acceptable submission is
selected, the owner signs the document in triplicate,
returnrng one copy to the engineer and one to the architect
thus establishing an agreemenl between owner and geo,
technical engineer.
G604, PROFESSIONAL SERVICES SUPPLEMENT, i5
intended to formalize procedures for authorizing supple
mental professional actions. such as expanding the scope
of basic services, incutring relmbursable expenies, or proceeding with certain additional seryices. The document
should only be used in conjunction with an earlier agree
ment for professional setuices and is meant to p.ovide a
wfltten record of such authorizations, with Darticulars of
actrvrtres,ttme spans, and comDensatron involved
G 6 1 2 , O W N E R ' S I N S T R U C T I O N SR E G A R D I N GI H E C O N
STRUCTION CONTRACT, INSURANCE AND BONDS, AND
BIDDING PBOCEDURI-S, rs formarted as a questronnaire In
three parts Part A relates to the contracts, Part B covers
insurance and bonds, and Part C deals with biddinq oroce
dures. The sectrons tollow a prolect s normal chron'oiogrcat
sequence to provide information when it will be needed.
Eecause many of the items relating to the contract will
have some bearing on the development of construction
documents, it is important to olace Pan A in the owner's
hands at the earliest possible phase of the project. The
owner's responses to Part A wall lead to selection of the
continues
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Insljtute of Architects, Washington, D.C
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
on following
page
AIADocuments 125
Document
pa9e
Svnooses, G Series, contnued
G7O6A, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF RELEASE OF

LIENS, supports AIA Document G706 in the event the
owner requires a sworn statemenl of the contractor statlng
that all releases or waivers of liens have been received. In
such event, it is normal for the contractor to submit G706
and G706.4, along with attached releases or waivers of liens
for the contractor. all subcontractors, and others who may
have lien rights against the owner's property. The contractor is required to list any exceptions to the sworn statement
provided in G706A and may be required to furnish the
owner with a lien bond or indemnitv bond to protect lhe
owner with respect to such exceptrons.
frcm previous
appropriate delivery method and contract torms, including

the general conditions. Part B naturally {ollows afte/'1he
selection of the general conditions, because Insu.ance and
bonding information depends on the type of general condts
tions chosen. Answers to Part C will follow as the contract
documents are further developed.
G701. CHANGE ORDER, may be used as written documentation of changes in the work, contract sum, or contract
time that are mutually agreed to by the owner and contractor. G701 provides space tor the signatures of the owner.
architect, and contractor and for a complete description of
the change.
G707, CONSENT OF SURETY TO FINAL PAYMENT: By obtaining the approval of the surety for final payment to the
contractor and the agreement cf the surety that final payment will not relieve the surety of any of its obligations. the
owner may preserve its rights under the bonds.
MANG701/CMa. CHANGE ORDER-CONSTRUCTION

AGER'ADVISER EDITION: The purpose ot thas document is
essentially the same as that of G701. The majo. difference
is that the signature ol the construction manager-adviser is
required along with those of the owner, architect, and contractor to validate the change order.
G7O7A, CONSENT OF SURETY TO REDUCTION IN OR

PARTIAL RELEASE OF RETAINAGE. is a standard form tor
use when a surety company is involved and the ownertontractor agreement contains a clause whereby retainage is
reduced during the course of lhe construction project.
When duly executed, G707A assures the owner that such
reduction or partial release of retainage does not relieve the
surety of its obligations.
G702, APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT,

and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: These documents pre
vide convenient and complete forms on which the contractor can apply for payment and the architect can cenity that
oavment rs oue.
G709, PROPOSAL REOUEST, is used to obtain price quotations required in the negotiation of change orders. G709 is
not a change o.der or a direction to proceed with the work;
it is simply a request to the contractor for information
related to a proposed change in the construction contract.
The forms require the contractor to show the status of the

contract sum to date, including the total dollar amount of
the work comoleted and stored to date. the amount of
retainage (if any), the total of previous payments, a summary of change orders, and the amount of current payment
requested. G703, Continuation Sheet, breaks the contract
sum into mrtions of the work in accordance with a schedule of values required by the general conditions.
G710, ARCHITECT'S SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTIONS, iS

used by the architect to issue additional instructions or
intepretations or to order minor changes in the work. The
form is intended to assist the architect in perlorming obligations as interpreter of the contract document requirements
in accordance with the owner-architect agreement and the
general conditions. This torm should not be used to change
the contract sum or contract time. lf the contractor believes
that a change in the contract sum or contract time is
involved, other G Series documents must be used.
The to.m serves as both the contractor's application and

the architect's cenification. lts use can expedite payment
and reduce the possibility of error- lf the application is protr
erly completed and acceptable to the architect, the architect's signature certifies to the owner that a payment in the
amount indicated is due to the contractor. The lorm also
allows the architect to certify an amount different than the
amount applied for, with explanation provided by the archiled.
G7O2lCMa. APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMANAGER-ADVISER EDITION,
MENI-CONSTRUCTION
and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: Though the use and
purpose of GTO2|CMa is substantially similar to that ot
G702. the construction manager-adviser edition expands
responsibility for certitication of payment to include both
architect and construction manager. Similarly, both architect and construction manager may certify a different
amount than that applied for. with each initialing the figures
that have been changed and providing written explanation{s) accordingly. The standard G703, Continuation Sheet,
is appropriate for use with G702lCMa.
G704, CERTIFICATEOF SUBSTANTIAL COMPLETION, iS A
standard form tor recording the date of substantial comple
tion of a work or a designated portion thereof. The contractor prepares a list of items to be completed or corrected,
and the architect verilies and amends this lis1. lf the archi'
tect linds that the work is substantially complete. the form
is prepared for acceptance by the contractor and the
owner. Aooended to the form is a list of items to be completed or corrected. The form provides lor agreemnt as to
the time allowed for completion or correction of the items,
the date when the owner will @cupv the work or designated portion thereof, and a description of responsibilities
lor maintenance, heat, utilities, and insurance.
c705, CERTIFICATE OF INSURANCE, has been replaced
by AIA Document G71 5.
G706, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF PAYMENT OF
DEBTS AND CLAIMS: The contractor submits this affidavit
with the final request for payment, stating that all payrolls,
bills for materials and equipment, and other indebtedness
connected with the work for which the owner might be
resoonsible have been oaid or otheNise satisfied. G706
requires the contractor to list any indebtedness or known
claims in connection with the construction contract that
have not been paid or otheNise satisfied. The contractot
mav also be required to furnish a lien bond or indemnrty
bond to protect the owner with respect to each exception.
G71 1, ARCHIIECT'S FIELD REPORT. is a standard lorm lor

the architect's project representative to use in maintaining
a concise record o{ site visits or, in the case oI a full-timb
project represen'tative. a daily log of construction qctivities.
,
ta
G7l 2, SHOP DRAWING AND SAMPLE RECORD, is a standard form by which the architect can schedule and monitor
shop drawings and samples. Since this process tends to be
complex. the schedule provided in G712 shows the
progress of a submittal, which in turn contributes to the
orderly processing of worl G7l2 can also serve as a permanent record of the chronology of the submittal process.
G714, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, .eplaces
former AIA Document G71 3, Construction Change Authorization. G714 was developed as a directive lor changes in
the work that, if not expeditiously implemented, might
delay rhe project. ln contrast to a Change Order (AlA Document G701). G714 is to be used when the owner and contractor, for whatever reason, have not reached agreement
on proposed changes in the contract sum or contract time.
Upon receipt of a completed G714, the contractor must
promptly proceed with the change in the work described
therein.
G714lCMa, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, CONSTRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, is designed to
eftect the same type of substantive changes in the work
described in the svnopsis of G714, above. The difference
between the two lies not in purpose but in execution:
Whereas the owner and architect must both sign the G71 4
in order for the directive to become a valid contractual
instrument. G714lCMa requires execution by owner. architect. and constructton manager-advrser.
G722lCMa. PROJECT APPLICATION AND PBOJECT CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, and G723lCMa, PROJECT
APPLICATION SUMMARY: These documents are similar in
purpose to the combination of G702 and G703 but are for
use on construction management projects on which a construction manager seryes as an adviser to the owner.
REFERENCES
Information on the AIA documents mav be oblarned fronl
the oublications listed below. Information on the documenis is also available on the AIA website at www\aiaonl,ne.com.
'AlA
Conlract Documents Price List.'This publication is

available lree from AIA distributors or by calling (800) 3652724. lr lists the current edition of each AIA document
American fnstitute of Architects. The Architect's Handbook
'l2th
ed. Washrngton, D C.: The
of Prcfessional Practice,
AIA Press, 1994. The Handbook has been the architecture
profession's premier manual of p.actice since it was first
published in 1917. lt contains sample copies of most oi the
AIA documents.
The Documents Supplement Service. This is a subscription
seryice through which users of the Handbook can receave
sample copies of new AIA documents as they are pubfished. Subscribers also receive the Supplement, a newsletter of articles and comment on the AIA documents.
Subscriptions may be obtained by calling IB0AI 365 2124
'Promises,
Promises: Forging Healthy Proiect Relatronships.'This as a series oI continuing educatron manuals,

each of which may be used either for seminar presentation
or {or self-study:
Advanced Conttact Concepts. This manual covers the
essentials of contract law: the elements of a contract. the
fundamental principles of agency and negligence law, and
the use of standard contract documents. lt also includes an
overyiew of the recent, maior changes to two AIA standard
contract documents: A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction, and 81 41, Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Architect.
Design Serulce. This manual addresses the general responsibilities of the architect and the owner in 8141, Standard
Form of Agreement between Owner and Architect. Specifically, these responsibilities include establishing a program
and budget, setting basic poject parameters, and agreeing
on the architect's scooe of seryices. The manual also
includes an overyiew of the Standard Form of Architect's
Seryices: Design and Contract Administration, the first
scooe of seryices oublished with 8141.
Conttact Conditions.
Design and Contract Administation:
Contract conditions {orm the framework within which the
owner and architect carry out their responsibilities to one
another. This manual addresses the contract conditions that
generally apply over the course of the owner-architect relationship, including compensation and billing, project timing
and duration, responsibilities of the owner. and ownership
and use of documents.
Contract Administration SeNices. This manual covers roles
and responsibilities of owner, architect and contractor as a
project moves anto construction.
This manual addresses
Contract Administration-4ffice.
contract administration from the architect's oersoective
when'back in the office'and not in the field visiting the
owner's site. lt covers project initiation, submittals,
changes. timing issues, suspension and termination. and
special provisions, such as propeny insurance.
Administration
Conditions-Field.
Construction
Contract
This manual addresses construction contract administration
conditions relevant to the architect's services on the iob
site, administering the contract, and evaluatjng the work as
it progresses, as well as subcontractor relations. contractor's payments, claims, corrections to the work. and proiect
closeoutSweet, Justin. Sw@t on Construction lndustry Contrccts:
Majo( AIA Documents. Vol. 1 of Construction Law Library.
New York John Wiley & Sons. 1996.
Sabo, Werner. Legal Guide to AIA Documents, 3rd ed New
'1992.
York: John Wiley & Sons,
Stein, Steven G. M., ed. The American lnstitute of Architects Legal Citator. New York: Matthew Bender. 1997
'You
Each contractor submits separate G702lCMa and G703/

CMa documents to the construction manager-adviser, who
collects and compiles them to complete G723lCMa. G7231
CMa then seryes as a summary of the contractors' applications, with proiect totals being transferred lo a G722lCMa.
The construction manager-adviser can then sign the form.
have it notarized, and submit it along with the G723lCMa
(which has all oI the separate contractors' G702lCMa forms
attached) to the architect for review and app.opriate action.
and Your Architect.'This booklet, available free to AIA

members, reviews issues to be conside.ed by an owner
preparing to retain an architect.
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Institute of Architects, Washington, D.C
A
'rl
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CONSTRUCTION
126
CSIUniFormot
INTRODUCTION
It asuseful to have different ways of organizrngconstructton
-intormation so the varyrng rnterests of those who view,
use, and manipulale it can be accommodated. UniFormat
and MasterFormat offer two commonly acCepted ways of
organizing information about construction projects and
building operations.
MasterFormat emphasizes a vrew of construction focused
on products, offering the perspective of product manufacturers, suppliers, speci{iers, and contractors. MasterFormat
names components (buildtng materaals,products, and activities) that have specifiable characteristics.
UniFormat locuses on performance requirements and coincides with the way users, owners, and designers vLew con
struction. UniFormat names systems and assemblies that
have a determinable function.
Level 1 UniFormat titles cover the major categories of con

struction information according to function. These letters
and titles are fixed and should not be changed in application:
MasterFormat, with its list of products and activities, looks

at construction an the way the parls are specified, pur,
chased. and inslalled. The term products here means materials, components. and equipment that a contractor
incorporates into the work of a proiect.
MasterFormat arranges information for project manuals
into six ma,or groups (introductory information, bidding
requirements, contracting requirements, tacilities and
spaces, systems and assemblies. and construction prod,
ucts and activities). For details, see the AGS pages on MasterFormat.
Architcts use MasterFormat in the tollowing ways:
1. To arrange information in proiect manuals
2. To catalog product information with the numbers and
titles used to specify those products and activities in construction documeots
3. To arrange cost information and build a cost model for
construction activities and associated products according
to how thev are speciiied in construction documents
4. To prepare keynotes for drawings that assciate items
with specifications in construction documents
5. To arrange facility management and construction market
information in the way products and activities are specified in construction d@uments
UNIFORMAT
UniFormat is a meth6d oI arranging construction information td a range of building types based on the physical sys
tems and assemblies that make up a facility. Construction
is viewed according to the way in which elements are used,
thus systems and assemblies are characterized by their
function with no identification of the oroducts thev com,
prise. Nine level 1 UnrFormat categories and therr associated classes and subclasses define the basic oarts of a
building, each characterrled by irs funct,on.
Titles in UniFormat levels 1 through 3 can be applied to
most project descriptions and preljminary cost estimates.
Levels 4 and 5 are available for use on detailed, complex
projects. Levels 4 and 5 titles and detailed lists provide a
checklist to ensure comprehensive and complete application of UniFormat.
UniFormat is intnded to help architects achieve consistency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance design
program idormation reponing; and promote consistency in
filing intormation for facility management, drawing details,
and construction market data. More specificallv, it is used
to organize design descriptions, cost summaries, and perlormance specilications of systems and assemblies (e.g.,
HVAC systems and exterior wall assemblies).
fuchitects use UniFormat for these tasks:
l.Performing economic analysis of construction alternatives, particularly in early design stages
2. Building an evolving construction cost model arranged by
the tunctional parts of a facility
3. Arranging descriptions of the functional parts of a project
so they communicate how a design is intended to
accomplish an owner's construction program
4. Arranging project manuals for applications when designbuild delivery is employed
5. Filing drawing details
6. Filing lacility management and constructaon market information
OVERVIEW
On thisand the followingAGSpageon UniFormat

are basic
st.ategiesfor numberingand titling informationabout sys
tems and assemblies
for usesotherthanconstruction
doc
USING UNIFORMAT
Below and at the beginning of the next AGS page are expla
nations of several uses for UniFormat.
PROJECI DESCRIPTION
ARRANGING
The list of elements or systems in UniFormat can be usec

as ihe basis of a system tor organizing cost informatior
which may be reported in varying degrees of detail. Al
design decisions are made, information about costs can b.:
refined. This arrangement makes possible a comparison ol
cost information for various building elements, which may
be particularly uselul during early design phases.
B-SHE LL
C-INTERIORS
D-SERVICES
F-SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
G-BUILDING
SITEWORK
Z_GENERAL
The category Project Description is a collection of basic
intormataon that introduces a project and includes bidding,
proposal, and contract requirements. lt can be used as a
stand alone contracting structure for construction projects
and is especially suitable for design{uild applications. The
Project Description level does not have a letter designation,
allowing it to appear first in the list of titles.
Like the Project Description, Category Z-General does not
represent a building system or assembly. lt is designated
by the last letter ol the alphabt to keep this category last if
the system is expanded beyond building construction for a
prolecr.
Level 1 ca'tegories are divided into classes of information to
make level 2 categories. These rry the letter ot their parent category plus a twodigit number. Alphanumeric designations and titles of level 2 classes are fixed and should not
be changed in application.
Levels 3 and 4 are created by funher subdividing level 2
classes. These subclasses carry the alphanumeric designation of their parent category and class plus a twoiigit number. Level 3 designations should not be changed in
application. Alphanumeric designations for level 4 are unassigned within a group of level 3 subclasses and number
extension are assigned by the user. The user-assigned
number should carry the alphanumeric designation of the
parent level 3 subclass plus a twodigit number or the corre
sponding MasterFormat number.
Titles presented below level 4 are level 5 subclasses, developed by presenting specialized design solutions of the level
4 parent subclasses. Particular materials may be identified
to differentiate one specialized solution from another. Titles
at level 5 are examples of information included in their level
4 subclass.
No alphanumeric designation is assigned. Users may assign
extensions. Level 5 and some level 4 titles correspond to
MasterFormat numbers and titles.
The UniFormat numbering system can expand to allow for
additional numbers and titles at any level. Userdefined
numbers and titles that fit within the established framework of UniFormat can be added.
SELECTING
NUMBERS
UNIFORMAT
AND
TITLES
Not all UniFormat titles will b used for every proiect. UniFormat is an expandabl structure that can accommodate
additional titles to meet specific requirements. However,
designated numbers and tilles should not be changed in
order to maintain a consistent arrangement.
UniFormat titles are generic. descriptive titles independent
o{ any design solution. They are the starting point for
describing systems and assemblies. Be sure to incorporate
these parent titles when creating a userdefined level 3, 4,
or 5 title, so systems and assemblies titles are complete,
clear, and descriptive. Users can add further systems and
assemblies numbers and titles for proiects that include
items other than building construction, such as heaw civil
engineering construction or preess facilities.
COST
INFORMATION
A UniFormat cost model can be used in tandem with a cosl

modeLorganized according to MasterFormat. The two mod
els render a different view of a project and provide detai:
appropriate for differenl requirements. For example, a cosl
model organized according to UniFormat can provide inlor
mation about the cost ot a concrete structure as comoared
to the cost of a steel structure. A cost model organized
according to MasterFormat can provide information aboul
the cost of all the concrete and steel on a project regardless
of the structural system chosenValue analysis requires a consistent naming scheme carried
throughout a project. UniFormat is particularly useful lor
this type of analysis, which requires attaching a cost to a
particular use or facility function rather than to particular
products and activities. Using MasterFormat numbers as
suf{ixes to element designations helps the value analyst
evaluate change proposals.
ARRANGING
PRELIMINARY
DESCRIPTIONS
PROJECT
Preliminary project descriptions are described in the CSI

'Preliminary
Manual of Practice in chapter FFl180,
Project
Descriptions and Oulline Specifications." A preliminary
prcject description helps an owner understand the various
components and systems proposed by an A,/E for a project.
It also serues a requirement normally included in a design
seryices agreement for which the A,/E must submit a report
after completing the schematic design but before proceed
ing to design development. These descriptions may serve
as th basis for an stimate of orobable construction costs
UniFormat provides a logical sequence of systems and
assemblies tor describing a construction project before al
materials and methods have been determined. UniFormat
is used to organize, and serves as a checklist for preparing
preliminary project descriptions at various levels of detai
As a design progresses, both descriptions and estimates of
probable construction costs can be refined.
ARRANGING
PROJECT
MANUALS
Arranging project manuals, or portions of them, according

to UniFormat is appropriate when performance specification is the method employed for all or some of the proiect.
Performance specification can be used at many levels, from
a single product to maior subsystems or entire projects. 11
allows the owner to access a range of options, from exist
ing technology to innovative systems and developing tech
nologies. As well, performance specification encourages
full bidding competition based on nonrestrictive require
ments. Design-build projects make use of performance
specification in its broadest application.
Whether an entire building or only a portion of it is specified
using performance specifications, UniFormat can be used
to organize this type of specification for elements crossing
MasterFormat section and division boundaries. For conventional proiects with project manuals organized according to
MasterFormat, specifiers can include systems and assem
blies before Division 1-General Requirements. According
to UniFormat, systems and assemblies can be numbered
and sequenced in this part of the project manual with the
appropriate assignment of UniFormat numbers and titles
CSI Manual of Practice chapters FFl120. "Methods of
Specifying," and SP/090, "Performance Specitying." pro.
vide detailed discussions about this aoolication.
ARRANGING
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
MARKET
Some users may want to add MasterFormat materials and

methods information to a document organized accord ng to
UniFormat. MasterFormat numbrs may be added throughout the design process as materials and methods are determrned.
Market inlormation reporting agencies can use UniFormat

to describe the lacility being reported. UniFormat can also
be used to assemble, store, and report information about
elements separate from and in addition to reports on prod
The transition from a document organized according to Unf
conilnues on nen page
The Construction
Specifications
Institute;Alexandria,
Vrrginia
'tl
Format to one organized according to MasterFormat ma\

be easrer if MasterFormat extensions are used. lf thes.
fiveiigit number extensions have been added, a documel
organized according to UniFormat can be searched or
soned according to a MasterFormat five-digit extension 1.
regroup intormation according to MasterFormat.
A-SUBSTRUCTURE
E-EOUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
MASTERFORMAT
APPLICATION
umenls. The methods described are not rigid; rather, they

are meant to help UniFormat users develop ao understand
ing of the system that will allow them to apply it consis
tently. lnformation is included about using UniFormat to
organize cost information and preliminary prolect descrip
trons, arrange project manuals, and organize facility management and construction market information.
J1
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CSIUniFormot 127
continued from the previous page
ucts and actisties This helps show trends for major eleproducts
activities
crossing
and
ments
containing
MasterFormat section and division boundarres.
ORGANIZING
DRA\^/INGS
UniFormat numbers and titles can be used as a file-naming

convention tor library files of standard details and schedules. The Uniform Drawing System (UDS) provides a
detailed description for this applition.
Library files are named difterently from proiect files
bcause the classification and indexing requirements are
different. Library file naming should be groupd by building
systems, assemblies, or use because that ls the most natural way to search for them. Project detail files must also be
organized to make it easy to produce proiect contract documents, record documents, and facility management documents from several liles. Naming a detail file for a project
requires the sheet identification. coordinates on the sheet,
and a detail identitier.
UDS recommends an 8{haracter designalor for naming
library schedule files. A numbering system based on UniFormat can be used for preliminary phases of a project. UniFormat numbers can be used during the construction
documents phase for schedules made up of assemblies of
materials that might otheMise have separate MasterFotr
mat numbers.
FACILITIES
ARRANGING
INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT
UniFormat is used for preliminary prcject descriptions to

systems and assemblies concepts to a buildcommunite
ing owner. Once preliminary project descriptions have been
refined, UniFormat can be used to communicate a building's functional systems and assemblies for real eslate
reports and to organize maintenance and
dueiiligence
operation programs and data.
UniFormat sn be used to document how systems and
assemblies function; therefore, it is an organizational concept well-suited to describing systems design intsnt during
facility commissioning. Proiect descriptions can be refined
throughout the design pr@ess, makng it easaer to carry out
testing and
authority's pertorrunce
the commissioning
acceptance program. Facility personnel can then use the
proiect descriptions to store information about systems
maintenance and operations.
INFORMATION
ARRANGING
BUILD APPLICATIONS
FOR DESIGN-
Design-build proiect delivery has created a need for an

organizational structure that allows owners and deslgn- ,/
burld entrties to communicate functional performane'
requirements. UniFormat provides this organizational structure.
UNIFORMAT
USED
UniFormat and MasterFormat can be used in all applitions that have traditionally been the domain of MasterFormat. The 1998 edition of UniFormat includes crossreferences to MasterFormat to help users apply both organizational principles. These applications include organizing
proiect manuals; asslgning specification numbers and titles;
and organizing and filing cost information, drawing details,
and facility management and construction market information.
Both systems can be characterized as "single,"
"parallel":
2O-PROPOSAL,EIDDING,AND CONTRACTING
2010DeliveryMethod
2020OualificationsRequirements
Requirements
2030 Proposal
2040 8id Requirements
2050 ContractingRequiremenls
3O-COSTSUMMARY
3010 ElementalCostEstimate
3020Assumpt'onsandOualifrcatrons
3030Allowances
3040 Alternates
3050 Unit Prices
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND
ASSEMBLIES
"serial." or
1. Single applications use only UniFormat or MasterFormat

exclusively throughout the application.
2. In srial applications, such as a project manual, a number
and title are aoolied to each item based on either UniFormat or MasterFormat. Both organizational principles can
be used in the same aoolication.
3. Parallel applications are those in which each item is
named with numbers and titles from UniFormat and
MasterFormat. This is a powerful method in many applications, such as organizing cost information, in which
line item can be
information about a coststimate
tracked to a product and to a system or assembly.
LEVELS I THROUGH B NUMBERS

AND TITLES
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
1O-PROJECTDESCRIPTION
1010ProiectSummary
D50 Electrical
Serviceand Distribution
D5010Electrical
D5020Lighlingand BranchWiring
and Security
D5030Communications
D5090Orher ElectricalSystems
D60 BasicMaterialsand Methods
A N DF U R N I S H I N G S
E L E M E NE
T-EOUIPMENT
E'10Equipment
Equipment
E1010Commercial
Equipment
E l 020 lnstitutional
Equipment
E'1030 Vehicular
E1090OtherEquipment
ELEMENTF-SPECIAL CONSIRUCTIONAND DEMOLI

TION
F10 SpecialConstruction
F1010 SpecialStructures
F1020 IntegratedConstruction
F1030 SpecialConstructionSystems
F1M0 SpecialFacilities
F1o5oSpciaiControlsand Instrumentation
420 BasementConstruction
A2010 BasementExcavation
A2020 BasementWalls
ELEMENTB-SHELL
B1OSuprstructure
B l 010 FloorConstruction
81020 RooI Construction
F20 SelectiveDemolition
F2010 BuildingElementsDemolition
F2020HazardJusComponentsAbatement
820 ExteriorEnclosure
82010ExteriorWalls
82020 ExteriorWindows
82030 ExteriorDoors
ELEMENTG-BUILDINGSITEWORK
G10 SitePreparation
G1010SiteClearing
G1020SiteDemolitionand Relocations
G1030SiteEarthwork
G1040 HazardousWaste Remediation
830 Roofing
83010RoofCoverings
83020RoofOpenings
G20 Site lmprovements

G2010Roadways
G2020ParkingLots
G2030PedestrianPaving
G2040Site Development
G2050Landscaping
ELEMENTC-INTERIORS
C10 lnteriorConstruc'tion
C1010Partitions
C1020InteriorDoors
C1030Fittings
C30 InteriorFinishes
C30'10Wall Finishes
C3020FloorFinishes
C3030CeilingFinishes
D40 Fire Protection

D4010 Sprinklers
D4020 Standplpes
D4030 FireProtectionSpecialties
D4090 Other Fire ProtectionSystems
E20 Furnishings
E2010FixedFurnishings
E2020MovableFurnishings
ELEMENTA-SUBSTRUCTURE
A10 Foundations
A1010 StandardFoundations
A1020SpecialFoundations
A1030SlabOn Grade
C20 Stairs
C2010StairConstruction
C2020StairFinishes
AND
MASTERFORMAT
TOGETHER
1020ProjectProgram
1030 ExistingConditions
1040OwneasWork
1050 Funding
ELEMNTD-SERVICES
D10 Conveying
and Lifts
D1010Elevators
D1020Escalators
and MovingWalks
D1090 Other ConveyingSystems
D20 Plumbing
D2010PlumbingFixtures
D2020 DomesticWater Distribution
D2030 SanitaryWaste
D2040BainWater Drainage
D2090Other PlumbingSystems
(HVAC)
D3OHeating,Ventilating,
andAir Conditioning
D30'10EnergySupply
D3020HeatGeneration
D3030Refrigeration
D3040 HVACDisrribution
D3050Terminaland PackagedUnits
D3060 HVACInstrumentationand Controls
D3070lesting,AdJusting,
and Balancrng
D3090Other SpecialHVACSystemsand Equipment
Utilities
G30 Site Civiutvlechanical
G3010WaterSupply
G3020SanitarySewer
G3030Storm Sewer
G3040HeatingDistribution
G305OCoolingDistribution
G3060 FuelDistribution
G3090Other Site MechanicalUtilities
G40 Site ElectricalUtilities
Distribution
G4010 Electrical
G4020Site Lighting
G4030Site Communicationsand Scurity
G4090Other Site Electril Utilities
G90 Other Site Construction
G9010 ServiceTunnels
G9090Orher Site Systems
ELEMENTZ-GENERAL
Z1OGene.alRequirements
21010Administration
21020OualityRequirements
21030TemporaryFacilities
21040 P@jectCloseout
and Bonds
21050Permits,Insurance,
21060Fee
220 Contingencies
22010 DesignContingency
Contingency
22020Escalation
22030 ConstructionContingency
The Construction Specilications Institute; Alexandraa,Virginia
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
128
CSIMqsterFormot
INTRODUCTION
MasterFormat is a master list of numbers and titles
for or
gantztng information aboul constructton requirements,
products, and activities into a standard sequence.
Many dif_
ferent delivery methods, products, ana instattation
tirpis
are used on construction projecls Successful compleiion
ot projects requires elJective communication amonq the
people involved. lnformation retrieval is nearty impoJsiOie
wrthout a standard ftltng system famrliar lo each user.
Mas_
lerFormat offers a standard filing and retrievdl scheme
applicable throughout the constfuctron industry. ll rs a
uni_
torm system used for organizing information In proiect
manuals, organizing cost data, filing product informaiion
and other technical data. identitying d;awing objects, and
presentng construction market data
MdsterFormat rs prod_dcedlorntly by the Conslructron Spec
frttons Instttute (CSIJ and Construction Specrfrcations
Canada (CSC). ll rs updated periodicaily: the iniormatron on
the pages in AGS comes trom the I 99S editron.
TITLES
MasterFormat arranges related construclion products and
activities into l6 level one titles, called divisions The num
bers and titles of the divisions are as follows:
Division 1-General
Divisron 2-Site
Requirements
Construction
Division 3-Concrete
Division 4-Masonry
Division 5-Metals
Division 6-Wood
And Plastrcs
And Moisture protection

Division 8*Doors And Windows
Division g-Finishes
Division 7-Thermal
Division 1O-Specialties
Division 11-Equioment
Division 12-Furnishings
Division 13-Special Construction
Division 14-Conveying Systems
HISTORY
Since it was introduced in 1963, the i 6-division CSI format
has been widely accepted for slandard practice In the
Unrted States and Canada. Frrst pubIshed as part of the CSI
Format Jor Constructron Speciticatro.s, tt was later used
as
tne basrs^lor the Uniform System for Constructron Specrti_
cations, Data Frling and Cost Accou.trng_litle One Build_
ings, published in 1966. The Unifolm System was
developed and endorsed by the American Institute of Archi_
tects, Americ_anSociety of Landscape Archrtects, Associ_
areo benerat Uontractors of America, Counctl of MechaniGl
Specialty Contractin-g Industries (now the Associated Spe_
cialty Contractors), Producers, Council, National Society-of
Professional Engineers, and Construction Speciircatilm
lnslitute. In t966 a similar effort in Canada pioduced thi
Building Constructron Index {BCl), which was based on lhe
rb{rvrslon rormat that had been Introduced by the Specifi_
cataon Writers Association of Canada (renamed Construc_
tion Specifications Canada in 1974).
In]-972 the U.S. and Canadian formats were merged and
published as the Unitorm Construction tnAex
tUCtt. ine UCt
was a comprehensive framework for organizing information
contained in project manuals, as well ai a bas-e of informa_
lon lor tiltng data and classifying prolect costs.
ln 1978 Constructron Specifications Canada joined wrth the
Uonstruction Spcrfications lnstitute to produce the first
editim ot MasterFormar, introduced by CSI as Mp-2,1 and
by CSC as Document OO4E. This document tncorpoiateJ i
comptete organizational format for project manuais, including bidding requirements, contract forms, and conditions of
the.conkact in addition to the loiivision tist of numbeis
and titles primarily used for speci{ications.
The-first revised edilion of MasterFormat, published in
I 983, retained the basrc pnnciples of organiiation from
the
prevtous edrtton but added rnformatron to respond
to the
needs ot lhe engineering disciphnes. tte tbgg eOir,;n,
based on input from MasterFormat users, Incorporated revi_
sronsnd.additions recognizing new products and develoF
ments In the Construclion industrv
The 1995 edition. the tittes of which are pubtished in the
tenth edition ot Architectual
Graphic Siandards, is iii
result of an extensive public review and coordination with
Industry users. lt incorporates many minor revrsions in
numbers and titls and several changes in style and presen_
tation. Some significant rearrangements oi numbers and
lltles, paillcutarty in divisrons 1. 2. 13, 15, and 16, have
Deen made.
BASIC ORGANIZATION
Thenumbers
andtitlesin MasterFormat
aregrouped
under
Division 15-Mechanical
Division 16-Electrical
The level two-tittes (formerly cailed broadscope trtles) iden
Iry clusters ot products and activities that have an idenl,fy_
Ing characteristtc in common. Usually, the tltles are a loorcil
categorization of the division title. Sometimes, panrcjarty
in,divisio.s 2, 13. 1 5, and 16, they are arbitrary bieakdowni
ot tne drvrston to reduce it to a more manageable size.
Level two titles are the highest level generally uaed in titl,no
and arranging units ol construction information. ln Masreri
Format,. level_two titles are presented as all uppercase ietters and boldface tvoe.
M6sterForrut
shows both numbers and titles at level
three. Level.three titles are presented as frrst letter uppei_
case and boldface type. Level three numbers are presented
as the last three digits of the five-digit designatidn in 6qhrace rype.
MasterFormat suggests titles at level tour but does not indicate numbers. Users should create numbers by interpolat_
Ing between assigned numbers when using level fourtitles
or creattng new tifles. Level tour titles are prsented alphabetically in rgular (nonbold) type
A key word index of requirements, products, and activities
rs Includad in MasterFormat to help find appropriate num_
bers and titles for construction subjects. Alpnabetized
entries may refer to ither level two or level three numbers.
RELATIONSHIP
TO UNIFORMAT
CSIand CSCalsopublishUniFormat,
which providesnum_
bers and tilles for the functional elements that make uo
constructionproductsystemsand assemblies.UniFormat
can be used to organizeprojectdescnptionsand preltmi_
naryspecifrcations.
lt is padicularly
surtedto organrzing
cost
estimatesfor vaiue analysisbecauseits organization
by
tuncton corresponds
to valueanalysistechnlques.
Master
formar ano unr.Formatare complementary
for appftcations
In wnrch reierenceto both productsand {uncttonalele.
ments may be usetul (e.9., proiect manualsand cost esti_
malrngl.
The 'l995 editionof MasterFormatestablishesa locationfor
these systems and assembliesbut does not includethe as_
sociated numbers and titles, deferring to UniFormat for
these.In MastetFormat
systemsand as-semblies
fallrmme.
diatelybfore the list of construclionproductsand activities
lDivisions 1-16) (see the list of level two MasterFormat
titles on th accompanyingAGS page).
these general headingsi
APPLICATION
INTRODUCIORY INFORMATION {00001 to 00099)

BIDDING REOUTREMENTS(OOlOOto 00499)
The followingbrief discussionis an overuiewof how to use

MasterFormatnumbers and titles for variousapplications_
Referto the CSIApplication
Guidefor mo.e detailedanaly,
srs_
CONTRACTING BEQUIREMENTs (oO5Ooto oo999j

FACILITIESAND SPACES (no numbering)
SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLTES (no numbering)
CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACT|VtTIES
{Divisions
1-16)
I.he flst grouping, Introductory Inlormalron, ts used tor in.
o*ng.
the^second and third groupings, Bidding Requrre_
mnts and {,ontracting Requirements, are for deitning rela_
tonshrps, responsibilrties, and prOcesses lor constrrction.
lhe tast thtee groupings, Facrirties and Spaces, Systems
ano Assembhes, and Construction products and Acttuties,
are used to describe the physical aspects of construction.
OVERVIE\^/
PROJECT MANUALS
MasterFormat
is the fundamental
standardfor titlinganda.ranging.projectmanuals containing bidding requi;ments,
contractrngrequtrements,and specifications_
INTRODUCTORY
INFORMATION:
Indexjngdocumentsincluded.inthis groupingare found at the beginningof prol.ect
manuals.They are not actual contract documenis but may
fre Incorporatedin a contractdocument by reference.
B I D D t N G R E O U T R E M E N T Sa n d C O N T R A C I N G R -OVis,oi,
EOUTRE
MENTS: Often referred to as Series (rather ttin
Zero documents, thse documents are not specifrcatton:,
but def'nilions of the relatronShips,processes. and resoon
srb,Jrlrestor projects. The Bidding Requirements dbcu
melts do not become a part o{ the construclron contracl
_rne Lontracltng Hequtremenls documentS are conlrd(r
torms and conditions of the contract.
In these two groups, level two and level three MasterFor
mat n_umbers have been assigned to provide a consistenl
ldentrtrcalron,bul it iS not necessary to renumber or retrtle
p(nted forms and standard documents published
by vari
ous professional societies.
FACILIIIES AND SPACES and SYSTEMS AND ASSEM
BLIEST MasterFormat indicates a location but does no1
include standard numbers and titles for these groupings
Facility- and space titles are often project speciti6, anO riel
ther CSI nor CSC has a master list of numbers and titles for
these groupings. Refer to UniFormat for svstem and
assembly numbers and titles.
CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACTIVtTIES: The hearr
of MasterFormat remains the 16 divisions aefined by ihe
Ievel one specification titles. Divisions 1 through l6 rmain
a complete method of numbering and titljng sections of
specificatrons, both for arranging master guide specifica
lrons or lor arranglng a proiect specrfrcatron.
PROOUCT
DATA
ldentifying product data with MasterFormat numbers and

titles is practical because of the relationship between prod
ucts and specitications. particular uses in this application
anclude arranging publications in a technical library; filing in_
formation on products, methods, suppliers, and subcont-rac,
tors; and inventorying construction products.
COST
ESTIMATING
MasterFormat is useful for identitying unit prices and cost

report items for products and activities, arranging a data_
base ol product and activity unit costs, arrangirig ind tabu
ralrng a prolecl budget according to a product and activity
breakdown, and relating cost items to specifications and
drawings. MasterFormat is not panicularly useful for value
anarysts, whtch requrres assigntng cost to panicular functronat etements, rather than to particular products and actrv
rIres.
ORAWING
ELEMENTS
Masterlormat is used to keynote applications and has ben

lound useful for linking drawing objects to specification
sections. lt is also used to identify CAD layer organizations.
CONSTRUCTION
MARKET
DATA
Market dala reponing agencies routrnely use MasterFormal

to lrsl products for a project being bid. Thrs practice allows
users to quickly identify sales potential lor their products
and servrces on a partacular project.
FACILITY
MANAGEMENT
Facility managers can identify data associated with prod,

ucts.used rn the butlding they manage with MasterFormal
numDers. they can be used in frltng systems for mainte.
nance and oprating instructions, procurement, mainte,
nance work orders, shop drawings, warranties. operating
nrsrones, operattng costs, and other data related to the life
cycle of a lacility.
LEVEL T\^/O NUMBERS AND

TITLES
Thelistof subordinate
titlesfleveltwo)undereachMasterFormat divisiontitle (levelone) outlines the scooe of each
division.
INTRODUCTORYINFORMATION
00001 ProjectTattePage
00005Certifications
Page
00007SealsPage
00010Tableof Contents
OO01
5 List of Drawings
00020Lisrof Schedules
B I D O I N GR E Q U I R E M E N T S
00100Bid Soliciration
00200 Instructionsto Bidders
00300 InformationAvailableto Bidders
00400 Bid Formsand Suoolements
00490BiddingAddenda
contnues
The Conslruclron Specitrcations Instttute. Alexandna, Vrrgrnra

Uonstrucuon SpecrftcatronsCanada
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
on next page
CSf MqsterFormof
continued from the previous page
CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS
oosdo Agreement
00600 Bonds and Certificates
00700GeneralConditions
00800 SupplementaryConditions
00900 Addendaand Modifications
FACILITIES
SYSTEMS
ANO
AND
CONSTRUCTION
ACT IV IT I ES
SPACES
ASSEMBLIES
PROOUCTS
AND
1 - G E N E R A LR E O U I R E M E N T S
DIVISION
01 100 Summary
01200 Priceand Payrent Procedures
01300 AdministrativeRequirements
01400 OualityRequirements
andControls
01500 TemporaryFacilities
01600ProductRequirements
01700 ExecutionRequirements
01800FacilityOperation
01900 FacilityDecommissioning
11660 ObservatoryEquiPment
11680OfficeEquipment
11700 MedicalEquipment
11780 MortuaryEquipment
'l 1
850 NavigationEquipment
Equipment
11870 Agricultural
11900ExhibitEquipment
8-DOORS AND WINDOWS

DIVISION
08050 BasicDoor and Window Materialsand Methods
08100 MetalDoorsand Frames
08200 Wood and PlasticDoors
08300 SpecialtyDoors
08400 Entrancesand Storefronts
08500Windows
08600Skylights
08700Hardware
08800Glazing
08900GlazingCurtainWall
DIVISION12-FURNISHINGS
12050Fabrics
12100Art
12300 ManufacturedCasework
12400 Furnishingsand Accessories
12500 Furniture
'l2600
MultipleSeating
12700SystemsFurniture
12800InteriorPlantsand Planters
'1
2900 FurnishingsRestorationand Repair
D I V I S I O9
N- F I N I S H E S
09050BasicFinishMaterialsand Methods
09100MetalSupportAssemblies
09200PlasterandGypsumBoard
09300Tile
09400 Terrazzo
09500Ceilings
09600 Flooring
09700Wall Finishes
09800 AcousticalTreatment
09900 Paintsand Coatings
DIVISION2_SITECONSTRUCTION
02050 BasicSite Materialsand Methods
02100Site Remediation
02200 Site Preparation
02300 Eanhwork
02400 Tunneling,Boring,and Jacking
Elements
02450 Foundationand Load-Eearing
02500 Utility Seruices
02600 Drainageand Containment
02700 Bases.Ballasts,Pavements,and Appurtenances
02800 Site Improverents and Amenrtres
02900 Planting
02950 Site Restorationand Rehabilitation
DIVISION3-{ONCRETE
03050 BasicConcreteMaterialsand Methods
03100 ConcreteForro and Accessories
03200 Conc.eie Reinforcement
Concrete
03300 Cast-ln-Place
03400 PrecastConcrete
03500 CemenritiousDecksand Underlayment
03600 Grouts
03700 Mass Concret
03900ConcreteResttrationandCleaning
DrvrsroN -MA',NRY
04050 Basic MasonryMaterialsand Methods
04200 MasonryUnits
04400 Stone
04500 Refractories
Masonry
04600 Corrosion-Resistant
04700 SimulatedMasonry
04800 MasonryAssemblies
04900 MasonryRestotationand Cleaning
07400Roofingand SidingPanels
07500MembraneRoofing
and SheetMetal
07600Flashing
andAccessories
07700RoofSpecialties
07800 Fire and Smoke Protection
07900 Joint Sealers
DIVISION5-METALS
05050 BasicMetal Materialsand Methods
05'100StructuralMetal Framing
05200 Metal Joists '
05300 Metal Deck
05400 ColdFormedMetal Framing
05500 Metal Fabrications
05600 HydraulicFabritions
05650 RailroadTrackand Accessoraes
05700 OrnamentalMetal
05800 ExpansionControl
05900 Metal Restoratimand Cleaning
DIVISION6-WOOD AND PLASTICS
06050 BasicWood and PlasticMaterialsand Methods
06100BoughCarpentry
06200 FinishCarpentry
0&00 ArchitecturalWoodwork
0650OStructuralPlastics
06600 PlasticFabrications
06900 Wood and PlasticRestorationand Cleaning
PROTECTION
DIVISION7-THERMALAND MOISTURE
07050 Easic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials
and Methods
07100 DampproofingandWaterproofang
07200 ThermalProtection
07300 Shingles.RoofTlles,and R@f Coverings
DIVISION1O-SPECIALTIES
10100 VisualDisplayBoards
'10150
and Cubicles
Compartments
'10200
Louversand Vents
'10240
Grillesand Screens
10250ServiceWalls
10260Walland CornerGuards
10270Access Flooring
10290 Pest Control
10300 Fireplacesand Stoves
'I
0340 ManufacturedExteriorSpeciallies
10350 Flagpoles
Devices
10400 ldentiticatron
10450PedestrianControlDevices
'10500
Lockers
Specialties
10520FireProtection
10530 ProtectiveCovers
10550 PostalSpecialties
10600 Partitions
10670StorageShelving
10700 ExteriorProtection
10750TelephoneSpecialties
10800Torlet,Eath and LaundryAccessories
10880Scales
10900WardrobeandClosetSpecialties
DIVISION1] -EOUIPMEN'I
Equipment
11010 Maintenance
11020 SecurityandVaultEquipment
11030Tellerand ServiceEquipment
11040 EcclesiasticalEquipment
11050LibraryEquipment
11060Theaterand StageEquipment
Equipment
11070Instrumental
Equipment
11080Registration
Equipment
11090 Checkroom
11100 MercantileEquipment
11110 CommercialLaundryand Dry CleaningEquipment
11120VendingEquipment
Equipment
11130 Audiovisual
11140VehicleServiceEquipment
'111 ParkingControlEquipment
50
11160 LoadingDockEquipment
11170SolidWasteHandlingEquipment
11 190 DetentionEquipment
112OOWater Supplyand Treatment Equipment
I 1280Hydraulic
GatesandValves
11300FluidWasteTreatmentand DisposalEquipment
11400 Food SeruiceEquipment
11450Residential
Equipment
11460Unit Kitchens
11470 DarkroomEquipment
11480 Athletic, Recreational,and TherapeuticEquipment
11500Industrial
andProcessEquipment
11600 LaboratoryEquipment
'1650Planetarium
Equipment
1
129
DIVISION13-SPECIALCONSTRUCTION
13010 Air-SupportedStructures
13020BuildingModules
13030 SpecialPurposeRooms
'l
3080 Sound,Vibration,and SeismicControl
13090 RadiationProtection
13100 LightningProtection
13110 CathodicProtection
Structures
13120 Pre-Engineered
13150SwimmingPools
'13160Aquariums
13165 AquaticParkFacilities
13170Tubsand Pools
1 3 1 7 5l c e R i n k s
'I
3185 Kennelsand Animal Shelters
13190Site-ConstructedIncinerators
13200StorageTanks
13220FilterUnderdrainsand Media
13230DigesterCoversand Appurtenances
'13240
OxygenationSystems
13260 SludgeConditioningSystems
'13280
MaterialRemediation
Hazardous
13400 Measurementand Control lnstrumentation
13500 RecordingInstrumentat,on
ControlInslrumentation
13550Transportation
13600SolarandWind EnergyEquipment
'13700
SecurityAccess and Suryeillance
13800BuildingAutomationand Control
13850 Detectionand Alarm
13900 FireSuppression
14-CONVEYINGSYSTEMS
DIVISION
14100Dumbwaiters
14200Elevators
14300Escalatorsand Moving Walks
'14400
Lifts
14500MalerialHandling
14600Hoistsand Cranes
14700 Turntables
14800 Scaffolding
14900Transportation
15-MECHANICAL
DIVISION
'15050
BasicMehanical Materialsand Methods
15100BuildingServicesPiping
'15200Pr@essPiping
15300 Fire ProtectionPiping
154OOPlumbingFixturesand Equipment
15500 Heat4eneration Equipment
15600 RefrigrationEquipment
'|
5700 Heating,Vntilating,and Air ConditioningEquipment
15800 Air Distribution
15900 HVAClnstrumentalionand Controls
15950Testing.Adiusting,and Balancing
DIVISION16-ELECTRICAL
Materialsand Melhods
16050BasicElectrical
16100WiringMethods
16200ElectricalPower
16300 Transmissionand Distribution
'l
6400 Low-VoltageDistribution
16500 Lightang
16700Communacataons
16800Soundand Video
The ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute;Alexandria,Virginia
ConstructionSpecificationsCanada
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
130
ArchitecturolProgromming
GENERAL
The steps of the Problem Seeking@ process cover both
qualatatrve(establish the goals. uncover and (est concepts.
and state the probtem statements) and quanlilalive lcollect
and analyze fact and determine needs) information.
The informatron index is a framework of key words used to
seek inlormation. These words are sDecific enouah to
cover the scope ol major tactors and untversal enou-qh to
INFORMA.TION
be negotiable for different building types The tndex estab

lishes the intetrelationship of informat on regarding goals,
tacts, concepts, and needs
The Problem Seeking methodology covers four maior categories of information: funclion refers to people. activities,
and relationships; form includes site, quality, and social/psyLhologrcal envrronment, economy dddresses operatrng
costs and life{ycle costs; and time entails historical
aspects, present conditions, and future oroteclrons
PROGRAMMATIC
CONCEPTS
The programmatic concepts illustrated here and on the ner

page refer to abstract ideas intended mainlv as functiona
solutions to clients' perlormance problems without regard
to physical response. These diagrams briefly explain some
of the concepts that recur on nearly eve.y project, regard
less of building type.
INDEX
PROBLEM
FUNCTION
Feople
Activities
Relationships
Mission
Maximum number
lndividual identity
Interaction/privacy
Hierarchy of values
Prime activities
Security
Progression
Segregatibn
Encounters
Transportation/parking
Efficiency
Priority of relationships
Area parameters
Personnel forecast
User characteristics
Community characteristics
Organizationalstructure
Value of potential loss
Time-motion study
Traffic analysis
Eehavioral patterns
Space adequacy
Typelntensity
Physicallychallenged guidelines
People grouping
Activity grouping
Priority
Hierarchy
Security controls
Sequential flow
Separated flow
Mixed flow
Functional relationships
Communications
btas on stte elements

Environmental response
Efficient land use
Community relations
Community improvements
Physical comfort
Lite safety
Sociafpsychological environmenl
Individuality
Way-finding
Projected image
Client expectations
5rteanalysrs
Soilanalysis
FABandGAC
Climateanalysis
Codesuruey
Surroundings
Psychological
implications
Point of reference/entry
Cosvsqft
Buildingor layoutefficiency
Equipmentcost
Areaper unit
Ennancemenls
Specialfoundations
Density
Environmental
controls
Safety
Neighbors
Home base/officingconcepts
On premise:fixed, free, group
aooress
Off premise:satellite,
telecommut,
ang.virtualoffice
Orientation
Accessibility
Character
Ouality@ntrol
and rmportant
pertormance requtrements that will shape
building design
by spacetype
oYume
by location
Parkingrequirements
Outdoorspacerequirements
Functional
alternatives
FORM
Environmenl
Ouality
Srtedevelopment
costs
Environmental
influenceson cost
Buildingcosvsqft
Buildingoveralleff iciencyfactor
ationsthat will affect

buildingdesign
ECONOMY
Operating
costs
Life{ycle costs
Costffectiveness
Maximumreturn
Returnon investment
Minimizing
of operatingcosts
Maintenanceand opratingcosts
Reductionof liferycle costs
Sustainability
preseryaljon
Static/dynamic activities
Change
Growth
Occupancy date
Availabilityof tunds
o
PRIORITY
Efficientallocation
Multlfunction/versatility
Merchandising
Energyconseruation
Costreduction
Recycling
Spaceparameters
Activities
Projections
Durations
Escalation
factors
budget and its intluence

on the fabric and geometry of the building
Cashflow analysis
Energybudget(if required)
Operatingcosts (if required)
Greenbuildingrating
Life{ycle costs (if required}
lmplications
Tolerance
Convertibiiity
Expansibility
Linear/concurentscheduling
Phasing
and groMh on longrange performance
o
SERVICE GROUPING
The concept of priority evokes questions regardjng order of

rmportance, such as relative position, size, and social value.
[][]L]
llll
The concept of character is based on a goal concerning the

image the client wants to project in terms of values anJ the
generac nature of a project.
Nh
%N
Should seryices be centralized or decentralized? Each distinct service will be one or the other to imolement a soecific
goal.
"r"flH"
HIERARCHY
DENSITY
ACTIVITY
The concept of hierarchy is related to a goal about the exer_

cise of authority and is expressed in symbols of authority.
A goal for efftcient use ot land or space or lor high degrees

ol rnteraclron may lead to low, medium. or high densrty.
Should activities be integrated or compartmentalized?

Progtammatic
Steven A. Parshall, FAIA; HOK Consuttants: Houston, Texas
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
GROUPING
concepts
continue
on the next page
ArchilecturqlProgrqmming l3l
Prcgzmmatc
concepts continued frcm the ptewous page
Oo^
^ n><L,
a,G
"o"
?ffio
'*f)v
u"o
/'
SAFETY
FLOW
PEOPLE GROUPING
SEPARATEO
Look for concepts derived from the physical, social. and

individuals, in small
emotional characteristics ot people-s
groups, and in large groups.
A goal tor segregation may relate to people (such as prisonera and the public), to automobiles (such as campus traffic
and urban tralfic), or to people and automobiles (such as
pedestrian traffic and automobile traffic).
HOME
MIXEO FLOW
Commonsocialspaces,such as town squareor building
lobbies,are designedfor multidirectional,multipurposetraffic. The conceptof mixedflow may be aproposil the goal is
to oromotechanceand plannedncounters.
BASE
easily
Home base is related to the idea of territoriality-an
defined place where a person can maintain his or her individualitv.
Which maior ideas will implement the goal for life safety?
Look to codes and safetv precautions lor {orm-giving ideas.
3Etr
CONTROLS
SECURITY
The degree of security control varies depending on the

medium, or maxivalue of the potential loss.{inimum,
mum. These controls are used to protect propeaty and to
control oersonnel movement.
t-t
[l
I I -t____l
ENERGY
FLOW
RELATIONSHIPS
SEAUENTIAL
The correct interrelationof spaces promotes efficiencies

and effectivenessof pople and their activities.This conceot ol functionalalfinities is the most common prografr
matc conceDr.
The progression oI people (as in a museum) and things (as

in a factory) must be carefully planned. A flowchart diagram
will communicate this concept of sequential flow much
more easily than words-
trE
CONSERVATION
There are two general approaches to achieving an energyefficient building: {1) keep the heated area to a minimum by
making use ol conditioned but nonheated outside space,
such as exterior corridors, and (2) keep heat flow to a minimum with insulation, correct orientation to sun and wind,
comoactness, sun controls, wind controls. and reflective
surfaces.
{
ENTAL
CONTROLS
COMMUNICATIONS
ORIENTATION
ENVIRONM
A goal to promote the effective exchange of information or

ideas in an organization may call for networks or patterns ol
communicationr Who communicates with whom?
Provide a bearing, or point of reference, within a building, a

campus, or a city. Relating periodically to a place, thing. or
structure can prevent a feeling of being lost.
What controls for air temperature, light, and sound will be

required to provide lor people's comfort inside and outside
the building? Look to the climate and sun angle analysis for
answers.
oo
CONVERTIBILITY
EXPANSIBILITY
VERSATILITY
l-T--l
t-l-f]
lEDoEEl
f--i-n
|
I
fr---------l
t
,l
| --r
| | I I
llooool
EXTERIOR
CHANGES
Trn
| |
fl
INTERIOR
CHANGES
l'
'l
t,
MULTIFUNCTION
NEIGHBORS
FLEXIBILITY
PHAS I NG
ls there a goal {or sociality? Will the prciect be completelY

independent or is there a mutual desire to b interdependent, to cooperate with nsighbors?
Flexibiiity covers the following three concepts: expansibility

(accommodating groMh through expansionl, convertibility
(allowing for changes in function), and versatility (providing
the most lor the money through multifunctional spaces).
Will phasing ol construction be required to complete a

project on a time and cost schedule if the project proved
infeasible in the initial analys's? Will the urgency for the
occupincy dale determine the need for concurrent scheduling or allow for linear scheduling?
A C C E S S IB I L I T Y
Can Iirst-time visitors{ind shere to enter the proiect?The
concept ol accessibilityalso applies to provisions{or persons with disabilitiesbeyond signs and symbols. Do we
needsingleor multipleentrances?
'l $l'
CONTROL
TOLERANCE
COST
This concept may well add space to the program. ls a particular space tailored precisely for a static activity or is it prolikely to
vided with a l@se fit for a dynamic activity{ne
change?
This concept is intended as a search far economy ideas thal

will lead to a realistic oreview of costs and a balanced budget to meet the extent of available funds.
Houston,Texas
FAIA;HOK Consuitants;
StevenA. Parshall,
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
132
AIA MASTERSPEC
INTRODUCTION
The MASTERSPEC@master specrficatronsystem is a prod
uct ol the American Instrtute of Archrtects and is published
by.Archilecturat Computer Servrces, Inc {ARbOM) lt
Includes libraries for architeclural/structural/crvrJ.
structural/
cNd, mechanical/electrical, interiors construction, interiors
FF&E, and landscape architecture and has*malt project,
outlrne, short form, and full lenglh versrons. The MAS i ER_
)rEL System ts endorsed ot recommended by major
design and construction documentation organizations in t'he
UnatedStates.
MASITRSPLC@ specrfrcatronsecllons are used to produce
prolect specificatrons tor bidding and construction. These
specticatrons descflbe materrals and products, assembhes
anO systems lor a construction, as well as reeuirements lor
submrttals, manufacture, installation, performance. and
warranties. Bidding requirements, conrracl requtrements.
and project specifications are usually bound together in the
project manual.
MASTERSPEC@sections are numbered and tiiled according to CSI MasterFormat and include ail 16 of its divisions.
Each section includes a broad range of products and
options for each subject area. Users edit each section to tai,
lor rt to a sp4ifig!!olect
When a firm does repetitive types
of projects, M,ASTERSPECsections may be edited to pro_
duce ollice masters that contain only those D.oducts and
materials lypically specrl,ed by the frrn or by a panrcular cll
enl rnese oilrce masters are then ed,led to produce jndi
vadualproiect specif ications.
MASTERSPEC SECTION
DESCRIPTIONS
DtvlstoN
01ooHENERAL
REOUTREMENTS-This
Section
includes the Evaluations only. lt contains background infor_
matron on vaflous subjects, including specification formats
and contractrng procedures, that apply to all Division I Sec!ons.
01013-SUMMARY
OF WORK (FF&E)-This Section sum_
manze: the_Work of the Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) contracts and provides inform;tion to thode
who do not have access to the Agreement or biddtng infor_
mation. The Section includes Ihe foilowing:
01o23-ALLOWANCES
(FF&E)-This Section specifies
provisions for lump-sum and unit-pflce allowances for
Furni_
rure, Furnrshrngs, and Equrpment (lf&E). Il defines allow_
ances, describing what is and is noi included, and lists
allowance quantities and amounts.
O1028-APPLICATIONS FOR PAYMENI (FF&E)-This sec.
tion specilies admrnrstrative ano procedural requirements
g_ov_erningthe Furn,ture. Furnrshrngs, and Equipment
(FF&E) Contractor's Applications for payment.
h alsb con_
larnsJequrrements for prepar,ng and submittrng the Schedule of Values
01033-ALTERNATES (FF&E)-This Secrion specifies prG
visions lor proposed changes recerved before the Furniture,
l-urnrshings, and Equipment (FF&L) Contracl is awarded.
Ine seclron descflttes add alternates. deduct allernates.
and alternates for the purpose of cost comparison.
01038-MODIFICATtON pROCEDURES (FF&E)_This Seclion specifres procedu.es tor changrng the Furniture, Furnrshrngs,and Equrpmenr (FF&E) Contract Sum or Schedule.
01043--COORDtNAT|ON
(FF&E)-This
Sectton specities
coordintion with the Work of construction contraciors and
other Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) contractors.
01 1oo-SUMMARYI his Sect,on provrdes a lramework in
wnrch to summanze the Work ol the p.oJect as covered In
detail in the Contract Documents. lt also provides general
information to individuals who need to know geneil con_
tract provisions.
0112s-SUMMARY
OF MULT|PLE CONTRACTS_This
Section specifies the contractual responsibjlatiesof each
contract and the Poject Coordinator relating to the Work,
coordination. and temporary tacalitiesano controts.
0114o-WORK
RESTRTCTIONS-ThjS Section specilies
restnctrons on the Contractor's use of the oremises and
requirements for contrnued Owner occrpancy and Owner
occupancy of the Project before Substantial Completion.
01 2 1O-ALLOWANCES-This
Section specif ies provisions
for cash allowances, including lump-sum, unit-cost, contin_
gency. and lestrng and inspectrng allowances lt also speci.
res pfovlstons tor quanlitv allowances
01 230-ALTERNATES-This
Section specifies provisions
jtt"rnit"s.
for change of scope and cost{omparison-typ"
It also includes a sample'Schedule of Alte;nates. to help
the specifier develop the Section.
0 1 2 s o - C O N T R A C T M O D t F t C A T t O Np R O C E D U R E S _ T h i s
Section specifies administrative and procedural reouiren e n l s f o r C h a n g e st O t h e C O n l r a c tS L n a . d t h e C o r l r d r I
lrme, and the Contractor's Oreparar,on of Droposal
Hequesls lor changes to the Cont,acr
01270-UNIT
PRICES-Ihis Section specrfies provisrons
for unit p(ces. lt includes a sample list of unit prices and a
sample untt pnce schedule to help the specifier develop the
5eclron.
01290-PAYMENT PROCEDURES-Thrs Section speciftes
administrative and procedural requirements for the iontractor's Applications for Payment. This Section also contains
requtrements for preparing and submitting the Schedule of
Values.
01303-SUBMITTALS
(FF&E)-This
Seclron soecifres
adminElratrve and procedural requrremerls for processing
Shop Drawings, Product Data, and Samptes Ihe Secrroi
rnc,udes the lollowing:
01700-EXECUTION
REOUIREMENTS-This
Section
specifies administrative and procedural requirements fol
examination ol conditions, preparation for constructior
construclton layout, field engtneering and su.veyrnq. qen
erat Installation of products. coordinalion of Ownerrnltafteu
products, progress cleaning, starting and adjusting, protec
tron of installed constructlon, and correction of thtVvork.
01703-CONTRACT
CLOSEOUT (FF&E)-This
Section
specitaes administrative and procedural contract closeoul
provisions. lr is primarily a summarv Sectionj most ot the
provis,ons in this Section are the termination of require
ments specified in other Sections. Basjc contract closeou:
.equirements are in the General and Supplementary Condr
tions.
0131o-PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COORDINA

TION-Thjs
Section specifies administratjve orocedures
required for ProJect management and coordindlron of con_
structron operations and activities, including scheduling and
conducting Project meetings.
01731-CUTTING AND PATCHTNG-This Section specifies

admrnistratjve and procedural requirements for cutting and
patching. lt must be carefuliy coordinated with otheaSec_
tlons to avoid overlapping or conflicting requirements, such
as those contained in Divisions I 5 and i 6.
01320-CONSTRUCTION
PROGRESS
DOCUMENTATION-This Section specifies administrative and procedural
requirements for the Contractor's Construction Schedule.
various schedules and reports requrreo lor pe,formance of
the Work, and construction photographs lt includes both
Uantl{hart and critical path method {CpM) schedules
0i 732-5ELECTIVE DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies

the demolition of selected portions ol existing buildings,
structures, and site improvements, and the removal. sal
vage, and disposal ot demolished matenals
01322-PHOTOGRAPHTC DOCUMENTATTON-This Section specifies requirements for submitting construction

pholographs and videotapes The seryrces c;ntarned In this
sectron can vary extensively. For many projects, the tew
paragraphs in Division 'l Section .Construction progress
Documentation'may eliminate the need for this sep-arate
)ecton.
01 330-5UBMITTAL
PROCEDURES-This Section specifies Action and lnformational Submittals, including Shop
Drawings, Product Data, Samples, and other miscellineoui
submittals.
014oo-OUALITY
REOUIBEMENTS-Th;s Secrion specifies general.quality-assurance and quality{ontrol require_
ments. Specific requirements for individual elements oi the
Work are specified in the appropriate Sections in Divisions
2 through 16. The Section Text is prjmarily for field tests
and inspections of fabricated in-place consrructron rather
than standard product testing.
014o3-OUALITY CONTROL (FF&E-This Section specifies provisions for product or material testing when it is the
responsibility of the FF&E Contractor. The Section includes
responsibilities for tests, inspections, and sample taking;
written test repons; qualitication of testing agencies; anl
repair and protection of the Work exposes ro testtnq and
sample tat ing
01 420-REFERENCES-This
Section specifies general def_
initions for the Specifications and other Coniract Docu
ments including the Drawings. Delinitjons in this Section
are not Intended to intrude on legal and construction aqreement malters: they supplement lnose defrnitions contarneo
in AIA Document 4201. 1997 edition. Most of the Section
Text can be considered basic procedural requirements
0177o-CLOSEOUT
PROCEDURES-Th|S Secrion speci.
lies administrative and procedural contract closeout orovrsions. Most of the provisions in this Section cover the
complelion of rgqqjls6gng5 specrfred rn other Sectrons
rhrs sectron specities provisions for proiect Record Docu
ments, operatton and maintenance manuals, and demon_
stration and training. lf these subjects require more detailed
treatment, delete them from this Section and use the aooli,
cable MASTERSPEC Supptemental Sections.
01781-PROJECT RECOFD DOCUMENTS-Thjs Section
specifies procedures to be followed when developing
Prcjecr Record Documents. lt should be used when lpei
cific Project requirements are more extensive than reouirements specitied in Division 1 Basic Section .Closeout
Procedures.' The Section Text deals primarily with Record
Drawings because they are the one type of Froject Remrd
Document mst
likely to be expanded beyohd require_
ments in the Basic Section.
01782-OPERATION
AND MATNTENANCE DATA-This
Section specifies requirements for preparing and submit
trng emergency, operation, and maintenance manuals.
01 820-DEMONSTRATTON AND TRA|NtNG-This Section
specifies administrative and procedural requirements for
anstructingOwner's personnel in the operation and maintenance ot systems, subsystems, and equipment. lt should
be used when specific Project requirements are more
extensive than requirements specified in Division 1 Basic
Section'Closeout Procedures.'
DIVISION 2
02060-EUlLDlNc
DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies
the demolition, removal, and disposal of existing buildings,
structures, and site improvements; and the removal, sal
vage, and disposal of demolished materials.
01422_REFERENCE SIANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS

{FF&f)- This.Section specitres general detinrtronstor Spec
rtrcatrons and other FF&E Contract Documents Includrng
Drawings. Definitions in this Section are not intended t;
intrude on legal matters; they supplement those definrtions
contained in AIA Docurent 4271, 1990 edition, and in
ASID Document 1D320, 1996 edition. Most of the Section
Text can be considered basic procedural requirements.
0208O-UTILITY
MATERTALS-Th|s
Section
soecities
matenals and methods for application with utrlity piping
Installations outside the building. Piping specialties, joining
mateflals,,ornt construction, identification materials an.i
devices, and installation requirements common to more
than one Division 2 Section are included. This Section sup
plements other Division 2 Sections: it must b editd and
used with other Sections for a complete piping system
specitication.
01500-TEMPORARY FACILtTIES AND CONTROLS-This

Section specifies requirements of a temporary nature,
ancluding items not actually incorporated into the Work. lt
rncludes temporary utility services, construction and suF
port facililies, and security and protection facalities.
02085-INTERCEPTORS-This
Section specifies interceotors usd with sanitary sewerage and storm drainage systems. These interceptors are l@ated outside the buildino
dnd include melal and concrete types.
02230*5ITE CLEARING-This Section soecifies sire clearIng. Including tree and vegetation removal and root grubbrng, tree protection, topsoil stripping and stockpiling,
cappiog and removal of site utilities, and removal of min6r
sIe rmprovements.
01600-PRODUCT REOUTREMENTS-This Secrion specifies general requirements for products, materials, and
equrpment_ includrng their delivery, storage, and handling.
ano sereclron ot products by lhe Contractor. This Section
also specifies administrative and procedural requirements
for handling requests for substitutions made after award of
the Contract, and general and procedural requirements for
warrantres.
02231-TREE PROTECIION AND TRtMMtNG-This

Sec
tion specifies the protection and trimming oI trees that
interfere with, or are affected by, temporary or new Work.
01613-DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND HANDLING (FF&E)This_Section specifies requirements for handIng goods on
the Pro,ect Site.
02240-DEWATERING-This
Section specifies construction dewatering requiring more extensive treatment than
that specrfied rn other Division 2 Sections.
01623-INSTALLATION
(FF&E)-This
Section sDecifies
general requirements for Divrstons 2 through 16 Sections. lt
includes requirements tor examining the installation area,
handling goods duirng rnstaljalion, and disposing of unused
maIeflals.
ARCOM; Salt Lake City, Utah, and Alexandria. Vrrqinia
01633-5UBSTITUTtONS (FF&E)-This Sectaon specifre:

requrrements tor substitutions when specified goods
ar.
not available. lt includes submrttals required for'propose..
subslrtuttons.
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
MASTEqSPEC
continues
on the next oaoe
AIA MASTERSPEC I33

02666-POND AND RESERVOIRLINERS-ThiSSection
pond ano resetr
specifiesimpervious.flexible-membrane
voir linerslor use with neutralaqueoussolutions.Consult
membranemanufacturersfor propermembraneselectionif
requiredfor lining or covering complex liquid toxic-waste
holdrngponds
02260-EXCAVATIONSUPPORTAND PROTECTIONThis Seclion specifiesgeneral proceduresand prlmary

requirementsfor excavationsupporl and proteclionsysrems.
023OO-EARTHWORK-ThrsSection specifies excavating,
compacting.and gradinginsideand
fillingand backfilling,
outsidebuildinglimits.ThisSectionalso includesbaseand
subbasematerialsfor pavements;granulardrainagecourse
under slabs4nrade; drainage and separationgeotextile
fabrics;and trench excawtion and backlillingfor utility and
undergroundseryices.
02711-FOUNDATIONDRAINAGESYSTEMS-ThiSSEC.
tion specifiesIoundationand underslab,subsoildrainage
systems.lt also includesin-planewall drainagematerials
that work separatelyor in conjunctionwith other foundation
products.
drainage
02751-CEMENTCONCRETEPAVEMENT-ThiSSection
soecifies cast-in-placeconcrete pavement constructlon
concretemix
rncludrngrelatedfoamwork,rerntorcement.
placement,
proportions,
and f inishes-
02361-TERMITECONTROL-ThisSectionspecifiesinitial
soil treatment by applyingchemicaltermiticidesto the soil
under and aroundsusceptiblestructuresduringconstructermates,and
iion tor preventivecontrolof subterranean
the option of using bait products to supplementsoaltreatment. According to the EPA-RegisteredLabel. one manufacturer's bait product may be specilied without also
specilyingsoil treatment,if permitted by authoritieshaving
iurisdiction.
02455-DRIVENPILES-ThisSectionspecifiesEvaluations
only for the following Sections covering types of driven
pnes:
02764-PAVEMENT JOINT SEALANTS-Th|S Section

{or conspecifiesiointsealants,includingbackermaterials,
crete-to{oncreteand concrete-tGasphaltpavementjolnts.
02768-STAMPED CEMENT CONCRETEPAVEMENTThis Sectionspecifiescement concretepavement,erther
integrallyor surface colored, receivinga surfaceimpranted
stampedfinish.
02780-UNIT PAVERS-ThiS Section speci{aespaving for
exteriorapplcationsusingbrick,concrete,rough-stoneand
asphalt-blockpavers installedby severalmethods. Installation methods include ungrouted. mortarless applications;
portlandcement monar setting-bedmethods; and bitumr
nous setting-bedapplacations.
STEEL PILES_Th|SSCCIiON
02456-CONCRETE.FILLED
specifiesconcrete-{illedsteel shell and steel pipe piles.
CONCRETEPILES-This Section
02457-PRESTRESSED
specifiesprestressed,precastconcretedriven piles.
02458-STEEL H PILES-This Section specifies steel Hsectionpilesand protctive coatings
02791-PLAYGROUNDSURFACESYSTEMS-Th|SSection specifiesboth loose fill and non]oose {ill, impact-attenuating protective surfacing systems for outdoor use at
oround-levellocations,made from naturalorganic or inorlanic materialsor syntheticrubber-basedformulations,and
designedlor use underand aroundpublicplaygroundequitr
ment. Surfacesystems that have and have not been determined to be accessible according to ASTM PS 83,
Specification for Determinatiq of Accessibility of Surface
Systems undet and around Playground Equipment, ate
specified.
02459-TIMBER PILES-This Section specities preseruative-treatedround timber Piles.

02466-DRILLED PIERS-This Section specifies drilled
piers with straightor belledshafts and includesexcawtion.
casings. slurries. reinforcement,concrete fill. and testing
and inspecting.
0251o-WATER DISTRIBUTION-This Section specifies
seryiceand
tor potable-water
water pipingand specialties
firerrotdction water seMce outside the building.This Secsystems.
for
municipal
distribution
is
not
intended
tion
02813-LAWN SPRINKLERPIPING-This Sectionspecifies piping and valves. sprinklersand irrigationspecialties,

and bontrcls and wiring for lawn sprinklerpiping. Compc
nents in this Section will be downstream trom the water
distributionpiping, valves,backflow preventers'and water
meters specifiedin Division2 Sectionl/Vater Distribution.'
0251I-HOT-M|X ASPHALI PAVING-ThiS Sction specifies hotflix asphaltpavingfor new and existingpaverents
and emulsifiedsphaltsurfacetreatments.
02525-WATER SUPPLYWELLS-This Section specifies
cable-tool,rotary drilled, reverse-rotarydrilled. and driven
water wells Wth iel, line-shaftturbine,and submersibleturbine well pumps and accessories.
02530-SANITARY SEWERAGE-ThiS Section specifies
sanitarysewerageoutsidethe building.
02s35-PROCESS MATERIALSEWERAGE_ThiSSECIiON
soecifies orocess material sewerage outside the building
and includes chemical-wastedrainage piping' structures.
and neutralizationtanks;double{ontainedpipingand struclorce mains.
tures;and chemical-waste
02540-5EPTIC TANKSYSTEMS-This Sectionspecifiesa
sewage disposal system for use where a public sanitary
seweragesystem is not available.
Sectionspeci02551-HYDRONICDISTRIBUTION-ThiS
fies piping for hydronic distribution systems outsid the
insulation,
pipes,
valves,
fittings,
includes
Piping
building.
and specialtiesfor the following:
02553-NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIOi{-This Seation
spcifiesnaturalgas distributionpiping and spcialtiesoutside the buildingto the point of delivery.The point of delivery is the servic+meter assemblyoutlet. This may be only
the seryice-regulatoror seryice-shutoffvalve if there is no
meter.
02554-FUEL-OlL DISTRIEUTION-ThisSection specifies
tuel distributionpiping and specialtiesand lueloil storage
tanks and accessotiesoutside the building. Equipment in
this Sectionis suitablelor use with GradesNo. 1 or No. 2
fuel oil.
02555-STEAM DISTRIBUTION-IhiS Section specifies
oroinofor lowtressure sleamand condensatedistribution
;vslms outside the buiidrng.Pipingincludespipes, fittings. valves,insulation.and specialtiesfor the following:
o2s84-UNDERGROUNDDUCTSAND UTILITYSTRUCTURES-This Section specifies products used in underpower
and
ground eleclrical dtstribution tor
communications,includingducts, duct banks. handholes,
and utility structuressuch as vaults and manholes.
02630-5T0RM DRAINAGE-This Section specilies gravitv-Ilow and force-mainstorm drainageoutsidethe building.
02821-CHAIN-LINKFENCESAND GATES-ThisSection
soecifieschain-linkfence fabric,framing,fittings,swing and
slide gates, privacy slats, gate operators,and accesscontrol lor residential,commercial,and industrialapplications
accordingto ASTM standardsand the ChainLink Fence
ManufacturersInstitute's (CLFMI) Product Manual Residentialfenceand gateheightsare limitedto 6 feet (1.8ml
with fence line posts at a maximum spacingof 10 {eet (3
m) o.c. Industrialfence and gate heightsa.e limitedto 12
and less with fence line posts at a maxrmum
feet (3.66m)
'10 feet (3 m) o.c. Galvanized{oated,Zn-s-Alspacing of
MM allovtoated Cinc-s percent aluminum-mischmetal
alloy),aluminum{oated, and Pvc{oated steel and alumifencingareincluded.
num-alloy
02832-SEGMENTALRETAININGWALLS-This Section
specilies freestanding retaining walls built from dry-laid
concretemasonryunits designedspecificallyfor constructing segmentalretainingwalls. This Section includes both
earth-reinforcedretainingwalls and gravity retainingwalls.
Alternateprovisionsare includedto leave selectionof the
particularretaining wall unit design up to the Contracto(,
within some generalappearanceparameters,and to requlre
that the Contractorprovide structuraldesign for the walls
basedon the unitsselected.
02881-PLAYGROUND EOUIPMENT AND STRUC.
TURES-This Seclion specifiespublic playgroundequiF
ment suitable for children 2 through 12 years old and
locatedin play areasat child{are lacilities.institutions,multiple-familydwelling sites, parks,sch@ls, recreationalfacili
andsimilarpublicareas.
ties.restaurants,
02900-LANDSCAPING-This Section specifies trees.
shrubs. ground covers, plants. and lawns. The Section
includespreparationof planting pits and beds, topsoil, soil
f enilizers,
and mulches.
amendments.
02930-LAWNS AND GRASSES-ThiS Section specifies
plantingmaterials,includingtopsoil,soil amendments,and
fertilizersfor new seeded. sodded, sprigged.and plugged
lawns and grassedareas.This Section also includesprovisionsfor hyd.oseedingand reconditioningexistanglawns.
0295s-TREES AND SHRUBS-This Section specilies
trees and shrubs and includes preparationof plantingpits
and beds, topsoil, soil amendments, lertilizers, and
mulches.
02956-GROUND COVER AND PTANTS*ThiSSection

specifiesgroundcoversand plantsandincludespreparation
and
of plantingbeds,topsoil,soil amendments,fertilizers,
mutcnes.
DtvlsloN 3
CONCRETE-ThisSectionspeci03300-CAST-lN'PLACE
and lightweightconcrete
normal-weight
fies cast-in-place,
for generalbuildingconstructionincludingrelatedformmaterials
and admixtures,
concrete
reinlorcement,
work.
vaoor retarders,concrete mix requirements,placement,asand field qualaty
repairs,
cast and appliedfinishes,curing,
controlCONCRETE(LIMITEDAPPLICA.
03301-CAST.IN-PLACE
concretefor
TIONS)-This Sectionspecifiescast-in-place
proiectsusing small quantitiesof concreteor noncritical
projects
where the
is
for
simple
lt
aoolicationsof concrete.
Archilect edits the Section Text with minimal or no drrecpermits
Text
tion trom the structuralengineer.The Section
for the Proiectby
the settingof minimumqualitystandards
referencing ACI 3O1,Specificationfor StructuralConcrete.
and significant
For projecGrequiringdetailedspecifications
control of cast-in-placeconcrete, use Division 3 Section
'Castrn-Place
Concrele'
CONCRETE03331-CAST]N-PLACEARCHITECTURAL
This Section sDecifiescasl-in-place,formed, architectural
formmaterials'
special
concrete
requires
that
concrete
work, placement,andfinishes.
03361-SHOTCRETE-ThisSectionspecifies requi.ements
for pneumaticallyappliedshotcretework that may be used
for repairrngexistingconcretestructuresor fol new construction. Materials.mixes, and applicationprocedureslor
both the wet- and dry-mixprocessesare included.
0341o-PLANT-PRECASTSTRUCTURALCONCRETEThis Section specifies plant-precast,conventionallyreinstructuralconcreteunils.
forcedand prestressed,
CONCRETE'
ARCHITECTURAL
03450-PLANT-PRECAST
This Section specilies plant-precast,conventionallyreinforced, architecturalconcrele units wilh conventionalfinishes, thin brick facings, or stone facings. Pretensionedor
posttensioned, precast. prestressed concrete unils and
noncomposite insulated, precast concrete units are also
included.
03470-TILT-UP PRECASI CONCRETE-This Section
spcifies tilt-up concrete wall panels that are site precast
andfinished.andtiltedintoplaceon-site.ThisSectionspecifies relatedformwork,Ieinforcement,concretematerials
and admixtures,concretemix requirements.placement,ascast and appliedfinishes.bondbreakers.curing,repairs,and
field qualitycontrol.
O349HLASS-FIBER-REINFORCEDPRECAST CON.
glassCRETE-ThisSectionspecifiesplant-manufactured,
fiber{einforced precast concrete units stiffened and suP
poned by plant-attached{raming panels produced from
cold-Iormed steel studs or rolled carbon-steelstructural
shapesusedprimarilyto cladbuildrngexteriors.
wOOD-FIBERDECK-This Sec03511-CEMENTITIOUS
tion specifies cementitious wood-fiber deck consisting of
units composed ol long strands of wood fibers combined
with either ponland cement or magnesiumoxysulfate
hydrauliccement. and bonded under pressure.Monolithac.
composite,and insulatedcomposite tile or plank units a.e
used to constructrool decks or form decks.
ROOFINSULATIONCONCRETE
03520-LIGHTWEIGHT
This Section specifieslightweight concrete rool insulation,
50 lb/cu. ft.
weight
not
exceeding
unit
oveniry
with an
(800 kgr'cu.m), primarilyused as fill over metal roof deck or
structuralconctetesubstrates.
03532-CONCRETEFLOORTOPPING-This Sectionspecifies tactorypackagd, high-srrength. iron-aggregateand
reryggregate cementitiousconcretetloor toppings.
03542-{EMENT-BASED UNDERLAYMENT-This Sec
tion specifis cement-based,polymer-modilied,self-leveling underlayment lor application below interior finish
flooring.
03930*CONCRETE REHABILITATION-This Section
specifies concrete patching and repair including the
removalof deterioratedconcreteand reinforcement.Patching materialsspecified include job-mixed patchingmortar,
packaged{ementitious and polymer-modified patching
monars, cast-in-placeconcrete, and preplacedaggregate
concrete. This Section also speci{ies lloor joint repair,
treatments,polyepoxy crack injection,corrosion-inhibiting
mer overlaysand sealers,and structuralreinforcementwith
both steel and composites.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
Virginia
ARCOM:SaltLakeCitv,Utah,and Alexandria'
u
A
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
134
otvtstoN
AIA MASTERSPEC
4
0 r ' 4 1 0 - S I O N E M A S O N R Y V L N F TR t h , s S e c r r o r
spec,
res slone tatd in mortar and app|ed erther
lo conc.eie or
maso-nryback-up or to frame construction lt Includes
stone
nsraileo In rubble, ashlar. and polygonal or mosaic
patlerns
maoe trom cut stone, split stone, or qough
sione as
e'tracted fiom ihe quarry or as collected irom
stream
Danks and similar depostts. lt includes veneers mechantcaily attached to the back up by anchors or ties built into
the
monar lornts and veneers adhered with mortar similar
to
the settrng method used for ceramic wall tile. The
Section
is written primarily for exterior veneers for buildinqs
and for
concrete retarning walls. but could easily be modified
to
include interior facings of stone masonry.
starntess steel, Includrng nosrlgs and tread ptale. lhe

Sec
lon Inctudes mrscellaneous sleel framing,or
supporling
ove.rheaddoors,.cerIng hung torlel compariments operab16
partrtrons, wood framrng. counteflops.
and varrous equrp
menl.
05511-METAL
STAIRS-Thrs Section specifies straight
run, steel,framed stairs with metal-pan, abrasive<oit-inl_
frnished formed-melal, merat plate. and steel bar
oratrrio
lreads. tt Includes preassembled melal stairs lor coirmei
cial applications, industrial stairs, and steel-framed
orna_
mentat statrs. lt also jncludes steel tube rajlings
for
preassembled metal stairs.
04720-CAST STONE-This Section specifies cast

stone
burldrlg unrts used as archrtecturat featUes. fac,nq
tilm oi
sire accessofles. Cast stone rs defjned as archneciuiaf
o,e_
cast concrete building units intended to simulate natural cur
StOne
05521-PIPE AND TUBE RAtLtNGS_thrs Section

soeci.
tres pipe and rube handrarts and rarlings raorrciteo-i,om
steel,_aluminum, and stainless steel While thrs
SectDn
specifres pflmdnty functtonal, rather than ornamental,
ratl_
Ings, I coutd atso be used to specify ornamental ratlings
made from pipe and Iube shapes
0481O-UNtT
MASONRy
ASSEMBLIES_This
Section
specities clay and concrete masonry for engineered-inl
emprrically desrgned applicahons.
05530-GRATINGS-This
Section specif;es metal bar qrar
ings, expanded merat gratrngs. toimea-metai pfant
iiai
Ings, and extruded aluminum plank gratings.
04815-GLASS UNIT MASoNRY AsSEMELIES-This

Sec
tion specilies glass unrt masonry assembles for watt,
w]noow, skytrghl, and floor applicatrons. lt Includes extelor
and
Inreilor apptrcattons and three rnstallation methods.
One
method requires edges ot glass_block assemb|es
to be
rerarned by perimeter channel frames or chases
A second
method allows edges of assemblies to Oe sepiratea
ir-orn=
pe.rmeter construction but anchored
to it by perforated
metal strips lcalled panel anchotsl embedded'in
horizonial
mortar joints of glass-block assemblies and fastened-to
penmeter conslruction at ends. A third
method uses a
metal grid Into whrch the glass block is insened
anO adhe_
srvetvsecured with a silicone sealant
0558O-FORMED-METAL
FABRTCATTONS_This Section
specifies miscellaneous items that are shop fabricated
frcm
ferrous- and nonferrous melal sheer to custom destqns
and
that are not specified rn other Sections p,oo"iG mit
be included are sheet metal fabrications th"l il;;;;;;; "*ii
formed to a custom or semicustom design; Zt aie
eiporeO
to Mew where appearance is the primary concern: and
3)
are not normally furnrshed as part of other work, such
as
wrnoow tflm made by the window manufacturer ThJs
Sec_
uon ncludes onty a limited number of examples of items
satisfying the above criteria; other examptes iricfuOe muttion
cov6rs, miscellaneous
boxes, counters, cabinets, and
shelves
04851-DIMENS|ON
STONE CLADDING_ThIS Section
spectttes dimensron stone, set wtth monar or sedlant
ioints.
ror exreilor ctadding of buildings. Dimension
stone cl;ddino
may De.specttred as field set, with or without mortar,
an;
wrrn Indrvrctuatanchors or a grid-type anchorinq
system h
my atso be specified in the form of prefabricJted
assem_
blie-s.Dimension stone.cladding systems may be specified
ro oe engtneered by the lnstaller lo comply with
oerfor_
mance cntefla or may be fully designed and detailed.
91901_ CLAY MASONRY RESTORATTON AND CLEAN_
-;;liiy
ING-This
Section srecifies
requirements
f;,
masonry restoration. Some requirements are
suitabie for
nrslonc restoGtion projects, and some are more
suited for
orotnary rehablttation and cleaning of nonhisloric
structures. Because masonry restoratio; worf en invotve
in
assortment ot materials and conditions, it is difficuh
to
qevelop a master section
that includes restoration and
creantng procedures other than those that are typical.
The
Intenl is to
_provide guidelrnes and information tnit can Ue
aoapteo to ttt rndrvrdualcases
04902-STONE
RESTORATION AND CLEANTNG_This
Section specities requirements for qrarrry slone restora_
Iron. Some requirements are suitable tor hjstoric restoration
some for ordrnary rehabrtrtation ana cieaninl
?l"199tjt
?i9
or
nonhtstoflc
structures. Because stone restoratton wori
cm involve an assonment of materials ano conoitons,
iiii
orrrcu[.to devetop a master section that Includes
restora_
other rhan those rhat a,e typi_
19n,"19
ll:"n,.]n.O,ocedures
car. ne Intent ts to provrde guidelines and rnformation
.r
that
can m adapted to tit individual cases.
otvrsroN 5
05120-STRUCTURAL
STEEL_This
Sectionspecifies
tats
ficatng
and erecling structural steel for buildr;g construa_

tron, Inctudrng miscellaneous subframing units
that may be
pa.t of the general framing system.
Also Included are
exl_mrve opttons tor surface preparation and
shop prim
oalntrno
oszr olsfeefJOTSTS-This Sectron specifies open-web
K-series steel joists, LH-series long_span steel joists,
DLHsefies deep tong-span steel
ioists, and steel jorit grrders as
defined by the Sleel Joist Inititure
0531.0-STEEL DECK-This
Section specifies steel roof
and floor deck classified as roof deck, acousticat iooi
Oeci,
cllular rool deck, composrte floor deck, cettutarmliat-flooi
oeck wrth eleclrical drstfibutron, noncomposrte form
deck,
ano noncomposrte vented Iorm dec[.
0540O-COLD,FORMED METAL FRAMING_This
Section
specifie-s coldformed steel, loadbearing, anO
curtiin_;i
studs; floor aLq rojf joists; rafters and-ceiling joists:
inJ
root trusses. This Section also includes gypsum
sheathing
and air-infiltrationba.riers.
0550G-METAL
FABRTCATTONS-This Section specifies
representatrve products made from steel and iron,
includinq
shapes,.plates,bars, sheet, tubes, and prF. lt als;
in;il;;
serected labflcalrons made from alumtnum, bronze.
and
o570o-ORNAMENTAL
METAL-This
Section specifies
products custom fabricated from various
metifs ariJ uieJ
in building construction for functional, arcnitecturat,-anJ
decorative purposes where appearance ts the pflmary
con_
cern. Urnamental metal includes both items made
entirely
from
components
and
those
made
_custom-fabncated
enrtrety or partjally from $andard manufactured products
Inal requtre some custom fabricatron,finishing. and assem_
bly. The emphasis in this Section is on cusrom metat that is
fabricated, finished. and instailed to exacting slin;a?i
requiring highquality materials and skrllful *6,f.manstrip.
vvnere prooucts meet these criterra and are not part
of
other assemblies and systems, such as wtndow
walls,
ooors and entrances, hardware, or pretabricated specialty
rtms, they belong in thrs Section.
057,| s-FAgRICATED SptRAL STATRS-Thrs Secrron soec.
ifies metal spiral stairs wrth steel pipe or tube
ponrng cotumns and radiating treads produced ""nt,"i!uo
as standaid
manutactured producls.
o572o-ORNAMENTAL
HANDRAILS AND RAILINGSThis Section specifies ornamental handrails and railings
fabricated from aluminum, copper alloys, starnless
ste;|, and
sreet and rron. tt also includes grass_and plastrc-suDooned
railrngs,.andriluminaled ratlings. Thrs Sectjon covers
rerlnos
assemDted trom standard shapes rather than those
co;
s,uucted trom custom shapes. Ornamental railings
made
Trom custom shapes a.e specitred jn Divisron 5
Section
-Urnamental
Metalwork'
0581.1-ARCHITECTURAL JOTNT SYSTEMS_This Section
specftes exterior and interior building joint systems,
with
and.without
fire barriers, that accommmafe
movement
resulting from one or more causes such as
thermal
changes, seismic forces, or wind swav_
otvtsroN
06100-ROUGH
CARpENTRy-This
Section specifies conventional wood traming for floors, ceilings, roofs, walls.
ind
panrnons as weil as sheathrng, subfl@ring,
and underlav_
menr. Atso trctuded is incidenlal rough carpentry required
for suppon or attachment of other construction
and not
specified in another Section. Exposed ilems of rough car_
pentry Inctuded in this Section are limited, generjlty,
ro
structural framing members. Timbers incidenial to wood
trame construction are included as well as
engineered
wood products.
06105-MISCELLANOUS
CARpENTRy_This
Section
specifies miscellaneous wood framing, incidental rough
car
pentry required for support or attachment
of othei con
structron, structuraJ-use panels, underlayment, mrnor
rnteflor wood trim, shelving, and clothes rods. ll is intended
ror pro,ects that do not require wood framing
or extensive
use or otner Carpent.y rtems The Section includes pressure?reSeruative-treated and ftre{etardant lreated wood.
Mrsceilaneous concealed rough carpentry such as furrng,
and naiters can be specrfred us,ng this
l'-o-".11n9.,.9_lould",
5ectron. Il the Project requires significant amounts ot wood
ramm_g_
_sheathing. of subfl@ring,
- use 06t0O_BOUGH
CARPENTRY insread
0613O-HEAVYTTMBERCONSTRUCTTON_This
Section
specifiesconstruction
usingrectangular
sotiO_rcoO
riami^,,
5 inchesnomrnat{t t 4 mm actuailand targer.
l1:I9.lt
ootnOrmenSrons
fttmbers)
06150-WOOD DECKING-IhrsSectronspecrfres
lonoue
androovewood deckrng,bolh sold and lamrnated
06185-STRUCTURALGLUED-LAMINATEDTIMBER
This Secrion specifies structural gtuea]iminareJ intr.
rncluding
beams,purlins,arches,trusaes,and@lumns.
06192-METAL.PLATE-CONNECTED
WOOD TRUSSESThis Sectionspecifieswood trussesfactory tiOri"riJ-tri_
drmensionlumber and metal connectorplates.
06200-FlNtSHCARpENTRy-ThisSectionspecifiesnon
skucturatcarpentrywork that is exposedto view and is not
specifiedin other Sections.Includedare standingand run
ning.trim,^statrs
and railings,extelor srding,arid inrer,o
panerng btdrngIncludeslumber.plywood,and hardboard
srdrng panetrngincludesplywood,hardboard,and boa.o
panerrng.Standardmanufacturedpanelingrs specifredrr
this Section,while customwood panelingis specifiedjn
. 06402-INTERtOR
ARCHTTECTURAL
WOODWORKanci
. 06420-PANELWORK.In general,
use thrs Secrronro
work thal rs not shop fabricdled and for sldinq and
oanel
Ing types that are rncluded onlv in this Sectron
06401-EXTERIOR
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORKThis Section specifies tabricated wood products for
use on
the exterior of the building. Architectural woodwork is
dLs
lrngutshed trom other forms of wood construclron bv
berna
manufactured in a woodworking plant and bv
wrth standards of quality for material and *orimanst
"ori.otu,no
ip. ti
Includes ttems of woodwork permanently attached
to the
ouilorng and exposd to view. Architectural woodwork
oen
erally involves items custom fabricated for an indiviiual
project, as opposed to mass-produced motOings
or furni_
ture. tt required, woodwork n be specitred to be
shop frn.
ished rather than field finished.
06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORK_rhis
Section specifies fabricated w@d oroducts lor use on
the
inreror oJ the buitding. Architectural *ooO*o,[-i"
Oi"iin
gurshed trom other forms of wood construction
bv beino
manufactured in a woodworkrng plant and bv comolvrnd
wrth standa.ds of quality for material and worimansi'rip. li
rncludes rtems of wmdwork
permanently attached to the
ourrorng and exposed to view Architectural woodwork qen
erally involves items custom labricated for an indivi"duat
project,. as.opposed to mass{roduced motdrngs
-or or fun.
ture..Woodwork can be specified to be shop
fietd f in
rshed_
0642o--PANELING-This
Section specifies custom-manu
factured paneling. Board paneling, flu"t *ooJ p"n"ling
lamrnatedad paneling, and sttle and rail paneIng
ar"e
Included. Paneling tabricated from premanufactured
s6ts ot
sequence-matched panels and custom-veneered paneling
are rncluded
06605-INTERIOR
PLASTTC ORNAMENTATION_This
Section specifies molded- or extruded-plastjc ornamenta,
tion tor rnteflor use, made of polystyrene, polyurethane,
o,
roergrass{etntorced polyester (tBp), including columns,
moldrngs, chair rails, panel moldings, medallioni, rosettes.
oomes, dome flms, stair brackets, niches, pilasters, pedl
menrs, wtndow and door casings, plinths, wainscots,
and
cusrom snapes.
DrvtstoN
07131-SELF-ADHERING
SHEET WATERPROOFINGThis Section s-pecifies self-adhering. positive-side sheet
waterproofing for concealed substrates, both venical and
horizontal. oJ plaza decks, below{rade walls, and plante,s.
rl atso spectttes olaza deck oavers
07132-ELASTOMERTC SHEET WATERpROOFTNG_This
Section spcifies EPDM or butyl sheet waterproofing for
concealed substrates, both venical and horizontal, ol
flaza
decks,. below{grade
walls, and planters. lt also specifies
plaza deck oavers.
07I33-THERMOPLASTIC
This Section specifies PVC
concealed substrates, both
decks,, belowrade rells.
plaza deck oavers.
SHEET WATERPROOFINGpositive-side wateroroofino for

horizontal and vertrcal, of;laza
and planters. It also specifies
07141{OLD
FLUTD-AppLtED WATERpROOFTNG_This
Section specrlies cold ftuid-appliedpolyurethane and late\
rubber waterproofing for concealed substrales. both vert;cal and ho{tzontal, of plaza decks and below{rade walls. Il
arso specftes Dlazadeck oavers
MASTERSPEC@ntinues on the next Daoe

ARCOM: Salt Lake Crty, Utah. and Alexandria. Viroinia
/1
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC 1 3 5
07313-METAL
SHINGLES-This Section specities metal
shingles, in both indivrdualshingles and panel form. In most
panels
resemble hand-split cedar shakes.
cases, shingle
07142-HOT
FLUID-APPLIED WATERPROOFING-This
Section specifies hot fluid-applied, rubberrzed-asphalt
waterproofing for concealed subst.ates. both vertical and
horizontal. of plaza decks and below-grade walls lt also
specifies plaza deck pavers.
07315-SLATE SHINGLES-This Section specifies naturalslate shingles for steep, sloped, standard-slate roofs including underlayment, flashing, and accessories tor slate roofing.
Section
DAMPPROOFING-Thas
07160-8ITUMINOUS
specifies bituminous dampprooling for use above and
below grade, including hot-applied asphalt and both emulsion- and cut-back- (solvent) type, cold-applied asphalt compounds of {ibrated, semilibrated, or nonfibrated types
07317-WOOD
SHINGLES AND SHAKES-This Section
specifies wood shingles and shaks lor both roofing and
wall applications. Western red cedar shingles and shakes,
southern yellow pine shakes, western red cedar shingle
panels, and fancy-butt western red cedar shingles are
included.
CEMENT WATERPROOFING-This
07161-MODIFIED
Section specities acrylic- and polymer-modified, cementbased waterprooling. lt is usually applied on exteraor,
below grade concrete and masonry walls, but may be
aoolied on the interior of exterior walls and tloors.
TILES-This Section specifies both hard07320-ROOF

fired clay tile and concrete tile lor roofing applications. A
variety of shaped and flat tile units, including Spanish'S,'
Mission Batrel, Roman, French, and flat units, are included.
Provisions for commonly used special shapes at eaves,
rakes. ridges, and hips are also included, as well as underlayments. fasteners, and other accessories normally used
with root tales.
07162-CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING-This Section

specif ies cementitious waterproof ing treatment with crystalline-type waterpr@fing. lt is lrequently applied on inteconcrete and masonry walls; may be
rior, belowgrade
applied on slabs below grade; and may be concealed
behind or below applied finishes specified in other Sections This product can also be used fo. waterproofing the
exterior of walls below grade.
ROOF PANELS-Th|S SECIiON

07411-MANUFACTURED
metal roof panels for field
specifies factory-preformed
installation without field forming. The Section includes panmetallic{oated
steel with and without
aluminumand
els of
applied finishes; and copper, stainless steel, and ternecoated stainless steel, which do not have applied finishes.
Insulated roof oanels and metal oanel assemblies that are
substantially preformed but require final mechanical seam
closure in the field by means of a portable seaming
machine are also included.
07163-METAL-OXIDE WATERPROOFING-This Section

specifies metal{xide waterproofing, which is an oxidizing
iron and cement mixture. lt is usually applied on anteriorsurfaces ol walls and slabs below grade, and maY be concealed behind or below applied finishes specified in other
Sections. This product can also be used lor waterproofing
the exterior o{ walls below grade.
Section
WATERPROOFING-This
07170-BENTONITE
soecifies oarel and sheet membrane bntonite waterproofing systems used underground for types of construction
where room to exvate beyond the walls is limited, where
the walls are to be constructed against piling, or where the
excavation must be backfilled over or against concrete
before the concrete has had time to cure (such as a tunnel
under a streetl.
WALL PANELS-This Section

07412-MANUFACTURED
metal wall panels for tield
specifies factory-preformed
installation without field forming. The Section includes panels ol uncoated stainless steel and oI aluminufr and metallic{oated steel with and without applied finishes, Insulated
wall panels. both factory and tield assembled, are also
included.
Section specifies vinyl, aluminum,
07460-5lDlNG-This
and steel siding including commonly used accessories.
Section specifies cold

COATINGS-This
071 8o-TRAFFIC
liquid-applied. elastomeric, waterproof-barrier coatings with
integral wearing surfaces for building areas housing equiP
ment or subiect to redestrian and vehicular traffic.
Section
ASPHALT ROOFING-This
075'11-BUILT-UP
specifies built-up asphalt roofing, including roofing insulation. base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, rogf walkways. and auxiliary roofing
materials.
Section specifies
REPELLENTS-This
071go-WATER
clear, liquid-applied, penetrating, and film-lorming water
horizontal
surfaces of
repellents lor vertical and nontraffic
brick, concrete unit masonry, concrete, portland cement
(stucco),
plaster
and stoneINSULATION-This Section specifies
0721 o-BUILDING
common types of general building insulation that are
installed at the Project site as separate elements rather
than as components of a prelabriGted or field-assembled
svstem soecified in another Section. Exterior insulation and
finish systems are examples of such assemblies. AIso
included is insulation that could be specified here or in
other Sections. Examples of this include insulation used lor
masonry, gypsum board assemblies, and veneer plaster
that are typically installed at the same time and by the same
personnel performing noninsulation work.
07241-EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEMS'
CLASS PB-This Section specifies Class PB exterior insula
tion and finish systems (EIFS) consisting of a decorative
protective composite coating, or lamina, and an inner layer
of rigid. cellular thermal insulation. Both field-applied systems and prefabricated panels are specified. Systems with
molded, expanded pelystyrene board flype l] and glasslibertaced polyisocyanurate insulation are included. Exterior cement-board sheathing is included tor both standard
applications and prefabricated panels. Other types of
sheathing and metal framing for prefabricated panels are
included by reterence to other Sections specifying those
materials. An option is included for specifying joint sealants
in Division 7 Section "Joint Sealants" or in this Section with
reference to the "Joint Sealants" Section.
07242-EXTERIOR INSULAIION AND FINISH SYSTEMSSection srecifies Class PM exterior insuCLASS PM-This
lation and finish systems {EIFS) consisting ot a deco.ative
protective composite coating, or lamina. and an inner layer
of rigid, cellular therml insulation. Only field-applied systems applied with extruded-polystyrene toam insulation
(Type lV) are specified.
Section specifies
SHINGLES-This
07311-ASPHALT
asphalt shingles for r@ting applications. Shingles with fiber
mats (fabric core) ot either organic {elt or fiberglass are
included. A variety of generic shingles are specified in the
Text, and other types can easily be added. This Section
applies to roofs with a slope lrom 2 inches pe. foot (1:6) to
very steep slopes, such as mansard roofs. when manufacturers' recommendations are considered.
Section
COAL-TAR ROOFING-This
07512-BUILT-UP
specifies built up coal-tar roofing, including roofing insulation, base llashings, aggregate and paver ballast for prc
tected membranes, roo{ walkways, and auxiliary roofing
maleflals_
SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING07531-EPDM

This Section specifies EPDM single-ply membrane roofing,
including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and
paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing materials.
07532-CSPE SINGLE PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-ThiS
Section specifies CSPE single-ply membrane roofing,
including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and
paver ballast, walkwavs, and auxiliary roofing materials.
MEMBRANE
SINGLE-PLY
07533-THERMOPLASTIC
ROOFING-This Section specif ies thermoplastic singlef ly
membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base tlashings,
aggregate and paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing
marenars.
POLYURETHANE FOAM ROOFING_
OTs4MOATED
Thls Section specifies sprayed polyurethane foam insulation with an elastomeric protective coating for roofing applications.
MEMBRANE
BITUMINOUS
07551-APP-MODIFIED
ROOFING-This Section specifies APP-modified bituminous membrane roofing. including roofing insulation, base
flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, and auxiliary rooting materialsMEMBRANE
07552-SBSMODIFIED
BITUMINOUS
ROOFING-ThiS Section soecifies SBs-modified bitumi
nous membrane roofing, including roofing insulation, base
flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, roof walkways, and auxtliaryroofing materials07553-5ELF-ADHERING MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEM'
BRANE ROOFING-ThiS Section specifies self-adhering,
cold-applied, rubberized-asphalt composite sheet rooling
for protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation.
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver
ballast are also included.
Section
FLUID-APPLIED BOOFING-This
07561-HOT
specifies hot fluid applied, rubberized-asphalt roofing for
protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation,
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver
ballast are also included.
07610-SHEET METAL ROOFING-Thls Section specifies

custom-fabricated {shop- or fieldjormed versus factory-rollformed) metal roofing. This Section also includes prefinrshed, field-painted, and uncoated metal roofing.
07620-SHEET METAL FLASHING AND TRIM-This Sec'
tion specifies sheet metal flashing and trim work related to
or used in coniunction with roofing work and the general
waterproof integrity of the building structure. This Section
includes shor and field-fabricated sheet metal accessories,
trim, and flashing commonly used at the perrmeter or penetrations of rooling or waterproofing work and where not
integral with membrane systems. Metal waterproofing,
flashing. and cap flashing are usually included in this Section.
0771 0-MANUFACTURED ROOF SPECIALTIES-This Sec'
tion speci{ies manufactured roof specialties including coP
ings, fasciae. gravel stops, gutters and downspouts,
reglets, and counterflashing. This Section covers roof specialties listed in the 1995 edition of CSI'S MasterFormat,
exceot roof exoansion assemblies.
EXPANSION ASSEMBLIES-ThiS Section
07716-ROOF
specifies standard, factory-fabricated, roof expansion ioint
cover assemblies, including products designed to resist the
effects ot earthquake motions. This Section can be used
alone, or provisions can be included in other Division 7 Sections.
Section specifies
ACCESSOBIES-This
07720-ROOF
accessory units installed on or in roofing, including curbs
vents
in
the
Jorm of gravity
and equipment supports, relief
ventilators, ridge vents, roof hatches {also called scuft/es),
heat and smoke vents of both collapsible dome (gravity)
type and pop-up (hatch) type, and snow guards.
07810-PLASTIC UNIT SKYLIGHTS-This Section specifies prefabricated skylights with formed, monolithic, singleand doublcsheet plastic glazing, and integral curb or curbmounted frame design.
FIRE-RESISTIVE MATERIALS-This
07811-SPRAYED
materials for prc
Section specifies sprayed firHesistive
tecting structural steel lor both concealed and exposed
cementitious
applications. lt includes not only lowiensity
and sprayed-fiber products used predominantly lor concealed locations but also a variety of medium- and highiensity products lor exposed locations requiring a more
finished appearanco and greater resistance to physical
abuse, deterioration lrom weather, air erosion. and high
humidity.
FIRE PROTECTION-This Section speci'
07821-BOARD
fies calcium silite and slag-wooffiber boards used lor fire
orotection of steel columns, steel beams, metal- and woodframed walls, and solid walls. These materials form the
encasing material for various assemblies with fire-resistance ratings. Another use lor mineral-fiber board fireproofing is protection of HVAC ducts.
FIRESTOP
SYS'
07841-THROUGH-PENETRATION
Section specilies through-penetration frrestop
TEMS-This
systems.
Section specities ioint
07920-JOINT
SEALANTS-ThiS
sealants including elastomeric sealants, solvent-releasecuring sealants, latex sealants, acoustical sealants, and preformed sealants tor a variety of applications.
DlvtstoN
081 1o-STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-This Section specifies standard steel d@rs and frames labricated to comply
with ANSI 4250.8 and established Steel Door Institute standards.
STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-ThiS
081l4-{USTOM
hollow-metal
doors and
Section soecifies commercial
lrames custom fabricated from steel, galvanized steel. and
stainless-steel sheet to specific design requirements. This
Section includes provisions Jor glazing, louvers, sidelights,
and transoms ol similar construction. Provisions are also
included for fire-. sound-. and thermal-rated assemblies.
FRAMES-ThiS Section
ALUMINUM
0812s-INTERIOR
specifies extruded-aluminum framing members for intertor
(usually) wood doors; glass sidelights, bo(owed lights,
clerestory glazing, and fixed windows: and gypsum wall
board partitions.
08163-5LIDING ALUMINUM-FRAMED GLASS DOORS_
This Section specifies sliding aluminum-tramed glass doors
for exterior locations.
WOOD DOORS-This Section specifies
08211-FLUSH
non-fire-rated and fire-rated architectural flush wood doors.
units are covered, including
Both solid- and hollow{ore
those with face panels of wood veneer, plastic laminate,
and hardboard.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
ARCOM; Salt Lake City. Utah, and Alexandria, Virginia
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
136
AIA MASTERSPEC
08212-STILE AND BA|L WOOD DOORS-This Section

specifies stile and rail doors made from lumber_ wood
veneers. and wood compos,les Incluo,ng plywood. paflrcle.
Ooard. lrDerboard, and lamrnated-srrand lumber Doors ol
special design and construction, which mav include custom made doors, are specifred along witd doors of stock
OeSrgn and cOnStruction. Fire{ated doors with wood
veneered and dged mineral{o.e stiles, rails. and oanels
are also Included.
08263-5LIDING WOOD,FRAMED GLASs DooRs-This
Section specrfres sttdtng glass doors, bare- and primed
wood tramed, and wood framed and clad wrth alumrnJm or
vrnyt on extetor exposed surfaces, for exterior locations.
08305-ACCESS DOORS-This Secrion sDecilies orime,
painled sleel, /inc , oated sleer. and stainless steer
access
doors rnstalled in acousttcal ceilings and masonry, concrete.
gypsum board assembltes, and plasler walls and cerlings.
08314-SLIDING
METAL FIRE DOORS_This
Section
specifies sliding metal fare doors of composite and hollowmetal construction These doors are primarily intended for
fire separation doors in industrial and commercial applications
08321-INSULATING
SECURtry DOORS-This
Section
specifies standard insulating security door assemblies,
manulaclured as a unit, complete with door, frame and
hardware- Although intended primarily for lire and theft pro_
tection of documents in file rooms, they are also used for
vault protection ot other valuabies
08331-OVERHEAD COTLINGDOORS-This Secrion specifies flexible metal{urtain type overhead coiling kolling)'seF
vrce ooors anct counter
doors, including
fire,rated
assemblies. Overhead coiling doors are fabrjcated from
steel. stainless steel, and aluminum. Fire_rateddoors aae
fabricated from steel and stainless steel.
08334-OVEBHEAD
COtLtNG GRTLLES-This Section
specifies galvanized steel, stainless-steel. and aluminum
overhead coiling kotling) grilles with straight in_linepattern
and with the option of glazed panels.
08343-lCU/CCU ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion spec!
fies combination swing/slide manuat ICU/CCU entr;nce
d@r assemblies.
08346-SOUND
CONTROL DOORS-This Section speci_
fies non-fire-rated and fire-rated swinging steel door and
frame systems with minimum sound tr;nsmission class
(STC)ratings ranging between 43 and 52.
08351-FOLDING DOORS-This Section specifies nonacoustrcal and non-fire-rated accordion and Danel foldino
doors with vinyl, wood, and other finishes; and bifold door;
of wood, metal, and polyvinyl chloride (pVC) consrruction.
I hese doors are intended as visual separalion devices and
primarily apply to commercial and institutional installations;
however, by appropriate modification, they may accomml_
date light commercial and resrdentialconsiructi;n.
08361-SECTIONAL
OVERHEAD DOORS_This Section
specifies sectional overhead doors moved by a counterbalance mechanism?nd rollers along a steel track system and
IaD(cated lrom ilat steel o. ribbed sreel panel Sections
framed with steel members; paneled wood or flush wood
panel sections framed with wood members; and aluminum,
translucent {fiberglass{ernforced} plastic, and glass or plas_
tc vtsron pdnel sections framed wtth alumrnum members.
0841o-ALUMINUM
ENTRANCES AND STOREFRONTSThis Section specifies standard interior and exterior aluml
num entrance and storefront systems. Entrance systems
Include swinging doors, framing, hardware. vestibule enclosures, lransoms, and sidehghts. Sto.efront systems include
Trxedglazrng areas and framtnq.
08450*ALL-GLASS
ENTRANCES-This
Section specjfies
frameless tempered-glass entrances, includino swino
doors, sidehghts, transoms, and related accessorie-s.
08460-AUTOMATTC
ENTRANCE DOORS-This
Secrion
specifies only the Evaluations for the following new Sec_
trons covering types of automatic enrrance qoors:
08461-SLIDING AUTOMATIc ENTRANcE DooRs-This
Section.specifies slidtng automatic enrrance ooor systems
that include not only door operators and controls but also
aluminum doors, sidelite and transom frames, and accessofies_
08462-SWINGING
AUTOMATIC ENTRANCE DOORSThis Section specifies swinging automatic entrance door
syslems lhat include not only door operators and controls
bul also alUminum doors. transom lrames, and accessories.
Bifolding operation is also jncluded.
08470-REVOLVING
ENTRANCE DOORS-This
Section
specifies conventional, circular, revolving entance doors
consistang of manual and power-assisted door leaves, or
wngs,.rolattng about d cenler post wtlh a speed_control
unI lo ttmtt rotatton soeed
08510-STEEL WTNDOWS-This Section soecifies readitv

dvdi'able stocl and cuslor rypes ot sleel w.ndow units li
descnbes wndow types (operataons)and window orades
{classrlictrons) In addrtton to performance,"qu,re"-ents
and finishes. and other oDtions
08520-ALUMINUM
WTNDOWS-This Section specifies
various types of commonly used stock aluminum wndow
units. The Section includes normaliy available oDtions tor
wrndow type, grade, and performance class ll also
includes different glazrng methods, finrshes. and other
oplions- The Section is primarily Intended for generrc speci_
rytng ot compettltve wtndow types When spectfrc manu_
raclurers product names are inserled. lhe Texl can be
shortened to facilitate proprietary specifying
08550-WOOD
WINDOWS-This
Section specifres vari
ous types of commonly used stock wood window un/ts.
The Sectlon includes a variety ot normally availabteoptions
tor_window type and performance grade tt also Includes
drilerent glazing methods. finisfes and other options. The
Sectton is primarily Intended tor geneilc specrfying ot com
petrtrve wndow types. When spec;frc manufacturers prod_
ucl names are rnserted. the Text can be considerablv
sirortened to lacilttate proprietary specrfying
08610-ROOF WINDOWS-This Section soecifies ventino
and. fixed insulatinglass units fo. rnstaltjtron on stopini
rooT sunaces.
08630-METAL-FRAMED SKyLtcHTS-This Section specities.alumanum-framed skylights with retaining{ap- or struc_
tural-sealant{lazing systems and glass or plastic glazing.
08631-TRANSLUCENT-INSUTAIING-PANEL SKYLIGHTSThis Section contains only the fvaluations for the foltowrng
new S-ectrons that specrty aluminumfiamed skylights gtazel
with different types of translucent, insulating paneli:
. 08632_POLYCARBONATE-INSULAIING-PANEL
SKY.
LIGHTS
. 08633-FIBERGLASS.SANDWICH-PANEL
SKYLIGHTS
08632_POLYCARBONATE.INSULATING-PANEL
SKY.
LIGHTS-This Section specifies atuminum-f.amed skylights
glazed with translucent, cellular-polycarbonate insula-ting
pan6ts.
08633_FIBERGLASS-SANDWCH,PANEL
SKYLIGHTS_
This Section specifies aluminum-framed skylights incorpo
ratrng translucent,
insulating, fibrglassjeinforced_poly_
mer, sndwich panels.
0871 0-DOOR HARDWARE-This Section specifies Evalu_
ations only for the following new Sections covering differ
ent specifying methods lor door hardware:
08711-DOOR HARDWARE (SCHLDULID BY NAMING
PRODU_CTS)-.This Section specifies hardware apptied to
doors, formally called finish hardware, builder's hardware.
ot architectural finish hatdware. The Sectton uses manufac_
turers'product names or references to BHMA standards in
the Door Hardware Schedule to indicate door hardware
requirements.
08712-DOOR
HABDWARE (SCHEDULED BY DESCRIBING.pRODUCTS)-This Secrion specifres hardware appld
to doors, formafly called fin6h hardware, builder's hardware, or architectural finish hardwarc. The Sec|on uses
product descriptions in the Door Hardware Schedule to indi_
cate door hardware requirements.
08716-POWEB DOOR OPERATORS-This Section specifies power door operators normally furnished separ;tely
from doors and frames. These door operators are adaotable
to a variety of door designs and sizes. power door ooerators that aid the physrcally handicapped by aclrng as an
aulomatrc d@r operator and that comply with the require
ments-ol BHMA Ai 56.19. ADA accessibiiity guidetines, and
'17-1
ANSI A'l
are also included.
08800-GLAZING-This
Section specifies monotithic. tami_
nated, and insulating glass along with the glazrng materia's
.equrred tor therr installation. Th's Section setues two Dnmary purposes: 1 ) lt covers glazing work normally subcontraCted to installers of glazing: and 2) it is the Sectaonthat
other Sectaons cross-reference to avoid repeating glazing
requirements. ln the latter case, edit this Section ifier th6
other Sections are substantially complete.
08801-SECUBITY GLAZTNG-This Section specifies glaz
Ing products jntended to resrst abuse. physical atGck,
lorced entry. and ballistics. products included are laminated
glass, glass/polycarbonate laminates, and laminated and
monolithic polycarbonate sheets.
08814-MIRRORED
GLASS-This Section. which is new
to the Basic Version, specifies unframed and unbacked,
fully silvered mirroted glass and pyrolylic mirro,ed glass to;
mounttng on walls and ceiltnqs
ABCOM; Salt Lake City. Utah, and Alexandria. Viroinia
tl
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
08825-DECORATIVE GLASS-This Section specifies

glass products for interior applications,incluainqaclJ
etched.sandblasted,
silkscreened,beveled,pattern;d.anc
laminatedglasswith integraldecoration.
08840-PLASIIC GLAZTNG-IhisSectionspecifieslioht
transmrftrng
plaslicsheetsthat are glazedinto openrnoia
subslrtutes
for glass.Includedareacrylicglazrng
in theiorr
of monolithicsheets and double,walled,structuredsheets.
and polycarbonate
glazingin the form of monolithicsheets
anddouble-walled,
structuredsheets.
08920-GLAZED ALUMINUM CURTATNWALLS-This
Sectionspeciliesstandardand custom glazedaluminum
curtainwall systemsinstalledusingstick,unit,andunit,and
mulltonsystemmethods.
0892s-STRUCTUBAL-SEALANT.GLAZED CUBTAN
WALLS-This Sectionspecifiesstandardand custom,4
sided and 2-sided, structural-sealantglazedcurtain walls
incorporating
aluminumf ramingsystems.
08960-5tOPED GLAZTNG
SYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci
fies standardand custom conventionally
glazedand siruc
turalealant-glazed
sloped glazingsystems incorporating
arumlnumlramlngsystems.
DtvlstoN 9
0921o-GYPSUM PLASTER-ThisSectionspecrfresovo
sum lath dnd plaster;metal lath,turring,accessories,
lno
supportsystems;and plasticaccessories.
0921s-GYPSUM VENEERPLASTER-ThisSectionspeci.
fies gypsum-based
veneerplasteron gypsum base, unit
masonry, or monol,thic concrete. Melal support systems,
sound-altenuationinsulation, thermal insulation, and
cementitiousbacker units are also specified becausethev
are integratedwith veneer plasterconstruction.Veneei
plastermaterlsand applications
may be cross{eferenced
from other Drvisiong Sections,such as 'Gypsum Boatd
Shaft-Wall
Assembties.'
09220-PORTLAND CEMENT pLASTER-This Section
specifresportlandcement plasterincludingmetal framing
turflng,lath,and accessories;
plasticaccessories;
tob_mired
ponlandcement frnish;and factorytreparedfini;hessuch
as stucco,acrylicbased,and exposedaggregate.
09251-FACTORY-FINISHED
GYPSUMBOARD-ThisSectaon specifies vinyl-film-faced,gypsum board panels and
associated
trim.
09253-GYPSUM SHEATHTNG-This Section soecifies
paper-surfaced
and glass,matgypsumsheathingattached
to steeltramlngon exteriorwallsand air-infiltration
barriers
installedoverthe sheathing.
0926HYPSUM BOARD ASSEMBLTES-ThiSSecrion
specifiesgypsum board assembliesand metal supportsys
tems. Sound attenuation insulation and cementitious
backerunits for tile are also specifiedbecausethey are
often componentsof gypsum boardassemblies.
09265,.YPSUMBOARD SHAFT.WALLASSEMBLIESThis Section specifies nonloadbearing. steel-framedgyp
sum board assemblies that provide fireresistance-rited
enclosuresfor verticalshafts and horizontalenclosures_
O92Tl.GLASS.REINFORCED
GYPSUMFABRICATIONSThis Section specifies factoryfiolded products fabricated
wrth glass-reinforced
gypsum (GRG),for interioruse.
09310-CERAMIC TILE-This Section specifies unglazed
and glazed ceramic tile, includingceramic mosaic, q:uarry.
paver, and wall tile; tile setting and grouting materjals;
accessofles; and installationrequirements.
09385-DIMENSTON
STONETtLE-This Sectionspecifies
naturalstone tile for flooring,wall tacing.and trim for com
mercialand residentialinstallations.Dimension stone tite is
definedas modularunits less than % inch (19 mm) thick
fabricatedfrom naturalstone. Stone thresholdsare also in
the SectionText.
09400-IERRAZZO-This Section specifies cementitious.
modified{ement-resin, and synthetic-resin lerazzo lol
flooring,base, stair treads,landings,and risers.Cementi
trousterrazzoincludesstandardand rustic cast,in_place
svstems and precast products. Resinous 'thin-set. terrazzo
includes cast-in-place,polyacrylate-moditied{ementand
epoxy-resrnSystems.
09451-INTERIOR SIONE FACTNG-This
Sectionsoecifies
drmensionstone used for interior wall facing, trim, mold
rngs,base,countenops,and windowstools.
09511-ACOUSTICALPANEL CEtLtNGS-This Section
specitaes ceilings consisting ot acoustical panels and
exposedsuspensronsystems,includingspecialuse tvpes
lor e\teriorlocations,hrgh-temperature
and .humrdttv
toca
Irons.andcteanrooms
MASTERSPECcontinues on the next paqe
AIA MASTERSPEC 137

Sectionspeci09512-ACOUSTICALTILECEILINGS-Thas
fies ceilingsconsistingof acousticaltiles and concealed
suspension
svstems.
09772-STRETCHED-FABRIC
WALL SYSTEMS-ThisSection specifies concealed-fastener,
site-assembled,
sitesystemsfor ceilingsandwalls
upholstered
09513_ACOUSTICAI
SNAP-INMT'IAL PAN CEILINGSThis Secrionspecifiesceilingsconsistingof acoustical\,nap
in metal pans and concealedsubpensionsystems.Types of
metal pan ceilingunits includeboth perforatedand unperforated snap-insteel, stainlesssteel, or aluminumpans.
09841-ACOUSTICALWALL PANELS-ThisSectionspecipanelsthatarewall mounted

fies shop-fabricated
acoustical
as opposedto freestanding
or ceilingbaffles.Both splinemountedand back-mounted
unitsare included09900-PAINTING-This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface
preparation.materials preparation,and applicationprinciplestor interiorandexteriorpainting.
09547-LINEAR METALCEILINGS-This Sectionspecifies

strip,decorative,
linearmetalceilings.
09920-INTERIORPAINTING-ThisSectionspecifiesgenmaterialspreparation,
andapplicaeralsurfacepreparation,
for interiorpainting.
tionprinciples
09580-SUSPENDED
DECORATIVE
GRIDS-This Section
specifiesopenrell grid, plenum mask ceilingsystems.
09600-STONE PAVINGAND FLOORING-ThiS Section
specifiesdimensionstone pavingand flooringinstalledon a
thick, mortar setting bd. lt also includesmetai edging and
stone thresholds.
09931-EXTERIORWOOD STAINS-This Sectionspecifies generalsurfacepreparation,

materialpreparation.
and
principles
for exteriorwood stains.
application
09621-FLUID-APPLIED
ATHLETIC
FLOORING-ThisSection specifiespolyurethanelloorings. intended for use in
athletic-activityareas, that are homogenous or installed
over resilientunderlayment.
09945-MULTICOLORED INTERIOR COATINGS-This

Sectionspecifiespolychromaticpaint.
099so-WALL COVERINGS-ThisSection specities vinyl,
Jiberglass,
and.lextile
wall coveringsandwallpaper.
09622-RESILIENTATHLETICFLOORING-ThisSection
tloor
specifiesrubber.vinyl.and thermoplastic-rubberblend
coveringsin interlocking-tileor roll form and designed for
or supportareas.
use in athletic-aclivity
09960-HIGH-PERFORMANCE
COATINGS-ThisSection
specifies highrerformance coatings tor architecturaland
tndustrial
aoolications.
09963-ELASTOMERIC COATINGS-This Section specifies a speciallydesignedacrylicpolymer containingelastc
meric coatings for use on the exterior of masonry,
concrete, and stucco structures. These coatings are dirt
resistant,llexible in a rangeof temperatures,and very highbuild materialsthat bridgesmall cracks and protect against
deteriorationresulting from moisture penetration of the
substrate.
09635-88ICK FLOORING-Th|SSectionspecifiesbrick
llooring for interior applicationssubject to pedestrianand
light vehiculartraffic. Three setting methods included for
the specifier'schoiceare loose-laidbrick flooringwith sandfilled, hand-tight joints; thickset mortared brick fl@ring.
with or without groutedjoints; and thirset mortared brick
tlooring. also with or without grouted joints. Where the
same brick pavers are selected for both {looring (interior
applitions) and paving (exterior applications)and use
either the sme or different setting methods and beds,
there can be advantagesto combiningthem into one Section and ch@sing a section number that represents the
maiorapplication.Brickflooringcould also be includedwith
unit masonryif the bricklayer'smethod is used for installaton.
09967-INTUMESCENT PAINTS-ThiS Section specifies

intumescent-type,fire{etardant paint primarilyfor interior
combustible
and noncombustible
substrates.
09975-HIGH.TEMPERATURE-RESISTANT
COATINGS_
This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface preparation,materials preparation,and applicationprinciplesfor high-temperaturejesistant coatingsused on the interiorand exterior.
09636-CHEMICAL-RESISTANT
BRICK FLOORING-This
Sectionspecifieschemical-resistant
brick tlooring installed
with mortars, grouts. and setting bds that offer varying
degrees ot chemical protection based on specific user
requirements.The Section may also include a protective
membraneon the subfloor.
o998o-WOOD-VENEER WALL COVERINGS-ThiSSection speciJiesflexiblewood-veneerwall covering.

09981-CEMENTITIOUS
COATINGS-ThisSectionspecilies polymerflodified cementitiouscoatingsto us above
or below grade on the exterioror interiorover masonryand
concrete. After curing, these coatings produce a durable,
hard,weather{esistant
surface.
09640-WOOD FLOORING-ThiSS@tion specifies solidand engineered{ood fl@ring that is either tactory or site
finished.
09644-WOOD ATHLETIC-FLOORINGASSEMBLIESThis Sectionspecifieshard maple, finish flooring and sub
flooringassembliesdesignedfor use as athletic playingor
exercising surfaces. Subflooring systems include those
properties.
with enhancedshock-absorbing
DtvtstoN I o
1010o-VISUALDISPLAYBOARDS-Th|SSectionspecifies the most commonly used types of standard chalkboards,markerboards,and tackboards.Emphasisis placed
on prefabricatedunits.Provisionsare also includedfor traditionalslate chalkboardsand other lield-assembledtvoes.
TILE FLOORING-ThisSectionspeci09651-RESILIENT
fies solid vinyl, rubber,and vinyl compositionfloor tile and
resilient wall base and accessoriestypilly installedwith
resilientfl@r tile.
10155-TOILET COMPARTMENTS-ThisSectionspecifies
standard metal, plastic-laminate,and solid-plastictoilet
companmentsandscreens.
09652-5HEET VINYL FLOORCOVRINGS-This Section

specifiessheet vinyllloor coverings,with and without backings.for commercialprojects.
1018o-STONE TOILETCOMPARTMENTS-ThiS
Section
specifies marble and granite toilet compartments and
screens. companment doors, and associatedfittings and
hardware.
09653-RESILIENT WALL SASE AND ACCESSORIESThis Section specities rubber and vinyl wall base, stair
treads, and accessoriesfor use with resilient flwing and
carpet.
l01gHUBlCLES-This Sectionspecifiescurtainand lV
tracks and curtains and accessoriesfor cubicles,dressing
areas.tubs.and showe6.
09654-LINOLEUM FLOOR COVERING$-ThiS Section

specifieslinoleumtile and shset floor coverings.
09671-RESINOUS FLOORING-This Section specilies
decorative.generafure. and highferformancs or specialapplicationresinousflooring systems applidas self-leveling slurriesor t.oweled or scr@dedmortars.
09677-STATIC-CONTROL
RESILIENTFLOOR COVER.
INGS-This Sectionspeciliesstatic{issipativevinyl compo'
sition,homogenous(solid)vinyl. and rubberfloor tile; staticdissipativerubber sheet floor covering;conductivehomogenous (solid)vinyl and rubberlloor tile; and conductivevinyl
and rubbersheet fl@r covering.
0968HARPET-ThiS Section spcifies tufted, fusionbonded,and woven carpet,as well as carpet cushion for
commercialinstallations09681--{ARPET TILE-]his Section specifies carpet tile
f or commercialinstallations.
09771-FABRIC-WRAPPEDPANELS-This Section specif ies custofrfabri@ted. back-mounted,fabric-wrappedpanels for ceilingsand walls, in which the fabric is not adhered
to the core material.
10200-LOUVERS AND VENTS-This Section specifies

fixed and adjustable metal louvers, a@ustical louvers,
blank{ff panels for louvers. and wall vents (brick vents).
Louversconnectedto ductwork, and those that are not, are
properlyspecifiedin this Section.This Sectionspecitieslouvers made from extruded aluminum, formed galvanized
steel, and formed stainlesssteel. Fixed-bladelouversspecified includethose with horizontaland verticalblades,drainable and nondrainableblades, and sightproof blades.
Adiustablelouvers soecified include those with drainable
and nondrainableblades,both tixed and adjustableblades
combinedin a singleframeandsingle-blade
units,and insulatedunits10265-IMPACT.RESISTANT
WALL PROTECTION-This
Sectionspecitiesva.ioustypes of impact-resistantwall pre
tection systems, includingwall guards. handrails.and corner guards, as well as door and door frame protection
svstems. lt also includesrelatedimoact-resistantwall covering products.The Sectioncan be expandedto includeany
complete protectionsystem or streamlinedto specificwall
and corneruardapplicationsonly.
10270-ACCESSFLOORING-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard accessflooringsystems,includingaccessories.
Not
onlydoesit includesystemssuitablefor datacenters,com,
puter rooms,cleanrooms,and otherapphcations,
but also
thoseintendedprimarilyfor generaloflice uses.
10350-FLAGPOLES-ThisSection specifies metal and
fiberglassflagpoles,includingground-set,wall'mounted,
and roof-mountedflagpoles.Metals include aluminum,
steel.stainlesssteel,and bronze.
10405-BANNERS-This Section specifies banners of
for interiorand extewoven,nonwoven,and knit materials,
rioruse.
'10416-DIRECTORIES
AND BULLETINBOARDS-Th|S
Sectionspecifiesdirectoriesand bulletinboardsfabricated
lrom standardcomDonentscommon to severalmanutacturers. The Sectioncan be used for specityingcustomized
for materialsand
unitsby insertingadditionalrequirements
labrication.
10425-SIGNS-ThisSectionspeciliespanelsigns,dimen'
sional letters and numbers,and cast metal plaques.lt
includestypicalmaterialsandprocesses
commonlyusedby
a wide numberol signmanufacturers.
10436-POSTAND PANELSIGNS-ThisSectionspecifies
post
exterior,lreestanding,illuminatedand nonilluminated
and panelsigns.lt coverstypicalmaterialsand processes
The
variety
of
sign
manutacturers.
most
comused by a
varietyto illumi
monlyused panels,from the single-sheet
nated hollow-box-lypeunits. are specified.Graphicimage
pr@essesare alsoincluded.
10437-PYLON SIGNS-This Section srecifies treestandpylon signs.lt covers
ing, illuminatedand nonilluminated
typical materialsand processes used by a variety of sign
manufacturers.The most commonly used signs. from the
upright-slabtype to the tall, slender,squarepylon-typeunit,
are spcified.Graphicimage processesare also included.
10505-METAL LOCKERS-Th|sSection soecifiesstandard, factory-fabricatedwardrobe and athletic metal lockers. Commonlyspecifiedaccessoriesand optionalfeatures,
such as locker-roombenches,are also included.
10520-FIRE-PROTECTION
SPECIALTIES-ThisSection
spcifiesportablefire extinguishers;their mounting brackets; and cabinets for fire extinguishers,hose valves, and
rackand hoseassemblies.
10550-POSTAL SPECIALTIES-ThisSection soecifies
standardmail chutes, receivingand collection boxes, horizontal-and vertical-typemailboxes,neighborhooddelivery
and collectionbox units, and parcellockers.
10605-WIRE MESH PARTITIONS-This
Sectionspecifies
standard-and heavyduty wire mesh partitions,exterio, (galvanized)partitions, wire mesh window guards, stairway
partilions,and insert panelsfor railingsystems.
10615-DEMOUNTABLE PARTITIONS-This Section
for the followingSections
includesonly the Evaluations
specityingdemountablepartitions:
.10616-5ITE-ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PABTITIONS
.10620-DEMOUNTABLE UNITIZED-PANELPARTITIONS
10616-SITE.ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PARTI.
TIONS-This Section specifiesreusabl.demountablepartition systems consistingof gypsum board panelsor metalfaced gypsum board panels supportedby concealedframing. This new Sectionreplaces
. 10617-DEMOUNTABLE
GYPSUMPANELPARTIIIONS
and
. 10618-DEMOUNTABLEMETAL PANELPARTITIONS,
bothdated11192.
10620-DEMOUNTAELE UNITIZED-PANEL PARTI.
patr
IIONS-This Sectionspecifiesreusable,
demountable,
tition systems consisting of tactory-assembledunitized
panels.
10651-OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-ThisSection
specifiesacousticallyrated. manuallyand eleclricallyopetr
ated,Ilat-panelpartitionssupportedfrom an overheadtrack.
10653*FIRE.RATED
OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONSThis Section specifies acousticallyrated, manually opeL
ated. Ilat-panelpartitions.lire rated one hour or one and
one-halfhours,suoportedfrom an overheadtrack.
10655-ACCORDIONFOLDINGPARTITIONS-Th|S
Sec'
tion specifies acousticallyrated, manually and electrically
operated,accordionfolding panirionssupportedfrom a single overheadtrack.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaoe
ARCOM;Salt Lake City, Utah, and Alexandria,Virginia
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CONSTRUCTION
I38
AIA MASTERSPEC
10671-METALSTORAGE
SHELVING-ThisSectionspeci
ties post andsheltstorageunils.
10680-MOBILESTORAGEUNITS ThisSectionspecifies
manuallyand electrically
operatedstorageunitsconsisting
of carriagesthat glide on rails to open an aisle where
accessis required.
1o75o-TELEPHONESPECIALTIES-IhiSSectionspe*
fies prefabricated telephone specialties, including tele,
phonebooths and other enclosures,telephonehousings,
telephonenclosure entrances for built-in telephone
booths, and directory storage units. The Text is based on
standard products of several manufacturersbut can be
adapted to specify similar standardand customdesigned
units.
10753_WALL-MOUNTED
TELEPHONEENCLOSURES*
This Sectionspecifiesprefabricated,
wall-mounted.
shelftype telephoneenclosuresand wal-mounted,panel,type
telephone housings.The Text is based on standardproducts of sveralmanufacturersbut can be adaptedto specity
similarstandardandcustomiesignedunits.
10801-TOILET AND BAIH ACCESSORIES-ThiS
Section
specilies standardtoilet and bath accessoriesand mirror
unrtscommonlyused in commercialand institutional
applicataons.
DlvlstoN I I
. 12347-METALLAEORATORY
CASEWORK
or
. 12348-WOOD LABORATORY
CASEWORK
1169s-MAILROOM EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies
equrpmentused to processincomingand outgoingmail. lt
r e p l a c e sS e c t i o n1 1 9 1 o - M A I L R O O M
E O U I P M E NATN D
FURNITURE.
dated10/88,that is beingwithdrawnfrom the
Inte.iorsLibraryConstruction
Version.
DtvtstoN t 2
12050-FABRICS-ThisSectionevaluatesfibers,textiles,
and leatherfor use as wall coverings,verticalhangings,
floorcoverings,
andfurnitureupholslery.
'121oG*ART-This
Sectionevaluates
the integration
of art,
both as a form of culturalexpressionand as decoratrve
enhancement,rnto commercialinteriorsproiects.Project
with work of othercontractsand wrth a team
coordination
is discussed.
of consultants
12311-METAL FILE CABINETS-ThisSecrionspecifies
vrticalandlateralmetallile cabinets.
1232o-RESTAURANIAND CAFETERIACASEWORKThis Sectionspecifiescashiercounter,wait stationsand
other caseworkfor food servicefacilities.
This sectioncan
be modified to include more extensive custom disolav
equipmentby inclusionof additional
detailedrequirements.
11o54-LIBRARYSTACKSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoecifaes stationarysingle-tierand multitier shelving for library

malenats.
12347-M ETALLABORATORY
CASEWORK-ThisSection
specifiesstandardmanufacturedmetal laboratorycasework
and commonaccessories,
includingcabinets,countertops,
sinks,andservice{ixtures.
11062-FOLDINGAND PORTABLE
STAGES-ThisSection
specifiestoldingand portablestage platforms,seatingflatform risers,standingchoral risers,and acousticalshell systems that might be used indoorsrn schools.churches,
banquetfacilities,
and multipurpose
auditoriums.
12348-WOOD TABORATORY
CASEWORK-ThisSection
specifiesstandardmanufacturedwood laboratorycasework
and common accessories,includingcabinets,countertops,
sinks, and seryice fixtures. The Text includes both woodfaced cabinetsand plasticlaminate-faced
cabinets.
I 1063-STAGE CURTAINS-ThiS Section smcifies examples of stagecunarnfabrrcsand draw-travel

curtainrigging
commonly used in small- to medium-sizedtheater/auditG
rium installations
withoutflv soaces.
12353-DISPLAY CASEWORK-This Section soecifies

manutactured
cabinetsand displaycasesfor retarlslorage
and merchandising.
11132-PROJECTIONSCREENS-ThisSectionspecifies
standardrear-and front-proiectionscreens.lt includesboth
manually and elsctricallyoperated, rolltp front-poection
screenswith almost any Screensurfaceand rear-proiection
screnSmadeof glassor acrylicplastic
12356-KITCHEN CASEWORK-This Section specifies

stock-manufactured
kitchon and vanitycabinetsmade trom
wood and wood products faced with wood, plastic laminate. vinyl, or a combinationof these materials.Counter
tops made of plastic-laminateand solid-surfacingmaterial
are includedso all componentsare in a singleSection.
1115o-PARKINGCONIROL EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection
specifiesbasicparkingcontrol equipmentfor publicand private installationsincludinggate operatorsand controlsand
shjer's or parkingattendanl'sbooths.
11160-LOADING DOCK EOUIPMENT-This Secrion
specifiesdock bumpers,dock levelers,truck levelers.truck
restraints,dock lifts, dock seals,dock shelters,and transparentstrip door curtains.Dock bumpersincludelaminatedtread. molded- and extrudediubber, and steel-facetvoes.
Both mechanicaland hydraulicdock levelersare covered,
includingthose permanentlyinstalledin pits and those
attached at the edge of the dock. Truck restraintsinclude
both wall- and driveway-mountedtypes. Hydraulicdock lifts
ot the single-scissorstype for permanentinstallationin pits
are the only dock lift included.Dock shelters include rigid
trame,flexibleframe,and inflatable
woes.
11172-WASTE COMPACIORS-ThiS Section sDecifies
general-purpose,
commercial,wet- or dry-wastecgmpactor
unils for processingsolid, nonhazardous,
building{ener
ated waste.
113o7-PACKAGEDSEWAGE PUMP STATTONS-ThiS
Section specifies small, and medium,size,factorvssembled, sewage pump stations.
114oO-FOOD SERVICEEOUIPMENT-ThisSectionsoecities food service equipment for use in commercial,industrial,and institutional
projects.
1 l 451-RESIDENTIALAPPLIANCES-ThiS
Sectionsoecifies major residentialappliances.lt includes freestanding
and built-inkitchenand laundryappliances,
and both gaa
andelectricequipmentfor residential
andincidental
nonresidentialapplications.
Appliancesrncludedare restrictedto
units that may be purchased as standard manufactured
items.
11460-UNIT KITCHENS-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard.
factoryJabricated
and -assembledunit kitchensincludino
cabrnetry,
appliances,
stnls, laucets,aid accessones.
1161o-LABORATOBY FUME HOODS-This Section
specifiesstandardlaboratorytume hoods used for educa,
tional laboratoriesand researchfacilities. lt includs conventional hmds, bypass hoods, and restricted bvpass
hoods;with or withoutardoildesrgn.auxrliary
air,and vafiable air volume (VAV) control. lt also tncludeswalkrn
hoods, perchloricacid hoods, and radioisotopehoods. lt
includes hood stands and specifies casework supponing
bench-typehoodsby relerencing
12359-METAL MEDICAL CASEWORK-This Secrron

specifies standardmanufacturedmetal medical casework
and common accessories.includingstainless-steelcountertops, sinks, and shelving.lt includescaseworktypically
used in operating rooms, emergencyrooms, x-ray rooms,
central sterile supply,and similarspacesfor the storageof
instrumentsand supplies,lt does not includelabofatory
casework,which is specifiedin Division12 Section'Metal
Laboratory Casework,' or plasticlaminate countertops,
which are specifiedin Division6 Section'lnterior
ArchitecturalWoodwork.'
12361-MAILBOOM CASEWORK-ThisSectionspecifies
manufacturedcasework used in document distributlon
workroomsand to processincomingandoutgoingmail.
12483-{USTOM RUGS*This Sectionspecifiescustomdesigned,100percentwool, hand-tufted
arearugsinstalled
overfinishflooring.
12493-CURTAINSAND DRAPES-ThisSectionspecilies
statronaryand movable curtains and drapes, and window
treatmenthardwarefor commercialinstallations.
12496-WINDOW TREATMENTHARDWARE-This Section specifies hardware tor manuallyoperatedand motor,
oOerateddraperiesand curtains.
12510-OFFICE FURNITURE-This Section soecifies
desks,tables,and credenzasfor officeand comouter-suoport applications.
1251'1-HORIZONTALLOUVER BLINDS-This Section
specifies manually operated and motor{perated venetian
blinds.
12512-VERTICALLOUVERBLINDS-ThisSectionspecifies manually operated and motorperated vertical vane
blinds.
1252s-PLEATEDSHADES-ThisSectionsoecifies2 basc
typesof pleatedshadesiaccordionpleatedshadeswith 1
labric thickness and shades with multipleJabricthicl
nessesformingair spaces(sometimesreferredto as cellu
lar shades).
12551-TRADINGDESKS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodular
desk units and equipmentsupportlor tradingrooms for
banks, insurancecompanies,and other financialinstitu
tions; tradingsupport;data processing;reseryationcenters
911 emergencyfacilities;
andvideoproductionfaciljties.
12562--CLASSROOM
FURNITURE-ThisSection spec
fies lecterns,chairs,chair desks, desks, and tablet-arn
preschools.
gradesK through12, and co
chairslor use in
reges.
12563-DORMITORYFURNITURE-ThisSection speo
fies dressers, desks, chairs, nightstands.wardrobes
tables,beds, and other furnitureitems for residenceha
toomsanotoungeareas.
12567-LIBRARY FURNITURE-This Section specifies
libraryseatingand furniturefor the display,storage,review
and checkoutof librarymaterials.
12571-AUDIO-VISUAL
SUPPORTFURNITURE-This
Sec
tion specifies lecterns. presentationequipment carts, anc
cabrnels.
12574-OUTDOOR FURNITURE-ThisSection soecifies
movable,w@d or metal tablesand chairsdesignedto with,
standtemperatureextremes and limited weathering.
1261o--FIXEDAUDIENCESEATING-ThiSSectionspec.
fies upholstered and nonupholstered interior assembly
spaceseating.Althoughexteriorseatingis not included,the
Section Text could be modified to soecifv exterior lixed
seatingin stadiums.
12630-RESTAUBANTFURNITURE-ThisSectionspecr
{iestablesand seatingfor dining.
12634-CUSTOM FURNITURE-This Section specifies
speciallydesignedtables,desks,credenzas,etc.
12635-PATIENTROOMFURNITURE-This
Sectionspecl
fies bedsidecabinets,wardrobeunits,desks,vanities,and
chestsof drawrs designedspecificallyfor healthcareappll
catrons.
12638-GUESTROOM FURNITURE-ThiS
Sectionspeci
fies guest r@m furniture sets includingarmoires (perhaps
with a bar unit or other built-ins),credenzas,nightstandsor
bedsidetables, writing desks, lounge chairs,and head
boards.Also speciliedin this Sectionare mattressesanc
box springs,and guest bedroomseating.
12639-BANOUETTES-ThisSection soecifies built-in
upholstered,
customseating.
12651-INTERLOCKING
CHAIRS-This Sectionspecifies
multiple seatingsystems {gangedor tandem)with optiona
modulartabletopsfor waiting, reception,and loungeareas.
12677-0RIENTALRUGS-ThisSectionspecifiesantique,
semaantique,and new, handmade imported rugs and rug
paqs.
12680-FOOT GRILLES-This Section specifies fool
grilles,which are generallyrigid sectionsot treadsdesigned
to remove loot traffic debris set in a recessedframe in the
floor.
12690-FLOOR MATS AND FRAMES-This Sectionspeci.
fies commonly used types of recessed and surface
installedfloor mats for buildingsother than slngle-lamily
residentialwork.
12700-SYSTEMS FURNITURE-ThisSection specrfies
panel-hungromponent systems, Ireestandingromponent
systems, desk systems supportingwork-surface-mounted
screensand other components,and beam systems.
12520*5HADES-This Sectionspecitiesmanuatlyoperatedandmotor operatedrollshades,including

blackoutand
mesh shades.
12760-TELESCOPING
STANDS-This Sectionspecifies
telescoping stands for interior applicationsconsisting of
multiple-tiered
tolding
benchesor chairson interconnected,
platforms.These systems are constructed of steel, wood
and steel, or polyethyleneplasticand steel, and can be
operatedmanuallyor automatically.
12521-CUSTOMUPHOLSTERED
SEATING-ThisSection
speci{iesspeciallydesigned,wood trame, upholstered
seating.
12815-INTERIOR PLANTS-Th|5 Section specifies

requirementsfor selecting. laying out, and placing plants
providedby an interiorlandscapecontractor.
12522-OFflCE SEATING-ThisSectionspecitiesseating
for office and computer-supportapplications
12830-INTERIOR PLANTERS-This Section specifies

movable,decorativeplanterswith or withoutintegralsubif
rigationsystems.
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
12523-HEALTHCARESEATING-This Sectronspecifie:
patientand guest seatingin hospitalsand extended-car.
facilities.Sleeperchairsfor guestsand reclinersand roc,
ers tor patientsare alsoincluded.
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaae
AIA MASTERSPEC r 3 9
13921-ELECTRIC,DRIVE,
HORIZONTALFIRE PUMPSThis Sectionspecifieselectricdrive,horizontalfire pumps
for buildingfire-suppression
systemsand includesthe lollowrng:
DtvtstoN | 3
13041-MODULARVAULTS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodularvaultpanelsand doorsthat are prefabricated
and site
assembled.
13922-DIESEL-DRlVE.
HORIZONTAL
FIREPUMPS-This
Section specifiesdieseldrive,horizontalfire pumps for
buildingfire-suppression
systemsand includesthe tollowing:
13o52-SAUNAS-ThiS Section specities panel{uilt, or

modular.saunasand custom{ut, or precut, saunas.-tutr
nishedas completeunits includingheating,lighting.controls, and accessories.
13926*ELECTRIC.DRIVE.VERTICAL.TURBINEFIRE
PUMPS-This Section specifies electricdrive, venicalturbine fire pumps for buildinglire-suppressionsystems and
includesthe lollowing:
13090-RADIATION PBOTECTION-ThisSectionspecities
materialsand methods for typical radiationprotection systems used in medical x-ray rooms and radiationtherapy
rooms. lt includeslead sheet, lead glass, and lead glazing
plastic;lead-linedfinish materials:and other lead-linedproducts. such as doors, frames, view windows, modular
shieldingpartitions,and film transfercabinets.The Section
also specifies lead bricks, borated polyethylene,and neutron shieldingd@rs and frames for radiationtherapyapplications.Signsindicatingthe thicknessof the lead shielding
providedare also included.
13927-DIESEL-DRIVE, VERTICAL-TURBINE FIRE

PUMPS*This Section specifies dieseldrive. venical-turbine fire pumps for buildingfire-suppression
systemsand
includesthe following:
13956-FIRE-EXTINGUISHING
FOAM PIPING-This Section specilies fixed. lowxpansion, aqueous film-forming
loam, firexlinguishing systems for hydrocarbon-liquid
fires. Foamsystemsare normallyused on, but nol limated
to, ClassI (flammable-liquid)
fires.
131oq-LIGHTNINGPROTECTION-ThisSection speci
fies lightningprotectionfor buildings,buildingelements.
andbuildingsite components.
13966-HALOGEN AGENT EXTINGUISHING

PIPINGThis SectionspecifiesHalon1301 halogenagent,firextinguashing
systems.
1311o-CATHODICPROTECTION-This
Sectionspecifies
passivecathodic protection systems that use magnesium
protect
steel and iron pipingand
or zincsacrificialanodesto
tanks. Modify the SectionText to include aluminumpiping
and tanks; include electricalconduit protection by adding
'steelconduit'to'piping.'
I 3967-{LEAN-AGENTEXTINGUISHING
SYSTEMS-This
Sectionspeciliesclean-agentextinguishingsystems.These
systems use alternativeagents that are substitutes for
fixed,Halon1301extinguishing
systems.Specifiedagents
and relatedcomponentsin this Sectionare limited to lhose
that are FactoryMutual approvedand UndeMriters Laboratories listed. Other agents are includedin NFPA 2001,
Clean Agent Firc Extinguishing Systems. See the Evaluationsfor furtherdiscussion.
13'|25-METALBUILDINGSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoecifies metal buildingsystems,complete with structuralframing, rofing and siding panels,personneldoors, windows,
ano accessones.
13720-INTRUSION DETECTION-This Section specifies
local intrusiondetection eouigment- lt includes the detection devices and the central control and processingand
equipment necessarytor control. The Text of this Section
spcifiesa system readyto be monitored by a remote station if requiredby a project.Varioustypes of remote signaling systems are ac@mmodated,but Specificationsare not
includedtor those externalsystems.The Sectionmay also
be edited to secify intrusiondetection that n interface
with an integratedbuilding managementsystem specified
io anothorSection.
1381HLOCK CONTROL-Th|S Section specifies svstems for displayingautomaticallyadjustedtime throughoul
a {acility,for initiatingtimescheduled audibleand visualsignalsto announceevents,and tor initiatingscheduledequipment operationvia relays.The components specitied use
hard-wiredor carriercurrent distribution of time and prc
gram signalsfrom a master unit. Equipmentincludesmaster clock- aird program{ontrol units, and various types of
indicatingclocks and audibleand visual signal equipment,
such as bells, horns, lights, and mechanicalequipment.
This Sectioncovers a combinationmaster clock- and orq
gram{ontrol system. However,it can be modifiedto cover
an independentmaster clmkrontrol system or an independent prograreontrol system.
13845-LIGHTING CONTROLS-This Strtion soecifies
wired, programmable,lighting control systems using lowvoltage control circuits. Manual. low-voltage lighting controls are alsospecified.
13851-FIRE ALARN,I-ThiS Section spcifies local fire
alarm and detection systems for buildings.lt includesthe
panels necessaryto control the systms and the various
peripheraldevicesasseciatedwith detectingfires. initiating
alarms, and indicatingalams with audible and visible signals.The Sectionalso includesesuioment tor communicating alarm. superyisory,and trouble signals to a remole
alarmreceivingstation.
13915-FIRE-SUPPRESSION
PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies combined systems of standpipes and sprinklers for
buildingsand includesthe following:
13916-FIRE-SUPPRESSION
SPRINKLERS-ThisSection
specifieswet- and dryfipe, fire-suppressionsprinklersfor
buildingsand includspiping,sprinklers,specialties,
and
accessories.Use Division13 Section'Fire-Suppression
Piping' for preactionand delugepiping, sprinklers,specialties,
and accessories;and combined (standpipeand sprinkler)
svstems.
13920-FIRE PUMPS-This Sectionincludesonly the Evaluationsand DrawingC@rdinationand SpecificationsCoordinationchtrklists for the lollowing Sectionscoveringfire
pumps for buildingtire-suppressionsystems:
. 13921-ELECTRIC-DRlVE,
HORIZONTAL
FIREPUMPS
. 13922-DIESEL-DRlVE.
HORIZONTAL
FIREPUMPS
. 13926-ELECTRIC-DRIVE,
VERTICAL.TURBINE
FIRE
PUMPS
.13927-DIESEL-DRlVE. VERTICAL-TURBINEFIRE
PUMPS
1397s-STANDPIPESAND HOSES-Ihis Sectionspecifies

standpipesfor buildingsand includesthe following:
DlvtstoN
t4
14100-DUMBWAITERS-This Section specifies preengineeredelectricdumbwaiterunits,commonly used for fl@r

tGfloor transter ot small-sizedmaterials such as books,
parts, f@d, etc.. in a low- to medium{ise application.Car
size is limited by the Codeto 9 sq. ft. (0.84 sq. m) oI platform and a heightof 4 feet (1219mm).
14210-ELECTRIC TRACTIONELEVATORS-ThisSection
specifiespreengineeredelectrictractionelevatorsfor either
passengeror freight use. Substantialgeneric descriptions
are included, however, to enabl manufacturers to bid
either custom or preengineeredequipment. This Section
can be modilied to specify custom electric traction elevators.
14240-HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS-ThisSection specilies

preengineeredhydraulicelevators,including holeless and
roped hydraulictypes, for either passengeror freight use.
Substantialgeneric descriptionsare included,however. to
enable manufacturersto bid either custom or preengr.
neereoeouroment_
143,|o-ESCALATORS-ThiS Section specifies standard
preengineered,heaW.duly,and exteriorescalators.
14320-MOVING WALKS-This Section specifies moving
walks as defined by ASME 417.1, which includespowerdriven, continuoustreadway units used for conveyingpassengers along either a horizontalsurface or an inclined
ramp. lt is intendedlor specifyingpreengineeredunits lor
normalinstallations,travelingeither horizontallyor between
floors, rising one story at a time. The SectionText can be
amplifiedro cover customngineeredunits and units with
specialrequirementssuch as exceptionallylong or curved
runs or rises.custom profiles,or the use of custom materials in balustradeconstruction.
14420-WHEELCHAIRLIFTS-This Section soecifiessoecial-purposelifts used to transpon nonambulatoryand
semiambulatorypersons from one level of a building to
another.lt includesvedcal wheelchairlifts. inclinedwheelchair lifts, and inclinedstairway chair lifts. lt also includes
requirementstor standard runway enclosures offered by
manufacturersof venicalwheelchairlifts.
14512*TRACKVEHICLESYSTEMS-ThisSectionspecifies self-propelledcontainersystems that travel on electrified tracks.
14559-5ELECTIVEVERTICALCONVEYORS-ThisSection specifiesvenical transportsystems operatedby a single motor that continuously moves a chain in a single
direction,much like a ferris wheel. Containershook into the
chainas it passestheir receivingstationand are transported
to other verticallocations.
14560-CHUTES-This Section specifies gravity-type,
metal chutes used to conveywaste and linen.
DtvrstoN | 5
15050-BASIC MECHANICALMATERIALSAND METH.
ODS-This Sectionspecifiesmaterialsand methods for
applicationwith mechanicalequipment and piping system
installations
insidethe building.Pjpingspecialties,,oining
materials,joint construction,identificationmaterialsand
devices.and installationreouirementscommon to more
than one Division15 Sectionare included.This Sectionsupplementsother Division15 Sections.lt must be edited and
used with other Sectionsfor a complete system specification.
15060*HANGERSAND SUPPORTS-ThisSectionsoecF
fies hangers and supports for mechanicalsystem piping
and equioment.
15075-MECHANICAL IDENTIFICATION-ThisSection
specifiesidentification
materialsand devices,and installation requirements.Use this Section for complex pojects
requiring comprehensive specifications for labeling and
identifyingmechanicalinstallations.
Use the Specifications
in Division15 Section '8asic MechanicalMaterialsand
Methods' for simple projects.
15081-DUCT INSULATION-ThisSectionspecifiesrigid
and flexibleduct, plenum, and breechinginsulationand
field-applied jackets {or HVAC systems. This Section
includesapplications
lor indoorandoutdoorducts.
I 5082-EOUIPMENTINSULATION*This
Sectionspecities
blanket,board,andblockinsulation
andfield-applied
iackets
for HVACequipment.This Sectionincludesapplications
for
indoorand outdoorequipment.
15083-PIPE INSULATION-ThisSection specifiespre
lormed pipe insulationand tield-appliedjackets for plumbing and HVACpiping systems and for dieselnginecooling
pipingand exhaustpipes.This Sectionincludesapplications
for ind@r and outdoor piping.
151oo-VALVES-ThiS Section specifies general duty
valvescommon to most mechanicalpipingsystems.Valves
specifiedin this Section includegate, globe, ball, butterfly,
plug. and check valves.
15121-PIPE EXPANSIONFITTINGSAND LOOPS-This
Sectionspecifiespipe expansionfittings and loops for steel
and copper piping for mechanicalsystems, and the tollowtng:
15122-METERS AND GAUGES-ThisSectionspecifies
melers and gauges for mechanicalpiping syslems; thetr
mometers, pressuregauges, and test plugs: Ilow-measur'
ing systems; floweters and tlow indicators; thermalenergytlowmeters; and water meters.
1517o-MOTORS-This Section soecilies small and
mediumelectricmotorslor useon ac power systemsup to
600 V. accordingto NEMA standards.The Sectionincludes
the common requirements for referencing by other Sections where motors are integralcomponents of the specified equipment.ThisSection does not include dc motors,
synchronous motors, woundrotor motors, and motors
rated more than 600 V. Specialmotor types and features
are also not included;these items may be covered in the
individualequipmentSectionsor addedto this Section.Previous Edition:Same Section number and title. dated 3/91.
RelatedSections:Reter to the SpecificationsCoordination
checklistat the end of this Section.Summaryol Changes:
The tollowingchangeswere made in this edition:
. Sl (metric)units were added.
. 'Submittals'Articlewas addedto the Text.
. UL standardin 'Oualiv Assurance'Anicle was deleted
trom the Text.
. Servicefactor was based on NEMA MG 1 reouirements.
. List of unusualsruiceconditionswas addedto'Basic
Motor Requirements'Aniclein the Text.
. Specificationfor enrgytficient motors was updated.
. Teminology was changedto match NEMA MG 1.
. Specificationtor temperature rise and insulation class
was added.
. Bearingspecificationand specificationtor motors applied
on variable-frequency
controllerswere improved. Option for requiringthermal protectionon motors above
a cenain size was added.
. "Source Ouality Control" Paragraph was added to
"PolyphaseMotors" Article in the Text.
. Installationrequirementswere uDdated.
. "Commissioning"Article was deletedfrom the Text.
'1518'l-HYDRONIC
PIPING-ThisSectionspecifiespiping
systems fdr hot-water heating. chilled-watercooling, and
condenserwater. This Sectionincludespipes. fittings. specialduty valves,and hydronicspecialties.
MASTERSPEC
continues
on the next page
ARCOM:SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
Virginia
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATIONSYSTEMS
140
AIA MASTERSPEC
15182-STEAN4
AND CONDENSATE
PtPtNG-ThisSecrion
specifiessteamand condensatepipingand specialties
for
systemsup to I 25 psig {860kPa).insidelhe building
15185-HYDRONICPUMPS-This Secrionspecitjesthe
followingcategoriesof hydronicpumps for hydronicsystemsi
15186-STEAM CONDENSATEPUMPS-This Section
speci{jessteam condensatepumps for low-pressuresteam
systems.
1518g-HVAC WATERTREATMENT-ThiS
SectionsoecF
fies automaticand manual wate.-trealmentsvstems tor
hot-walerheating,sleam and condensateprping.chrlledwater, and condenserwater systems;and water-treatment
cnemrcals.
15191 FUELOIL PIPING-ThisSectionsoecifiesfuet oil
and dreseltuel prping,specraltres,
and accessoileswith n
the building.Equipmentin this Sectionis suitablefor No.2
and lighterfueloil anddieselfuel.
15194-FUEL GAS PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies natural
and fiquefredpetroleumgas piprng,speciallres.
and acces
sorieswilhinthe building.
15212-LABORATORY
AIB AND VACUUMPIPtNG-This
Section specilies laboratory compresseo-alrano vacuum
piping,designatedas'laboratoryair' and'laboratoryvacuum'j laboralory
gasalarmsystems;andrelaledspecraltres.
15221-CHEMICAL-WASTE
PIPING-ThiSSecttonsoecifies chemical-waste
and ventpiping,andspecialties
foi Iaboratorysystems.
15241-MECHANICAL
VIBRATION
CONIROLSAND SEIS.
MIC RESTRAINTS-ThisSection specifies vibration isolators, vibrationisolationbases,vibrationisolationroof curbs.
and sersmicrestrarnts
and snubbers.
1s2s2-LABORATORYAIR EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection
specifies compressedir equipment and accessoriesfor
laboratory
applrcatons.
Typicatequipmentapplicable
to th's
5ectronIncludes
a,rcompressors,
receiverS,
dryers,airpuoflcation systems,and air-filterassemblies.
15253-LABORATORYVACUUM EQUIPMENT-This Section specities vacuum equipment for laboratory applications. Typicalequipmntapplicablto this Sectionincludes
vacuumpumps and recetvers.
15411-WATER DISTRIBUTIONPtPtNG-This Section
specifieswaterdistribution-piping
insrdethe building.Most
prprngspecrlted
rs suttabtetor potabtewater,but some non_
potable-waterpipingis included.
15420-DRAINAGEAND VENT PtPtNc-lhis Section
specifies soil, waste, and vent piping and storm drainage
pipinginsjdethe building.
15430*PLUMBINGSPECIALTIES-Thjs
Sectionspecifies
plumbing specialtiesfor water distributionsystems; soil,
waste, and vent systems; and storm drainagesystems.
15440-PLUMBING FIXTURES-ThisSection soecifies
plumbingfixturesand relatedcomponents,includingthe
following:
15441-\i/ATER DISTRIBUTIONPUMps-This Section
specifiespumps for buildingpotable-watersystems.
15444-PACKAGED BOOSTER PUMPS-This Section
spcilies packagedbooster pumps to maintainpressurein
the buildingwater distributionpiping:compact,packaged
booster pumps; constant-speeftrive, packaged booster
pumps; and variable-speeddrive,
packagedb@sler pumps.
15445-5EWAGE PUMPS-This Secrionsrecifies sewaoe
pumpsfor the buildrngsanitarydrainagesystems,and w;!
prt-mounted.verticalsewage pumps; quickdisconnecl,system, submersibiesewage pumps; stationary,submersible
sewage pumps; sewage-pump,reverse,flowattachment;
subrersible, grinder sewage pumps; submersible,cutter
sewage pumps; sewage pump basins;packaged,sewage
pump unrts;andpackaged,
wastewaterpumpunits.
15446-5UMP PUMPS-This Secrion specifies sumo
pumps for buildrngstorm drainagesystems,and wet-pri
mounled.veflrcalsump pumps;submersible
sump pumps;
compact,submerstblesump pumps;sump pump basins;
sump pumpprts:andpackaged,
drainagepumpunits.
1545o-POTABLE-WATER
STORAGETANKS-This Section specifiespotablewater storagetanksfor indoorinstal,
lations-This Sectionmay also be used lor nonpotable-water
appilcatlons.
15465-COMPRESSED-AtR
EOUTPMENT-ThisSecrion
specifiesequipmentand accessoriesfor buildingcompressed-atrsystems operatingat 200 psig (1380 kpa) and
less.
15466-MEDICALAIR EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies medicaland dentalair equipmentand accessories

for
healthcarefacilitres.Typicaiequipmenlapplicableto this
Sectionincludesair compressors,dryers,air purification
systems,andtilterassemblies.
1552o-FEEDWAIER EOUIPMENT-IhiS Secrionspec

tres feedwaterequipmentused to returncondensateanr
makeupwater to both high-and low-pressuresteam bo
ers. Feedwaterunils specifiedin this Sectionincludeva(.
uum unitsand thosewith cast-ironor steelreceivers.
15467-MEDICAL VACUUM EOUTPMENT-ThiS

Section
specifiesmedicaland dentalvacuumequiomentandaccessoriestor healthcare
facilitiesTypicalequipmentapplicable
to this Section includes vacuum pumos and vacuum
exhausters(oralevacuationl.
15530-REFRIGERANTPIPING*This Section speciie.

refrigerantpiping used for air{onditioningapplicatron:
Includrngpipes, tubing, fittings, specialties,specral,dut,.
valves,and refrigerants.
15469-WATER SOFTENERS-ThisSection specifies

water softenersand accessoriesfor watetrsupplysystems.
1548G-DOIVESTICWATER HEATERS-ThiS Section
specifiesonly the Evaluationsfor the following water
heaterSectionsfor domesticwatersystems:
15481-COMPRESSED-AIR
PtPING-ThisSectionspecjfies pipingand pipingspecialties
ior buildingcompressedair systemsoperatingat 200 psig(1380 kPa)and less.
15482-MEDICAL GAS PIPtNG-This Section specifjes
medicalgas pipingand specialties
tor healthcare
facilities.
Typicalmedicalgas systemsapplicable
to this Sectionare
oxygen,arr,vacuum,nrtrousoxrde,nitrogen,carbondioxrde, waste anestheticgas evacuation,
and dentalvacuum
(oralevacuation).
Is48s-ELECTRIC,DOMEST]CWATER HEATERS-ThiS
Sectionspecilieselectric water heatersand accessoriesfor
domesttcwater systems_
15486-FUEL-FIRED,
DOMESTIC
WATERHEATERS-ThiS
Section specifiesfuel-firedwater heatersand accessories
for domestic water systems.
15487-DOMESTICWATER HEAT EXCHANGERS-This
Sectionspecifiesheat exchangersand accessoriesfor generating hot water for domestic water systems.and the lof
rowng:
15501-HEATING BOILERSAND ACCESSORTES-ThiS
SectionincludesEvaluations,
DrawingCoordination.
and
SpecificationsCoordinationonly Ior the following Sections
covering fuelfired and electric boilers used for building
heatingsyslems:
. 15512-CAST-IRONBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or
combination gas/oil-firedboilers for hot water or lowpressuresteam.
. 15513-CONDENSINGBOILERS:cas,firedboiterslor
hot water. 15514-FINNEDWATEB-TUBE
BOiLERS:
Gasjiredboiters lor hot water.
. 1551S-STEELWATER-TUBE
BOILERS:Gas-fired.oilfired, or combinationgas/oil-fired,heatingor power boilers for low-temperatureand high-temperaturehot water
or low-pressure
and highressuresteam.
. 15518-FIRE-TUBEBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or
combination gas/oilfired boilers; Scotch or Scotch
marineboilersfor low-temperatureand high-temperature
hot water or low-pressureand high,pressuresteam; and
fireboxboilerslor hot water or low-pressuresteam.
. 15519-ELECTRICBOILERS:Etectric-resistance
boilers
fof hot water or steam.
15511-RADIANTHEATINGPIPING-ThisSecrionspecifies radiantheatingpiping,includingpipes and tubes for
embedded heat-transterheating loops, manifolds,fittings,
specialiuty valves,and pipingspecialties.
15512-CASTIRONBOILERS-ThisSectionsoecifiesqasfired,oilJired,or combrnatron
gas/orl.fired
boitersfor h;aL
ing hot watef or low-pressuresteam
15513-{ONDENSINGBOILERS-ThisSectionsDecities
gas-firedboilersfor heatinghor water.
15514-FINNED WATER-TUBEBOTLERS-ThiSSection
specifiesgas-firedboilersfor heatinghot waler.
1551s-STEEL WAIER-TUBE EOtLERS-This Section
specifies gas-fired, oil-fired, or combination gas/oiffired
heatingor power boilersfor low- and high-temperature
heatinghot water or low- and high-pressuresteam.
15518-FIRE'TUBEBOILERS-ThisSectionspecifiesaas
lired,orl-frred,
or combrnatron
gas/orlJrred
boilers;Scotci o'
Scotchmarineboilersfor low tempe.atureand high,tem
peratureheatinghot water or lowpressureand high-pres
sure steam; and firebox boilersfor heatinqhot water or
low-pressuresteam.
15519-ELECTRICBOILERS-ThisSectionspecitiesetec
tric-resistancboilersfor heatinghot warer or steam.
1ssS0-BREECHINGS,CHIMNEYS,AND STACKS-ThS
Sectionspecifiesbreechings,
chimneys,andstacksfor fuel
burning equipment, including double-wall metal vents
refraclory-linedmetal breechingsand stacks,and fabrjcated
oreecnrngs.
15560-FUEL-FIREDH&V UNITS-This Secrioninctude
onlythe Evaluations
for the followingnew Sectionsspecijy
ing fuel-firedH&V units includingdirect-and indirecttirec
unitsanddestratification
H&Vunits.
. 15561-DIRECT,FIRED.
MAKEUPAIR UNITS
. 15562-INDIRECT.FIRED,
PACKAGED
H&V UNITS
. 15563-DESTRATIFICATION
H&V UNITS
15561-DIRECT-FIRED,
MAKEUPAIR UNITS-This Sec
tion specifies direct-fired, makeup air units that do nol
employ heat exchangers.Gas is burnedin the airstream.
and products of combustion are introduced to the sDace
Theseunitsincludeonly thosethat are nalural{asand p.
paneasfired and that are suitablefor indoorand outdoo,
aoolications.
15562-INDIRECT-FIRED,
PACKAGEDH&V UNITS Th]::
Sectionspecifiesindirect-fired,packagedH&V units factory
assembled from standard components. Custom compo
nents and accessoriescan be added.Units typicallyinclude
duct turnaces in parallelor series airtlow, depending on
heatingrequirements,with attachedplenums housingfans
mixing sectlons, and other accessories.Units are suitable
for indoorand outdoorapplications.
15563*DESTRATIFICATION
H&V UNITS-This Section
specifiesdestratificationH&V units that are large,fuel-fired
unitsconsistingof a fan, casing,and an industrial,
fire-tube
heat exchanger.These units are used to heat largeareasof
industrialbuildingsand warehouses.They are centrallv
placedin the spacand circulatelargevolumes of air to dis
tribute the heat throughoutthe spaceand ro limit stratifica,
tion. Accessorisare limit6d.
15585-DEAERATORS-This Section specifies deaerators
used to heat feedwater to steam boilers and to remove
oxygenand other gases.
1561o-FURNACES-ThiSSectionspecifiesgas- and oil
fired lurnaces used in residentialand light{ommercial con
struction.lt also specifiesauxiliaryequipmentused with
furnaces,includingcontrols,filters.air cleaners,and humid
ifiers.
15620-FUEL-FIREDHEATERS-This Section specifies
gas- and oil-fired unit heaters and duct furnaces and qas
trred,tube-type,infraredheaters.The unit heatersspecileo
includethe types normallymounted overheadindoors.The
ducl turnacesincludeboth indoorand outdoor tvoes. Tube
type intraredheaterscovered includetorceddraft and vac
uum-vented-typeunits and multiple,burner,vacuumvented
systems.
1562I-INDIRECT-FIRED
ABSORPTIONWATER CHILL
ERS-This Section specifies indirect-fired.hot-water and
steam absorptionchillers. One- and twestage absorption
chillers are specified. Single-stageabsorption chillers are
availablefrom about 10G.to 1ToGrons {350- to 6000 kW)
cooling capacity.Two-stageabsorptionchillers start at 350
tons (1230 kW, with lhe largestunits providing1500-tons
(527skw) chilling capacity.They are used with aircondi
tioning systems applicableto public,institutional,commer
cial, and industrialbuildings.The Sectiondoes not appiy to
chillers used for process chilling or other industrial pur
poses,no. does it applyto direct-firedabsorptionmachines
15622-DIRECT'FIRED.
ABSORPTIONCHILLEBS-This
Sectionspecifiesdirect-fired,two-stageabsorptionchillers
Theyrangefrom 3G to 1'loGtons(10O,to 3B7O-kW)
chiilina
capacity D'rectfired, twcstage absorptronchillers are
used with air{onditioning systems applicable to public,
instrtutaonal,
commercial,and industrialbuildings.Absorp
tion chillersare not commonlyused for processchillingor
otherindustrial
whereloadsare more volatile.
OUrDoses
15625-CENIRIFUGALWATERCHILLERS-ThisSection
specifieselectrically
drivencentrifugal
waterchillers.
15628-RECIPROCATING
WATER CHILLERS-ThisSec
tron specifiesreciprocatingwater chillers, includingwater
cooled,condenserless,and outdoorair{ooled types.
MASTERSPECcontinues on the nerc oaae

ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC t4l

15782-ROOFfOP UNITS-This Sectionspecitiesrooflop
coolingunitsused lor air{onditioningsystemsin commer
and institutional
cial,industrial.
buildings.Units containairwith heatingoptions
refrigeration
cooled,directxpansion
suchas gasfired,hot water,andsteam.
15640-PACKAGEDCOOLING TOWERS-ThiS Section

updatedspeciliesfactoryJabricated,mechanical{raf1cooling towers.
15661_FLUtD COOLERS-ThisSectionspecifies factoryfabrited, packaged.closed{ircuit. mechanical-drattfluid
coorers.
UNITS15783-COI'lPUTEB,ROOM
AIR-CONDITIONING
ThisSectionspecifiesfloor-andceilingmountedunitaryairintendedspecifi'
conditioningunits,and their accessories.
callyfor computer-roomapplications.
15663-EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS-This Section

packagedevaporativecondensspeci{iestactory-fabricated.
15784-PACKAGED TERMINAL AIR-COND]TIONING

UNITS-This Sectionspecifiespackaged,lreestandingor
through-the-wall,terminal airconditioning and heat-pump
andcontrols.
units,includingtheiraccessories
UNITS-This Sectionspecifiesair
15671-CONDENSING
and water{ooled condensingunits usually coupled to
coils in air{onditioning sysrelrigerant
directxpansion
tems withinbuildangs.
15812-FIBROUS-GLASSDUCTS-ThisSectionspecifies
rectangular
and roundfibrous{lassductsfor heating,ventisystems.
lating,andair{onditioning
Sectionspeci
CONDENSERS-This
15672-4lR-COOLED
fies air{ooled condensers used lor air{onditioning sys
tems.
15815-METAL DUCTS-This Section specifies rectangular, round, and flat{val metal ducls; and duct fittings, suppons, and liners for HVAC airiistribution systems.
Applicationsinclude supply-, return, outside-air,and
exhaust ducts. Leakagetesting. duct constructlon statlcpressureclasses,and leakageclassesare specifiedin this
Section.
CHILLERS-ThisSectionspeci'
15684-ROTARY-SCREW
fies rotary-screwchillers.Both single-and twin'screw compressorsare included,along with air- or water{ooled
condensers.This equipment Specificationis based on
capacitiesrangingfrom 20 to 1300 tons (70 to 4570 kw).
15710-HEAT EXCHANGERS-ThisSection specifies
hydronicand steam heat exchangersfor HVACapplications.
heat exchangersand plate heat exchangers
Shell-and-tube
are alsoincluded.
15816-HVAC CASINGS*This Section soecifies field'

erectedsheet metal casingsused as equipmentenclosures
and plenums. HVAC casings can be field or {actory labricated;this Sectionallows for either method to be specified.
UNITS(15
AIR.CONDITIONING
15736-5ELF-CONTAINED
TONS AND SMALLER)-ThiS Section specifies packaged
airconditioning units containing a refrigerant compressor
and controls.with either integralwatert@led condensing
or integralor remote ait{@led @ndensing.Theseunits a.e
designed for indoor installations,usually in the finished
space,lor pacities through 15 tons (50 kW.
Sectionspecifiesduct
15820-DUCTACCESSORIES*This
accessories,includingdampers, actuators,duct silencers.
turningvanes.duct-mountedaccessdoorsand panels,flexible ducts, flexible connectors, and duct accessoryhardware.
15834-AlR CURTAINS-ThisSectionspecifiesair cunains
for insect and thermalprotectionot entranceways.Optional
teatures for air curtains soecilied an this Section include
heating coils and indirect-liredgas heaters, filters, intake
louvers.and adjustabledischargenozzles.
15737-5ELF{ONTAINED AIR.CONTAINING UNITS

(LARGERTHAN 15 TONSFThis Section specifies packaged airsnditioning units containing a refrigerant compressor and @ntrols, with ehher integral watercooled
condensingor remote airtmled condensiog.These units
are designed for indoor installationsfor @pacities larger
than 15 tons (50 k\M.
15845-AlR TERMINALS*ThiS Section specities ducted

airtontrol and distributiondevices used in comrercial airdistributionsystems that control air volume and air temperature.
UNITS-This
15738-5PLIT-SYSTEMAIR-CONDITIONING
Section specifies airconditioning units consisting of two
factoryflade assemblieswith a directxpansionrefrigeration system. The separatecomponentsincludean evaporator coil and a fan, and a compressorand condenser.Units
may be conliguredto operateas heat pumps.
l574s-WATER-SOURCE HEAT PUMPS-This Section
specifieswater-sourceheat pumps used for airconditioning systems in residential,commercial,industrial,and institutional buildings.The types specified in this Section are
rooftop units to 25 tons (88 kW); vertical stack units to 2
tons (7 kW: concealedhorizontaland vertical units to 25
tons (88 kW; exposed,floor-mountedconsole units to 1 14
tons (1.8kW; andunitventilatorunitsto 4 tons ('14kW).
15752-HUMIDIFIERS-This Section specilies steam'
injection. selt{ontained, heated-pan,and heatxchanger
humidifie.slor applicationon ducted HVAC systems; and
steamjniectionand self{ontained humidifiersfor discharging vapordirectlyinto conditionedspace.
15761*AlR cOILS-This Sectionspecifiesair coils using
steam, hot water, electric resistance,chilled water, and
refrigerantsnot integralto equipment.
15763-FANOlL UNITS-This Sectionspecitieshydronic
or directxpansiont@ling fan{oil units with or without
supplementalhydronic,steam, and electric heat, including
units for conceaiedinstallationwith external duct connections and units with finished cabinets for surface and
recessedmountingin ceilingsor walls.
15764-RADIATORS-ThiS Section specifies baseboard
radiators,conveclors,finred-tube radiators.and sleel radiators for hot-waterand steam heatingsystems.
15766-CABINET UNIT HEATERS-This Sectionspecifies
hydronic,steam.and electriccabinetunit heaters.
15767-PROPELLER
UNITHEATERS-ThisSectionspec;
fies hot-water.steam-and electricunit heaters.
15768-UNIT VENTIIATORS-This Section specifieselectric, hydronic,and steam unit ventilators.
I 5769-RADIANT HEATINGPANELS-This Sectionspecifies electric and hydronicradiant heating panels designed
as surtace-mountingunits and for installingin lay-inceilings
with an exposedgridsupportsystem.
HEATINGCABLES-ThisSectionspecL
15775-ELECTRIC
ties electracheatingcables used for radiantheating,snow
melting and ice stopping, pipe freeze protection,and hotwater-temperaturemaintenance.
15846-AIR-TO-AIR ENERGY RECOVERY UNITS-IhiS

Sectionspecifiesenergy recoveryunits designedfor air-to
air energy transfer, including heat wheels, heattipe heat
exchangers,and fixedflate exchangers.Section includes
devices for built-inair movement systems and those packaged as selfrontained unils.
15850-FANS-This Sectionincludesthe supportingdocs

ments {valuations.Drawing Coordination.and Specifications Coordination)for the following Sections specifying
fans:
. 15851-CENTRIFUGAL
FANSfor indoorinstallations
. 15852-AXiALFANSfor indoorinstallations
. 15853-POWER VENTILATORSfor indoor or outdoor
installations
15851-CENTRIFUGALFANS-This Sectionspecifiescentritugalians for indoorinstallations.
15852-MIAL FANS-This Sectionspecifiesaxialfans for
ind@r installations.
15853-POWER VENTILATORS*ThiSSection specifies
power ventilatorslor indooror outdoorinstallations.
15854-CENTRAL-STATIONAIR-HANDLINGUNITS-lhis
Sectionspecifiescentral-stationair+andlingunits with coils
for indoorinstallations.
AND GRILLES-ThiS
15855-DIFFUSERS,REGISTERS,
Sectionspecifiesoutlet and inlet air terminals,includingdiffusers, registers,and grilles.
15861-AlR FILTERS-This Sectionspecifiesfactory-fabri
cated air-filterdevices and media used to remove particulate matter from air for HVACapplications.
AND CONTROLS15900-HVAC INSTRUMENIATION
This Section specitiescontrol components.requiredfor a
complete control system, Iound in most HVACcontrol sysrem5.
Sectionspeci1594o-SEOUENCEOF OPERATION-ThiS
ties control seouencesin HVACsvstems. lt includesexamples of operation sequencesthat require editing to make
them apply to the specific equipment and systems
installed,desiredoperationalintent, and Proiectconditions.
15990-TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING-ThiS

Section specifies testing, adjusting, and balancing air and
water distributions, measuring electrical performance of
HVAC equipment, selting quantitative performance of
HVAC equipment. verifying that automatic control devices
are properly functioning, measuring sound and vibration,
and reporting results of the activities and procedures specified in this Section.
DtvtsloN
l6
ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND METH.

16050-BASIC
ODS-This Section specifies basic materials and methods
for electrical installations, including basic Specifications for
raceways, building wire. supporting devrces, concrete
bases, and electric identification. lt also includes electrical
demolition, electrical component touchup painting, cutting
and patching for electrical construction, and electocitymetering equipment lor Owner's and utility company s use.
16060-GROUNDING AND BONDING*This Section specifies grounding of low- and medium-voltage systems and
equipment. lt also covers minimum requlrements tor
grounding electronic and other specialized systems and
equipment. including those for data processing and tele
communications. This Section also provides options for
specifying grounding requirements beyond the safety minl
mums {or both power and electronic systems.
16071-SEISMIC CONTROLS FOR ELECTRICAL WOBKThis Section speci{ies anchorage, fastening, and bracing
devices used to prevent undesired movement of electrical
components during earthquakes. lt can be edited for use in
any ol the following Project situations:
Section
IDENTIFICATION-This
16075-ELECTRICAL
specifies identification tor electrical work, including raceways, cables, and equipment; warning and caution signs;
and buriedcable warning tape. lt is applicable on projects
where identification requirements are more complex than
can be covered by the basic electrical identification specifi'Basic
Electrical
cations included in Division 16 Section
Materials and Methods.'
161 2o-CONDUCIORS AND CABLES-This Section speci
fies low-voltage building wires and cables. including taps
and solices.
161 21-CONTROL/SIGNAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA-This
Section specifies transmission media used for control and
signal circuits for building proiects. The Section includes
copper conductor cables, optical fiber cables. and associated equipment tor use in buildings, typically lor intercon
of
electronic
datatrocessing,
necting
components
telephone, television, teleconferencing, building manageprotection,
and satellite communication systems.
ment and
16122-UNDERCARPET CABLES-This Section specifies
flat cables for undercarpet installations in building proiects.
Undercarpet cables are available in two types to accommodate power and lelecommunications branch circuits.
161 24-MEDIUM-VOLTAGE CABLES-This Section spects
fies single{onductor and multiconductor cables, cable
splices, and terminations for electrical distribution systems
with voltages {rom 2001 to 35,000. This Section also specr
lies accessory products used directly with medium-voltage
cables including spljs, terminations, separable connec
tors, and fault indicators.
16130-RACEWAYS AND BOXES-This Section specifies
electrical conduits, tubing, surface raceways, and wireways
used for electriGl power and signal distribution; electrical
outlet, device, Il@r, pull, and iunction boxes; raceway fittings; cabinels; and hinged-box assemblies.
161 38-UNDERFLOOR RACEWAY-This Section specities
underfloor raceways, including conventional llattop, trench
type, flush type. and cellular; service fittings; and junction
boxes. lt also specifies materials and labor for raceway con
nections to cellular metal deck specilied in Division 5 and
cellular concrete tloor raceway specilied in Division 3.
16139-CABLE TRAYS-This Section specifies metal cable
trays used for supporting electrical wires and cables. Cable
trays are also used for supporting electrical conduit and tub
ing systems and mechanical tubing and piping.
16140-WlRlNG DEVICES*This Section specifies electrF
cal wiring devices including receptacles, snap switches,
plugs, and plug connectors. This Section also specifies wall
plates, Iloor seNice outlets. poke-through assemblies, telephone/power seryice poles, and multioutlet assemblies.
Receptacle types specified include groundjault circuit interrupters. integral surge suppression units, and isolatedground receptacles. This Section also specifies simple dimmer switches but does not include dimmer systems. {See
')
Division 16 Section "Lighting Control Equipment.
MASTERSPEC
entinues on the next page
Virginia
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
142
AIA MASTERSPEC
16145-LIGHTING
CONTBOL DEVTCES-This Section
specifies devices {or automatic control of lighting including
time switches, photoelectric relays, occupancy sensors.
and multipole lighting relays and contactors.
1641g-FUSED POWER CIRCUIT DEVTCES-ThiS Secrion

specifies bolted-pressure switches and other high-pressure
contact switches rated 800 ro 6000 A, 600 V or less, and
accommodating Class L or Class T fuses.
1621s-ELECTRICAL POWER MONIIORING AND CON,

TROL-This Section specifies an electronic interface with
circuit protective devices in a power distribtrtion system for
both remote and local monitoring, metering, and control of
individual circuits. lt also specifies optional integration with
the building automation system to extend the capabilities of
that system.
1643o-SWIICHGEAR-This
Section soecifies metalenclosed, drawoul power. crrcurt.breakerjwilchgear rated
600 V and less. for use in ac systems.
16231-PACKAGED ENGINE GENERATORS-This Section

specilies simple systems using a single dieselngine generator set for emergency or standby electrical power appli
catrons. Use this Section to specify systems with standbv
ratrngs lrom 20 througn I 500 kW, sLpptying systems rated
600 V and less.
16264-STATIC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLYThis Section speci{ies 3-phase, on line, static,type, uninter
ruptible power supply (UPS) units rated from 5 to 750 kVA
{or systems 600 V and less. This Section can be used to
specify lower{ated units in this range that are suitable for
rocalon In a computer room or other finished space.
Higher-rated units are usually installed separately from the
loads seryed.
16265-CENTRAL
BATTERY INVERTER-This
Section
specifies central battery inverters lor supplying power to
emergency and standby lighting and power circuits. These
unrts combane a battery source wjth a charger and invener.
Units obtain power from a normal ac supply and are
arranged to sense failure of that supply. When failure
occurs. units transfer the load to the battery throuoh the
inverter. The approximate capacity range of equi-pment
specified in this Section is {rom 0.5 lo 20 kVA.
16280-POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CAPACITORSThis Section specifies capacitortype. power factor correction equipment lor use in electrical power systems rated
600 V and less. lt dlso specrfres fixed capacitors and automatac power {actor correction units.
16441-SWITCHBOARDS-ThiS
Section sDecifies deadtront distribution switchboards rated 600 V and less.
16442-PANELBOARDS-This
Section specifies branchcircuit and distribution panelboards rated 600 V and less. lt
includes loadrenter type and powetrdistribution
panelboards with circuit-breaker or fused-switch devices. The
Section also includes panelboards with integrally mounted
transrent voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) devices, panel,
boards with motor-starter branch devices, and oanelboards
wrth Internal conlactors and other fealures
16450-ENCLOSED
BUS ASSEMBLIES-This
Section
specifies standard low-voltage feeder and plugjn enclosed
bus assemblies for power distribution in buildings.
16461-DRY-TYPE
(1OOO V AND
TRANSFOBMERS
LESS)-This Section specifies dry-type djstribution and specralty transformers rated 1000 V and less. Soecraltv transtormers Include buck-boost and control and stgnal unrts.
16481-MOTOR
CONTROLLERS-This Sectjon specifies
general-purpose controllers rated 600 V and less used for
slarting, stopping, and controlling the speed of ac motors.
This Section specifies manual controllers and magnetic and
solid-state units. lt also specifies auxiliary devices such as
push buttons, selector switches, prlot lights, and control
relays used with controllers. This Section specifies individually enclosed and mounted controllers. Basic controllers for
use in group-mounted installations such as motor{ontrol
centers, switchboards, and motor-staner panelboards are
specified in their respective Sections.
16482-MOTOR-CONTROL CENIERS-This Secrion specifies conventional, modular, freestanding motor{ontrol centers operating at 600 V, ac and less.
16288-VOLTAGE
REGULATORS-ThiS
Section soecifies
voltage regulators and the power distribution units that
often combine voltage regulators with other equjpment for
particular application in computer rooms and other environments.
16491-FUSES-This
Section specifies canridge fuses.
rated 600 V and less, for use in switches, panelboards,
switchboards, controllers. and motor{ontrol centers. Use
this Section with Sections specifying the above equipment.
16289-TRANSIENT VOLIAGE SUPPRESSTON-This Section specilies t.ansient voltage surge suppressors tor applr
catron on low-voltage electrical power systems.
16511-INTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section soecifies factory-fabrited Interior hghting frxrures and lghting trxlures
mounted on exterior building surfaces used for general,
supplemental, task, and emergency lighting applications.
1631 2-SECONDARY UNtT SUBSTATTONS-This Section

specifies indoor and outdoor secondary unit substations.
including common types and configurations of incoming
and transformer sections. This Seclion does not specify
secondary drslr,bution equipment drrectly bUt relers to
other Seclions Ior tf'ose requirements.
1631s-OVERHEAD
ELECTRTCAL DtSTRtBUTION-This
Section specifies medium- and secondary-voltage overhead
electrical power distribution up to 35 kV. lt lncludes pole
mounting transformers and other equipment and materials
used tor upgrades or for extensions lor proiects associated
with burldrngsor related construclton.
16341 -MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
SWTTCHGEAR-This Section
specifies {usible metalnclosed interrupter switchgear and
metal{lad
circuit-breaker switchgear used in ind@r and
outdoor equrpment up to 34-kv class. This section also
specifies major accessory components used with mediumvoltage switchgear, including grounding and test devices,
tuses, emergency operating stations, and switchgear con_
trol batte.ies and chargers.
16350-MEDIUM.VOLTAGE TBANSFORMERS-ThiS Sectron specifies transformers up to about 2SOO kVA with
medium-voltage primaries. Translormers in this Section are
tor both indoor and outdoor installation and are liquid-filled
and dry-type distribulron and power transformers.
16410-ENCLOSED
SWITCHES AND CIRCUIT-BREAKERS-This Section specifies enclosed switches and circuit
breakers rated 600 V and less where applied as individuallv
mounted drsconneclrng means, service dtsconnecltng
means, and circuit overcurrent protection. Enclosed
swatches include fused and nonfused tyres rated BO0 A
and less. Circuit breakers include integ.ally fused circuit
breakers and moldedrase circuit breakers with thermalmagnelic and electronic trip units.
16521 -EXTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section specifies factory-labrited exterior lighting fixtures, poles, and accessG
fles.
1655s-STAGE LIcHTING-Thts Section soecifies staqe
hghting equipment for live performances in moderale-siie
auditoriums in schools, community centers, museums, and
corporate centers. This Section also specifies stage laghting
fixtures and control systems, including dimmer bankslnd a
control console. Use this Section lor limited-scope projects.
16570-DIMMING
CONTROLS-This
Section sDecifies
threee types of modular dimming systems and a range of
wrred, programmable, low voltage lighting contro' svstems
lrme swttches, photoelectric relays, and occupancy sen
sors are Included. This Sectton also specitres relavs and
Contactors required to execute 04off control commands for
lighting circuits. Manual, low-voltage lighting control
switches are also speci{ied.
1671s-PHEMISES
TLEPHONE WtRtNc-This
Section
specifies premises wiring for residential and light{ommercial telephone distribution, with one to four seryice lnes
installed. Some projects may require that the cable and
cable-terminating work for the system be provided under a
separate telephone equipment contract. In such cases,
delete those items and use this Section to srecifv the
empty raceway system and the seruice provisions that will
be required lor the system.
16 7 2 2 - I N I E R C O M M U N I C A T t O N E O U I p M E N T - T h i s
Section specifies direct-connected, manually switched and
user programmable, multichannel, microprocessor_
switched, voice intercommunication equipment independent of telephone and other voice-data communication svs,
tems. This Seclron includes commercral, Institutronal and
industrial applrcations, but not residentral svstems. either
single or multifamily.
16415-TRANSFER SWTTCHES-This Section specilies

transfer switches and associated equioment rated 600 V
and less for emergency and standby power systems. lt
specifies automatic transfer switches with and without
bypasslsolation swrtches, and it soecifies nonautomatic
transfer switches. It also specifies the remote annunciator
panels and annunciator and control panels sometimes used
with automatic transfer-switch installatlons.
ARCOM; Salr Lake Ciry, Utah, and Alexandria, Virginia
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
1 6 7 2 3 - S C H O O LI N T E R C O MA N D P R O G R A ME O U I P
MENT This Sectionspecifiesvoice intercommunicatioi
equipmentfor use rn elementaryand secondaryschool:.
The Sectionpermitsthe specifierto selectbetweenmanu
allyand microprocessor-switched
equipment.The manuaIy
switchedsystem is specifiedas the conventional.
direcl
connected,keyed system. The microprocessor
swrl,.., r
systemis user programmable
and can be upgradedIn thi
tuture-Both systemsare specifiedwith the usualootrons
for selectivepagingand for clock and programinterface
The abilityto transmitprogrammedaudiomaterialto ctass
rooms and other spacesis also specilied.
16725-NURSECALL-This Sectionspecifiesbasicvisua
and audiovisualpatient-nursecommunicationeouioment
for healthcarefacilities.Sectionorganization
permits the
specifierto selectbetweentwo equipmentoptions:visua,
tone and audiovisual/voice.
Both types of equipmentare
primarilyused in smallinstitutions.
The selectionis based
on communication
needs,existingequipmentcoordination
requirements.staff preference,and budgetaryplanning.
1 6 7 2 6 - P U B L I CA D D R E S SA N D M U S I CE O U I P M E N T
ThisSectionspeciliespublicaddressand musiceouiomenr
It canbe used to specrfyequipmentfor background
mus,.
announcements,
and pagingand lor givinganstructions
tn
such locationsas stores, public places, waiting rooms.
warehouses,offices, industrialplants,and schools.Fea
tures covered in this Section, such as the paging console,
can be deletedfor projectsthat do not requirethem. Othef
featuresmay be added.
16727-SOUND-MASKINGEOUIPMENT-This Section
specifies electronic sound-masking equipment to hetp
achieve privacy for normal conversationin indoor soaces
panicularlyin open office areas.
16740-{0MMUNICATION AND DATA.PROCESSING
EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies basic interior wirinq
for telecommunitionssystemsin buildingsThe commu
nicationwiring specifiedin this Sectionis suitablefor local
areanetworks (LANS)and telephonesystems for voice and
data communications.LAN media included in this Section
suppon generaclow- and high-speedLANSfor data trans.
mtssronrates up to 100 Mbps or more. system compo,
nentsincludedin this Sectionare itemssuchas coDoerand
fiberoptic cable, connecting bl@ks, outlet assemblies,
crossconnects,and patch panels.
16850-TELEVISION EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies
closed{ircuit television (CCTV)and master anlenna televi
sioo (MATV) systems. For MATV systems, this Section
ancludesthe options of offir antennas, a community
antenna television {CATV)service, a l@al CCTV svstem
and televisionreceive{nlyearthstationsas signalsources
for televisionprogram material.Both fibercptic and copper
cablingare includedfor transmitting video signals.
TWO
CHAPTER
SITEWORK
Subsurface lnvestigation
144
Site lmprovements
1 59
Amenities
Excavation Support
145
Systems
Piles and Caissons
Water Distribution
Paving and Surfacing
Retaining Walls
146
/
147
Sernrerage and Drainage
Planting
148
177
and
17O
156
144
Soil Mechqnics
PRELIMINARY SUBSURFACE
INFORMATION
Sj,l"";"6s
A. Collectavailableinformationfor soal.rock. and watel

conditions,includingthe following:
1. Topographicand aerialmapping.
2. Geologicalsuryeymapsand publications.
3. Local knowledge(history of site development,
exprienceot nearby structures,flooding, subsidence.etc.).
4. Existing subsurfacedata (boreholes,well rrcords,water soundings).
5. Reconnaissncesite suryev.
6. Prwious studies.
B. Evaluateavailableinformation for site acceptabil
ity. lf availabledata are insufficient,consulta geo
trchnical engineerto perform a limited subsurlace
investigationto gatherbasicinformarion.
C. Consultgeotechnicalengineerfor potentialfounda
tion performanceat each site as part of the selec
tion process.
SUBSURFACE
DETAILED
INFORMATION
After seltrtion of a potential site a subsurlaceand
laboratory test investigationshould be carried out
by a qualified geottrhnical engineerbetore design is
undertal(en.
AVERAGE
SOURCE:
OTPTH
OF
U.S.
OEPT.
FROST
PENETRATION
IIN.I
OF
COMMERCE
WEATHER
The investigationshould provide an adequateunder'

standing of the subsurfaceconditions and the information should be asssd
to determine mtential
foundationbehavior.
EUREAU
The enginer should waluate alternativefoundation

methods and tmhniques in conjunction with the
architect.
The engineeror architect should provide insp&tion
during construction to ensure that material and
constructionproceduresare as specifiedand to evaluate unexpectedsoil, rock, or groundwaterconditions
that may be exposedby excavations.
SOIL TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

SYMAOLS
DtvrSroN
ETTER
GW
Gravel
and
gravelly
mils
;'...
ur
GM
GC
Sand
and
undy
soils
HATCH.
ING
,%:
FROST
ACTION
DRAINAGE
Red
gravel,or gravel-sandmixture,littleor no Jines

Well-graded
Excellent
None
Excellent
Red
Poorly gradedgravel,or gravel-sand

mixtures,little or no fines
Good
None
Excellent
Yellow
mixtures
Silty gravels.gravel-sand-silt
Good
Slight
Poor
Yellow
Clayey-gravels, gravel-clay-sand mixtures
Good
Slight
Poor
Red
Well-graded
snds, or gravellysnds. little or no fines
Good
None
Excellent
SP
It-lrr'
lO r r
Red
Poorly gradedFnds, or gravellysands,little or no fines
Fair
None
Excellent
Yellow
Silty snds, snd-silt mixtures
F a ir
Slight
Fair
Yellow
Clayeysnds, end-clay mixtures
Fair
Medium
Poor
Gren
Inorganicsilts,rock flour, silty or clayey fine snds, or

clayeysilts with slight plasticity
Fair
Very high
Poor
Green
Inorganicclaysof low to medium plasticity,gravellyclays,silty clays,

leanclays
Fa i r
Medium
lmperuaous
OL
Green
Organicsilt-claysof low pla$icity
Poor
High
lmperuious
MH
Blue
Inorganicsilts, micaceousor diatomac$us fine sandyor silty soils.elasticsilts
Poor
Very high
Poor
Bl u e
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
Very poor
Medium
Imperyaous
Bl u e
O r g a n i c l a y so f m e d i u mt o h i g hp l a s t i c i t yo, r g a n i cs i l t s
Very poor
Medium
lmpervious
Orange
Peatand other highly organicrcils
Not suitable
Slight
Poor
SM
CL
CH
LL>50
OH
Highly
organic oils
VALUE AS A
FOUNOATION
MATERTAL
3::$
'/a
ML
Silrs
and
clays
DESCRIPTION
sw
SC
Silts
and
clays
LL<50
SOIL
COLOR
'%t
ry,
%z
NOTES
l. Consultgeotechnicalengineersandlocalbuildingcodesforallowablesoilbearingcapacities
2. LL indicates liquid limir.
Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineersj New York, New York
SUBSURFACEINVESTIGATION
ExcovotionSupportSyslems
I45
EMBANKMENT STABILITY
FOR OPEN EXCAVATION
EXCAVAT
HEIGHT
heck lateral drsplacement
DEPTH
VARIES
WITH SOIL
SOIL
CONDITIONS
NorE
{
sorL 3
Cantilever sheel piling is used for shallow-depth excava

uonS_
CANTILEVER
SHEET PILING
OPEN
EXCAVATION
":",1:l':*'1"\
SOLDIER
PILE T
GRADE
CONTINUOUS
WALE
SHEET PILE
=IN[:JE
t...-
CONCRETE HEEL
SOLDIER
PILES WITH
UGGING
BOARDS
OR FOOTING
TIMBER
*ooo
sHEETTNG
UGGING
SUBGRADE
TIMBER SHEETING
RAKER BRACE
TIEBACK CONNECTION
FREE
LENGTH
STEEL SHEETING
HOLE DRILLEO THROUGH
SOIL] ANCHOR ROD OR
TENDON INSERTED:
HOLE GROUTEO
relstorrnc;
9PACE /./
X
SHEET PILE WALL OR
SOLDIER
PILES WITH
LAGGING
BOARDS
SUBGRADE
S E C U R I N GN U T
WITHO G
W A S H E RO R
EOUIVALENT
I 2'' STEEL
EARTH ANCHOR
TAPERED
BRACKET
AT SOLOIER
PILE
CONTINUOUS WALE
EXCAVATION
SUPPORT
WALL
HOLE DRILLED
THROUGH
SOIL AND INTO ROCK:
ANCHOR
ROO OR TENDON
INSERTED:
HOLE GROUTED
EXCAVATION
SHEET PILE WALL OR

SOLDIER
PILES WITH
LAGGING
AOARDS
PIN DRILLEO
SET IN ROCK
CHANNEL
ERACE
SUPPORT
COM
PON
ENTS
N OTES
1. For deep excavations, several tiers of bracing may be
necessary.
ANO
2. lf a subgrade of the excavation is used to install spread

footings or mats, proper dewatering procedures may be
required to avoid disturbing the bearing level.
3. At times. it may be possible to improve the bearing stralum by excavating compressible materials and repiaqng
them with compacted granular backfill.
4. For evaluation of problems encountered with sheeting
and shoring, consult a foundation engrneer
SUAGRAOE
5. Local codes and OSHA regulations must be considered.

Consult a toundation engineer for excavation desagn.
BRACED
EXCAVATION
DETAILS
6 Proximity of utilities and other structures must be consid

ered in excavation design.
Donald Neubauer, P.E.: Neubauer Consulting Engineers: Potomac, Maryland

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers: New York, New York
EXCAVATIONSUPPORTSYSTE
MS
PileFoundotions
146
W
w
lltl ilr
lI
)tl
AW
M W ,Mis.+._ w
vffw
qtw
Yll--
TIMBER
E'Jot*o.*o
STEEL
PRESTRESSEO
CONCRETE
TIMBER
WOOD, SHELL
OR PIPE
-J
P|LESaEM
STEEL PIPE
CONCRETE
FILLED
;h??"J'illv
3'J5*.*o
CONCRETE
FILLED
STEEL
SHELL
TIMBER
ANO
CONCRETE
FILLEO
SHELL
H.PILE
SECTION
STEEL
PIPE AND
FILLED
CONCRETE
SHELL
PRECAST
CONCRETE
TIP
H - PILE AND
PRESTRESSEO
CONCRETE
PILE STEM
PRECAST
CONCRETE
WITF
TIP
COMPOSITE
t)
TOP OF
BEARING
CROSS
SECTION
(FLUTED SHELL)
STRATUM \
PRECAST
PRESTRSSSED
ryffiff
CYLINDER
UNCASED
DRILLED
OR
UNCASED
ENLARGEO
WITH
BASE
PIPE.
(,
CROSS
SECTION
(SPIRAL WELDED
SHELL)
SOCKET \
SECTION
MINIPILE
SHELL
WITH
MANDREL
ROCK
SHELL
NO MANDREL
DRILLED-IN.
CAISSON
CONCRETE
N OTES
'1.
A mandrel is a member insened into a hollow pile to reinforce the pile shell while it is driven into the ground.
2. Timber piles must be treated with wood preseryative
when any portion is above the groundwater table.
GENERAL
3. Uncasedpilessmallerthan 30 inchesshouldbe installed

usinga continuousflight hollow stem augerwith grout
iniected under pressure.Alternatively,a heavy wall casing is used to compact zero slump concrete to enlarge
the baseof the pileand assurepilecontinuity.
4. Uncasedpiers 30 inches in diameterand larger are

installed using various types of augers and may be
enlargedat the base using a bellingtool in some soils
Relerto ACI336.1andACI 336.3.
PILE DATA
stzE (tN.)
PILE TYPE
OPTIMUM
LOAD
RANGE (TONS)
USUAL
SPACING
TIMBER
5-l0rip
12-20butt
STEEL
concrete filled
PrpHlosed
end
concrete filled
to4 0 "
concrete tilled
straight or taper
concrete filled
unileGrn carsson
concrete filled
CONCRETE
or
ptles or prers
COM POSITE
oncrete - lmber
5 -]0 trp
12-20butl
oncrete - prpe
3'0"to4
H - piie
1 9 - 4 1b u t t
NOTE
Applacable material specifications Concrete,Acl 31 8; TimberASTM D25: Structural Sections ASTM 436. 4572. and
Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York
PILES
AND CAISSONS
4690. For selection ot type of pile, consult a foundation

engineer.
DomesticWqterSupplySystems
TYPES
OF
WATER
147
SUPPLY
Water supply systems commonly emploYed tor resrdential

use are public water supply systems (mains): wells; cisterns/
rainwater catchments; natural sprlngs; natural waterways
(ponds, lakes, streams, rivers); and distillation
GENERAL
NOTES
1. All water supply systems should be inspected, tested,

and approved by l@al or state authorities, as required,
before operation.
2. Flush nev!,1v installed systems with tresh water, disinfecl
to remove contaminants, and perform bacteriological and
chemical tests as required. Repeat testing on a regular
basis, biennially or as recommended bY health authorities.
.ft (or
3. Surface contamination can extend to depths of 20
greater, depending on soil material). Seal casrng/piping
joints and voids surrounding the piping to prevent contamrnatron seepage.
4. Depending on the source, groundwater is generally
cleaner and more pure than surface water. The ultimate
use of the water {for toilet or laundrY, irrigation, waterlng
farm animals, human drinking and bathingl determines
purity requiremen!s. Consider disinfection and filtration
systems to remove harmful bacteria and excessive impu
ritaes and minerals that affect water taste or quality.
ZSANITARY
WELL
COVER (VENTED)
PROVIDE
RECOMMENDEO
DETERMINING
5. "Graywater" (water retrieved lrom bathing, laundry, or

kitchen sources) can easily be liltered, stored, and recycled for nonpotable uses such as toilets, car washlng, or
irrigation. ln addition, it n be processed through natural
biological systems and returned to potable uses.
PUMP
CAPACITY
LOCKING
DEVICE
PITLESS
ADAPTER
CHECK
VALVE
SNIflER
VALVE
STANDING
WATER LEVEL
tr
:
l
L
\/vELLS
e;
Welldetails given here are generally from the Manual of lndi'

vidual Water Supply Systems prepared by the Environmental
Protection Agency's Office of Drinking Water (1982).
u>
:F
>.]
WELL LOCATION: Wells should be l@ated at least 100 ft

from (septic tank) sewage disposal. Check local codes.
u0
U<
GO
CAPACITY OF WELL. PUMP. AND PRESSURE TANK: After

drilling, test capacity for at least 4 hrs at a constant yield and
drawdown. Determine minimum acceptable well capacity
from the chart on this page titled "Determining Recommended Pump Capacity," then add a factor of safety and
usage, preferably 10oyo. Use the same chart to determine
the required pump capacity. The capacity of the pressure
tank is figured by multiplying the pumping rate by 5 or 10 (42
gal minimum)-
SUBMERSIBLE
6
a
10 12
NUMBER OF FIXTURES
TYPICAL
\ivELL AND
DRILLED
DOMESTIC
SCREEN
TYPES OF WELL PUMPING SYSTEMS: Pumping systems

used for wells include a centrilugal pump with a motor
aboveground and below the water level in the well; a jet
pump, which has both pump and motor aboveground; and
direct and reciprocating pumps in the well with a motor
aboveground. (An artesian well is one in which the power of
the water Dressure elevates a column of water above the
original water level without pumps.)
CISTERNS
Cistems are ma&rude collection reseryoirs (usually covered
to stop evaporation) that stqe rainwater collected from r@fs
or paved areas called catchrents. Cisterns are made of steel,
polyethylere. @ncrete, and other chemically inert materials.
TYPES
OF
TYPE DEPTH
Dug
Eored
V\/ELLS
DIAM.
REMARKS
3-20 ft "Wishingwell" type;masonry

lining;can absorbsurlace
contamination;
susceptible
to
periodicdry spells
To 100ft 2-30 in Bored with augers; vitrified tile
To 50 ft
or steel pipe casing: seal joints

to 20-ft depth to prevent surIace contamination
1 - 2 , r . Drivenby welltoints; coupledpipesectioncasing;quick

and cheap but shallowdepth
To l00O fr 4-24 in Drilled by percussion or rotary
DIVERSION
IN DRUM
*)
ROOF
CATCHMENT
TOTAL CATCHMENT
AREA=AXB
CALCULATION
ROOF
CATCHMENT
DESIGN
FOR CISTERN
Nonresistive materials are used lor catchment areas and
drainpipes. Water from cisterns may be used for erergencies
only or for garden watering, cleaning, toilet flushing, bathing,
laundry, dishwashing, or other, nonpotable uses.
Major factors used to estimate cistern capacity are amount of
rainfall in the catchment area, effective collections surface,
storage capacity, user water consumption per day, longest
dry period for the region, and availability of other s@rces of
water tor emergencies. Basically, cistern size cores down to
the relationship between how fast the tank is emptied and
how fast it is filled and how much of a bufler is required. For
residential use, consumption ranges from 30-50 gal/person/
day. Water is produced at a rate between 0.4 and 0.6 gal/sq ft
of catchment area per in. of rain. Consult ltral metmrological
records and codes to determine cistern design.
CAPACITIES
Driven T o 5 0 f t
bit; plastic or steel casing installed alter lull depth is

drilled; expensive, large machinery required but greatest
depths/water availability and
consrancy
DOWNSPOUT
FINE GRAVEL
OR SAND
ll a well does not have a pump capacity shown in the chart

on this page, provide a smaller well pump and storage tank
followed by a circulating pump and pressure tank.
DISINFECTION:Wells and associated piping should be disin'
fected before they are put into oprataon.
\,VATER DISTRIBUTION
TANKS
OF
SQUARE
DEPTH
( FT)
AND
TANK
CISTERNS
STERN
SAND
TYPES
CISTERN
PURIFICATION
NOTES
TANK
DIVERSION VALVE
FILTER
FOR
\^'ATER
ON CISTERNS
1. Locate cisterns as close as practical to the ultimate point

of use and away from potential fl@ding to avoid contamination.
2- Screen inlet and outlet piping to prevent the entrance of
debris. insects. or animals.
3. Provide sump, drainage, and lockable access for annual
cleaning and disinfeclion of the storage tank.
(GALLONS)
ROUND TANK
SIZES
SIZES (OIAM.)
to F-r
IO FT
12 FT
1920
3000
4320
1500
2350
3380
4610
2880
4500
6480
2250
3520
5070
6920
l4
3840
6000
8&0
3000
4700
6760
9220
10
4790
7500
r 0.800
3760
5870
8460
11,520
12
5148
8976
12,960
4510
7040
1 0 , 15 0
I 3,830
DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA; Washington,D.c
WATERDISTRIBUTION
148
SubsurfoceDroinogeSystems
GENERAL
Subsurface drainage systems are very different engineering
designs than surface drainage systems. gurface-drainao;
systems intercepl dnd collect storm water runoff and co-n_
vey it away from a building and site with the use ol large
Inlets and storm drains. Subsurface drajnage systems typi-
cdrly a,e smaller rn srze anl capac'ty, designed to Inlercept

lne srower underground flows of a nalural g/oundwaler
table, underground stream, or infiltration of soijs from sur
lace sources. Surface and subsurface systems
rypically
requrre discharge either through a pumping station or bV
gravity drainage to an adequate outfall.
P A V E M E N TS U B
OR OTHER
SURFACE FEATURE
GRAVEL \
-/
] 2' OVERUP
OF FABRIC
DAMPPROOFING
2" ro 4"
OIAMETER
SLOPED WEEP
TUBE (PVC TYP )
CONNECTED
FROM ORAINAGE
BUNKET TO
DRAIN OR
PERIM-ER
CHANNEL
BACKFILL
ceorexrlre
-l
FABRIC
-_I
WRAPPEO
ALLAROUND
GRAVEL
I I
I J
_iI
FREE-DRAINING
GRANUUR
o
!
ft
CONCRETE SUB
(INSUUTE
UNDER5UB
AS NECESSARY
FOR CLIMATE)
t-
4" TO 6"
DIAMETER
PERFORATED
DRAIN, SLOPED
MATERIAL
4" TO 6" OIAMtrER
PERFORATEO DRAIN
(SLOPE ORAIN TO
SUMP OR OUTFALL)
FREE,ORAINING
GRANUUR MATERIAL
DRAINAGE
BOARD
(PROVIOES
VERTICAL
AND
HORIZONTAL
FLOW
FOR SUBSOIL
WATER)
TYPICAL
PERIMETER
NOTES
CONCRflE
FOOTING
1. The depth ol a draindetermineshow much subsurface

water levels will be reduced.
2. When a perforateddrain is used, install it with the holes
raclngdown.
3. When used to intercepthillsideseepage,the bottom of a
trenchshouldbe cut a minimumof 6 in. into underlvino
imoerviousmaterial
FOUNDATION WALL
FOOTING
DRAIN
SURFACE
TYPiCAL
STORM
RUNOFF
LINE
vf ,st
LOWERED
WATER TAaLE -'
SECTION
il *i i i lrlr,{ , rrrr r{ i r r {
I ir
il
| -.-
,/
^--.
AHEA FOR
LOWERED
ii,ii,ii,ii,ll,
oUTFALL
LJ-\+]_
-i L__ [__ ___ J_. Lr___ t_____r aL___*i rLT
NOTES
1. Subsoil drainage systems are laid out to meet the needs
ol a site. A grid, parallel lines, or random pattern at low
pornts In the topography is used to collect subsurface
water.
=====1t
l
UNDER-SUB
2. Depth and spacing of subsoil drainage pipes depend on

soil conditions. Geotechnical design may be required to
ensure eflective operation of a subsoil drainage system.
UNDER-SITE
SUBSOIL
DRAINAGE
PIPE CONNECTOR
COLUR
/
SUBDRAINS
UNDER-BUILDING
SUMP PUMP DISCHARGE/

TO THE BUILDING
,/
/
DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
SUBSOIL
POLYETHYLENE
TYPE B
SUBSURFACE
DRAINPIPES
Joseph P. Mensch, P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia

K u r t N P r o n s k e ,P l ; R e s t o n . V i r q i n i a
Harold C. Munger, FAIA; Munger Munger + Associates Architects; Toledo, Ohio
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
DRY WELL
-4TO6ROWS
OF %" DIAMflER
HOLES (BOfrOM
HALF ONLY)
CROWN, TYP
INVERT, TYP
Dry wells provide an underground disposal system tor sur

lace runoff, but their effectiveness is in direct Drooonion to
the po.osity of surrounding soils, and they are etticrent onl\
for draining small areas. High rainfall runoff rates cannot be
absorbed at the rather low prcolation rates of most soils, so
the difference is stored temporarily in a dry well. Efficiency
is reduced during extended periods of wet weather, when
receiving soils are saturated and the well is refilled before it
drains completely.
PIPE CONNECTOR
BAND
SLOTS 2" O C
ALL AROUND
4- TO 6"
DIAMETER
PVC OR
NOTE
z
l
I
I
DRAINAGE
PIPE CONNECTOR
COLUR
/4TO6ROWS
OF %'OIAMEAER
HOLES (BONOM
HALF ONLY)
FREE,DRATNING
./
GRANUUR MATERIAL -
l_ A
,t
||
C O R R U G A T E DM E T A L
TYPE
OVERFLOW
RELIEF LINE
TO ADEOUATE
OUTFALL
GEOTEXTILE
FABRIC
AROUND
PERIMETER
iL,' 1t-riir
WATER TABLE
PLAN
TYP
i--lg
ti
To
\
DRAINPIPE,
-- -- ;l ll r
rr{
4" TO 6" DIAMETER

PERFORATED
-*t
ti
il
11
| I
Jll
_lL.:L
lLj_A
_r------.-/
MANHOLE
OR INLET
(SIZE VARIES)
-..-
UNDER.SUB
t+l+
SUBDRATN
o t% MtN sLoPE
DRAIN
S1
UTERAL
SPACING
SUBDRAIN
o.r% MtN.sLoPE
ri'li
il
I
,, li il i
rl,,
i
SUBSURFACE
CONNECTOR
COL4R
GEOTEXTILE
FABRIC WRAPPED
ALL AROUND
SurfoceDroinqgeSystems
NATURAL
149
CHANNEL--\
INLET ANO OUTLfl

WITH PAVED APRO"
--_---------\
AND/OR
RIPRAP
PREVENTS
SCOUR
\
\
SINGLE
OR MULTIPLE
PIPE OR BOX
CULVERTS UNDER ROADWAY
PAVEO CHUTE ON
Lro**,"o .o. -,
./v
,/v
SHEtr
,/
RUNOFF ON
IMPERVIOUS
PAVING SURFACE
SURFACE
DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
TYPES
(IMPERVIOUS
PAVING)
GENERAL
CONCRETE BORDER
Surface drainage systems are designed to collect and dispose of raintall runoff to prevent the llow of water from damaging building structures {through foundation leakage), sit
structures, and the surface g.ade (lhrough erosion). The two
basic types of surface drainage are the open system and the
closed system.
The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale and culvert, is
used in less densely populated, more open areas where the
flow of water above grade n be accommodated fairly easily. The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an inlevcalch
basin, and manholes. is used in more urban, populated
areas, where land must be used efficiently and water
brought below the surface quickly to avord interlerence with
human activity. The two systems are commonly combined
where terrain, human density, and land uses dictate.
A petuaous or porous paving system is often used for parking
and other hard site surfaces. This drainage system allows
water to prcolate through the paved surface into the soil,
similar to the way the land would naturally absorb water.
NOTES
1. All slopes, grates, swales. and other drainage features
must be laid out according to the ADA, without restricting
accessible routes for persoos with disabilaties.
2. Lay out grades so runoff can safely llow away trom buildings. lf drains bcore bl@ked, backed-up water should
not acumulate ardnd the foundation.
3. An open system, or one in which water is keil on too ot
the surfa@ as long as possible, is generally more ecc
nomical than a closed system.
4. Consider the effect ot ice forming on the surtace when
determining slopes tor vehicles and pedestrians.
5. Consult lsal codes on such criteria as intensitv and duration of rainstorms and allowable runoff for the locality
6. Formulas given on this page are meant for approximation
only. Consult a qualified engineer or landspe architect
to design a site-specitic system.
o3
o4
o2
,,
/--/
/-I
CONrOUR
LINES
CONCRtrE
INNER CURB
WITH CURB
CUTS TO
ALLOW
RUNOFF
OVERFLOW
INTO
GRAVEL
ol
fARKING
LoT,
\cuns,
I
\ PARxrrc
LOT WITH
POROUS
PAVING
(LEVEL
SURFACE)
/
f
STRIP
ASPHALT
SURFACE
C=O.g
ro.msofl
43,560 SO ryACRE
POROUS
POROUS
N OTE
Followingis a simplifiedmethod for calculatingthe approximate runoff of areaslessthan I 00 acres:
O=CxlxA
O = flow (cu rusec)
C = surfacerunoff value (see table)
| = antensity(in./hr;obtainfrom localcodes)
A = areaof site (acres)
Forexample,assumethe l@al code requires| = 5 in./hr:
O=CxlxA
Q=0.9x5x0.23
O = 1.04cu fvsec
O = approximatevolure of water per secondentering
the V{hanrel from the parkinglot
CALCULATION
SURFACE
OF RUNOFF
RUNOFF
VALUES
RUNOFF VELOCITY
(C)
PAVING
PAVING
SYSTEM
MATERIALS
The two principal types of porous paving are a monolithic sur

facing material and unit pavers. Monolithic porous paving is
stone aggregate bound with asphalt or portland cement. The
aggregate must be sorted to exclude the "fines" or sandsized particles that normally fill the voids between larger
pieces. Wilhout the fines, the paving material allows wateato
run through it. Generally, porous asphalt and concrete are
both strong enough for parking and roadway surfaces and
pedestrian uses. Precast unit pavers, with shapes that allow
water to flow through them. can also give surface stability for
parking or driveways. Paver types are available for exposed
placement or for burial just below the surface. ln the latter
se, the soil{ea gravel or vegetation in the pavers js ex
posed and can help percolate precipitation into the ground.
To reduce runotf and increase water absorption, porous paving must be underlaid with a bed of unbound aggregate. The
unbound aggregate acts as a structural suooon and forms a
reseryoir to hold preopitation until it can percolate Inlo the
soil. Use of porous paving may permit use of a significantly
smaller and simpler storm drainage system.
SLOPES
Highdensity residential development
NOTE
*8.3% maximum
for handicapped access
All values are approximate.
Pearse O'Doheny, ASLA; Graham Landscape Archatecture: Annagolis, Maryland
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
r50
SurfqceDroinogeSystems
POROUS
OR ASPHALf
//l
waJER
INFILTRATION
GRAVEL
STRIP
t Y .t {*rI! {.!t t $-
nnl"t'u
CONCRETE
.\
BORDER
rl rl
CONCRETE CURB WITH CURB

CUTS EVERY 4'.O''r, O C
_.
6"
POROUS PAVING (UNIT PAVERS

OR MONOLITHIC
SURFACE)
I/." TO V2" DIAMETER

GRAVEL
SEfrING
BED AND FILTER
COURSE (NO FINES)
SffiING
BED
(NO FINES)
MONOLITHIC
FILTER
FABRIC
SURFACE
RESERVOIR
CONCRfiE
PAVERS
INFILTRATION
2" TO 3"
STONE
SMING
BED
FILTER
FABRIC
OPEN PAVERS AT GRADE

STRUCTURAL
PUSTTC
INFILTRATION
1"TO 2"
BELOW
GRAOE
POROUS
NOTES
TOPSOIL
INFILL
4" SO|L
MrX:30%
TOPSOtL,
70% SANO/
GRAVEL
STRUCTURAL GRID/PAVERS BELOW GRADE
POROUS PAVING TYPES

METHOD FOR SIZING CHANNELS
Channels
andpipestor handling
waterrunoffmavbe sazed
by determining the tlow of water (O) with the formula O =
Va. V is the velcity of the runoff water in fvsec as determined by the Manning formula. and "a" is the cross-sectional area of water given in square teet. For a given Q,
adjust the channel or pipe shape, size, and/or slope to obtain
the desired velocity (one that will not erode earth, grass
ditches. or other features).
PAVING AND STONE
ON
POROUS
RESERVOIR
PAVING
1 . Soils around porous paving installations must have a minimum percolation rate of aboutl/, in.,hr and should not be
more than about 3070 clay. On sites where the slope is
grealer than 3%, te(acing the paved areas allows the
bottom of each reseryoir to .emain level.
2. Proper specification and superyision are imponant in the
installation of porous paving materials. Soil under the res
eruoir must not be unduly compacted during construction.
3. Porous concrete can withstand heavier loads than oorous
asphalt. Because it does not soften in hot weather and
may be more susceptible to freeze-thaw damage, it is
better suited to warmer climates. Additives mav be introduced to imorove cold climate Derformance.
HYDRAULIC
PROPERTIES
DETAIL
Porous asphalt has good freeze-thaw resistance but is
best suited for areas in which tralfic is limited, such as
employee parking.
While clogging of monolithic porous paving is generallv
not a problem. recommended maintenance may include
use of a hydrovac once or twice a year, as well as the
prompt removal ot leaves and windblown sand.
The reseruoir below porous paving has no fixed depth bul
is designed according to the slope of the site. the soil per
colation rate. and the size of the design storm. Consult a
civil engineer or landscape architect.
OF TYPICAL CHANNEL
SECTIONS
TYPE SECTION
The Manning formula is V = 1 .486/n x r0 67 x S0 5, io which

n = values relating to surface characteristics of channels
{see table), r = hydraulic radius (see table), and S = slope (the
drop in ft4ength),
For example. assume a 200-It concrete V{hannel
for which
W=2ft
h=0.5ft
s = 0.005 (1 ftl200 ft)
r = 0.37 {calculated usinq V{hannel DroDerties)
V = (1.486rc.0'15)x 0.25167 x 0 0050I
= 2-6 fvsec (see runoft velocity table
on first AGS surface drainage page).
To check flow, follow these steDs:
O = Va ("a" from channel properties)
= 2.6 x 0.5 = 1.3 cu fvsec.
Use the formula for calculating runoff (O = C x I x A; given on
the tirst AGS surface drainage page) to determine the llow
required for a site; compare it to the capacity of a channel
sized according to the Manning formula to determine
whether the channel design is satisfactory.
N VALUES
FORMULA
FOR
-Kl:
TRIANGULAR
7_y-
MANNING
*-rd)
I3W,J
0.3-O.5 lt recommended
Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA; Graham Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Marytand
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
for freeboard {F}
SurfoceDroinogeSyslems
TRENCH
ORAIN
COVER
GENERAL
The grate design chosen {or a particular application depends
on the priorities assigned to each of the functions listed
below. Local conditions mav require inclusion of some or all
of the pertormance {eatures in a desagn.
t5l
a" To 51
TO
\=
IRENCH
FRAME
CAPACITY: Interception of storm water rs generally consrd

ered the most imporiant function a grate can perform. The
geometry and size of the openings affect this ability. Consult
a civil engineer or hydrologist for individual grate capacities.
|_
=lll.
SCREENING OF LARGE DEBRIS: An inlet grate must act as

a strainer to prevent harmful debris lrom entering sewer
grale prevents obiects such as
lines. A welldesigned
branches, sticks, sheets of semirigid material. and chunks of
wood, which can easily pass by large curb openings (such as
open throat type). trom entering the catch basin.
PASSING OF SMALL DEBRIS: Organic material such as
grass clippings, leaves, small stones, or twigs may be permitied to pass into the catch basin as they are not a hazard
in sewer lines. Provide grate openings wide enough, long
enough. or of special design to pass this debris and still
meet requirements tor roadway-sale grates.
cRoss sEcTtoN
CONCRETE
TRENCH
DRAIN WITH
GRATED COVER
STRENGTH: Inlet grates placed in roadways must be designed to withstand heavy traffic loads. The most generally
lor highway loading criteria come
accepted specifictions
from the American Association ot State Highway and Transportation Off icials (AASHTO).
PERMANENCY: An inlt grate should be designd to match
or exceed the expected life of the installation. Steel, aluminum, and cast iron are gnorally accepted materials for inlet
grates, although other materials such as brass. chrome, and
structural polyethylene are used in special applications.
BICYCLE SAFETY: Gctes 6n be made safer lor bicycie and
pedestrian traffic through attention to design and installation.
Options include diagenal bars set at a 45o angle; slotted grates,
provided the slots ar6 1r/r to 21/. in. wide and a maximum ol I in.
long and th 16ns6e
{crcss) bars ar spaced so a bicycle
wheel cannot drop lorer thah Sbout 1 in.; and bars transverse to
the directaonoI tGffic and stom water flow and slanted to coG
duct water into the tc't! basin. Grate dosign does not ensure
safe usage: atention must be paid to usage patterns of probable
users. Consult tEffic enginegrs and l@l codes for more infomation.
Consider clogging hazards and the geometry of flow-through
efficienct when dosigning for bicycle safety. Use ol van+
shaped or sloped bars. rather than conventional vertacal bars,
may improve the pacity of a grate to pass storm water.
Grates with these typos of bars are safe for bicycls; consult
manufacturers. Do not allow gutter slopes to be substantially swaldd into the curb, which could create a pocket in the
roadway affecting the satev of bicycles and other traffic.
GRATE
SIZING
o = .goca {oa.aa)o5
A = free area (sq ft)
d = allowable depth of water above grate {ft)
(0.6 for square edges, 0.8 lor
C = orifice mfficient
round)
.66 = clogging factor
,,ziR-I
-/rraarur\--l
cRoss sEcTtoN
SECTION
METAL TRENCH
DRAIN ASSEMBLY
BRONZE OR
ALUMINUM GRATING
POLYMER
DRAIN
WITH METAL GRATE
ME TAL
LINER
AVAIUBLE
STANDARO
Most grates are oversized to prevent buildup of water; see

manufacturers' catalogs for free area. The following formula
for sizing grates is based on a given allowable depth o{ water
over the grate.
where
METAL TRENCH
ASSEMBLY
LONGITUDINAL
GRATING
OESIGNS
DNODDODD
DDtrBDtrDO
trOtrDDtrDtr
DOOtr!DCD
GRATINGS
GRATING
FOR HEAVY PEDESTRIAN
DESIGN
TRAFFIC
TYPES
..'o
J"
WATER SURFACE
N-
BEEHIVE
'----/
STRAIGHT H EADWALL
oRTGtNAL
cneor
lb
oo
illzz,^\\-=r;"
coNvEx
L
REVETMENT
o.oo2 MAX
^{t2'-
9'
STRAIGHT
MISCELLANEOUS
GRATE
DESIGNS
ENDWALL
HEADV\/ALLS
AND
;" TO
lz'
SAOOLE ENDWALL
ENDWALLS
NOTE
Use check dams where channel slope and velocity will cause
erosron.
CHECK
DAMS
PearseO'Doherty,ASLA; GrahamLandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis.Maryland
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
Monholes,Inlets,qnd Cotch Bosins
152
2-O TO 4 -O"
DIAMETER MIN
PRECAST
CONCRETE
>a'
FINISH GRADE
SLOPES TOWARD
MANHOLE
FRAME AND
COVER
OF CURB
GASKETED
JOINTS
REOU'RED
METAL
MANHOLE
STEPS
INLET GRATE
AND FRAME
SANITARY
PRECAST
CONCRETE,5"
MIN THICKNESS
CONCRETE
5: I SLOPE
FILL,
4" TO 6"
OPENIN6
OUTFALL
TO
STORM DRAIN
CURB
FLEXIBLE
JOINT FOR
SANITARY
PIPE
CONNECTIONS
PRECAST CONCRETE
5" MIN. THICKNESS
CONCRfrE FOOTING
ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE
OR SANITARY
INLET
INLET
CONCRfrE
BENCH, SHAPED
TO PROVIDE
POSITIVE
DRAINAGE
LOCKING
BOLT
7
:-z
NOTES
1. Pargingmay be omittedin constructiono{ storm sewer
mannotes.
2. Wall thicknesson precastconcretemanholesincreases
wathdepths greaterthan 12 ft.
3. Brickwalls8 in. thickmay be usedfor manholesup to 12
ft deep. For that part of the manholedeeperthan 12 lt,
brick-and-blockwalls should be 12 in. thick. Manholes
greaterthan I 2 ft deep shouldhave a base 12 in. thick.
COMBINED
MANHOLE
SYSTEM
PUN
VARIES TO PROVIOE
POSITIVE SLOPE TO
OUTLS
PIPE
MULTIPLE
AVAIUBLE
PANERNS
IN A" TO 51 " WIDTHS
INLET GRATE
AND FRAME
To
PRECAST
CONCRETE,
5"
MIN. THICKNESS
BASINWITH END, SIDE

OR BONOM OUTLET,
FOR GRATES 7'TO 24
WIDE
SE\/VER
SECTION
FOR CONTINUATION
SEE INLET OR CATCH
BASIN DETAIL
GUTTER
INLET
12
.4th"
NOTE
Grates without bolts are available
TRENCH
DRAIN
i,
SLOPE OF
SIDES VARIES
TO FIT FRAME
z<
PU
r!
sii
9
uq
F24
N"J@
PUN
ALTERNATIVE
SHAPES
AVAIUBLE
TO MATCH CURA SECTIONS:
CURAS ADJUSTABLE FROM 3" TO 9"
SECTION
SECTION
sEcTtoN
4TA
a-
N ()TES
A pipe trap or hood is required for connections to combinatron sewers.
1. Frames and grates are available in many standard shapes

and sizes. Constructed of cast or ductile iron. aluminum.
and bronze, they are made for light- or heavy-duty loading
conditions. Common shapes include round, rectangular,
square. and linear. In addition, grates may be flat, concave, or convex. Consult manufacturers'cataloos for the
full range ol available castings.
CATCH
TYPICAL
CONCRETE
FOOTING
ON COMPACTED
SUBGRADE
NOTE
JOSepn
BASIN
P. Mensch. P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia
KurtN. Pronske, P.E.; Reston, Virginia
Lr))
/ta/
t_-
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
FRAMES
AND GRATES
2. Locate drainage structures with grated openings on or

beyond the periphery of t.aveled ways to minimize con.
tact wilh pedestrian or vehicular traffic Grates that may
come into contact with feel or narrow wheels must be
constructed to prevent penetration by heels, crutch and
cane tips, and slim tires but still have suf{icient openings
to pass the expected runofl.
r53
RunotfControlSystems
GENERAL
Natural filtration devices in the envi.onment retain and treat
pollutaOts such as sediment, fertilize., pesticides, and air pol'
lutants before they can enter water bodies. Increasing development, however, compromises the ability of the landscape
to prevent water resource contaminatioo TypicallY. when
land is developed, trees that {ormerly intercepted rainiall and
pollutants are felled; natural depressaons that tempo'rarily
ponded water are graded, soil is compacted: and the thick
leaflitter humus layer of the forest floor, which had ab'
sorbed rainfall. is scraoed olf or erodes.
o' To
POOL
LEVEL
o- To l'-o"
Once a site has been developed, it can no longer store as

much water, and rainfall is immediately transformed into
runoff and transported to rivers, lakes. wetlands, or oth3r
surface water systems Once construction is complete and
some vegetation has returned to the site, expansavejmpeNi'
ous surfaces such as rooltops and parking lots prevent most
runoff from percolating into the soil. lnstead, it must be
directed olf site by a surlace d.ainage system of curbs, culverts, gutters, and storm sewers.
POOL DEPTH
SHALLOW
EMERGENT
I
i
I -OABOVE
POOL
LEVEL
MARSH
{PERSISTENT VEGETATION)
Measures for managing pollutants include methods of con struction and land development that replace natural pollution
tiltration pathways (e.9., forests. wetlands)with similar filter
ing mechanisms. Water detention systems retain water, provide for percolation to groundwater, and filter pollutants out
of water runoft. These systems comprise detention basins.
constructed wetlands, and other temporary and permanent
erosron conlrol measures.
When choosing appropriate runoff control measures for a
site, consider the following factors: the sensitivity of the
local ecosystem: slope of the site; depth of the water table:
proximity to bdrock, foundations, and wells; land consumption: land use restrictions; high sediment input: and thermal
rmpacts to downstream areas.
NATURAL
URBAN
BMP
OPTIONS
water
:xtended
letention
lonos
ponds
pono
lnfiltration
ASSESSMENT
POLLUTANT
REMOVAL
RELIABILITY
oonds sometimes include a wet lower area for additional

runoff retention. Wet ponds are permanently wet, allowing
pollutants to settle to the bottom. Wet ponds that extend
runoff retention time with control devices can remove a very
high percentage of paniculate pollutants.
In general,four wetlandsensitivityissuesshouldbe taken

into account: hydrology-the wetland's source of water
could be alteredby development;vegetation-the plant species in a wetland have different levels ot hardiness;ecologipristine systems are more sensitiveto d+
cal statHore
velopment and runoff pollution; and animal species-fo.
instance,nesting birds need greater buffer distances than
wintering waterfowl.
Constructed storm water wetlands (engineered, shallow

marshlike areas) retain runoff for long periods, allowing pollutants to settle out of the water column and providing biological, chemical, and physical processes for breaking down
pollutants. Wetland vegetation slows the velocity of storm
water, reducing erosion and allowing pollutants to settle.
Many organic and inorganic compounds are removed from
wetlands by the chemical processes of absorption, precipitation. and volatilization.
ON-SITE RUNOFF CONTROL MEASURES

Architectscan use severalon-sitemeasuresto controlrunoff
in developmentprojects.One ot the most ommonly used is
a simple open storagearea for runoff. The contigurationof
such open systemsvaries,dependingon the desiredlevelof
pollutanttreatment.Typilly lled storageponds, detention
basins.or (when made to resemblea naturalenvironrent) a
constructedstorm mter wetland, open systems generally
operatemore thoroughlywith increasedretentiontirne.
Simplestorageponds are typicallydry between storms after
runoff has evaporatedor infiltrated the groundwater. Dry
ATPLIcABILITY
TO MOST
DEVELOPM ENTS
Constructed storm water wetlands can also filter excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus contained in runoff
from gardens and septic tanks. To correctly size a wetland
used lor storm water runoff control, consider the total volume
and vel@ity of water entering and leaving the system.
Potential advantages of using constructed storm water wet
lands are that they have relatively low capital and operating
costs, offer consistent compliance with permit requirements,
and greatly reduce operational and maintenance costs.
OF URBAN BEST MANAGEMENT
WILDLIFE
HABITAT
POTENTIAL
ENVIRONM ENTAL
CONCER NS
PRACTICES
COMPARATIVE
COSTS
(BMPS)
SPECIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Applicableto most sites

if landis available
High
Stream warming, natural wetland

alteralron
Marginally hrgher than wel

ponds
!commended wrth desrgn

provements and with the use
microoools and wetlands
Moderate but not

always reljable
20+ years but trequent cloggrng and

short detention
common
Widely applicable but

requires at least l0acres
of drainage area
Moderate
Possible stream warming and hab- Lowest cost alternative in

itat destruction
size range
commended with design im)vements and with the use

micropools and wetlands
Moderate to high
20+ years
Widelyappliblebut
requares
d.ainagearea
of more than 2 acres
Moderate to
high
Possible stream warming, tropic

shifts, habitat
Moderate to high compared

to convenlronal
Wrdely applrcable
Moderate to
high
Selectionof appropriatepond
option minimizesoverall
environmentalimpact
Most expensivepond option
Highly restricted (soils.

groundwater, slope,
area, sediment input)
Low
within 5 years
Slight risk of groundwater

conGmrnalron
wrthin 5 Vears
Hrghly restncted (sorls,

groundwater, slope,
area, sediment input)
Low to moderate
Slight risk of groundwater

contamination
Costtfective on smaller
sites, rehabcosts can be
considerable
Constructioncost moderate,
but rehabcost high
Mooerarero nrgn
20+ years
kedundancyincreasesreliability)
Presumedmoderate 50Yo {ailure rate
WIN
site evaluation
Recommended with pretreatment and geotechnical

Not widely recommended
longevity is improved
High. if working
75% tailurewithin
5 years
Extremely restricted
(traffic, soils. ground
watef, slope, area, sediment input)
Possiblegroundwaterimpacts,
uncontrolledrunoff
Costttectrvecomparedto
asphaltwhen
conventional
workangproperly
Moderate to hrgh
20+ years
Applrcable ior smaller

develoPments
Minor
Comparativelyhigh construc- Recommended, with local

tion costsandfrequentmain- demonstratron
tenance
Low to moderate
but unreliable
20+ years
Lowiensity develotr
ment and roads
Minor
Low compared to curb and

gulter
unknownbut may
be limited
flestncted to low
areas
settings
inlets
WETLANDS
The sensitivity ol wetlands determines appropriatebufter

distances between them and developed areas. Buffers,
which may rangefrom 30 to 300 ft or more, should respond
to the eflect runoff may have on the wetland ecosystem.
(Consulta wetlandsscientistto formulatebufferdistances.)
OF THE EFFECTIVNESS
LO NG EVITYA
NONTIDAL
20+ Vears expected
strips Unrelrable In
Water
qua[y
FRESHWATER.
Moderate to high,
depending on design
Presumed moderate, it working
Grassed
swates
OF NATURAL
SYSTEMS
\/\/ETLAND
Wetlands naturally detain and filter water. Scattered throughout the United States, from tropical areas to tundra, they form
in depressions in the landscape where the water table is near
or at the surface of the soil. They may be as small as a tablelop or span tens of thousands of acres. There is no single, correct. ecologically sound definition for wetlands, primarily
because of their diversity, These systems are an imponant
part of the ecosystem because they produce fmd and timber,
purify drinking water, absorb and store floodwater, suppress
slorm surges, and help maintain biodiversity. Water is su}
plied to a wetland either by surface sources (e.9., streams or
riwrs) or by groundwater.
COMPARATIVE
CROSS.SECTION
ned low
years
Small, hrghly rmpervrous

catchments {less than 2
acres)
'Based on current desjgns and prevailing maintenance practices
until
necommenoeo In nlgnty
restricted applications with
caref ul construction and
eflective maintenance
Recommended, with check.

dams, as one part of a BMP
system
Recommended as one ele
ment of a BMP system
Minor
forested
Resuspension of hydrocarbon
loadings, disposal of hydrocarbon
and toxic residuals
NOTE
The variety of urban BMPs avaalable to remove pollutants
Irom urban runoff differs widely in performance, longevity.
High compared to trenches

and sand filters
Not cur.ently recommended

as a primary BMP option
feasibility.cost. and environmentalimpact.As the matrix

shows, storm water wetlands are an attractiveBMP choice
at manydevelopment
sites.
CarrieFischer,"Design for Wetlands Preseryation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalBesourceGuide Washington,D.C.: The Amer,canlnstitute of Architects,1992)
ThomasSchueler:Metropolitan
WashingtonCouncilof Governments:
Washington,D.C.
AND DRAINAGE
SEWERAGE
154
RunoffControlSysiems
STORM
WATER
PONDIr'VETLAND SYSTEM: A pond/wetland design utilizes

lwo separate cells for storm water treatment, a wet pond
and a shallow marsh. The multiple functions of the latter are
to trap sediments, reduce incoming runofl velocity, and
remove pollutants. Pond/wetland systems consume less
space than shatlow marsh svstems because the bulk of the
treatment is provided by a deep pool rather than a shallow
marsh.
WETLANDS
Storm water wetlands can be defined as constructed systems

explicitly designed 10 mitigate the effects of sto.m water qualatyand quantiv on urban development. They temporarily store
storm water runoff ln shallow pools that create growing condF
tions suitable for emergent and riparian wetland plants In
combination, the runoff storage, complex microtopography.
and emergent plants in the constructed wetland form an ideal
matrix for the removal of urban pollutants-
EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND: In extended detention

wetlands, ertra runoff storage is created by temporarily detaining runof{ above the shallow marsh. This extended detention feature enables the wetland to occupy less space as
temporary venical storage panially substitutes for shallow
marsh storage. A growing zone is created along the gentle
srde slopes of extended detention wetlands, from the nor
mal pool level to the maximum extended detention water
surface.
Unlike natural wetlands, which often express the underlying

groundwater level, storm water wetlands are dominated by
surface runoff. Storm water wetlands can best be described
as semitidal, in that they have a hydroperiod characterized by
a cyclic pattern 01 jnundation and subsequent drawdown,
occurring 15-30 times a year, depending on rainfall and the
imperyiousness of the contributing watershed.
Storm water wetlands usually fall into one of four baslc
desrgns:
POCKET WETLANDS: Pocket wetlands are adapted to serye

small sites {from one to ten acres). Because the drainage
area is small, pocket wetlands usually do not have a reliable
base flow, creating a widely fluctuating water level. In most
cases, water levels in the welland are supported by excavatIng down to the water table. ln drier areas, a pocket wetland
is supponed only by storm water runoff, and during extended periods of dry weather it will have no shallow pool at
all {only saturated soils). Due to their small size and fluctuat-
SHALLOW MARSH SYSTEM: The large surface area of a

shallow marsh design demands a reliable groundwater supply
or base flow to maintain sufficient water elevation to suooort
emergent wetland plants. Shallow marsh systems take up a
lot of space. requiring a sizable contributing watershed (often
more than 25 acres) to support a shallow permanent pool.
Ing water levels, pocket wetlands otten have low plant diver
srty and poor wildlife habitat value
The selection of a partrcular wetland dedlgn usually depends
on three factors: available space, contributing watershed
area, and desired environmental function. However. storni
water wetlands are not typically located within delineate.
natural wetland areas, which provide critical habitat and eco
system seryices and are protected under local, state, and
federal statutes. Storm water wetlands should also not be
confused wilh constructed wetlands used to mitigate the
permitted loss of natural wetlands under wetland protection
regulations. The primary goal of wetland mitigation is to rep
licate the species diversity and ecological function of the losr
natural wetland; whereas the more limited goal of storn,
water wetlands is to maximize pollutant removal and crealr
generic wetland habitat
Storm water wetlands are also distinguished from natural
wetlands that receive storm water runoff as a consequenc
of upstream development. Although not intended lor stornl
water treatment, wetlands influenced by storm water arF
common in urban settings. Storm water runoff that be
comes a maior component of the water balance of a natura
wetland can severely alter the functional and structural qual
ties of the wetland. The end result is a storm water-injlu
enced natural wetland that is more characteristic of a storm
water wetland than a natural one.
MAINTENANCE
25% OF POND
PERIMETER
OPEN
BENCH
ISUND
GRASS
MICROPOOL
FOREBAY
sEcrloN
(*=,:
GATE VALVES
PROVIDE
FLEXIBILITY
IN DEPTH
CONTROL
tk
rE:lEI?,."? a?EE
ffi'""'(ff[
$r:4(l|l]J4:s.wr"*
+i
25'WffUND
BUFFER
UNDSCAPED WITH
NATIVE TREEgSHRUBS
FOR HABITAT
STORAGE
ALLOCATION
SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION
NOTE
Most of the shallow marsh system is 0-18 in. deep. a depth
that creates favorable conditions for the growth of emergenl
wetland plants. A deeper forebay is located at the malor
inlet, and a deeo microoool is situated near the outlet
SHALLO\/V
MARSH
SYSTEM
CONCRETE
AOUATIC
BENCH
PLUNGE
POOL
NORMAL
POOL
ZONE\
MARSH
ZONE. TYP
-;l*;i1t
u***X***l
-i:-:{i2
:1{iii
j*"-{
ffi-J"--"{
P * + + + + l lJr:
+*f
{f:i:i:il,
(:i:tX:z
** tl:t:
f+S
*!:if
MAXIMUM
SAFETY
STORM LIMIT
SECTION
*7i
';K*++
ro-'fhi f * r
MICROPOOL
;Fi
ki1r1
MARSH
(30%)
STORAGE
ALLOCATION
SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION
NOTE
EMBANKMENT
RISER IN
EMBANKMENT
POND/WETLAND
The pond/wetland system consists of a deep pond that leads

to a shallow wetland. The pond removes pollutants and
reduces the space required for the system.
SYSTEM
CarrieFischer,"Design lor Wetlands Preservation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalResourceGuide (Washington,D.C.:The AmericanInstituteof Architects, 1992)
ThomasSchueler;
Met.opolitanWashingtonCouncilof Governmentsj
Washington.D.C.
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
RunotfControlSystems
COMPARATIVE
ATTRIBUTES
TTR I B UTE
r55
OF FOUR STORM WATER \^/ETLAND DESIGNS
SHALLOW
MARSH
PO N D,/W ETLA N D
EXTENDED
DETENTION
POCKET
WETLAND
\^/ETLAND
Moderate; reliable removal of sediments and nutnents
Moderate to high: reliable removal of

nutrients and sediment
Moderate; less reliable removal of nutrients
Land consumption
High; shallow marsh storage consumes space
Moderate, as venical pool substitutes

fo. marsh storage
Moderate, as vertical extended detention substi- Moderate, but can be shoehorned into
tutes for marsh storage
site
Water balance
Dry weather base tlow normally recommended

source of water supply to wetland
Wetland area/watershed
Minimumratioof .02
removal capability
to maintain wate. elevations; groundwater oot recommended
Moderate; can be subiect to resuspension

and groundwater displacement
Water supply provided by excavation to

grounowater
as primary
Minimumratioof .01
Minimumratioot .01
Minimumratioof .01
Drainagearea of 25 acresor more.

with dry weather O*
Minimumof 10 acresrequiredfor extended

detentron
l - 1 0a c r e s
with dry weather O*
Pond,micropool
Forebay,micropool
Micropool,if possible
contributingwatershedarea Drainageareaof 25 acresor more,

Deepwater cells
Forebay, channels, micropool
Outletconfiguration
Reversed slope pipe extending from riser. withdrawn approximately 1 ft below normal pool; pipe and pond drain equipped with
gate valve
Sediment clei
cleanout cycle
(aoproximate)
Cleanout of forebay every 2-5 yr
Cleanoutot pond every 10 yr
Cleanoutof Iorebayevery 2-5 yr
Native plant diversity
High. if complex microtopography is

present
High, with sufficient wetland complexity and area
Moderatej fluctuating water levels impose physi- Low to moderate, due to small surface
ological constraints
area and poor control of water levels
High, with complexity and buffer
High,with buffer, attractswaterfowl
Moderate.with buffer
Wildlife
habitatpotential
'O<officient
Broad{rested weir with half-round trash

rack and pond drain
: of wetlandevery5 10 yr, on site

and stockpilemulch
Low, due to small area and low diversitv
of runoff
EXTENDED DflENTION
WETUND ZONE
Z MAXIMUM EXTENDED
DffENTION LIMIT
EXTENOED
DSENTION
ZONE
FOREBAY
NORMAL
POOL
ELEVATION
FOREBAY
MICROPOOL
POOL
l2o%)
DEEP
POOL
(20%)
HIGH
MARSH
(45%)
EXTENDED
DETENTION
HIGH
MARSH
ZONE
MICROPOOL
POND BUFFER
ro m MTNTMUM
DETENTION
SURFACE
ALLOCATION
ALLOCATION
AREA
NOTE
EXTENDED
STORAGE
The water level in an extended detention wetland can

increase by as much as 3 tt after a storm, returning to normal levels within 24 hr. As much as half the total treatment
volume can be provided as extended detention storage,
which helos orotect downstream channels from erosion and
reduces the sDace needed for the wetland.
WETLAND
MAINTENANCE
SWALE
MAXIMUM STORM ELEVATION

SASONAL
TRASH
HIGH
RAC
I
_ __!____,
I
-_-_-_T-----------+-----------T---I
STORAGE
l2o%)
ALLOCATION
HIGH
suRFAcE AREA
ALLOCATION
MARSH
BROAO.CRESTED
WEIR
POCKET
STORM
vvATER
WETLAND
Carrie Fischer, "Design for Wetlands Preservation," topic ll.A.1 in Environmental Resource 6ulde {Washington, D.C.: The American lnstitute of Architects, 19921
Thomas Schueler; Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Washington, D.C.
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGF
r56
UnitPqversond PoverAssemblyTypes
texture, the better the slip resistance. Abrasion resis
tance relers to the wear and tear an assembly is subjected lo under normal use. According to ASTM C902,
"Standard Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic
'
Paving Brick, an abrasion index classificationdetermines
the type of unit requrred for an intended exposure. A
dense. hard burned extruded brick with 8000 psi compressive strength that contorms to ASTM C902, Class
SX. Type 1, resists both abrasion and weathering and is
adequate Jor most heavy-traffic exterior applications.
Molded brick with 4000 psi compressjve strength that
conforms to ASTM C902, Class SX. Type 2, is adequate
for most exterior pedestrian applications. It materials
other than brick are used for paving, consult the manufacturer to learn which products are suitable for use as pav
e.s in a oarticular apolication.
GENERAL
Unrt paving assemblies are principally used for applications
such as shopping plazas, building entrances, walkways,
patros, residential driveways, and residential parking areas
However. they may be used for streets with heavy vehicular
traflic and lor industrial floors or other special conditio.s.
Consult wilh a landscape architect or engineer for appropri
ate design guidelines.
NOTES
LENGTH
\-/
SPACERS PROVIDE
l/16" JotNT
3. Proper subgrade preparation of areas to be paved is im

portant. Remove all vegetation and organic material. anc
consider the location of existing or proposed under
ground utilities and storm drainage, as well as user con
venience.
2. Assess potential traffic loads when planning unit paving

installations.Heavy vehicular loads require a rigid or semirigid continuous base, while a flexible base and ilexible
paving are suitable for light vehicular loads (residentialtype). Use either base type for pedestrian lraffic. Choose
a bond pattern based on expected traffic patterns; traffic
should travel perpendicular to the long dimension of the
paving unit. For vehicular areas, use a gravel subbase
4. Plan for surface and subsurface drainage. Slope paving

away from buildings. retaining walls, etc. atl/s to 'L in
per toot. Bigid paving always requires adequate surface
drainage, with the long dimension of the mortar joints
running parallel to the direction of runoff. Flexible pavin.r
requires both surface and subsurface drainage.
5. To prevent horizontal movement of flexible (mortarlessl
paving assemblies, use a curb of brick soldier coursing
set in concrete, landscape timbers, or other edging mate
nal_
6. There are three maior types of unit paver joint materia
mortar, grout (portland cement and sand without hy
drated lime), and a dry mixture of 9rout.
F L E X I B L E { M O R T A R L E S S )P A V E R S
RIGID (MORTARED) PAVERS
1. Paver units are selected according to color, texture, abras,on resistance. and resistance 10 weathering. The texture of the unit affects slip resistance-the coarser the
CBAMFER
{OPTIONAL)\
(minimum 6 in. crushed gravel) compacted to 95yo and

paver sizes B in square or smaller. Consult an engineer 10
accurately define paver sizes, shapes, gravel depth, con
crete base depth, and concrete reintorcement require
ments.
RECTANGUUR
NEOPRENE
TACK COAT (2%)
-).
CONCRtrE
BASE COURS
(RIGID)
ASPHALT
SQUARE
EXPANSION
JOINT
(SEMIRIGID)
MEMBRANEUYER
AS AOND BREAK AND
CUSHION MATERIAL
GRAVEL BASE COURSE

(FLEXIBLE)
SENING
BED MATERIAL
CONCRETE BASE
COURSE (RIGID)
MEMBRANE AS MOISTURE
AND WEED AARRIER AND AS
SETTING BED CONTAINMENT
FLEXIBLE (MORTARLESS)
PAVER
ruonrlnED)
PAVER
N OTES
*,o*t'
HEXAGONAL
NOTE
Rectangular, square, and hexagonal pavers are available in
both brick and concrete.
TYPICAL
PAVER
TYPICAL
SHAPES
PAVER
SIZES
IN IN. (MM)
R ECTANGULART
L
8 (200)
7 51,l1g4)
7 1t" 11901
(100)
51"l92l
W&L
6 (150) 6 {1501
8 (200) 8 {200)
8 {200) 12 (300) r 2 (300)
12 (3001
4 {100}
6 (150)
{89)
7 ,le(194)
1 'lal194l
(200)
8 (200)
16 (400)
'Check with manufacturerfor availabilitvof chamfers.
NOTE
The height of pavrsvarieswith the manufacturerand applicationbut is usually11/4132),2111\571,251s1671,
ot 23/a110).
1. Unit paving assemblies are classified according to th

type ot base supporting the paver, either rigid {monared)
or flexible {mortarless). Base tvpes are a reinforced or
unreinforced concrete slab on grade that acpts either
rigid or tlexible pavers {rigid}; asphalt or bituminous concrete that accepts flexible pavers only (semirigid continuous): a compacted gravel, sand, or sand{ement maxture
that accepts flexible pavers only (flexible);and suspended
diaphragm or structural floor and roof assemblies, which
vary by design and accept either rigid or flexible pavers.
2. Setting bed (cushion) material, placed between base and
paving surface, functions as a leveling layer to help refine
the finished grade and compensate for itregularities in
the base and paver unit surfaces. Sefting bed material
can be a 1- or 2-in. layer of sand, pea gravel, stone
screenings, roofing felt, asphalt (7% asphalt,93% sand
with a neoprene tack coat), or mnar.
Sand for sening
beds, bases, ioints, and mortar should conlorm to ASTM
C144, "Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.- Use mortar setting or leveling beds only in conjunction with concrete
and asphalt bases: the thickness of the bed may vary
from r/, to 2 in.
PAVER
ASSEMBLY
[]Et_]
INTERLOCKING
NOTES
Vords may be trlled wath grass. ground cover, or gravel

2. Grass oavers mav be used to control erosion.
PAVER
4. Use base materials, including gravel, concrete, and as

phalt. for suppon, drainage, and/or ground swell protec
tion. For maximum drainage efficiency and to prevent
upward capillary action. specify clean. washed gravel.
5. Expansion joints can alleviate thermal and moisture move
rent, especially in rigid or mortared assemblies. Expan
sion joints are generally l@ated parallel or adjacent to
curbs and edgings, at right angle turns, around interruptions {e.9., manhole cover assmblies), at set distances in
long runs of masonry, and where dissimilar materials meet
3'OIAMETER
PUSTIC
RINGS(I"HIGH}
EEE
']
3. Membranes are installed in unit paving assemblies for

several purposes: to control the passage of moisture
reduce weed groMh, prevent the sand course from filter
ing into lower courses, and as a bond break. Considel
using bond breaks between rigid paving and rigid bases
lo accommodate differential movement. Membranes are
of sheet or liquid material that can resist moisture. rot.
and decay. Sheet material includes asphalt roofing fell.
polyethylene film, vinyl, neoprene, and rubber. Liquld
types are asphalt, modified urethane, or polyurethane
bitumen; these are preferred for irregular surfaces.
TYPES
CONCRflE
INTERLOCKING
PAVERS (HOLES FILLED
WITH SOIL AND GRASS)
GRASS
MEMBRANE UYER AS
MOISTURE BARRIER
ntcto
3. Grass rings are available with close ring spacing for pedestrian use or wrth wide ring spacing for vehicular use.
TYPES
DennisCarmichael;
EDAW.Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
UnitPoverDetoils
CUTBACK
ASPHALT PRIMER
MORTARLESS
BRICK PAVING
WELDED WIRE FABRIC

'/r" ASPHALT
BED
SENING
NEOPRENE
TACK COAT (
%" SAND
SffiING
BED
'
1 WEEPS AT
610" O.C. (E.W.)
4" GRAVEL.
6"X6"X6',
COBBLESTONE
4" GRAVEL
(FLEXIBLE
I ' W E E P SA T
610" O C. (E.W.)
MIN.. OVER
CONCRETE BASE
WELDED WIRE FABRIC\
/2"
BASE
STONE PAVER
BRICK, CLAY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK

PAVERS OVER CONCRETE BASE
,2" ASPHALT
SEfrING
2'' LONDON
PAVERS
I s.LB ROOFING FELT

3/r" ASPHALT
SffiING
BED
AASE)
4" CONCRETE WITH

WELDED WIRE FABRIC
( R I G I DB A S E )
4" GRAVEL OVER

EARTH
COMPACTED
4" MIN
BRICK PAVING OVER CONCRETE
157
COBBLESTONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE

(oR GRAvELi BAsE
WITH
4" CONCRETE
WELDEO
WIRE FABRIC
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS

(PRESSURE-TREATED)
CONCRETE
I 2" LONG SLIP

AT 3',-O" O.C_
DOWELS
BRICK
OR
STONE
OR
CONCRETE
PAVERS
PAVERS
ASPHALT
OVER
CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON

OVER CONCRETE BASE
OVER
BASE
WALKS
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS OVER CONCRET
BASE
RIGID BASE
PAVER
2" CONCRffE
WITH HANDTIGHT
MORTARLESS JOINT
COMPACTED SAND
3" DEEP CONCRETE
GEOTEXTILE
GEOTEXTILE
NOTE
Preformed lattice unit grids are used for storm runoff con'
trol, pathways, parking areas, and soil conservation.
MORTARLESS
(FLEXIBLE)
PAVING
SANO
OVER
CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON

WALKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
BRICK
AASE
MORTARLESS
I " TO I %" SCREENINGS

BED
OR SAND SffING
GRIO PAVING BLOCKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
PAVER
UNOSCAPE
TIMBERS
4- MIN. COMPACTED
GRAVEL
BASE
SOLOIER
COURSE
GEOTEXTILE
GRAVEL
BRICK, CUY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK

PAVERS OVER GRAVEL BASE
PAVERS
OVER
FLEXIBLE
CUT STONE PAVERS OVER SAND

AND GRAVEL BASE
"o*.:3r
SITE.FORMED
o"o t,""PAVER
WALK
BASE
Dennis Carmichael; EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria, Virginia

Charles A. Szoradi, AIA: Washington. D.C.
PAVINGAND SURFACING
UnitPqverPqtternsqnd Detqils
t58
GEOTEXTILE
LAYER
72'TO 1" SAND

CUSHION
SffiING
GRAVEL
WEEP
BEO
PERMITER
HOLES
EXPANSION
AT
ORAINAGE
| 6- O C r
JOINT
MORTARLESS
MIXEO
RUNNING
AND
STACK
BOND
BASKET WEAVE
SOLDIER
COURSE
EOGING EMBEDDED
IN CONCRETE
FOOTING
BASKET WEAVE
4' GRAVEL COURSE

OVER COMPACTED EARTH
EDGE
WEEP
DRAINAGE
HOLES
AT
AT FLEXIBLE
PAVING
I 6" O- C
STACK BOND
PATTERNEO
ASHLAR
4" CONCRETE
OVER VAPOR
BASE
BARRIER
4" GRAVEL OVER

COMPACTED EARTH
BASKET WEAVE OR PARQUET
EDGE
UNIT PAVERS
^L
DRAINAGE
AT
RIGID
PAVING
N OTES
1. Drainpipes may be omitted at welldrained areas.
2. Provide posriive outflow for drainpipes.
-1-
BASKET WEAVE
OIAGONAL
RUNNING
BOND
3. Do not use unsatisfactory soil (expanding organic).

4. Satisfactory soil must be compacted to 95%.
5. Handtight paving joints are preleted over mortar joints
However, when mortar joints are required and freezin!.
and thawing are frequent. use lalex,modified mortar.
6. Concrete tooting for edging should be 10 to 14 in. wide
and 6 to I in. deep. lt is preferable to place the bottom of
the looting at freezing depth. lf the freezing depth is
deeper than the bottom of the tooling, provide 4 in. ol
gravel below the f@ting.
7. Interlocking pavers are availableanconcrete, hvdraulical\
pressed concrete. asphalt, and brick in different weighl
classifications, compressive strengths, surface textures
finishes, and colors. Consult local supoliers for avaitabi
ity.
8. Subject to the manufacturer's recommendations anc
local code requirements, interlocking concrete pavers
may be used in areas subiect to hea\y vehicle loads at
sDeeds of 30 to 40 moh.
RUNNING
BOND
COMBINED
HEXAGON
INTERLOCKI NG UNIT PAVERS
DennisCarmichael;
EDAW,Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
CATHEDRAL
9. Concrete interlockingpaver sizes are based on metilc

dimensions.
10.When pavershape permits,the hetringbonepatternis
recommended{or pavingsubjectto vehiculartrafljc.
ll.Contrnuouscurb or other edge restraintis requiredt.,
anchorpaversin applicalionssubject to vehiculartraffic
Fountoins
ond DecorofivePools
JET
CLUSTER
NOZZLE
FINGER
NOZZLE
MUSHROOM
OPERATING
159
DANDELION
LEVEL, TYP
4'l
AERATING
FOUNTAIN
CONCRETE
CURA
SPRAY
NOZZLE
f"
HEAD
SMOOTH
BORE
FORMEO
TYPES
AERATING
NozzLE
WATER
7"i n-sw; bEiAirNc

\EATER
LEVEL
LINE \
r .-1.
&+
SURGE REDUCTION
TRIANGUUR
FOUNTAIN
CRESTED
LIP SECTIONS
VERTICAL
TURBINE
DEVICES
DISCHARGE
LINE
CONCRilE
\\.\)
BASIN
TURBINE
SHAtr OR
SUCTION
SHAtr
DISCHARGE
CONTINUOUS
WATERSTOP
{HEAT WELD
ALL SPUCES)
GRAVITY,FED
WATER ENTRY
WATER SUMP
72" DIAMffER
STAINLESS STEEL
DOWEL (SLEEVE ON
ONE SIDE OF JOINT)
REINFORCED
CONCRffE
VAULT (A' TO
12" THTCK)
SEALANT WITH
BACKER ROD
6" GRAVEL ON
COMPACTED
SUBGRADE
PUMP IN ORY VAULT

I
CONCRETE
BASIN
JOINT
DETAILS
PIPE SCHEMATIC
FOR
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
GENERAL
WATER
Materials used in fountain and pool design should be durable

and resist damage caused by water, cracks, weather, stains,
and freeze-thaw cycles. Suitable materials include stone,
concrete, brick, tile, and metals such as copper, bronze, cast
iron, and steel- Fiberglass, acrylic, and waterproof membranes such as PVC, EPDM, and butyl are commonly used.
STATIC WATER: Form and reflectivity are design considerations for water contained in pools and ponds.
OVERALL
DESIGN
CONSIOERATIONS
SCALE: Consider the size of the water feature in relation to

its surroundings.
BASIN SIZING: For width, consider fountain height and prevailing winds. For depth, consider weight {1 cu ft water =
62.37 lb). Consider children playing near or in the pool. Allow
space for lights. nozzles, and pumps. Local codes may classify basins of a certain depth as swimming pools. Nozzle
spray may be wshioned to prevent ercessive surge.
EOTTOM APPEARANCE: When clear water is maintained.
bottom appearance is important. Enhance the bonom with
patterns, colors, materials, three-dimensional objects, or textures. Dark bottoms increase re{lectivity.
EDGES OR COPINGS: In designing the water's edge, consider the difference belween the operating water level and
the static water level. Loosely defined edges (as in a pond)
make movement into the water possible both visually and
physically. Clearly defined edges (as in a basin) use coping to
delineate the water's edge
LIPS AND WEIRS: A lip is an edge over which flowing water
falls. A weir is a dam in the water that diverts the water llow
or raises the water level. lf volume and velocity are insufficient to break the surface tension, a reglet on the underside
oI the edge may overcome this problem.
FORM
FOR
VERTICAL
DRY
FOUNTAINS
FALLING WATER: The effect ot falling water depends on

water velocity and volume, the container surface, and the
edge over or through which the water moves.
FLOWING WATER: The visual effect of a volume of llowing
water can be changed by narrowing or widening a channel,
placing objects in the path of the water, and changing the
direction of the llow or the slope and roughness of the bottom and sides.
JETS: A pattern is created by forcing water into the air with a
jet. Jet types includ single orifice nozzles, tiered iets, aerated nozzles, and formed jts in a wide va.iety of forms, patterns, and types.
SURGE: A contrast btween relatively quiet water and a
surge (a wave or a splash) is made by quickly adding water,
raising or lowering an object or moving it back and forth in
the water, or introducing strong air currents to the water.
WATER
EFFECTS
SYSTEM
The water effects system comprises lhe pump, nozzles. and

piping that move water through the fountain. The combination
of nozzles, spray rings, eyeballs, pipes, weirs, and/or channels
in a fountain or pool requires a pump system to generate
water pressure, a suction line to bring water to the pump, and
a discharge line to mve water from the pump to the nozzles.
Fountaan nozzles come in four basic types: aerating nozzles,
sprav heads, smoothlcore nozzlgs, and formed nozzles- AeF
ating nozzles (also known as bubbler jets. geyser nozzles, or
foam nozzles) are characterized by white frothy water cre
ated by combining air and water. Spray heads are characterized by combinations of thin clear water jets comang from a
distribution head in the shape oI a fan or circle (suction or in-
TURBINE
PUMP
line strainer required). Smooth-bore nczzles are characterized by a clear, thin solid stream jet of water that breaks up
into small droplets as it reaches its maximum height or distance. Formed nozzles are typified by a thin sheet of water
that originates in a jet of varied size and shape. The thinness
of the sheet of water makes the tolerances in the jet very
tight (suction or in-line strainer required).
Fountains are usually closed water systems, i.e., the pump
continuously cvcles the water in the basio to the nozzles and
back to the basin again. The pumps used to generate water
oressure and ooerate the water effects of a fountain are
largely powered by electric motors. Three types of pumps
are commonly used: submersible. dry centrifugal, and vertical turbine oumps.
Submersible Dumos, used for low volume fountains, are
among the simplest pumping systems. A watertight electric
motor and oumo are set under the water oI the tountain
basin. The pump is usually equipped with a motor of '/20to 1
horsepower and moves a maximum o{ 100 gallons per
minute (gpm). This type of pump requires fewer pipe penetrations in the basin wall than dry centrifugal or vertical turDrne pumps.
Dry centrifugal pumps, most commonly used for larger
water features, consist of an electric motor, a pump, a suction line, and a discharge line. This pump type ranges from
!/. to 100 horsepower.
Vertical turbine pumps, used in large water features, are able
to move tremendous amounts of water. Thev reouire a
pump and molor, a water sump located in an equipment
vault, a gravity feed mechanism to fill the sump. and a discharge line. These pumps are more energylficient than
those with suction lines, as gravitv moves water to lhe
pump. The electric motor is not submerged in water, making
a watertight seal less important. Vertical turbine pumps can
move up to 5000 gpm.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
160
Designof Fencesond Gotes
GENERAL
7-
Selection critena to use when choosing a fence for a particu

lar application Include the degree of privacy or openness and
sense of enclosure desired; the aesthetic and stylistic nature
of the materials and setting: cultural and historical prece
dents; and security issues Consider, as well. materials and
marntenance requirementsj soil condjtlons at the site and
the foundations and anchorage required; topography, climate, and wind conditions at the site: the effects a desion
will have on neighbo.s and adjacenl natural features; the srle
of the property: and the permanence and cost of the structureLocal zoning and building codes often regulate the height of a
{ence and its relationship to the proprty line. Fences should
not obstruct traffic sight lines at antersectionsbut should prevent access to potential danger (e.9., unattended children at
swrmmrng p@ls or pedestrians at a construction site).
6" DIAMETER
TYP (METAL
WOOD.
VARIES)
.STRAP
HINGE
FENCE POST
(4X4OR6X6.
TYP.) WITH CAP
-6X6WOOO
RAIL AND POST
.
TYP (METAL VARIES)
COMPRESSION
BRACING
2X4
FRAME
\.
RAIL
ANO
IO'
POST
t'\--8
X l2
HIGH
CONCRETE
OR
STONE
BRICK
GATE STYLE
USUALLY CONSIS]ENT
WITH ADJACENT FENCING
MASONRY CURB
TYPICAL
\^r'OOD GATE
I X PRESSURE.TREATED
WOOD CAP. IO" SLOPE. MIN
/- ALUMINUM
CAP
WIRE CURB
//-Posl
HEDGSHEDGEROW
BERM OR STONE HEDGE

MASONRY
WOOD
COMPACTED
FILL
WOOD, VINYL,
OR METAL
FENCE
MATERIAL
ROCK UYER
FOR STABILITY
(OPTIONAL)
WOOD
CLEAT
FROSA
LINE
ll:
wooo PosT
MASONRY WALLS
POST
PIER
WOOO FENCES
/.
GRAVEL
STONE BASE
STONE
BASE
AND
CLEAT
POST
CAP
DETAILS
NOTES
1. Gates permit personnel and vehicles to oass throuqh ba.
riers. Constructron technrques and opetation of gaies a,.
similar to door methods; refer to AGS chapter 8 for lur
ther in{ormation on these subjects
2. Compression bracing extending from the upper extremitv
to the lower connection point of a gate is often required;
tension can be modulated through rods and turnbuckles
to prevent warpage and sagging. Large or heaw gates
can be titted with rollers or wheels to aid ooeration: metal
tracks mounted in paving prevent uneven surface wear.
3. Hardware should be made of noncorrosive materials.
Latches with internal padlock hasps or locking mecha
nisms are available for securitv protection
wooo
CONCRETE
WITH SLOPED
TOP
A retaining wall positioned to be invis ble to the viewer {a
H ;::ffi:"I
rside
rs
"ll1:'"":'" * ou
\W
a-
ilgT ".'
LOW BARRIER
PHYSICAL
BARRTER
TAP SEAL
AT POST
r3,1l,i,iT,Ll:"'
COMPACTED
FILL
g,/ oawtns
METAL FENCE
TYPES
BASE
:lll-
,|-lll
r|_
-|t
UNE
-
CONCRETE
FOOTING
(4" To r 2"
DIAMSER
FROST
/'FROST
GRAVEL
STONE
AASE
EMBEDDED
ANO
CONCRETE
CAP
POST DETAILS
Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D.C.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
PosT
ELEVATED
U.SHAPED
GALVANIZED
WOOD POST
POST \^r'ITH CONCRETE
FOOTING
LINE
r6l
Metql Fences
WROUGHT
IRON
(STEELT RAIL ( lrl2
GATE
STEEL ANGLE
SET IN MASONRY
3/." X ]" INTERMEDIATE

RAIL (STEEL
CHANNEL
OPTIONAL)
STOP
METAL PANEL
(OR CAST METAL
ORNAMENT)
FRAME
GATE
REMOVABLE
GRILLE
FASTENED
TO FRAME
BAR SET INTO

MASONRY
PIER (SN
IN
NONSHRINX
GROUT)
HINGE
WELDED
TO ANGLE
.2" DIAMETER OR
.L" X'/<" PICKTS. T\P
..- WASHER
PIN SET INTO

NONSHRINK
GROUT IN WALK
NOTE
Materials used for this type of fence are steel or aluminum in
wrought or cast form.
SURFACE.MOUNTED
GATE PIVOT
HINGE
FOR \^/ROUGHT
GATE DETAILS
IRON
METAL BAR
RAIL
TOP
END
FABRIC TIE
RAIL
4" DIAMETER
POST. TYP,
SWING
I 2" PAVEO
STRIP TO
CONTROL
GRASS AND
WEEDS
GATE
BARBED WIRE
ELECTRIC WIRE
BARBED lv|RE
CORNER POST
NOTE
LINE
GATEPOST
POST
For fences 5 ft and taller, a horizontal or diagonal brace, or

both, is used {or greater stability- Post spacing should be
CHAIN-LINK
CHAIN-LINK
FENCE
GATE_ELEVATION
FENCE MATERIALS
SIZES
MATERIAL
Wire gauge
AND
equidistant and shouid not exceed 10 ft o.c
AVAILABLEi
n o . 1 1o r n o . 9
For especiallyrugged use, use no. 6
For tennis courts, no. 11 is generallyused
Wire mesh
Fortenniscouns,usually1%'or 1%'of
steel that has been coated with
dip galvanizing after weaving
COATINGS
canbeused
Protective
coatings.
suchaszincandaluminum,
on metal fencing. Also available are various decorative coatings, including vinyl bonding and organic coatings; these are
available f rom most manufacturers.
VINYL-COATED
\^/IRE FABRIC
MESH
Vinykoated wire fabric mesh is suitable for residential, commercial, and industrial applications. The mesh comes in five
sizes-1 , 1 r/a, 1)lr, 131o,and 2 in.-and in four gauges- l 1, 9,
6, and 3.
Top and bottom selvagemay be barbedor

3" X 3-. TYP.,
WELDEO WIRE
MESH, STAPLED
Cornerand
end Posts
WELOED WIRE MESH
lawn fences, usually 2' outside diameter

For estate lences, 2 in. to( low,2t/2in. lo(
and 3' outside diameter for heaw
high
For tenniscourts 3' outsidediameter

Forlawnfences,1%'or 2'outsidediameter
Ltneor
intermediate
posrs
For estate fences, etc., 2' 21 o( 21I H o( |
,
I 4',
,'
sections
For tennis courts, 21/2' round outside diametet ot 2'lo' H or I sections
Galeposts
Same or next size larger than corner posts;

footings should be 3'6'deep
Top rails
1%' outside diameter except some lawn

fence may be 134'outside diameter
Middle rails
On I2'4' fence, same as top .ail
Gates
Single or double; any width desired

Accessible routes require clear opening
width of 32'min. and 18'latchside clearance; latches must be accessible
Post spacing
METAL
FENCE
TYPES
Lineposts10'{' o.c.;8'{' o.c.maybe used

on heavyconstructron
SPECIAL FENCING
Thisfencingtypeusesverticalstrutsonly:
ORNAMENTAL:
no chain-link fabric is required. Ornamental lencing is ideal
for landscaping or as a barrier fence.
ELEPHANT FENCE: This fence can actuallv stoo an elephant. hold back a rock slide, or bring a small truck to a halt.
Its size is specified as gauge 3 with a 2 in. mesh.
SECURITY FENCE: This fabric is nonclimbable and cannot be
penetrated by gun muzzles, knives, or other weapons. lt ls
suitable as a security barrier for police stations, prisons,
reformatories. hospitals. and mental institutions. Mesh sizes
available are % in. for maximum security. 1/2 in. for high
security, 5/. in. for super security. and 1 in. for standard secunty.
POST SIZES FOR HEAVY.DUTY

GATES
ASA
SCHEOULE
40
S\^/ING GATE
OPENINGS (FT)
(tN.)
Overl2to26
O v e r1 3 t o 1 8
*Sizes given are not standardbut represent the average

srzesuseq.
D.C
DanielF. C. Hayes.AIA:Washington,
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
162
Wood Fences
-
5t4 X 2 WOOD SUTS

2X4TOPAND
BONOM
RAIL
7." X 2 SPACER
2X4TOPAND
BOfrOM
RAIL
5/4 X 6 PALES
ON 2" SPACING
3"O" TO
lo'o", TYP
4X4POST
4X4POST
PALISADE OR STOCKADE
BASKET WEAVE
2 X 5/4 UnrCE
DECORATIVE
32" EXTERIOR
GRADE PLYWOOD
CAP
2X3RAIL
I X 4 PICKfrS
4X4POST
UTTICE
2X4TOPAND
BONOM RAIL
IXrWOOD
STOPS. TYP
2X6TOP
RAIL
2\44
DIAGONAL SUTS
ALTERNATING
2- ANO 4"
SUTS OR SIDING
I X 1 STOPSFOR
PANES
6X6POST
3/.- EXTERIOR
GRADE
PLYWOOO
TYP
HORIZONTAL OR
VERTICAL LOUVERS
PANEL
\ivOOD PRIVACY
PANEL
COMBINATION
FENCES
A" X 8"CAP
6X6POST
ON
2X4WOODFRAME
4" OR 6"
DIAMETER POSTS
2 X 5/4 WOOD PICKETS

(TOPS MAY BE CUT
SHAPES)
8. MASoNRY -\Kf
J
oc concnrrE i)'.1 '
cuns -----f
)-
.w
2 X 4 HORIZONTAL
PICKET OR SUT
4X4OR6X6POST
OF WOOD OR CONCRtrE
POST
AND
RAIL
POST AND BOARD (CORRAL)
3" DIAMETER
POST
4X4POST
5/4 X 4 RA|L
I - OIAMETER
RAILS ANO PICKtrS
ROT
4" TO 6"
DIAMETER POST
RESISTANT
ruINE
BAMBOO
l^r'OoD BOUNDARY
TCTICES
NOTES
1. Untreated wood materials such as wntte
oak or tamarack
can lasl up to lO Vears; cypress, redwood, and
sassatras
up- ro.t5 years; red and white cedar up to 20 years;
dnd
orack rocusl and osage orange up to 25 years.
Weathel
ano Insecl preservalive lreatments can extend
the useful
life io 25 to 30 years lor most species. Verify life expecrancres and compalibilrty with frntshes and hardware wirh
manulaclurers
2 Fasteners should be made of noncorrosive materials
such
as atumtnum alloys or stainless steel; high quality hot_
Daniel F. C. Hayes. AIA; Washington, D.C.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
drpped galvanized steel is acceptable. Metal flanges,

cleats, bolts, and screws are preferaDte lo common natls
3 Vrrgin or recycled plastic may be used as an dllernatrve
matenal tor the fences illustraied on thrs oaae.
4. Locate assets stored on site but outside the facility

within view of occupied rooms in the facilitY.
5. Minimize the signage or indication ot assets on the
property.
6. Set the tacility a minimum of 100 {t from the tacility
boundary, iJ possible.
GENERAL
Consistent with the philosophy of crime preventron th.ough
environmental design (CPTED). architects use a combrnation of design and operational tools to address projects
requiring site security. These tools include access contlol of
oedeslilans on the srte, nalural and mechanical sutueillance
ol occuoants of the property, and clear detinrtron of pub|c
and private space through a combination of real and sym
7. Eliminate lines of
building.
approach
perpendicular to
the
8. Minimize the number ol vehicle access points.

9. Eliminate or strictly control parking beneath tacilities.
l0.Locate parking as far trom the building as practrcal,
bolic ba(iers.
When terroflsm, workplace violence, or slteet cnme ts pos'
sible on a site, the U.S. General Services Administration
recommends the following for all government buildings:
while accommodating ADA requirements for parkrng

spaces and their proximity to the building. Place parking
within view of occupied rooms or lacilities
11. llluminate the exterior of the building and/or exterior
sites where assels are located.
l 2 Secure access to power/heat plants, gas mains watet
supplres. and electncal and phone service
Design elements commonly used to create real and symbolic barriers to increase site security include bollards/planF
ers. curbs, vehicle barriers, gates, security lighting, and
signage.
STANDARD
BOLLARD
GATEHOUSE
'l.
Eliminate potential hiding places near the lacility.

2. Provide an unobstructed view around the facilitY.
3. Place the facility within view ol other occupied facilities
LIGHTING
ACTIVE
VEHICLE
BARRIER
PROTECTION
PERIMETER
PEDESTRIAN
TURNSTILE
9-FOOT-HIGH
AND SLIDING
SECURED
FENCE
GATE
PERIMETER
ANTIRAM
WALL
TYPICAL
SALLY
PORT
REINFORC
SITE PLAN
EXISTING
ASPHALT
t-'
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
BOLLARD
BOLLARDS WITH
CONCRETE
CONTINUOUS FOOTING
RETRACTABLE
BOLLARDS
TYPICAL RETAINING
SECURITY
DETAIL
WALL
FOR
I2,' TNTERMEDIATE
CONCRETE
PLANTER
BARRIER
NONMOUNTABLE
CURB DETAIL
Randall L Atlas. AlA. Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
SiteSecurityBorriers
164
INTEGRAL
STEEL
CABLE WITHIN
STEEL BEAM
CENTERLINE
STEEL
REINFORCEMENT
{A REBARS AT
2'-O" O.C
(EPOXY IN PUCE)
ALTERNATING
CONTINUOUS
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
GRADE
CONCRETE
JERSEY BARRIER
CABLE CRASH
BEAM
FENCE ON BARRIER WALL
CONCRETE
SLIDING GATE IS
MORE EFFECTIVE
THAN SWINGING GATE
Ltfl
MECHANISM
LIFT CRASH
GATE
NOTE
SLIDING CRASH
This reinforcedsteel gate has the same cross-sectional

prc
file as the concretebarrier.lt is usuallycontrolledremotely.
GATE AT JERSEY
LItr
GATE
BARRIER
PUTE
IMPACT
DIRECTION
TRAFFIC
PORTABLE
FIXED LIF
CONTROLLER
LIFT PI-ATE
BEAM-TYPE
PUTE
BARRICADE
N OTE
Active barriers at access/egress points in high security
areas should be fully engaged until vehicles are cleared for
passage. A visible signal light or drop arm should indicate
the status of the barrier to approaching vehicles. Operating
time should not exceed 3-4 seconds. In case oJ oower fail
ure, the barrer system must be able lo maintatn rts posrtror
to prevent access but be capable of manual operation; it
also should be connected to emergency power. Remote
controls should include a status indicator.
LIFT PLATE
BARRICADE
SYSTEMS
RECTRACTABLE
Edwin Daly, AlA, and Ellen Delaney: Joseph Handwerger, Architects; Washington. D.C
William G. Miner, AIA: Washinglon. D.C.
Randall l. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami. Ftorida
SITE
IMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
BARRIER
INTRODUCTION
Plavrnqrs v tal lo lhe physrcal, emolronal and socral growth
ot ihilaren To encourage healthy growlh the plav environment must challenge children at their level of development
vet reassure them as they investigate their physical limits.
Lach staoe ol development tesutts in drtterenl types and
tevels oflnteraction and actrvrty The ouldoor pldy envlron
ment becomes increasingly important as the boundaries oJ
the child's world stretch beyond the home and primary
care. Ptav equrpment should be selected and designed to
attract. tascrnate,and sustain the Interesl of the age g.oups
who will use it, while promoting agility, strength and balance_
Plavrnqmav consrst of rmitation, role play. and fantasy play,
as *eil as -ote act,ue pulsulls. Space and equrpment must
be provided to encourage iumprng. climbing, swingrng, sltding, crawiing, hanging, running, building. sjtting, and meetino. Des,oni shouid provide opponunities lor children to be
and to Interacl socially. Thrnk of lhe equlpment
imlao,nati-ve
as ttlexible. three-dimensional system that allows children
to move in every direction and challenges them wrth a con
sistently changing space.
Three age groups must be considered in designing plaYorounds. Toddlers (3 to 5 years) should be separated trom
6lder children by a fence they n see through. This makes
it easier for caregivers to superyise the younger children
but allows the toddlers to feel part of things. Early elementary (6 to 9 years) and late elementary {9 to 12 years) children have traditionally been separated, but another optron
is to design equipment that has several levels of ditficulty,
allowing use by both groups.
Most traditional play equipment is designed to stand alone
as single units, although thes may be hnked -logether.
Where soace or other conditions limit the scope of develoF
However, because a
ment, such equipment is reful.
child's play activity tends to proceed in a continuous flow,
Inteqrated olav areas have proved more successful than
araioements ot individual items. Combining several mate'
rials. iolors. and textures also makes lhe play space more
inviting. A variety of options is awilable to the designer in
both custom and manufactured products-
DESIGN SUGGESTIONS
shouldmeetthends andsusof a playground
Thedesign
allow more creattve opportunities for children, and a variety

of textures stimulates the sense of touch Children never
tire of playing with sand and water. Manutacturers ofter a
wide variety of water teatures for the playground, including
wading pools and tounlarns. Water elements also encourage adult interaction. Space for congregatlng can be provided as semienclosed retuge or open areas. Bridges add
interest to equipment and can provide connecttons
between structures: thev also creale more climbing and
refuqe soace. In addrtiol lo traditlonal plank bridges. there
are arched. rooe, suspensron, or tire bridges Suspension
bridges may be designed to meet specifications provided in
the Americans with Disabilities Act {ADA}.
Most important, a bed of absorbrng ground cover, such as

oine bark or wood chips (12 in. deep), pea gravel (10 in
deep), or sand (10 in. deep), should be installed beneath the
equioment. Hardwood chips and rubberized surfacing are
easier for persons with disabilities to travel over' Asphalt,
packed dirt, and exposed concrete are not acceptable play
lf a theme such as a ship, castle, or fort is incorporated in

the playground, the equipment wiil automatically encourage
the child's imagination. However, don't replicate these
themes too closely. Leave most of the creation to the child
EQUIPMENT
DISABILITIES
Adults should not be separated from the plaY area. Ample

seating should be provided, and the equipment should be
interesting to adults. too, srnce therr presence gives security, instruction, and approval
Practrcalconcerns should be taken Into account in desrgning a playground: how does the equipment appear {rm the
suirounding area? What are the views from the site? How
much noise will travel to and from the playground? The
design should consider the time ol day the equipment will
be used and be suilable for use all year. Drainage is important, especially around swings and berms, and shade is
especially desrrable over metal sldes.
SAFETY AND MATERIALS

No playground is completely safe. The potential for accidents is inherent in the element of risk involved in most
play. Nonetheless, playground equipment should provide
challenging activities in the salest way possible.
Round, square, and rectangular timber should be pine or fir
(oak warps. redwood splinters). Color should be in the form
of stain, not paint. and all edges should be beveled or
rounded. Steel pipe, sheets, chain, and drums can be vinyl
coated. Chain, rope, and tires are available in plastic. Use of
concrete and stone should be kept to a minimum Hardware should be galvanized, and joints and connections cov'
ereo or recesseo.
surfaces.
A safety zone of at least 4 ft should surround the entire play
area, with 7 ft in tront of slides, I ft in tront ol swangs, and 4
to 5 ft on the sides of the swings. Allow 65 to 70 sq ft of
play space per child.
FOR
WITH
CHILDREN
The ADA has raised a new understanding of the need to

include children with disabilities in play activity wherever
possible. Several elements will encourage the- participation
of children with disabilities. Bump stairs, lransfer platforms,
accessible suspension bridges, and slides (provided there is
enough lractionl, as well as components that can be manipulated lrom a wheelchair, are all useful. Many persons with
disabilities have some upperbody mobility, and horizontal
ladders and rings can help children strengthen the upper
body. Ramps and handrarls should be used wheiever possi
ole_
MANUFACTURED VERSUS
CUSTOM EQUIPMENT
Manufacturers of playground equipment offer products in
steel. Available as eather
timber, plastic, or powdr{oated
individual items or in predesigned arrangements, these
Droducts are durable and easY to install and offer a variety
of accessories. Because theY are designed as modular
units, they can be used to create a limitless number of
comoositions and can be expanded at a later date. Some
have no need lor loundations. All products must conform to
the Consumer Product Safety Code.
equipment has the advantage of bing
Customiesigned
site and situation specific. In addirion. the manipulation of
landforms by the designer can result in a much more lnter
esting and creative site. Most of the materials used by
manufacturers are readily available to designers, making
custom design of equipment an affordable option
tain the interest of the children who will use the site. Using
nonrepeltive elements and semitransparent features creates mvstery and surprise Dymmic, movable components
rl
POLE
6
POLE
o
o
J_+t
--u
tr
it
o
o
o
)
E
-ul
fl
GRO\/VTH
AND
-l
4AI U)
FT-mfl--
L
I-
4 llll
TIRE NETS
?t1r
LOG
SUSPENSION
CHAIN
NET
BRIDGE
DEVELOPMENT
N OTES
Two methods o{ expanding the capabilities o{ an integrated
playground are:
1. LINKING OF EOUIPMENT: Connecting activitv centers
with links that are in themselves play structures, thus
multiplying the possible uses of all of the structures
involved.
2. JUrrAPOSITIONING EOUIPMENT: Placing units close
enough together to generate interaction from one to the
other; also increases lhe play polential and interest of the
area.
TUBE
SPIRAL
INTEGRATED
SLIDE
CLIMBER
PLAY AREA
Andrew Sumners: University Park, Maryland
AND AMENITIES
IMPROVEMENTS
SITE
166
Siteond SlreetFurnishings
-"<<Y/ *
CONCRETE TREE GRATE
TREE
CAST METAL TREE GRATE
CAST METAL TREE GUAROS
PROTECTION
*<
UI
CONCRETE
coNcRETE
(W|TH LtcHT)
STEEL (WITH BIKE RACK)
STEEL
CAST METAL
BOLLARDS
ttJ
r/1\r
Fj:.''
H
I
I
F+<
F,r:
|
I
E:
F:---+-'
ll::'
|
I
|
| 36-
t.'
l',: | |
[,." | |
I
l:."
[....
|
I
t'...
t!-
|
|
[':.
|
I
I I
|
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E ::. |- t
k_/
METAL
LANDSCAPE
'{@)
I
+---*
| /---<
----tr
|-tl
llll"'
I12^lt
CAST METAL
LIGHTS
II
1
)
STEEL LEANING
POST
STEEL
LEANING
PIPE
MISCELLANEOUS
RichardJ- Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville, Maryland
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
CAST METAL DRAIN COVERS
METAL
(PROJECTED)
DRIVE / WALKOVER
M ETAL
(FLUSH)
LIGHTS
Siteond StreetFurnishings 167
+--"--J
jk--
I l--- --l
lllHl
lllAl
ll:l
ltl
1_('
t-l
ffi
I5"
J-
+-<
ll0
(--
n
L.zl
t|ill
ltu It
U
ftN D
CAST METAL
LSIffiLBLm
\-
CAST STONE
STEEL WIRE ANO FIAERGT-ASS
wooD
l,
TERRA-COTTA
OR CAST STONE
VARIES
*--------------\
\
---:
BANNER
INFORMATION-RELATEO
AND
POLE
FURNISHINGS
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.
ANDAMENITIES 2
SITE
IMPROVEMENTS
t6 8
Gqrden Structures
PLANTING
-t
SOIL
x3
DRAINAGE
GRAVEL
l
CLEAR
TAPERED2XAROOF
RAFTERS
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RAFTERS THAT FRAME
OVER POSTS
(4) I/2'' DIAMETEF
DRAIN HOLES
COPPER SCALLOPEO
ROOF SHINGLES
FLUID APPLIED
WATERPROOFING
INSIOE
AND
ALL
SIDES
BONOM
BUILDING PAPER
I,/2
I X 2 SLATS
\^/OOD
PLANTER
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RANERS
OVER POSTS
COPPER
SHINGLES
BUILDING
PAPER
2XARAN
HURRICANE
ANCHOR
1X2
(2)2X4TOPPLATE
SUTS
WOOD COLUMN
COVER
4X4WOODPOST
12)2X
PUTE
I X4RAILCAP
2 X 4 SUBRAIL
2X2
r x6
wooD
FASCIA
4X4
POST
2X4BONOMRAIL
wooD
COLUMN
COVER
CONCRETE
sua
GAZEBO
DETAIL
4X4 WOOO
WOOD COLUMN
COVER tt"" DtA.
ANCHOR
GAZEBO
2 X 12 LEOGER AT
2 X 4 EDGER
BOLTED
ro2xtz
2X6JOISTON
METAL HANGER
V\/OOD DECK PLATFORM
3/e" x 6"
x 12
X 4 DECKING
ALUMINUM
PLATFORM
FOOTING
Gary Greenan;Miami. Florida

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvill.Maryland
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
DETAIL
THtCK
WOOD
BOX
3 X 3 PRESSURE.
TREATED WOOD FRAME
GAZEBO
DETAIL
169
Gorden Structures
wooD cAP.
FASTENED AS
CAP
COPPER
coPPER CAP - --\
NECESSARY
2X
tOJOIS
EPOM
PONO
LINER
:\
wooD
TIMBERS
VIOUS
'/2"
FELT
DtA
PAD
STAtNLEss
(MIN 2 BOLTS
PER CONNECTION)
6X6
.,
WOOD
]
AROUND
'
BACKFILL
EARTH
FOR PONO EDGE
FACING
POS]
UNDISTURBED
OR COMPACTED
EARTH
STEP TO ACCOMMODATE
WATER LILY PUNTERS
BALUST
r xa
EPOXY'
COATED
#5 REBAR
THROUGH
POST
CONCRETE
FOOTING
-POM
pine
All wood is pressure-treated
TRELLIS
WOOD TRELLIS
POND
LINER
DETAIL
CAST METAL FOUNTAIN

FASTENERS
AT
WATER LEVEL
12
0.c.
WATER PUMP
WATERPROOF
EPOXY COATING
OVERFLOW
PIPE
METAL
PRESSURE
AOHESIVE
STRIP
CONCRETE
FOUNOATION
POND
LINER
UNDISTURBED
OR COMPACTED
EARTH
coNcRErE
WITH
FOUNTAIN
MORTAR
REINFORCING
I L-_-\
-___\
I
""'.'::::i:?:.\
STONE
,/
SECTION
RIM FOR
POND
WATER LEVEL
CONCRETE
STONE SURFACE
AND EOGE
WATER LILY
IN PUNTER
2'' PVC
DRAINPIPE
WITH
n,llu)
{l
--_G2
WATERPROOF
EPOXY COATING
_----J
WATER PUMP WITH
ELECTRICAL JUNCTION BOX
UNDISTURBEOOR
COMPACTED EARTH
POND SECTION
IMPERVIOUS
FELT PAD
STEP TO
ACCOMMOOATE
WATER LILY
PUNTERS
GRAVEL
DRAINAGE
BED
-POM
a ll#R
UNDISTURBED
OR COMPACTED EARTH
POND
DETAILS
GaryGreenan;Miami,Florida
Maryland
Richa.dJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
t70
EmbonkmentStqbilizqtion
<\
GENERAL
Embankment stabilization is required when steep slopes are
subject tO erosion from stormwater
runotf or flowing
streams. Erosion can damage the site and pollute waterways with sediment
2_J
The need for mechanical stabilization can be reduced

through careful site gradings that divert or slow the velocity
of runoff. Avoid dislurbing stable, natural stream banks.
Check with regulatory agencies before planning to grade
stream banks. wetlands, or tloodplains.
Numerous proprietary products are available tor stream bank
stabilization and erosion control; consult manufacturers.
SEED AND MULCH

OR COVER HILL
SIDE WITH
EROSION,CONTROL
BUNKff
NOTES
1. Control erosion during construction with sitt fences,
straw bales, sediment ponds, and seeding and mulching.
Follow local and state guidelines and regulations2. Lin channels with erosion-resistant material (sod. stone
raprap, erosion{ontrol blanket). Channel dimensions and
lining should be designed for expected runoff.
3. At the bottom of lhe slope drain channel, the flow should
be conveyed to a storm sewer, detention pond, constructed wetland, or other control method that meets
regurarons.
f <x\H"
\.!"J
DrvERsroNoi nurorr
AT TOP OF SLOPE
DIRECTS
WATER TO
ORAIN CHANNEL
STEEPEST
SLOPE
FOR MOWING
STEEPEST SLOPE WITHOUT

STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
WITH
LOCAL
CONDITIONS)
TERRACE OR BENCH LONG

SLOPES TO SLOW RUNOFF
GRADING
AND
EROSION
CONTROL
ANCHOR AT TOP OF SLOPE
GROUT-FILLEO FABRICFORMED REVETMENT OVER
SAND OR FILTER FABRIC
!/
STEEPEST RIPRAP SLOPE WITHOUT

STRUCruRAL SUPPORT (VARIES
WITH
LOCAL
SOIL
CONDITIONS)
\ \\\
--
GABION (CLOSED
WIRE BASKfr FILLED
IN PUCE WITH STONE)
/ 9;'
a
arogNctngenrrc
MSHODS INCLUOE
PLANTING, LOG
DEFLECTORS,
WILLOW POSTS
^&
^g--;9"
0 3.""'c
oo'
THICKNESS
OF STONE
RIPRAP UYER
IS GREATER
THAN MAXIMUM STONE SIZE
-J"o'
.*-z dz
-q
GRADED SAND AND GRAVEL FILTER

OR FILTER FABRIC {Us;E UNDER
ALL TYPES OF PROTECTIVE UYERS)
5r
DIRECTION
OF
STREAMBED
:PTREAMFLOW
EMAED TOE OF RIPRAP
BELOW
DEEPEST
EXPECTED
SCOUR, MINIMUM
2@%
OF
RIPRAP UYER
THICKNESS
STREAM
BANK
STABILIZATION
James E. Sekela.P.E.;Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania
RETAINING
WALLS
RetoiningWolls
GENERAL
MAXIMUM
SLOPE
Retaining walls are designed and construcled to resist the

thrust of the soil, which can cause the wall to tail by over
turning, sliding. or settling. In stone walls, resistance to soil
thrust can be helped by bartering the stonework {that is,
recessing or sloping the masonry back in successive
courses).
Garden-type retaining walls, usually no higher than 4 ft, a.e
made lrom small building units of stone, masonry, or wood.
For higher walls, reinfo.ced concrete is mo.e commonly
used. Terracing may be built with walls of wood, stone.
brick, or concrete.
171
GRAVEL
FILL
FOR DRAIN
FLAT STONES
PREFERRED
(25% OF STONES
Z MUST BE
HEADER-TYPE
LENGTH
2h rtMEs
THICKNESS)
=
I
Walls less than 2 ft high do not require drains or weep holes.

Pressure-treated wood is recommended for any desigrr in
which wood is in contact with the ground. Redwood may be
substituted it desired.
SLOPE
JOINTS
INTO HILL
l1
PUCE STONES
UNDISTURAED
SOIL
(BELOW
LINE)
NOTE
Staggervenical ioints trom course to course 6 in. min. horizontally.The thicknessot the wall at any point shouldnot be
less than half the distancefrom that ooint to the top of the
wall+w
OVERTURNING
ler
DRY STONE
SETTLING
SLIOING
STONE
BANK
STONE OR
BRICK COPING
WALL
GALVINIZED
WALL TIE
BRICK ROWLOCK
NOTES
FILTER FABRIC
'1.
H = height of wall, A = area of tooting. W = composite

weight of wall; T= lateralthrust of soil on wall; d = widrh
of base of mll; Mo = overtumingmoment ot a retaining
wall; Ms = 1s5ls116g
morenu w = lateralforce on wall in
psf: 8C = bearingcapacityof soil.
2. The overturningmoment of a retainingwall (equalto T x
HF) is resistedby the resistingmoment of lhe wall. For
symretrical s@tions. the resistingmoment equalsW x
d2. Using a safety factor of 2, MR > 2 x Mo (assume33'
angleof reposeof soil).
3. The lateral (sliding) lhrust ol soil on a wall must be
resisted.The resistingforce is the weight of the wall multiplied by the c@fficient of soil triction. Using a safety
iactor of 1.5.W > 1.5T,where T = (w x H2)2.
4. The bearingpacity of th soil must resistverticalforces
(senling)-theweight of the wall plus any soil bearingon
the baseplus any venil componentof the soil thrust for
a wall with any surcharge.Usinga safetyfactor of 1.5, BC
> l.5wA.
FORCES
\/vALLS
RESISTED
BY RETAINING
GRAVEL
FILL
FOR ORAIN
GRAVEL FILL
FOR ORAIN
4- STONE OR
BRICK VENEER
FACE BRICK
(OMTT ONE
VERTICAL JOINT
AT 4rO- O.C.
FOR WEEPS)
WEEP HOLES
AT 410" O.C..
| 2- CMU
4- X I6- REINFORCED
coNcRsE
PAD iAcrs
AS MOWING STRIP)
A" X A' CONCRETE FOOTING
WITH MO i3 REBARS,
SET BELOW FROST UNE
BRICK
STONE/BRICK
WALL
GALVANIZED
ROUND WOOD POLES
Sff
SIDE BY SIDE
4-O"O.C.\
HORIZONTAL
4X60R6X6
GRAVEL
TIE
VENEER
CONCRETE DEADMAN
AT EVERY OTHER POST,
Sfr OUTSIDE ANGLE OF
REPOSE OF SOIL
FILL
FOR DRAIN
HORIZONTAL
TIMBERS,
UY
WITH OVERUPPING
JOINTS
WALL
ROD
FILL
GRAVEL
FOR DRAIN
2 X HORIZONTALS
IMW
'c:*,Ar610'ocr
(OR CONT!NUOUS
HORIZONTAL DEADMAN)
FILL
GRAVEL
FOR DRAIN
ST
4 X 4 POSTS SET SIDE
BY SIDE ANO SUNK 2'.O'
INTO SOIL WILL RETAIN
2 0" oF sotL
SOIL TERRACING
NOTE
A structural
desrgn.
WOOD
engineer
RETAINING
fo.
UNDISTURBED
SOIL
FOR WALG
UP TO 2'.O" HIGH, USE
4 X 4 POSTS AT 4!O- O.C.:
FOR WALLS
FROM 2IO" TO 4:O"
HIGH. USE 4 X 4 POSTS AT 3'"
O.C.:
FOR HIGHER WALEUSE 6 X 6
POSTS AT 310- O C
HORIZONTAL TIMBERS
should be consulted
ON
VERTICAL
POLES
POST AND BOARDS
the linal
WALL
DonaldNeubauer,
P. E.; NeubauerConsulting
EngineersjPotomac,Maryland
WALLS
RETAINING
Concrete RetoiningWqlls
172
a"
. rMtN.
2-MlN+
zt
I
+>t .'
t t
l t
suoptrc
sLoPtNG
BACKFILL
(SURCHARGE)
BACKFILL
(SURCHARGE)
GRAVEL FILL
FOR DRAIN
GRAVEL
FILL
FOR DRAIN
F
I
il
q
U
z
I
FILTER
FAARIC
FILTER
FABRIC
'.ll
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
DRAINPIPE
SLOPED TO
OUTLfl AWAY
FROM WALL
(OPTIONAL
2- WEEPS AT
410" O.C.)
DRAINPIPE
SLOPED
TO
OUTLET
AWAY
(OPTIONAL
2" WEEPS AT
4 -O" O.C.)
VERTICAL EXPANSION JOTNT
--+2'MtN
a
FROST
O 67 H (LEVEL BACKFTLL)
I .25 H (SLOPING BACKFIT
L.TYPE
RETAINING
DEPTH
FROST
OPTH
I .@ H (WITH SURCHARGE)
WALLS
o.oa H
A- MIN
/
\sLoPrNG
BACKFILL
(SURCHARGE)
ll'/
FABRIC
F
I
GRAVEL
FILL
FOR DRAIN
I
I
CONCRSE
RSAINING
o
o
I
-f"-
DRAINPIPE
SLOPED
TO
OUTLET
AWAY
FROM WALL
(OPTIONAL
2- WEEPS
AT
4,O' O.C.)
i-T---
o.5 T
fi .o T wtTH
NOTES
'lProvide control and/or construction joints in mcrte
retaining walls about every 25 ft. Every fourth @ntrol
and/or constructionjoint should be an expansionjoint.
Coateddowels should be used if avsragewall height on
either side of a joint is different.
2. Consult with a structuralengineerfor final design of all
concreteretainingwalls.
3. Concretekeys may be requiredbelow retainingMll f@tIng to prevenl sladanqin high walls and those built on
moist clay.
4. T = the lateralthrust of the soil on the wall in the drawing
of a gravityretainingwall.
PRELIMINARY
SURCHARGE)
GRAVITY
o.5 H
(0.67 H W|TH
SURCHARGE)
RETAINING
BACKFILL
\iVALL
SLOPING
GRAVEL FILL
FOR DRAIN
I
d
DRAINPIPE
SLOPED TO
OUTLET AWAY
FROM WALL
(OPTIONAL
2- WEEPS AT
4 -O" O.C.t
o
I
--T."
"'"
LINE
STRUCTURAL
STEEL REINFORCEMENT
T-TYPE
RETAINING
HEEL
(b)
(c)
RETAINING
DIMENSTONS
WALLS
(FT-tN.)
BACKFILL
LEVEL-NO
{ E I G H T O F WIDTH OT
Nr'ALL (H)
BASE (B)
SURCHARGE
t/lr'IDTH OF
WALL (A)
H EEL
(b)
(c)
2-a
0-9
t-5
0s
3{
2-1
1-0
0-5
44
3-5
0-9
24
G8
4-0
2a
u{
l-7
0-5
5{
Gl0
2$
1-2
fi
3-3
2-2
0-5
54
G10
2-11
1-7
6{
G8
2-5
0,8
0-10
3-5
74
24
'I -O
74
l{
?9
2-A
1{
7$
l{
r0{
1-0
l1{
l1{
l-l
124
124
t3{
14-o
t4,0
1$0
15{
'r6{
174
t8{
24
8{
1{
24
9{
u2
1{
4-9
2-9
10{
5-9
'l{
7-2
2-9
l1{
G7
124
7-3
7-10
1-B
1-9
7-1 0
I4-0
8-5
3-9
15,0
9{
44
16-0
9-7
174
10-3
18-0
10-10
6
-7
11 - 1
1-10
4S
124
r9{
19{
1 - 11
4-9
r 9-0
I t-c
2G0
24
20-o
124
214
21.o
2-2
s3
21-O
12-7
224
22-O
24
tu
22-0
DonaldNeubauer.P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;potomac,Maryland
5-0
5-5
| 3-0
35
14
144
1-5
-3
3-3
9-1
1G5
1-2
4-1
4-l
&5
1{
3-7
,5
16-0
18{
-l
14
204
vt/ALL
RETAINING
WALLS
CONCRETE
WALLJOINTS
3{
8{
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCMENT
RETAINING
DlA. = 29o 45i (tV.r | )
WI DTH OF WIDTH OF
B A S E ( B ) WALL (a)
74
LEVEL
BACKFILL
VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
FOR CONCRETE
APPROXIMATE
HEIGHTOF
WALL (H)
DIMENSIONS
",t.
FROST DEPTH
T=O.l3H
(o_tTHwtTH
-o . 5 5 H
-5
5-9
1 - 11
6-2
24
6,7
2-2
1-1
2-3
2-5
7-r0
2-6
-9
a-2
2-A
l-1 1
a-7
2-9
ReinforcedCMUond PrecqsfConcrefe RetoiningWqlls

NOTES
1. Materials and construction practices for concrete ma
sonry retaining walls should comply with "Euilding Code
Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACl
5 3 1) . 2. Use fine grout when grout space is less than 3 in. in)he
least dimension. Use coarse g.out when the least dr
mension of the grout space is 3 in. or more
BACKFILL
SLOPING
(sEE NOTES FOR DESTGN) --\__-,
S ARE GROUTED
AND REINFORCEO
IN RffAINING
WALLS
/-cRôE
ruO {4 BARS IN
BOND BEAMS AT
| 6- O.C. OR JOrNT
REINFORCEMENT
AT 8" O.C.
3. Steel reinlorcement bars should be clean, free from

harmful rust. and in compliance with applicable ASTM
standards for deformed bars and steel wire.
2h" rN a- wALs,
3" IN 12" WALLS
4. Alternate vertical bars may be stopped at the mid height

oI the wall. Vertical reintorcement is usually secured in
place after the masonry work has been completed and
before grouting.
5. Designs shown are based on an assumed soil weight
(vertical pressure) of 100 pcf. Horizontal pressure is
based on an equivalent fluid weight for the soil of 45
pcf.
DOWEL (SAME
SIZE AND SPACING
AS V,BARS)
6. The walls illustrated are designed with a safety factor

against overturning of not less than 2 and a safety factor
against horizontal sliding of not less than 1.5. Computations in the table tor wa,l herghts are based on level
backfill. One method of providing for additional loads
from sloping backfill or surtace loads is to consider them
as additional depth of soil. In other words, an extra load
oi 300 psf can be treated as 3 ft of extra soil weighing
100 psf.
7. The top of masonry retaining walls should be capped or
protected to prevent water from entering
otheffiise
untilled hollow cells and spaces. lf bond beams are
used. steel is placed in the beams as the wall is constructed. Horever, horizontal ioint reinforcement may
be placed in each ioint {8 in. o.c.) and the bond beams
omrtted.
8. Allow 24 hrs tor masonry to set betore grouting. Pour
groul in 4 ft layers. with one hour between each pour.
Break long walls into panels 20 to 30 ft long with vertical
control joints, Allow seven days lor finished walls to set
before backfilling. Prevent water from accumulating
behind walls by reans ol 4 in. diameter weep holes
spaced 5 to 10 ft apan (with screen and graded stone)
open joints
or by a continuous drain with lelt{overed
combined with waterproof ing.
9. When backfill height exceeds 6 ft. provide a key under
the f@ting base to resist the tendency of the wall to
slide horizontally.
173
F,BARS
--iF ,' ,,*
-F
#3 BARS
AT t 2- O.C
SECTION
DIMENSIONS
AND REINFORCEMENT
FOR CMU RETAINING
WALLS
B
V.BARS
F.BARS
8'
*3@ 32'
*3 @ 27'
l0'
#4@ 32'
*3 @ 27'
l0'
12', *5@ 32'
#3 @ 27'
t4'
#4 @30'
6'{',
r0'
12'
l0'
12'
12'
4 ' - 1 0 ' 12'
5'-4' 12'
5',-10' 14'
l4'
3''
6'{'
6''
1'4'
8',{'
8',8'
1 1. A structural engineer should be consulted for the linal

deslgn.
4''
12'
10. Heavy equipment used in backfilling should not come

closer to the top of the wall than a distance equal to the
wall height.
NOTE
Long retainingwalls shouldbe brokenwith verticalcontrol
ioints into panels20 to 30 ft long. These panelsmust be
designedto resistshearand other lateraltorceswhile permittinglongitudinal
movement.
9'-4'
TYPICAL
WALL
#4 @ 16'
#6 @ 24'
s4 @ 25'
14',
*4 @ 24'
*3@ 25'
15'
#4 @ 16'
*4 @30'
to
#6@ 24',
#4 @ 22'
#5@16'
#5 @ 26'
#7 @ 24'
#5 @ 21'
#6@8'
*6 @ 26'
#8@8'
*6 @ 21'
18'
20'
22',
24'
CANTILEVER
RETAINING
SHEAR-RESISTING
PRECAST
CONTROL
JOINT
CONCRETE
ANGLE OF
SURCHARGE
PRECAST
TIE
VARIES
SLOPE (BATER
VARIES ( I :4
r"',u,
r" ,
I
V;
4" DIAMffER
WEEP HOLES,
5!O" TO
to-o" o.c.,
HORIZONTALLY
DEAOMAN
DOUBLE.DEPTH
I CU trOF
CRUSHED
STONE OR
GRAVEL AT
EACH WEEP
HOLE
UNDISTURBED
SECTION
N OTE
For retaining walls taller than a cenain height, double- or tripleiepth walls may be needed. Fill composition varies from
crushed stone to granular soil, according to condilions. Consult a structural engineer.
DRAINAGE
DETAILS
FOR RETAINING
\^/ALLS
PRECAST
SYSTEM
CONCRETE
CRIB WALL
P.E.;NeubauerConsultingEngineers;
DonaldNeubauer,
Potomac,Maryland
WALLS
RETAINING
174
FreestqndingMosonryGorden Wqllsond Coping Detoils
GRAOE EOUAL
ON BOTH SIDES
TERMINATION
NOTES
NOTES
1. Design straight garden walls (without piers) with sufficient thicknessto providelateralsrability.
2. To resist 10 psf wind pressure,the height above gradq
(H) and thickness(T) should relate as follows: H < .75T'
(H andT are in inches).
1. The radius of curuature (R) of a 4in. thick serpentine wall

should be no more than twice the height of the wall
above finished grade.
2. Th depth (D) of curvature of a srpentin wall should be
no less than half the heighr of the wall above grade lmax.
height = 5 ft 0 in., typical).
STRAIGHT
SERPENTINE
EUSTIC
GARDEN
WALLS
GARDEN
No rinforcing steel is used in this type of wall.

Serpntine walls are not recommenoed
areas.
WALLS
SEAUNT
%%
o
E
I
)
-
(IF
FUSHING
NECESSARY)
t--l [-l
BRICK
e@e
STONE
PANEL WALL
REINFORCEMENT
STEEL, TYP,
COPING {ROWLOCK
BRICK SHOWN)
TERRA.COTTA
GALVANIZED
OR STAINLESS
STEEL ANCHOR
BRICK PANEL
(NO FOOTING
WALL
UNDER)
O.C
PIER REINFORCING
STEEL
FUSHING
COPING DETAILS
FOR PIER
(to PsF)
PIER-ANO-PANEL
NOTE
To tigure the vertical spacingand size of reinforcingsteel
requiredfor panelwalls.considerthe probablewind loadand
the wall span between piers- Consult a structuralengineer
for assistance.
DennisCarmichael;EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria,Virginia
RETAINING
WALLS
L.-r.'--l
t--l
/\
f--_]
CAST STONE/CONCRETE
NOTES
1. Copings and caps prevnt water from entering the inner
rellfrom
abov by shedding water to the sides. where it
is thrown clear of the ffill, usually by means ot a drip
dge.
2. Anchor coping 6 necessary. lf the coping material is different from the wall material, compare their thermal and
moisture expansion characteristics and make provisions
fordifferential movement,
w-- .%-,%=-,
ffi''t(ffi"t(ffi':
.,ru,i
',,_m l.mi\,M/
\,%/
W__-/
COPING
PIER
TYPES
FOR VI/ALLS
REINFORCING
WIND LOAD
(lo PsF)
PIER TYPES
loundalion is required. All other values have been obtained

using an 18in. diametr foundation.
Erfl
l--l
SYSTEM
w%w
'For wall sizes shom within heaw lines, a 24-in.diameter
fi|-)
l--l
NOTE
In general, throughffill
flashing should be used immediately
under the coping of garden walls. However, this decision
depends on several factors, including th type of coping
used, the number of ,oints used, and ths climatic condilions
of the area (whether there is high or low precipitation and
the number of frezing and thawing cycl6s).
rlllt n
ptEn roottruG
( I A- TO 24- DIAMtrER)
BRICK (NO DRIP SHOWN)
REQUIRED EMBEDMENT
FOUNDATION*
2z
F
I
GALVANIZED
OR STAINLESS
STEEL OOWEL
(2 PER frONE)
24"
for use in seismic
'% hmrun[-l
r2" TO
t6---><
(CAST
SHOWN)
COPING
STONE
The running bond brick pattern is best {or serpentine

wails.
STEEL*
WIND LOAD
(r5 PSF)
WALL
HEIGHT
(FT)
NOTE
The pierndfanel
wall is composed of a se.ies of relatively
thin (4-in. thick) reinforced brick masonry panels. which are
braced intermittently with masonry piers. This wall is relatively easy to build and is economical because of the narrowness of the panels. lt is also asily adapted to varying terrain
conditions.
PIER-AND-PANEL
GARDEN
livALLS
shown wrthrn heavy ftnes, i 2 x 16 In. prers are
Freestonding
MosonryGordenWolls,SeotWolls,ond Slep Detoils
Design factors that should be addressed when designing
freestanding garden walls include these:
FREESTANDI NG GARDEN WALLS

Freestanding garden walls provide a physical or visual barrier
to outdoor areas. Walls higher than eye level (approximately
5 ft 6 in.) provide both a physical and visual barrier; typically
they are situated near and designed to blend with an adiacent architectural structure. Walls designed under eyb'le,/el
provide a sense of partial enclosure while maintaining a
view, which is sometimes framed by the wall design.
2 X 6 PRESSURF.TRFATFn
WOOD OR REDWOOD
/-
-.---! x4wooD
Oualrty and durability of materials (unit material, mortar,

and.einforcement) and detailing when exposed over time
to rain. wind, sun, thermal movement, and degradation
%" x 2' wooo
SPACER
3/S" DIAMETER
GALVANIZED
THREADED
ROD
Appearance of both sides of the wall

Foundation design
Adiacent plantings
WOOD
PLUG
wooD
SCREW.
TYP.
_SLOPEDOWN
tl
%" GALVANIZED
STEEL PUTE
1 %" STUCCO
COPING WITH
DRIP. EACH SIOE
8" OR r2"
CMU WALL
BRICK HEADER
(AS PER BOND
REBAR (AS
NECESSARY)
PAfrERN)
FACE
175
3" DIAMNER
GALVANIZED
STEEL POST
%" DIAMETER
X 6" LONG
GALVANIZED
UG
SCREW IN
LEAD ANCHORS
PAVERS
BRICK
: %" SAND
SEfrING
BED
6" COMPACTED
AGGREGATE
CONCRETE
FOOTING
BASE
CONTINUOUS
WELD
FROSI
LINE
WOOD
SOLIO
STONE
PAVING
SITE BENCH
STUCCO OVER CMU
MASONRY
STONE COPING
(2 STAINLESS
STEEL DOWELS
PER STONE)
BRICK COPING
WITHDRIP
STONE VENEER
(4" MIN- DEPTH)
MASONRY
ANCHORS
FACE BRICK
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
GROUT
REBARS (AS
NECESSARY)
BRICK VENEER
STONE PAVERS
ON REINFORCED
CONCRETE SUB
CONCRETE
FOOTING
SEAT WALL
TOP AND BOtrOM

POSTS
IN 2" DIAMETER
RAIL_Sff
HOLE. ALL WITH GROUT
FOR
%" THICK
EXPANSION
JOINT FILLER
STONE OR PRECAST
STEP SET IN MORTAR
%" RADIUS OF
AT
CURVATURE
LEADING
EDGE
(ADA)
STONE VENEER OVER REINFORCED CONCRETE
GROUTED REINFORCED MASONRY
MASONRY
FREESTANDING
GARDEN
%" EXPANSION
ARTCK PAVER SET INTO ]' TO 2'

SANO OVER FILTER FABRIC
ANO COMPAqED
FILL -......._-RowLocKcouRsE
WALLS
STONE
JOINT
FILLER
RISER
STONE STEP
SET IN
MORTAR BED
---'-
STRETCHER
COURSE
FINISH
SLOPE
DOWN (%
CAST
STONE
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
FOOTING
TO FROST DEPTH
TOP AND BONOM
NOTES
REBAR IN
NOSING.
6" GRAVEL
REBAR IN
NOSING.
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
FOOTINGS.
TO FROST DEPTH
BRICK
MASONRY
1. Provide handrails on both sides of all stairs along accessi

ble routes.
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
FOOTING.
TO FROST DEPTH
2. Steo sur{aces should be slooed so waterwill notaccumulate on the walking surface.

3. These details are for reference onlv. Consult ADAAG for
tread and handrail requirements for specific applications
and BOCA for riser-to-tread ratios
SITE STEPS
Virginia
DennisCarmichael;
EDAW,lnc.:Alexandria,
WALLS
RETAINING
176
Freestonding
SloneWollsond Hedges
t\
t\ -tr
-lf --tt---
COPING. TYP
##
MORTAR JOINTS
RAKEO OUT %" MIN
nli
--:-f:-T
--__-lf--lr
I
__Jr
HEADER STONES
l[
-Tr:=--'=--
BATTER BOTH
SIDES OF WALL
COURSED WITH
IRREGUUR COURSES
COURSED WITH
REGULAR COURSES
t\
ll--
---tr---l
p-
-.'-------1>:l.!<=4=__=_)=/ T V -
l(.-
-l*(
COURSED WITH
BROKEN COURSES
(STONE OR
FOOTING
CONCRflE,
TYP.)
ASHLAR
fIT''"
NATURAL FIELOSTONE (UNCOURSED)
MORTARED
STONE
ASHUR
RANOOM-COURSED
RANOOM BONO
STONE
WALL
PATTERNS
(COURSED}
WALLS
TSLOPEl
COPING,
TYP
OVERLAP
JOINTS,
AVOID LONG VERTICAL
JOINTS
IN WALL
COURSED WITH
ROUGHLY SQUARED
RU BBLE
UNCOURSED WITH
ROUGHLY SOUARED
SLOPE (BANER) BOTH

WALL FACES. TYP.
HEADER STONES
(25% TO 30% OF WALL)
UNCOURSED WITH
ROUGH RUBBLE
RANDOM RUBBLESTONE
PATTERNS
l-ll'
DOUBLE
TIER WALL
DRY STACK
STONE
SINGLE
TIER
WALL
WALL
WALLS
RANDOM.RANGE
QUARRY-FACEO
ASHLAR
E
o
COURSED
DRESSED
NER
ASHI.AR
BOTH SIDES
FORM
JOINTS
HEOGE
CORNISH
HEDGE
H EDGES
r-a
(-
rl
'"ffi
t-
rs9Tfifirgl
r#F
-ffi
rusqrr[fi]
-=ff
F
r{
?5
t1
BUCK
STONE WALL COPINGS
DennisCarmichael;EDAW, lnc.; Alexandria,Virginia
RETAINING
WALLS
ANO
DRAFT
Most types of stone canbe used for ston walls, but granite,
limestone. sandstone, and slate are preferred. Ashlar and
rubbl are th main types of storework
used for walls.
Ashlar is stone that has been cut and squared and can be
laid in straight courses to create a uniform, stable wall; its
surface can have any texture. Rubblestone has not been cut
or dressed. and stability is largely achieved by using header
stones that run through the wall, binding it together.
FILL
soo sTRrPs
BETWEEN
STONE
ASHLAR
MARGIN
NOTE
WELL.COMPACTEO
EARTH
WITH
-+-+-C
-+r-!ffi
^nnnnnn
l4rrJd#JAp
-5-t
--llrI-
STON E TYPES
-a'-f--lrY
FOR \ffALLS
-\
lrl
(
f
ffi.'"
i--1 am
ffi
\/
--
-.>-'l-'l'*:
-r.w+A.e
R UB BLE
-jffi.
d{,qrl{hilnF''ilnnntr
l % I _
l J
(
/
--
< n\/
./
I
)
1
+#k1!4
TURF/GRASS
EnvironmentolEffectsof Trees
GENERAL
The physical environment of the site, the design needs of
the project, and the design character of the trees are all fac
tors that must be considered in selecting trees and preparing
a landscape plan for a build'ng.
177
TREES PROTECT VIEWER

FROM GURE OF SURFACES
SUCH AS WATER. PAVING.
Soil conditions (acidity, porosity) at the site, the amount and

intensity of sunlight and precipitation. and the seasonal temperature range in the area create the physical environment in
which trees must be able to suryive. As well. consider how
th'e location and topography ot the site will direct the wind,
resulting in cold winds and cooling breezes that can af{ect
the health of trees.
Trees can be used to address the design needs of a proiect
by directing pedestrian or vehicle movement, framing vistas,
screening objectionable views, and defrntng and shaping
exterior space. Trees can also be used to modify the microclimate oI a site and to help mnserye building energy use
from heating, c@ling. and lighting systems.
The design character of the trees themselves plays a part in
which species are best suited for a particularapplication.The
shape of a tree can be columnar, conical, spherical, or
spreading, and the resulting height and mass will change
over time as the tree matures. Some trees grow quickly and
others more slowly. and their color and texture varies from
coarse to medium to fine, affecting their character. The
appearance of deciduous trees changes with the seasons,
while the effect of an evergreen remains relatively constant.
NOTE
NOTE
The venical angle of the sun changes seasonally; therefore,

the area of a building subject to the glare of reflected sunlight varies. Plants of various heights can screen sun (and
artificial light) glare from adjacent surfaces.
ln summer, trees obstruct or filter the strong radiation from

the sun, cooling and protecting the area beneath them. In
winter, evergreen trees still have this effect, while decidu,
ous trees. having lost their leaves, do not.
GLARE
SHADE
PROTECTION
PROVISION
CROWN: HEAD OF
FOLIAGE OF TREE
LEAVES: FOLIAGE
UNIT OF TREE THAT
FUNCTIONS PRIMARILY
IN FOOD
NOTE
MANUF
NOTE
Large masses of plants physically and chemically filter and
deodoriz the air, reducing air pollution. (Top) Particulate
matler trapped on the leaves is washed to the ground during
rainfall. Gaseous pollutants are assimilated by th leaves.
{Bottom) Fragrant plants can mechanically mask fumes and
odors. As well, these pollutants are chemically metabolized
in the photosynthetic process.
ROOTS: ANCHOR THE TREE

AND HELP HOLD THE SOIL
AIR FILTRATION
ROOT HAIRS: ABSORB
MINERAS
FROM THE SOIL MOISTURE
AND
SEND THEM AS NUTRIENT
SALTS
IN THE SAPWMD
TO THE LEAVES
HEARruOOD. NONLIVING CENTRAL

PART OF TRE GIVING
STRENGTH ANO STABILITY
A combination of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs

reduces sound more effectively than deciduous plants alone.
Planting trees and shrubs on earth mounds increases the
attenuating effcts of a bufler belt.
SOUND
ATTENUATION
LEAVES
AND BRANCHES
ARE
COATED
WITH THIN FILM OF
WATER HOLDING
IT FROM
SHELTER
ANNUAL
RINGSj
REVEAL
AGE OF TREE AY SHOWING
YEARLY GROMH
H = HEIGHT
OF TREES
OUTER BARK: AGEO INNER

BARK THAT PROTECTS
TREE FROM DESSICATION
AND INJURY
tr
INNER BARK (PHLOEM):

FOOO FROM
CARRIES
TO BRANCHES
LEAVES
8
-*
J
TRUNK. AND ROOTS
6 25%
z
=
CAMBIUM: UYER
XYLEM AND
BETWEEN
PHLOEM
WHERE CELL
ADDING
GROffiH
OCCURS,
NEW
TO INSIDE
SAPWOOD
INNER
AND NS
to
NOTE
(XYGM):
SAPWOOD
CARRIES
NUTRIENTS
ANO WATER
TO LEAVES
FROM ROOTS
CHARACTERISTICS
5051ot52025
MULTIPLE OF SHELTER BELT HEIGHT
BARK OUTSIDE
PHYSICAL
TREES
o%L
OF
Shelter belt wind protection reduces evaporation at ground

level, increases relative humidity, lowers the temperature in
summer and reduces heat loss in winter, and reduces blow
ing dust and drifting snow. The amount of protection afforded is directly related to the height and density of the
shelter belt.
NOTE
Mature trees absorb or delay runoff from stormwater at a
rate 4 to 5 times that of bare ground
\ivlND PROTECTION
RUNOFF
ROOTS ABSORB
WATER
RUNOFF
FROM BRANCHES
REDUCTION
James Urban, ASLA: James Urban Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Maryland
PLANTING
178
PlontingDeloils
DO NOT STAKE OR
WRAP TRUNK;
MARK
THE NORTH SIOE OF
THE TREE IN THE'
NURSERY
ANO LOCATE
TO THE NORTH
IN THE FIELD
,/
, ,'
./
!:t - '/
!!-..:2
i.;:"
SOIL
AVOTD PURCHASING
TREES WITH ruO
LEADERS
oR REMovE
oNE AT pLANTTNG:
orHERwtsE.
oo
NOT PRUNE TREE AT PLANTING
EXCEPT FOR
SPECIFICSTRUCTURALCORRECTIONS
//
,/
FOLD
BURUP
,/
,,'
AWAY
FROM
TOP OF ROOT
BALL
ROOT BALL FLUSH TO GRADE OR SEVERAL
/-SEr
INCHES
HIGHER
IN POORLY
ORAINING
SOIE
Ouring the design phase. assumptions must be made

regarding the probable condition ot the soil after construc
tion is complete. The health of existing or remaining so
determines what types of soal preparation will be requirec
and the volume of soil to be prepared. Conditions will vary
from location to location within a project, and details musl
be condition-specific. For large projects or extreme cond
tions. it is useful to consult an expert experienced in modify
ing planting soils at urban sites.
4" BUILT,UP EARTH SAUCER

2" BARK MULCH (DO NOT PUCE MULCH
IN CONTACT WITH TREE TRUNK)
X = MINIMUM WIDTH
OF PREPARED
IMPROVEMENT
The quality of soil available for planting varies widely fro'

site to site, especially after construction activity har
occurred. The nature ol construction results in comDaction
frl|ng, contaminatron, and grading ot the oilgrnal soil on
site, rapidly making it useless for plantlng Previous huma
activity at a site can also affect the ability o{ the soil to sul:
port plants.
BEFORE PUTITING, ADO 3" TO 4OF WELL.COMPOSTED LAVES

OR RECYCLED YARD WASTE TO
BED AND TILL INTO TOP 6OF PREPAREO SOIL
NOTES
1. lf site or design constraints prohibit use of the dimen
sions shown on this page, follow the guidelines for planl
ing in urban areas.
possible. the soil improvement area should b.
Whenever
2.
connected from tree to tree.
3. Always test soil for pH and nutrient levels and adjusr
these as required,
4" TO 6' DEEPER THAN ROOT BALL

PREPARED SOIL FOR TREES
DIG WIDE, SHALLOW
HOLE WITH TAPEREO SIOES
CUT TOP BANDS OF WIRE BASKET

AND FOLO AWAY FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL
NOTES
1. For container{rown trees, use fingersor smallhandt@ls
to pull the roots out of the outer layerof poning soil: then
cut or pull apart any r@ts circling the perimeter ol the
container.
2. Incorporate@mmrcially prepared my@rrhizaspores in
the soil immediatelyaroundthe root.ballat rates specilied
by the manufacturer.
TREE
PLANTING
(BALLED
DETAIL
FOLD BURUP FROM TOP OF

ROOT BALL OOWN INTO GROUND
SET TOP OF BALL FLUSH
WITH FINISH
4. Loosen soil wilh a backhoe or other large coarse-tillinc

oquipment when possible. Tilling that produces large,
coarse chunks ot soil is prelerable to tilling that results in
line grains uniform in texture.
\;gRrgll%lhBi,isl
TAMP SOIL SOLIDLY

AROUND BASE OF ROOT BALL
AND
3. Duringthe designphase,confirmthat water drainsout ot

the soil; designalternativedrainagesystemsas required4. Thoroughlysoak the tree root ball and adjacentprepared
soil severaltimes duringthe first month after plantingand
regularlythroughoutthe followingtwo summers.
5. The planting process is similar for deciduousand evergreen trees.
BURLAPPED
PREPARE SOIL IN THE ENTIRE

BED USING PROCEOURES
OUTLINEO IN CHART BELOW
ROOT
HEIGHT
RANGE
(FT-tN.)
1
BEFORE PSNTING. ADD 3- TO 4"
OF WELL.COMPOSTEO LEAVES AND
RECYCLEO YARD WASTE TO BED
AND TILL INTO TOP 6' OF
PREPARED SOIL
UWN
SOIL
a" To 12"
PREPAREO
SOIL
FOR
NOTES
1. For conlainergrown shrubs, use fingers or small hand
tools to pull the r@ts out of the outer layerof potting soil;
then cut or pull apartany r@ts that circletho perimeterof
tne contarner.
2. Incorporate@mmrcialv preparedmyorrhiza spores in
PT.ANTING
GENERAL
BALLED AND BURUPPED
SHRUBS
FOR
MAX.
HEIGHT
(FT)
MIN.
BALL
DIA.
(|N.)
MIN.
BALL
DEPTH
(tN.)
ffi
l0
10-
8-10
11
&10
12
1B
13)12
t4
20
22
13r l,
14
2-14
2r l,
2-14
4-16
18
32
19)12
4-16
18
38
1G18
22
42
23
25
32-
24
28
18r /,
5
18-20
26
54
*Up to and includingthe 4in. calipersize,the calipermea
surement indicatesthe diameter of the trunk 6 in. above
ground level. For larger sizes, the caliper measurementrs
taken 12 in. aboveground lvel.
PUNT
NOTES
the soil imdiately aroundthe r@t ballat mts specified
bv the manufacturer.
3. Confirmthat water drainsout ol the soil duringth design
phase;designalternativedrainagesystemsas required.
1. See American Standardfor Nursery Stock, ANSI 260.1.

for mmdte list of nurserystandardsfor other types and
sizesof trees and shrubs.
2. Se IntemationalSmiety of Arboriculture's"Principlesand
Practicesof PlantingTreesand Shrubs," 1997.
DETAILS
RANGE OF SOIL MODIFICATIONS
POSTCONSTRUCTION
SIZES
SHADE TREES
ffi
1fl,
4
-
SOIL SURFACE ROUGHENED

WITH NS
1t lz
OR PAVING
CONTAINER
GROWN PLANT
WITH ROOTS PULLEO
OUT OF BAL
BALL
NURSERY.GROWN
GRADE
t2" TO 18- (FOR

URGER SHRUB
ROOT BALG,
MAKE DEPTH
MIN,4" DEEPER
THAN BALL)
SHRUB
STANDARD
CALI PE R*
(lN.)
PLANTS)
2' MULCH (OO NOT

PUT MULCH AGAINST
THE BASE OF THE PLANT)
TO BIND
5. The bottom of planting soil excavations should be rough

to avoid matting of soil layers as new soil is added. lr is
preferable to till the first lift (2 to 3 in.) ot planting soil into
the subsoil.
SOIL CONDITION
AND VOLUMES
MIN. \lv|DTH PREPARED
FOR VARIOUS SOIL CONDITIONS

SOIL FOR TREES
(X)
TYPE OF PREPARATION
Good soil (not previously graded or compacted, topsoil layer

Intact)
6 ft or twice the width of the root ball, whichever is greater
Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in

details above.
Compacted soil {not previously graded, topsoil layer disturbed bul

not eliminated)
1 5f r
Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in

details above; add composted organic matter to bring the organic
content up to 5% dry weight.
Graded subsoils and clean fills with clav content between 5 and
20ft
Minimum treatment:loosenexistingsoil to widths and depths

shown, add compostedorganicmalter to bring organiccontent
up to 5?o dry weight.
Optimumtreatment:removetop 8-10in. or the existingmaterial,
loosenexistingsoils to the widths and depthsshown, add 8l 0
in.of loamtoDsoil.
2011
Remove existing soils to the widths and depths shown, .eplace

with loam topsoil.
35v"
or qualaty tills, heaw clay soils, soils contaminated with rubble

toxic malerial
James Urban,ASLA; James Urban LandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis,Maryland

AmericanNursery& Landspe Association(formerlyMN); Washington,D.C.
PLANTING
TreePlontingond Protection
CONSTRUCTION
EXISTING
TREES
179
AROUND
<2O
Great care should be taken not to compact, cut, or fill the

earth within the crown area ot existing trees. Most tree
roots are located in the top 6 to 18 in. of the soil and often
spread considerably tarther than the drip line of the tree.
Compaction can cause severe root damage and reduce the
movemenl of water and ai. through the soil. To avoid com
pacting the earth, do not operate equipment or store materaals within the crown spread.
Eefore construction begins, inject the soil within the crown
area of nearby mature trees with commercially prepared
kelp+ased lertilizer and mychorrhiza lungus developed to
invigorate tree roots. Prune tree roots at the edge ol the root
save area, as roots pulled during grading can snap or split
well into the root save area- Rot and disease that enters
dying roots in compacted or filled areas can move into the
tree it root pruning has not been carried out. Install tree prc
tection fencing and silt protection at the limits of construction activity near trees.
During construction, apply additional water in the canopy
area to compensate tor any root loss beyond the crown
spread- Have all mature trees inspected by a certified
arborist before construction begins to identify any special
oroblems. Remove all deadwood and treat all tres for existing insect and disease problems. When possible, begin fertilization and problem treatments at least one full growing
season betore construction.
Removal of significant portions of the crown will affect the
health of a tree by reducing its ability to photosynthesize in
proportion to the mass of its trunk. Younger, healthier trees
withstand construction impacts better than older trees.
I
doo
;ood
,//
DIAMETER OF TREE
CROWN OR GREATER
TOPSOIL
OLD
GRADE
NEW
GRADE
wooD, sToNE, oR cMU

ORY WELL (WITH NO
FOOTING)
,-
PERFORATED
VENT
CAP TO PROTECT
PIPE
FROM CLOGGING
ANO
PERMIT AIRFLOW
PERFORATED
PIPE UID
ON OLD
GRAOE (4" DIAMETER
MtN.)
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH

BEYOND
VENT LINE
DRAIN TO
DAYLIGHT
'o" o.c.,
:t_-:::_::=:
CRUSHED STONE
FILLING
AROUND
MIN.
VENTEO
T SECTION COLLECTS
DRAINAGE
FROM ORY WELL
AREA CONNECTING
TO DRAIN
LEADING
TO DAYLIGHT
EXISTING
TREE
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH

CUT WITH ROCK SAW
(FILL
OR TRENCHER
AtrER
WITH SOIL)
2X PLANKING
LOOSELY CABLED
AROUND TREE
wooD cHtPs
PLruOOD
MANING
lr+
NOTE
NOTE
A root prune trench seversroots with a clean cut, protecting
remainingr@ts from cracking,rot, and disease.
ROOT PRUNE
TRENCH
lf constructionoperationsmust take place wilhin the crown

spreadarea, install6 in. of wood chips on top of the soil to
protect it. Us pl'4aoodmatting over mulch in areaswhere
equipment must operate.Protect the trunk of the tree wath
plankangl@selycabledaroundthe tree to reducescarringby
equipment. Remove planking,matting, and mulch as soon
as oprationsare linishedTREE AND
ROOT
WITHIN CROWN SPREAD

AREA RETAIN EXISTING
VEGETATION OR APPLY
2- TO 3" MULCH
WOOD AND
wtRE sNow
FENCE ON
SIGN . "KEEP
OUT: TREE
PROTECTION
AREA"
SILT
(25-O'O.C.)
OIAMffER
OF TREE
CROWN
MULCH OVER
SILT CLOTH
NOTE
A barrier such as that illuslrated can keep construction
equipment and personnel from compacting the soil around
rfee r@G.
PROTECT]ON
Fewer roots are severed by tunneling under a tree than by

digging a trench beside it.
UNDERGROUND
UTILITY LINE
EXISTING TREES
NEAR
CUTTING
TREE
GRADE AROUND
EXISTING
FILLING
TREE
GRADE AROUND
EXISTING
James Urban,AStA; James UrbanLandscapeArchitecturejAnnapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
180
CROWN EXPANDS
EVERY GROWING
6" IO I 8"
SEASON
INSPECTION
NUTRIENTS
RooM \T
TO GROW
'
[--l
LINE
OR CANOPY
o"o'*oo.
\-.2
TREES (OR
CLOSELY
SPACED
TREES NEXT TO BUILDINGS)
CAUSE
SIGNIFICANT
CROWN COMPETITION,
INSIDE BRANCHES
DIE AND TREE
DEVELOPS
LONG,TERM
PROBLEMS
STRESS.RELATED
DRIP
ROOM
TO GROW
NOTE
Soil volume provided for trees in urban areas must be suffi
cient for long-term maintenance.
FOR
SOIL VOLUME-REQUIREMENTS
TREES
PROJECTION
TRUNK EXPANDS
AY A RATE OF
%- TO I " IN OTAMETER PER YEAR
TRUNK SWAYS SEVERAL

INCHESIN HIGH WIND
30" oR
MORE
510" TO 6:0'
RAOIUS AROUND TRUNK IS
ZONE OF RAPID ROOT TAPER
INTERCONNECTED SOIL VOLUMES

UNOER PAVING FROM TREE TO TREE
TRUNK FURE EXPANDS AT

ruICE THE RATE OF THE TRUNK
(A5ILY DAMAGED AND OAMAGES
ADJACENT PAVII{G AND TREE GRATES)
TREE
STRUCTURE_PARTS
AND
ROOTS GROW HORIZONTALLY

WELL BEYONO ORIP LINE
(12" TO 24" DEEP WITH NO TAPROOT)
GROWING
GENERAL
Areasof denseurbandevelopmentleavelitde rem for tree
roots to develop.Largeareasof pavement,compotitionwith
Ioundationsand utililies tor space below ground,and extensive soil compactionand disruptionlimit the amunt oJ soil
availablefor trees.When the area of groundsroundthe tree
open to the rain and sun is less than 40O to 5OOsq ft pr
tree, the following design guidelinesshouldbe followed to
encouragethe growth of largehealthytrees.
Five maior parts oI the tree structure musl be accomme
dated in the designprocess:
CROWNGROWTH:The tree crown expandsevery growing
season at a rate of 6 to 18 in. per year. Once the crown
reaches a competingobject such as a building or another
tree canopy,the canopygroMh in that areaslows and then
stops. Eventuallythe brancheson that side ot the tree die.
As the nopy expansionpotential is reduced,the overall
groMh rate and tree healthare also reduced.
TRUNKGROWTH:The tree trunk expandsabout 1/zto 1 in.
per year. As the tree increasesin size, the lower branches
die and the trunk lengthens.Tree funks move mnsiderably
in the wind, especiallyduring th early years of dvelopment, and are damagedby close objects.
TRUNK FLARE:At the point where the trunk leaves the
ground,most tre speciesdevelopa prqdned swellingor
flareas the trre matures.This flare gros at rure than twice
the rate of the maintrunk diareler and helostho tr remain
structurallystable.Any hardobject plad In this area,suchas
a tree grate or con{iningpavement,will eithr damg the
tree or be ruved by the tremendousfore of this grovvth.
CHARACTERISTICS
NOTE
The interconnectionof soil volumes from tree to tree has
been observedto improvethe healthand vigor of trees.
SOIL VOLUME_INTERCON
NECTION
criticalfactor in determininglongterm tree health.Bmt-supporting soil is generallydefined as soil with adequatedrainage, low compaclion, and sufficient organic and nutrient
componentsto supportthe tree. The root zone must be prc
tected from compactionboth during and atter construction.
Root zones that are connectedfrom tree to tree generally
producehealthiertrees than isolatedr@t zones.
sotL MootFlcATtoNs
Thoroughlytill organicmatter into the top 6 to 12 in. of most
plantingsoils to improvethe soil's abilityto retainwater and
nutrients.(Do not add organicmatter lo soil more than 12 in.
deep.) Use composted bark, recycled yard waste. peat
moss, or municipalprocessedsewage sludge.All products
should be composted to a dark color and be free of pieces
with identifiableleaf or wood structure. Recvcledmaterial
shouldbe tested for pH and cenified free of toxic materialby
the supplier.Avoidmaterialwith a pH higherthan7.5.
Modify heaw clay or silt soils {morethan 40% clay or silt) by
adding compostedpine bark {up to 30ry.by volume)and/or
gypsum. Coarsesand may be used if enough is added to
bring the sand content to more than 60yo of the total mix.
lmprove drainage in heavy soils by planting on raised
moundsor beds and includingsubsurfacedrainagelines.
Modify exrremelysandy soils (morethan 85yo sand)by adding organicmatter and/ordry, shreddedclayloam up to 30yo
of the total mix.
SOIL
VOLUME
FOR
1. Coarseplanlingskeep pedestriansout of planters.

2. Curbsprotectplantersfrom pedestriansand deicingsalts
3. Undergroundsteam lims must be insulatedor vented to
protect plantersoil.
SOIL PROTECTION
COMPACTION
AND
FROM
DEGRADATION
RAPIO
GROMH
AXIS OF
SYMMffRY
TREES
SLOW
GROMH
12@24
s20
ZONE OF RAPIDROOTTAPER:Tree roots bgin to form in
the trunk llare and divide several limes in the immediate
areaaroundthe trunk. In this area,about 5 to 6 ft away from
the trunk, th roots rapidlytaper from about6 in. in diameter
to about 2 in. Most damageto adjacentpavingoccurs in this
area immediatelyaroundthe tree. Keepingthe zone ol rapid
taper free of obstructions is important to long-term tree
health.Once a tree is established,the zone of rapidtaper is
generallyless susceptibleto compactiondamage than the
rest of the r@t zone.
ROOTZONE:Tree roots grow radiallyand ho.izontallyfrom
the trunk and @cupy only the upper layers(12 to 24 in.) of
the soil. Tres in all but the most welldrained soils do not
have tapr@ts.A relationshipexists betwmn the amount of
tree canopyand the volume of r@t-supportingsoil required
(see the ac@mpanyingchart). This relationshipis the most
o:
64/t 6
FQ
4AO/12
<;
320/8
ilj
l
144t4
>]
2m
6@
8m
lm
12m 1d
1m
'The ultimate tree size is defined by the projected size ot

the crown and the diameter of the trree at breast height.
TREES IN LARGE
SOIL VOLUME
NOTE
TREES IN SMALL
(PUNTERS)
SOIL VOLUME
NOTE
lf visually symmetrical tree planting is requrred, symmetrical

soil volumes are also reauired to oroduce trees of similar
croM size.
For example. a lGin. diameter tree requires 1000 cu ft of soil.
VISUALLY
James Urban,ASLA:James Urban LandscapeArchitecture:Annapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
4m
sorl voluME aeeutaeo trt3)
SYMMETRICAL
TREES
r8l
TreePlontingin UrbonAreqs
GENERAL
Traditional urban designs in which trees are regularly spaced
in small openings within paved areas generally result in poor
tree performance. This is because such designs generally do
not provide adequate soil for root g.owth and ignore the fact
that trees musl significantly increase trunk srze every year.
As well, competition for space, both at ground level and
below, is intense in urban areas
Although it is possible to design uncompacled sorl volumes

for trees under pavement, this is very expensive and the soil
is never as efficient as that in open planting beds. Increasing
trunk size can only be accommodated by using tlexible materials that can change configuration gver time. Urban designs
that have flexible relationships between trees, pavrng, aod
planting beds and large areas of open planting soil offer the
best opporlunity for long-term tree heallh and lowet matnte'
nance cosls.
MAKE OPENING
AS URGE
AS
POSSIBLE
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
OVER SOIL TRENCH
LOOSELY
COMPACTED
LOAM SOIL
CONTINUOUS
FROM TREE
TREE
-r
CONTINUOUS
MULCHED OR
PUNTEO AREAS
SIDEWALK
CONTINUOUS
SOIL
TRENCH
NOTE
!MPROVED
A continuoussorltrench provides very good sorl but ln ltmited quantity. Use in areas where adiacent backfill is compactedsoilsor fills
SOILS
NOTE
CONCRETE OR SAND
Best designoption: Plantingtreesbetweensidewalksand

buildingscreates the lewest conflicts between roots and
pavingby permitting rooting activityon adiacentproperty.
PRODUCES
WIDE SPACING
TREES
HEALTHIER
GRAVEL.
ASTM {57
NOTE
CONTINUOUS
MULCHEO
OR
AREAS
PUNTED
Best design option: Separate planting and walking areas

Avoid small disconnected soil volumes to minimize roovpaving con{licts.
ORAIN
LINE
SIDffALK
IMPROVED
u'"", _+
+
STRUCTURAL SOIL
SOILS
NOTE
Acceptabledesign option: Plantingbetween curbs and sidewalks in a continuous unpavedplantingbed providesgood
soil levelsfor trees but contributesto roovpavingconflictsas
rrees malure-
NOTE
#i
NOTE
-O- '
\2O'-O- TO 2s
NARROW SPACING
INCREASES TREE PRoaLEMS
10'-o"
OR LESS
10 - o"
OR MORE
Structural planting soils replace subgrade material with a fill

that can be mmpacted to meet normal engineering compaction requirements and still suppon root groMh below the
pavement. The principle is that when the gravel is compacted,
the soil is rct because the amount of soil in the mix is insufficient to fill all the voids. Hydrogel, a crosslinked polassium
copolyrer, is used to help bind the mixture during the mixing
process. The soil mix includes ASHTO #4 gravel (100 lb calcs
lated dry weight), shredded clay loam (1t18 lb). hydrogel
{0.03 lb}, and water r10 (including the water calculated in the
gravel and the soil). For further information, contact the Urban
Horticulture Institute at Cornell University (lthaca, NY).
ROOT PATH TRENCH
SET IN RADIAL
PANERN
FROM
CONTINUOUS
TREE {4"
WIOE X
CONTINUOUS
OF
INTERCONNECTION
SOIL FROM TREE TO TREE
REOUIRED UNDER PA
NOTE
CONCRflE
GRAVEL,
ASTM #57
DEEP)
Difficulr design option: In highly developed areas wrth park'

ing adiacent to the curb, planting in long narrow tree openings with an 18-in. wrde walk along the curb accommodales
pedestrians exiting cars. RmVpavrng conflicts are probable.
INTERCONNECTION OF TREE SOIL

FROM BED TO BEO REOUIRED
NOTE
Oifficult design option: Shading. slow tree groMh, and poor
health are problems. Roovpaving conflicts are likely.
MAKE
OPENINGS
AS URGE
AS POSSIBLE
ROOT PATH TRENCH

NOTES
MAKE WALK
WIDTH AS
NARROW AS
POSSIBLE
AT TREE
PUNTED
SOIL BED
(oo NoT
USE TREE
GRATES)
CONTINUOUS
INTERCONNECTION
OF SOIL FROM TREE
TO TREE REOUIRED
INTERCONNECTION
FROM BED TO BED
UNDER PAVING
OF TREE SOIL
REOUIRED
NOTE
Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Tree openings are undersized for future trunldroot development. Severe
roovpaving conflicts are very likely.
SIDEWALK
STRUCTURAL SOIL
MIX CONTINUOUS
OVER ENTIRE AREA
PI-ANTING
OPTIONS
NOTE
Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Slow tree
groMh and severe roovpaving conflicts are to be expected.
PI..AZA TREE
PLANTING
OPTIONS
1. In urban areas where the pavement subgrade is compacted soil that is free from rubble, toxic. or poorly
drained fills, a system of root paths can be inslalled to
guide roots under the pavement, where they have room
to grow. These roots grow deeper in the soil, causrng
fewer roovpaving con{licts than roots left to exploit the
normal minor weaknesses in paving and subgrades.
2. A root path trench is made by installing a length of strip
drain material {a 12-in. wide x f -in. thick plastic drain core
wrapDed in filter fabric) in a narrow trench and backtilling
with loam topsoil. This allows air and water to tlow more
freely into the soil under the pavement. lnstall geotextile
fabric and the gravel base material and then the paving.
3. R@t paths cannot replace larger soil trenches or structural planting soil in areas in which existing soil conditions
are extremely poor for root exploration.
TREE SOIL INTERCONNECTION

OPTIONS UNDER PAVING
Annapolis,
Maryland
Architecture;
JamesUrban,ASLA;JamesUrbanLandscape
PLANTING
182
TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
MULCH I "
TO 2" THICK
DOWN
AT 5%. MIN
COLLECTS
GRATE
a -o"To |o -o"oPT|MUM
(COST AND STRUCTURAL
R E O U I R E M E N T SL T M I TS I Z E )
WRAP FILTER FABRIC OVER

EXPOSEO
ENDS OF DRATNAGE
MATERIAL
AND OVERUP
BACK SIDE 6", MtN.
CLEANOUT FIPE
EACH
TRASH
UNDER
SLOPE
DRAIN
WATERPROOF
MATERIAL
WITH PROTECTION
BOARD
WRAP FILTER
FABRIC UP SIDES
OF ALL RISERS
AND CONDUITS
AND TIE OFF WITH
COPPER WIRE
PUSTIC
ORAINAGE
MATERIAL
ON BONOM
AND SIDES TO WITHIN
2" OF FINISHED
GRAOE
WOVEN
FILTER
FABRIC
RING DAMAGES
TRUNK OR REAUIRES
\:
lLE_qqErr_iryqa9l!9,/
AND EVENTUAL REMOVAL/

PUNTING SOIL (COMPACTED
TO 80% DRY DENSITY)
ruO,LEVEL
ROOF ORAIN
SLOPE DOWN AT 2%
OVERUP FILTER
CLOTH JOINTS I 2'
MIN. AND PIN TOGtrHER
ROOFTOP
COMPACT PAD UNOER ALL TREES

WITH 2" CALIPER (TRUNK DIAMETER)
OR LARGER
PT.ANTER
REOUIRED SIDEWALK EDGE

STRUCTURE ALTERS ROOT PANERN
SOIL COMPACTION REOUIRED FOR
SIOEWALK SUPPORT REDUCES ROOT
..))
NOTE
Tree grates decorate the base of a tre but provide no signif
int benefit. Many aspects of tree grates can damage a tree
or reduce its potential for growth.
TREE GRATES
SELECTING
PLANTS
FOR
ROOFTOP
PLANTING
When choosingplantsfor a r@ftop setting,@nsiderthe factors outlinedbelow:
WIND TOLERANCE:Higherelevationsand exposureto wind
can euse defoliationand incrasethe transpirationrate of
plants. High parapet walls with louvers can reduce wind
velocityand provideshelter for plants.
HIGHEVAPORAIIONRATE:The drying effects of wind and
sun on the soil in a planter redu@ soil moisture rapidly.lrrigation, mulches. and moistureiolding soil additives (diate
roceous earth or organicmatter) help reducethis moisture
toss.
RAPIDSOILTEMPERATURE
FLUCTUATION:
The variation
in cmduction capacityof plantermaterialsresults in a broad
rangeof soil temperaturesin plantersof different materials.
Cold or heat can causesevere rmt damagein certain plant
species,Properdrainagehelpsalleviatethis @ndition.
TOPSOIL:lmprove topsoil in planters to provide optimum
growing conditionsfor the pbnts selected. A general formula calls for adding fenilizer {dterminedby soil testing}
and one part peat moss to fiv pans sandy loam topsoil.
More specific requirementstor certainvarietiesof plants or
grassesshouldbe considered.
for shrubs.24 in. deep:and for lawns, 12 in. deep ('lO in. if
irrigated).
SOIL VOLUME: To determino sufficient soil volume- see
chart on SoilVolumesfor Trees (on anotherAGS pagein this
section).
SOIL WEIGHT: The saturated weight of normal soil mix
rangesfrom 10Oto 120 pcf, dependingon soil type and compaction rate. Soils can be made lighter by adding expanded
shale or perlite. Soils lighter rhan 80 pcf cannot provide
structureadequateto suppon trees.
DRAINAGEFABRIC:Plastic drainagematerial should be a
minimum of 1/,in. thick. Most drajnagematerialcomes with
a filter fabricanached.but the overlapjoints providedar not
wide enough tor the unconsolidatedsoils tound in planters.
A second layer of woven filter fabric, delivered in rolls
greaterthan 10 ft in width, shouldbe instalted.Tuck the fats
ric over the exposedtop of the drainagematerialto keep soil
out of the drainagelayer.
INSULATION:Most plantersdo not requireinsulation:however, in colder climates planters with small soil volumes
l@ated over heated structures may require insulation.Consult localsourcesfor a list ot cold-hardyolants.
SIZE OF GUARD TO
FIT OUTSIDE
OF
ROOT BALL ANO
NOT DAMAGE
SWAYING TRUNK
ROOTCAPACITY:Choose plant speciesGrefutly, considering their adaptationto the size of the plant bed. lf species
with shallow,fibrous roots are used insteadof soecieswith
a c@rse root system, consult with a nurseryadvisor_Considerthe ultimale maturityof the plant specieswhen sizinga
otantet-
URGE
OPENING
ON SIDES ANO
BOTTOM
TO AVOID
TRASH REMOVAL
PROBLEMS
PLA,NTING DETAILS
SOIL DEPTH:Minimum soil depth in a planter varies with
the plant type: lor largetrees, the soil shouldbe 36 in. dep
or 6 in. deperthan the r@t ball;for srull trss, 30 in. deep:
LOOSE.Sff SUPPORTS
DESIGNEO TO BE
REMOVAALE
IN IO YEARS
SAND ONLY
SANO.SET
PAVERS
Young tres planted in lawn areas face substantial competilion trom the roots of grasses.
NOTE
Tree gurds n protect young trees from trunk damage
causedby bicycles.lf made too small,however(lessthan 30
in. in diameter ), thy can damage the tree as it grows and
are difficult to remove.The high cost and potentialharm to
trees outweigh the minor protetion tree guards afford a
trunk. They should only b used in areas with particularlv
high traffic.
Alternatives to tree grates (and guards) include softer, organac coverings that suit the purpose better, are less expensive, and require less maintenance over the life of the tree.
TREES
TREE
TREE
- - - - - 7 'I
uwN--t
NOTE
PLANTED
IN LA\ivNS
GUARDS
James Urban,ASLA;James UrbanLandscapeArchiteclure;Annapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
LOW FENCE AND GROUND COVER

NOTE
BASE
PROTECTION
t84
Economyof Concrete Formwork
GENERAL
FLAT
Formworkcosts are a substantialparl of the total cost of

putting concrete in place-anywhere from 35 to 60 percent.Thus,by developingdesignelementsand detailsthat
simplifyor standardize
form requirements,
the architectcan
help containoverallcosts:
1. Reusefoms: Thisis crucialto economvof construction.
The designercan facilitateform reuse by standardizing
the dimensionsof windows, columns, beams, and footings, using as few different sizes ot each as possible.
Where columnsmust changesize,hold one dimension
(e.9., width) constant, while varying the other (depth).
This enablesat least half of the torm panelsto be used
maqy times. Repeat the same floor and column layout
from bay to bavon each lloor and lrom floor to tloor. This
improves labor productivityand permits reuse of many
IOrms.
2. Use a preconstructionmockup:The architectand builder
should agreeon the locationand desired appearanceof
architecturalsurfaces before any of the exposed concrete work begins. Specify a ful-scale preconstruction
mockup to help achieve this and to avoid postconstruction disagreements.
3. Handleforms in largepanels:This also reducesconstruction costs. Wherever possible, make uninterrupted
formed areasthe same size. Increasingthe size of such
areasenablesthe builderto combineform panelsinto
gangs for efficientcrane usea. Simplifydesjgn details: Intricaciesand irregularitiescost
more and often do not add proponionatelyto the aesthetic effect.
awooD
COLUMN
RECOMMENDED
LOW.COST
FORMWORK
R,ECOMMENDED
-
36rs^?s
folP
MID-COST
FORM\^/ORK
HIGH-COST
FORM\n/ORK
N OTE
In general,the least costly designto form has columnsthe

same width or narrower than the beams they suppon.
allowinglhe beam form to be erectedin a continuoustine.
In midrost formwork design, the beam bottom foms are
cut to fit around the column tops. ln high{ost formwork
design, the beam lorms are fitted into p@kets on both
sides of the column{orms.
BEAM-TO.COLUMN
ECONOMIES
CONSTRUCT(
JOTNT MID-c:c)ST
FORMWORK
HIGH-COiT
FORMWORK
NOTE
Flat beams designed to be equal in depth & the floor

assembly are th least costly, since they mod fficientlv
accommodateflying form construction.Deeps. harrower
beams cost more, but if deeper beams are necded, costs
can be controlledby making the beam the sam thickness
as the column depth and at least panially uFclrrned.The
most costly option is a column thickerthan the bam, since
this requiresa columncollarwith constructionirirt.
STANDffiD
DIMENSIONAL
RECOMMENDED
FOOTING
DESIGN
MODULE
When stepped footings are required.use lewer steps and

design them to standardlumber and plwvood dimensions
or modulardivisionsof thesedimensions.
WALL
7." R,WOOD
FOruWORK
4-'
MODULE OR
A'O' MODULE
NOTE
PANEL
HANDLE
@LUMN
LUMBER
FORMWORK
F@TING
8',-O'
COLUMN
@LUR
WP.
TIES. WP.
(2'O' O.C..
ERTIGL)
AT PANEL
JOIMS
TO
saB
./-
sE Cm
ONOMIES
FORMWORK
2',-O', 4 ',
OR
A'-O'
MODULE.
PARTIALLY
UruRNED
BAM
N=il6
FORM
FACING
4'{'
-\
BEAM
FOOTINGS
2 '
MtN
DEflH
DROP
Adapting design elements to the modular si

of torm,
work lumber and plywood and dimensioning pns o{ the
structure to fit the modules can save the expme
of cus
lom formwork. For example, to save the waste ild time of
sawing and piecing together the edge form, make the
depth of the drop in a slab equal to the aclual size of stan
dard lumbr plus % in. for the pl.iryood's thicknss.
CONCRETE
STEEL PUTE
OR ANGLE
CAST INTO CONCEIE
frEN
WELDED TO
ADOINING
WALL NATE
@NCRETE
POURED ONTO
EXSTING FL@R
%B
ON
(FORM LIMRS
GroE
UID
oN smB
onroN4)
L-.,,"
MTTAL
i*
FORM
T*EADED
LIMNC
HffiDWARE
INTO
CT
CdCRETE
(4'MrN.)
HOLE
FOR
(S/EDGE
PN
THROUGH
sLoT
rN qN)
BLMKOU]
FG
OPENING
aY cof
FItrING
NOTES
1. Commonly made of steel-{ramed plywood, panels are
also availabl in aluminum. Wall tles (typically flat ties)
and wall forms are held together by slotted pins that run
through adjoining holes. A wedge pushed down into the
slot alongside the wall lorm tightens the joint. SeMce life
can be extended by turning or replacing the plyw@d
Iace.
2. Reusable plastic liners may be attached to inner surfaces
to oroduce oatterned concrete.
3. For maximum economy, panels can be assembled in
large gangs and set in place by crane.
HAND.SET
FORMS
MANUFACTURED
WALL
NOTE
BLOCKING
AND
BRACES
EDGE
FORMS
Installing and removing ties and patching tie holes are

some of the most labor-intensive operations in forming
wlls. Also. getting a durable, inconspicuous patch often
proves difficult. Avoid this problem by specifying smooth
cone fittings at the tie ends, then either leaving the resulting unitorm tie holes exposed or plugging them with preformed concrete plugs and a bonding agent. Leave no
exposed corrodible metal within 1r/2 in. of concrete surface.
Contractors may propose tie spacing wider than 2 ft o.c. to
reduce the total number ot ties to save monev. but this
calls for stronger ties and heavier form suppons.
ln tilt-up construction, walls are cast on the completed lloor

slab, which must be level, smoothly finished, and treated
with a bond-breaking agent to permit easy separation. The
wall is then tilted or lifted into vertical position and lastened
to the adjoining wall piece. This method reduces formwork
and labor and eliminates transportation requirements that
mav limit oanel size.
FORM TIE PATTERN
TILT.UP
Mary K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
S1-.A,B FORMWOFIK
N OTE
CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
TILT.UP
N OTE
WALL
FORMWORK
WALLS
ConcreteFormworkfor Columnsond Footings
REBAR
TEMPLATE
lg5
,-2X4
SPACER
/
2X4TEMPLATES FOR
REBAR OR
ANCHOR
BOLTS
7." STEEL
AAND
PANEL
ROD
WALL
OF
%'
_'
WITH2X4CLEATS
2X4
STAKE
FOOTINGS
PUNK
OR
SECoNDHAND
2 X 4
FC)OTING
PANEL
OF
..-.-.-..-_
STOCK
SPACER
--2X4STAKE
WALL
AEOW
ELEVATION
WALL
FOOTING
PLAN
COLUMN
FOOTINGS
rt
I
I
//-2X4
I
L
ts
I
L
I
I
SQUARE
SQUARE
NOTE
COLUMN
COLUMN
It is recommended that chamfe. slrips be used at all out,

srde corners to reduce damage to concrete when forms are
COLUMN
PLANS
@LUMN
I,-ARGE
COLUMN
PT--A.N
removed. Consult manufacturers'guides and catalogs tor

ideal materials, pour rate (fVhr), and outside temperature
{oF).
SECTION
DROP PANELS AT COLUMN
TOPS
TuckerConcreteFormCompany;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
Concrete Formworkfor Wqlls
186
DOUBLE
WALERS
RUSTICATION
(PREFERRED)
GASKETED FOR
WATER TGffiNESS
PLYFORM
SHEATHING
STUDS
SILL
WALL
OR
PGTE
TIES
F@TING
(CONCRETE)
EPOXY
45'CUT
ON
AND
TONGUE
GROOVED
(WITH
CAULKING)
|')'j'j#
t\
/l
t><l
TO SOLID
BRACE
CONSTRUCTION.
AS NECESSARY
t/
\l
-e
. I
TAPED
o.c.
l------/l
l-'-----l
TYPICAL
COIL
TIE
SITE.BUILT
WALL
SPLINED
(wtTH
cA'r.JLKrNG)
FORM\ivORK
REMOVABLE
W@D
OR
W@D SruD
BOLT AND
WASHER
CONE
WITH
GASKETED
CELL
CLOSED
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
ruBLE
WAERS
FORM
AFGM
SHEAfrING
SHEATHING
. .3
l\\-/-
l/-\-l
rery | \ /
| ---"\
|JOINT
AT
SITE-BUILT
|I
DETAILS
@NNNUOUS
2 X 6 SPIKED
ON IF GNGED
FORMS ARE
USED
TIE LENGfr
TO
REMAIN IN WALL
SECTION
: a
IT
WALL
WALL
TIE ROD
TIE
TYPICAL EXPOSED
ELEVATION
FORMS
NE END
CONCRETE
ruYFORM
SHilTHING
@RNER
LOCK
CONCRETE
MO2X4
WALERS
PLruOOD
2X4STUD
2X4SruD
NE
lX4SHOE
ruo2x4
WALERS
CONCRETE
NOTE
Verify size and spacing of components for each job. The
combination of plyform sheathing, studs, walers, and ties
must be chosen carefully to safely resist contrete pressure
and limit deflection of the lom face. Stel and aluminum
studs and Mlers my be used in place of wood.
TYPICAL
WALL
WITH
OFFSET
TYPICAL
CORNER
TYPICAL
JOB-BUILT
WALL
SECTION
NOTES
2X4SruD
2X4SruD
ruo2x4
WALERS
2X4SruD
PILASTER
TYPICAL
T WALL JUNCTION
1. The typical wood and plywmd framing details shown

must b modified as necessary to accommdate
the lat
eral pressure of fresh concrete on the forms. Studs and
walers of aluminum or steel are frequently used. Lateral
pressure varies depending on the rate at which the torm
is filled. lhe temperature of the concrete, vibration proce
dures. and the type of admixtures used in the concrete.
2. Consult manufacturers'recommendations for sate work
ing loads on ties. Consult the American Concrete Insti
lute's Formwork for Concrete (SP-4) for detailed design
recomrendations,
3. A great variety of form ties are commercially available
(see AGS page on concrete formwork hardware). For
architectural surfaces exposed to weather, choose a tie
that leaves no corrodible metal closer than 1'l, in. from
the concrete surface. Ties should be tighr fitting and
sealed as necessary to prevent leakage at holes in the
forms.
4- Ties tiftd with wood or plastic cones should leave
depressions at least as deep as the surface diameter of
the cone. Th holes may be filled with recessed plugs or
left unfilled if noncorroding ties are used.
5. Provide cleanout d@rs at the bottom of wall torms.
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
Mary K. Hurd;ngineeredPublications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
Concrete Formworkfor Slobsond Beoms

3 Patented steel forms or tillers can be special ordered for
unusual conditions; see manufacture.s' catalogs Fiber
forms are also on the market in simila. sizes. Plyform
deck is required for forming.
GENERAL NOTES
1. Scaffolding, steel shores, or wood posts may be used
under stringers depending on loads and height requiremenls.
2. For flat slabs of {lat plate forming. metal "flying forhs"
are commontv useo.
4. Plyform is usually % in. minimum thickness, Exposure 1
CONCRETE
'at'
''-\
STRINGER
2b'
.:+<
SCREW
JACK
WIDE
BOARD -a'To
TYPICAL
PAN
TUBUSR
SCAFFOLDING
FORM
TYPICAL
naildown lorm but with board insert for smooth aooear(withoutflanges;producessmooth

ance);and adiustable
rab).
2. ConsultANSI A48.1-1986for comDleteoan form standards.
1. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass.

Consult manulacturers for forms with different dimensions and riF.form variations. Typically three types are
llange (simplest, but produces
available: nailiown
rough, nonarchitectural surface); slip-in type (based on
PAN FORM FOR ONE.WAY
Foo*.or5.,a'RIBS)
N OTES
1. Standard waffle slab forms are square for ease of use

and economy. Dimensions vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer. Consult ANSI A48.2-l986 tor com'
plete dome form standards.
2. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass.
Consult form manufacturer for options in material, textures, and dimensaons.
CENTERING
N OTES
TYPICAL
187
TYPICAL DOME FORM FOR WAFFLE

TWO-WAY SLAB
OR
FORMWORK SPLIT
TO ACCOMMODATE
WATER STOP
-
SLAB
sua
CONCRflE
SUB
QG
'.'t'
LESS
THAN
GUARDRAIL
KNEE
BRACE
WATER
STOP
BULB
CENTER
FOLDING
NOTE
Waterslops are flexible barriers used to prevent the passage of liquids and gasses under pressure through joints in
concrete slabs. Waterstops are typically made of polwinyl
chloride, and their shapes vary according to application. lf a
center bulb is specified, it musl remain unembedded in the
center of the ioint.
OfRIGGER
HEAD
SLAB
FORMWORK
WITH
WATER
STOP
ADJUSTABLE
WIDTH
THREADED
HANGERS
. -'----
TYPICAL
SLAB AND SHALLOW
BEAM FORMING
[.
@NCREE
GUARDRAIL
BEAM
-.\
JI
PLYFORM
SIDES
/-
LEreER/
WALER
RYFORM
DECK
ll
il'
JOTSTS
II
ll
tl
BAM
STEEL
l.
WPE
COIL
HANGER
AEAM
aofroM
BLOCKING
SCAFFOLDINlG
|uNKS
BEAM
SIDE
JOIST
CLEATS
TOE
PLATE
STRINGERS
ARRIER
STRINGERS
4 " W|DE
SGFFOLDING
TIEDOM
TO BL@K
IN rcURED
FLOOR
2 -O' W|DE
SCAFFOLDING
corl
BoLT
OHREADS
rNTO CO|L
END OF
HANGER)
FLAT WASHER
-AND
CLAMP
NOTE
This type of tormwork is used to fireproof structuralsteel
beams by wrappingthem in concrele.
TYPICAL SLAB AND HEAVY BEAM FORMING
TYPICAL SUSPENDED FORM WITH

COIL SADDLE-TYPE HANGERS
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
r88
Concrete FormworkHordwqre
GENERAL
waLER
Concreteformworkhardwareincludesties,anchors,hangers,and spacersused to holdformsand reinforcements

in
placeagainstthe forces of unhardenedconcrete and other
loadsappliedduringconstruction.
are tensile
Concretd.ties
units adaptedto hold concrete lorms together and may be
classifiedby use or by loadrarrying capacitta.Classifiedby
use are two main concrete tie types: "continuous single
member," in which the entire tie rod extends throuoh the
wall and through both sides ol the formwork (this ca; be a
pullout tie or a snap{ff tie},and "internaldisconnecting,"
in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded
connectronsto removableexternalmembers.Classifiedby
load{arrying capacityare lightiuty {safe working loads of
up to 3750 lb) 6nd heavy{uty (loadsot more rhan 3750 tb)
concreteties. SaIe working load shouldbe set at no more
than half the tie's ultimate strength. Other hardwaresvstems and configurationsmay be available;consult manutacturersfor comoletedetails.
WALL
PLruOOD
STItrF BACK
CAM:
I'1
SECTION
TrE GRTPPEF</
CONE
CAM BRA*ET
-fitrlao%'Dra
NorE
WALL
Fiberglassform ties, straight rods secured with reusable

external metal grippers, have safe working loads ranging
lrcm 2250 to 25,000 psi. The ries are readilybroken off or
cut at th concretesurface,then groundflush.
FIBERGLASS
SECTION
TIE ROD I OOP

CONNtrCTS ] O
"*1;d+ffiBRAcKtrr
caMBRA.KET=^,.rq-ft+ -\
FORM TIE
C:aMCRAN(/
srlFF BAcK aM
TIGHENS
WRf
TO HOR|ZONTAL
WALL
FORMWORK
I
-flJ
(FASreNS aND
ICAL STUDS
WALLRS)
,..-/
NOTE
Thislightiuty system is suitablefor iob-setforms.
SECTION
CAM LOCK BRACKET/TIE

CONE
(offiroNAL)
WALER
WALL
SCAFFOLDING
SEC:TION
SYSTEM
,/-FORVWORK
-SETBACK
6'
MIN.
HE-BOLT
9', MrN.
SPREADER
BaD.
LocarEs
SPRADER
WASHER-
HOT
FC)RGED
HAD
COiL-END
LOOP
ANGOR
CONCRETE
Coil ties are medium- to heavyduty ties fabricaled to

accepta threadedbolt, which passesthroughthe lormwork
tummr.
WASHER
MOOUUR
j
CONE
NOTE
FORM
WALL
ANTITURN FATURE
(FUT OR CRTMP)
WALL
PUSTTC CONe
WTH e}REAKBACK
INSIDE CONE
E
cotL TrEs
reDGE
AND BOLT
BREAKBACK
TYPE
/(
TYPE
SECTION
r.- TO
r; orn
/
/
-AE-BOII
(C..ATED
RELilSE
wlTH
AGENT)
rrrnnrnnr+m
ffi
9ffi3"13.^ --'N
"oi=
Snap ties are a type of through tie for lightduty use, fabricated so the exposed ends ol the tie cah be snapped of{ at
the breakback (a notch in the rodl. The antiturn device
makes it easier to break off the exoosed end.
The coil anchor is embedded near the top of a concrete lifr

to support the formwork of the succeeding lift. The reus
able hebolt is threaded into the coil.
SNAP TIES
HE.BOLT
WITH
COIL ANCHOR
SEC:TION
_1
waLL
(6'TO
THICKNESS
24', ryP)
{-
N OTE
ROCK
ANCHOR
WALL
Flat ties are lightiuty

ties used with a wedge and bolt to
secure and space modular wall forms.
SEC:TION
cotL
n
NS---_\
NOTE
RMK
aNcHoR
TtE __\
gF;- ilnr
FLAT TIE
SHE.
BoLT/
\^'/ALL
@tL
a+
--__\
,*
.nsmrry- W_E
'
noo
txctraDco
corL RoD
11/4' fO
2\h'
--
ROD
WATER
BARRIER
WASHER
(1'OR
I '4. Dta.)
CONE
1" rO
,/
She-bolts are reusble heavyduty tie components threaded

onto an internal tie rod permanently embedded in the concrete. They are typiclly used with crane+andled forms.
SECTION
DIA,
END
l
fNSrDe rE RoD
(1hao 1. DA.)-
SHE-BOLT/TIE
ROCK ANCHOR
WALL
TAPERED
l(@--
N OTE
Rmk anchors are used with coil ties to facilitate one-side

torming of walls.
FUT
WASHER /
SECTION
(LENGTH
2.h'frp.)
STAB
TO aCCEPT
TrE
A,.rir
dk
W
u)7
34. TO
Generally used lor heavyduty loads of up to 5O,O0Olb, the

taper tie system is a versatile forming system whose parts
are removed after the concrete sets and mav be reused.
Tres may be installed after lorms are in place.
Steel wedges are placed at the outside threaded ends of

pullout or snap tie rods, holding the tormwork in place.
Plastic or wood cones mav be placed on the tie rod at the
Jormwork wall surface, so that when the formwork is
removed the tie rod ends are set back Jor subsequent finishing (with plugs, erc.).
STEEL TAPER TIE
TIE ROD ACCESSORIES
NOTE
Ma.y
K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
HIGH
N OTE
CHAIR
SIDE
Bar supports are used to maintain the reinlorcement's

design distancefrom the wall sides or slab bottom. They
are typicallymade ot stainlesssteel or epoxy- or plastic
coatedsteel.
REINFORCING
SUPPORTS
BAR AND MESH
r89
ReinforcingBqrsond Wire
ffi;==-ffi,-^*
H
GENERAL
Steei reintorcement ior concrete conslsts of rernforcrng
bars and welded wire fabric. Bars are manulactured by hotroll p.ocess as round rods with lugs, or deformations, which
inhibit longitudinal movemenl of lhe bar in the surrounding
concrete Bar sizes are indited by-numbers. For sizes #3
through #8, the numbers are the number of eighths of an
inch in the nominal diameter of the ba.s. Numbers g, 10.
and 1 1 are round and cotrespond to the former 1 in., 1rls in.,
and 1rL in. square sizes. Sizes #14 and #18 correspond to
the former 1rl, in. and 2 in. square sizes. The nominal diameter of a deformed bar is equal 10 the actual diameter of a
plain bar with the same weight per foot as the deforred
bar. Epoxy-coated, zinc{oated {galvanized}, and stainless
steel reinforcing bars are used when corrosion protection is
needed: stainless steel also has nonmagnetic properties. in
some instances. a fiberreintorced plastic (FRP) rebar is
used for highly specialized concrete reinforcement because
of its high tensile strength and light weight. corrosion resistance, and dielectric (nonconductive) properties. FRP rebars
are manufactured in the same sizes as steel rebars and also
have deformations on the surface. Consult manufacturers
for f urther information.
NUME}ER
SYSTEM
ONE
MAIN
SYMBOL
OF
PRODUCING
MILL
TRANSVERSE
ryPE STEEL
(NEW BILLET)
NOTE
LINE
GRADE @
GRADE
Steel iype grademarks:S-billet (4615).l-rail (4616).lBrailmeetingsupplementary

requirements,
Sl (A616),A-axle
(4617),W-low alloy(A706).
REINFORCING
BAR GRADE MARK IDENTIFICATION
ASTM STANDARD
REINFORCING BAR SIZES
w1e
Dr8
w16
D16
w1o
STEEL
oro
WIRE
SIZES
AND
GAUGES
WEIGHT
(LB/
LIN. FT)
w''z
.490
.419
.462
.451
.431
.422
.394
.391
.374
.366
.363
.357
.348
.338
.331
.329
.319
.309
.307
.299
.248
.283
.216
.265
25r
w10.5
wr0
w9.5
W9
w8.5
W8
vw.5
D,1O
=
*
D7
w6.5
NOTE
Melrication of reinforcing bars is being considered in the
United States: as of October 1995. a decision had not been
made about what metric rebar sizes would apply in the
United States. Metrication may result in a reengineering of
reinforced concrete structures using the new bar sizes.
D6
W5
w5.5
w3,s
.252
.244
.239
.226
.211
.207
.195
.192
.118
tj
i
5
W3
vv2.9
w2.5
w2.1
w2
OF
SECTIONAL AREA
OF CONCRETE,
ONE WAY
w''.0
AND
I
t
3
wa.s
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE

REINFORCEMENT FOR
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
SHEETS
75
SYSTEM
STANDARD
PLAIN
WIRE
NUMBER
COMMON
--''
GRADE
MARKS
GRADE 40
GRADE 50
Wire in the form of individual wire or groups of wires is

used in the fabrication of prestressed concrete.
PERCENT
LINES
LUGS
Welded wire fabric is used in thin slabs. shells. and other

designs in which available space is too limited to give
orooer cove. and clearance to deformed ba.s. Welded wire
tabric. also called mesh. consists ot cold drawn wire
(smooth or delormed) in onhogonal panerns; it is resistance welded at all intersections.
cRoss-
MO
LINE
RIBS
5TOCK STYLES OF WELDED
\/VIRE FABRIC
7
I
.160
.148
.124
REINFORCING
BAR
GRADES
AND
.r 8 9
.180
.168
.160
.146
.140
.122
.120
. 11 0
.105
.103
.100
.095
.090
.086
.085
.080
.o75
.o74
.070
.065
.063
.060
.055
.054
.050
.o47
.045
.040
.035
.034
.030
.o29
.o25
.o21
.020
.017
.0't4
.571
.544
.496
.476
.415
.408
.374
.357
.350
.340
.323
.306
_292
.289
.272
.255
.251
.234
.221
.214
.204
.147
. 18 3
.170
.160
. 15 3
. 1t 9
. 11 5
.102
.098
.085
.071
.068
.058
.048
STRENGTHS
MIN. YIELD
STRENGTH
(PSl)
ROLLS
steel
LOIGITUoINAL
1l-'
T R A N S V E R SE
wtR -_-/
METHOD
OF
-------#"
"
DESIGNATION
LONGITUDINAL
WIRE
Wire Size
Spacing
>FOR
Vi/ELDED
TRANSVERSE
WIRE
\^r'IRE FABRIC
Weldedtabric<W1.2
S i z e> W 1 . 2
Concrete Reinlorcing Steel Institute; Schaumburg, lllinois

Gordon B. Batson, P.E.: Potsdam, New York
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
t90
ReinforcingBorsond Wire
DETATLTNG
orueNsror I oR G,
_-*_'--_--t--t
DETAILING
DIMENSION
+r____r-.-"..---------..--|-----T-.------.-;14
-l
|
("/
'(l
.1.-ff
oR 2rl2'MIN
STANDARD
HOOK
STIRRUP HOOKS AND TIES
STANDARD REINFORCING BAR HOOK DETAILS

COMPRESSION LAP SPLICES AND ANCHORAGES
REINFORCING BARS
STEEL
GRADE
(FY-KSr )
CONCRETE
COMPRESSION
(F'c)
STRENGTH
LAP
SPLICE IN
db>t2 tN.
JUUU
4000
5000
50
DOWELS.
tN db(a tN.
MrN.)
ZU
20
20
JUUU
4000
5000
40
FOR
TFNSTON LAP SPLTCES ANO ANCHORAGE

F C = 3OOO PSI. NORMAL WEIGHT
BAR
stzE
to
JWU
60
75
4000
5000
30
30
19
18
JWU
4000
5000
44
44
24
23
3/." FoR suRFAcEs NoT

EXPOSED TO WEATHER
FOR 15 OR SMALLER
(2" FOR *6 ANO URGER)
JOTSTS
o
z
3/." FoR suRFAcEs Nor ExposED

TO WEATHER ( I r/2- EXPOSEO
TO WEATHER FOR 15 OR
SMALLER: 2" FOR f6 AND LARGER)
FLOOR SUBS
3/4-
I' MIN. OR NOT

LEss rHAN I r/3" x
COARSE AGGREGATE
OR NOM. BAR DIA.
BEAM OR GIRDER
MtN
o_
o*
oi
u<
0u
oi
l.
t.
I
|
I
I
il6 |
1:
".
2'' MIN, FOR #6 AND URGER

WALLS
COLUMNS
PROTECTION
l3
l6
z3
30
tz
2A
46
5U
65
4U
52
35
46
32
42
3Z
JO
JO
89
71
63
50
49
bJ
51
66
45
49
43
56
90
72
63
cl
b4
6J
57
74
4U
63
114
9l
80
64
57
48
t2
45
102
OJ
76
69
I to
td
94
56
73
45
58
r 0 0 89
1 3 1 93
192 137
93
tz
2A
1 1 7 94
a2
114 Y I
UU
148 1 1 9 104
21
21
16
2A
2A
2A
22 22
't/
242
J5ti
3btt
22
35
42
1to tto
zbt) 2bl)
6Y
't21
ltE
aa
36
93
121
'|
IA
,|
I
7
22
22
27
27
J I
42
d l
1 8 8 1 5 1 132 1 0 6
't25
174
100
231 1 8 5 r 6 2 1 3 0
242
to
t1
35
ttc
to
21
40
J5
30
39
55
Aq
32
7A 142
1Al
'|
31
274
274
192
81
29
38
43
NOTES
t,tz
MIN
3/4- MtN
34" MtN
t(
,1
1 BAR DrA. (dh) OR

3lr" wHtcrev-en
OTHER BARS
CATEGORY
to
tl
2. Reinforcing bars #14 and #18 may not be used in lap splices exept when lapped to #1 1 bars
or smaller. To find the lap dimension, take the larger figure of either 22 db of the larger bar or
30 db of the smaller bar.
3. Consult Concrete Reinforcing Steel Insritute (CRSI) for tension splices and anchorages.
N OTES
'|
. db = reinforcing bar diameter.
TOP BARS
CATEGORY
LAP
CLASS
FOR REINFORCEMENT
ConcreteReinforcingSteel Institute:Schaumburg,lllinois
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
1. Lap splice lengthsare multiplesof tensiondovelopmentlengths;ClassA = 1.0 ld.ClassB =

1.3 | d-0qcl 12.15.1)Valuesof ldfor bars in beams or @lumns are based on transwrse rein
torcementmeelingminimumrequirements
for stirrupsin ACI 11.5.4and t 1.5.5.3,or meeting tie requirementsin ACI 7.10.5:and are basd on minimum mver specifiedin ACI 7.7.1.
2. Conditionsthat requireCategory1 or Category2 lap spli@ lengnhsshould be awided if at all
possiblefor the larger bar sizes.Theseinordinatlylong lengthspresent possible@nstruction problemsdue to placing,congestion,etc. Options availablin trying to avoid Category1
or 2 conditionsinclude:
a, Increasingthe concrete cover to moro than one bar diamterand/or increasethe bar c.{.
spacingto more than thre bar diamoters.
b- Utilizingthe A, allowancein ACI 12.2.3(b)for beams or colums. Noto thar if ties or stirrups
meet the minimum Ar requirement.Category1 lengths ars reducedto Category5 lengths
and Category2 lengthsare reducedto Category6 lengths.
3. The ACI 318-89code does not allow lap splicesof #14 or #'l 8 bars:The valuestabulatedfor
those bar sizesare the tensiondevelopmentlengrths.
4. Top bars are horizontalbars with more than 12 in. of concretecast below the bars.
5. #1'l and smalleredge barswith c.{. spacingnot lss than6d b are assumedto havea side
cover not less than 2.5d b. OtheMise, Category5 appliesratherthan Category6.
6. Forlightweighlaggregate,
multiplythe valuesaboveby '1.3.
7. For epoxy{oated reinforcingbars,multiplythe valuesabovby one of the followingfactorsl
a.Cover< 3d b or c.{. spacing< 7db multiplytop barsby '1.31andall otherbarsby 1.50.
b.Cover> 3d b and c.{. spacing> 7d b multiplytop bars and all other bars by 1.20.
8. See CRSI'SReinfor@ment:Anchorages,Lap Splicesand Connectionsmanualfor tables of
tensiondovelopmentand lap spliceslor other concretestrengthsand epoxy{oated rebars.
Plqcemenlof SteelReinforcement
t9t
oowELs
, IcoNTTNUATTON
I l/2 TURN FoR
ANCHORAGE
DOWES
REOUIRED
CLOSED
STIRRUP
REOUIRED
1-6" MNf
BRICK
/
LEDGE f
SPANDREL OR
I
EDGE AEAM
, J
TYPICAL BEAM
OR GIRDER
UPTUR NED
EDGE BEAM
BARSsHowN
FOR
PROVIDE
SHRINKAGE
REINFORCE
AS REOUiRED
BY DESIGNER
VERTICALLY
VERTICAL
REINFORCING
(6) BARS MIN
{ONLY 2
sHowN)
KEY REOUIRED
I
-{t,'|
r--
TOP BARS
(TYP,)
EARTH
A'MIN,
SPIRAL
TIE
PROVIDE
SHRINKAGE
REINFORCING
AS REOUIRED
BY ST,RUCTURAL
DESIGNER
MAX.3MlN. l3/s oR
I '|/3X AGG.
SIZE
J
6TH
EXPANSION
JOINT
BOnOM
BARS
PUN OF
BASEMENT WALL
EXTERIOR CORNER
REINFORCING
PLAN
PLAN
OF
H
J | \#3 TrEs
MtN
FOUNDAT
SHOWN
WELDED
SPLICE
AREA (MlN.)
CLEAR
3,,MAX.
LN
SPAN
SMALL
BAR S
APPLICATION
2 - *5 BARS AT
CENTER OF SLAB
EXTEND TRIMMER
BARS2,.6'' MIN.
BEYONO SIOES OF
OPENING OR AS FAR
AS POSSIBLE ANO HOOK
MIODLE STRIP
l.T5BARAT
TOP OF SLAB
1. Provideextra bars (not shown) parallelto

sidesof openings,equalto areasot interrupted slab bars. Extend Jull length of
spanor to top barsas applicable.
2. This detail is typicalat openingsup to 4 ft
maximum dimensionsexcept as otherwrse snown.
3. Circularopningsless than 18 in. diameter requireno rein{orcing.
OPENING
PLATE
CONSTRUCTION
COLUMN
IN
OR
SLAB
t 4 ( M t N . )T O P
AND BOfrOM
o.33
LN
rfln
OOUBLE
TENSION
ITII BAR
ilt\
rl li v srEevE cuMP
;' lt tl ll
rl I
rTl
ftt
COMPRESSION
sPLrcE
REBAR
LAP
I ENGTH
(
I
//
STRIP
//
rffil
REBAR
BUNDLES
DOUBLE
TIES
lN&'*
MIN. CONSTRUCTION
DEPTH = SPAN/I8 5 (EXTERIOR

OEPTH
WAY
LONGITUOTNAL SECTION-{NE
CONCRETE JOIST CONSTRUCTION
WELDED
t+/---
2ND FLOOR
WALL
8 " , l o " , AND I 2" FOR 20. PANS

a " , l o - , 12 .14". 16"- AND 20" FOR 30, PANS
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
2t t2" ao 4t t2
OISTRIBUTION RIB
(l)-SPANS20TO30
(2) , SPANS OVER
FLOOR
4TH
N OTES
FUT
4-O
MAX,
C. SPAN
PLATE CONSTRUCTION
FACE OF
SUPPORT
ANGLE
HERE
RECTANGLE
FOR REINFORCING
. o rs ( M A X . )
FUT
MAX. TIE
SPACING
4A TIE DIA
16 BAR DIA
LEAST COL
DIM.
DETAILS
1 . 15 BAR AT TOP OF SUB
OPENING MAY HAVE ANY
SHAPE OTHER THAN
p46E pp
THRUST
TIES
REOUIREO
15-neean
il.
tl
:l
ll
@l lll.
-iLt-
OF
BASEMENT WALL
INTERIOR CORNER
BASEMENT WALL
INTERSECTION
;f
=t
3'MIN
COVER
DOWEL
11/2TURN FoR
ANCHORAGE
MrN.l
la
FOOTING
MAX. TIE
SPACING
4A TIE DIA.
I6 BAR DIA
LEAST COL
DIM.
FLOOR
{,.-
, cC o
O R EE oOr IaA ,
- SPAN/21
USUALLY
20" oR 30' srD
(INTERIOR)
aa-
EXPANSION
TO 4't2
MIN
COLUMN
STRIP
SLAFSQUARE
CONCRETE
DEPTH
- SPAN/24
o125L
FUT
WAFFLE
BAY CONSYRUCTION
FLOOR
OI5L(MAX)
MIDDLE
SYSTEMS
STRIP
C. . C. SPAN
24'TO 36
c.-c.
COLUMN
REINFORCEMENT
Anthony L. Felder: Concrete Reinforcing Steel lnstitute; Schaumburg, lllinois

Kenneth D. Franch, AlA. PE; Phillips Swager Associates, Inc.; Dallas, Texas
REINFORCEMENT
CONCRETE
192
Concrefe Admixtures
GENERAL
Concrete should be workable, finishabte, slronq. durabte.

watertight, and wearaesistant. These qualilres cian usuallv
be achreved by selectrng surtable matefials or bv chanaina
the mix proportions. Sometimes airentrainrno jdm,rt,]rei
are necessary, but in most cases admixturei can be for_
gone. No admixture can substitute for good concreting
practice.
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other tban

portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to
the mixture immediately before or during.mixing. Admixtures can.be classified by function as follows: airntraininq
admxturesj water reductng admixtures; retardrng admix.
tures:.accelerating admixturesj superplastjcizers; tinely
divided mineral admixtures; miscellaneous admixtures thai
aid workability, bondrng, dampproofrng, gas-tormrng, grout_
Ing lrcnsnnnk,, and colonng and help reduce prmeability
and inhibit corrosion.
TOTAL TARGET
AIR CONTENT
NOMINAL MAXIMUM
AGGREGATE SIZE (IN.)
The major reasons for using admixtures are to reduce the

cost of concrete construction; to achieve certain properties
rn concrete more effectively; to ensure the qualitv 6l con_
crete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in
adverse weather conditions; and to overcome certain e;er_
gencies during concreting operations.
FOR C O N C R E T E ]
AIR CONTENT
SEVERE
EXPOSURE3
MODERATE
(PERCENT)2
EXPOSURE3
NOTES
1- The effectiveness of an admixture depends on such fa.
tors as type, brand, and amount of cement; water con
tent; aggregate shape, gradation, and proponions: mix;ng
trme; slump: and concrete and air temperatures.
2. Trial mixtures should be mde with the admixture anrt
the iob materials at temperatures and humidities antic
pated on the job to ensure compatibility wjth otheJ
admixtures and job materials and to allow obseruation ot
how the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete
are affected by lmal conditions.
3. The cost ol using admjxtures should be compared wrth
lhe cost of changing the basic concrete mixture. Deter
mrne how using an admixture will affect the cost of
kansponing, placing. linishing, curing. and protecting the
concrete.
4. Recommended total air contents for dif{erent exoosure
conditions are shown for diflerent aggregate sizes in thp
table below.
MILD EXPOSURE3
3,/,
rExperienceshows that hardened

concrete with the ajr
ontents specifiedin this table, as sampledand tested in
tF plastic state, performs satisfactorily.The air content
of hardenedconcretemay be smewhat different.
, Projectspecificationsoften allow
the air content of the
delivered concrete to be within several percentage
pcintsof the table target values.
3 Svereexposureis an environmentin
which concreteis
exposedto wt freez&thaw conditions,de-icers,or other
aggrssive agents. Moderate exposure is an envaron_
ment in wtlich concrete is exposed to freezing but will
not.be continuallymoist, not exposedto watei for long
periods befor freezing,and will not be in contact with
d+icers or aggressivechomicals. Mild exposure is an
environmentin lvhich @ncrete is not exposedto treez_
ing conditions,cleicers,or aggressiveagents.
CONGRETE ADMTXTURES BY CLASSTFICATTON

TYPE OF ADMIXTURE
MATERIAL
Type C)
dtrainers
lcium nitrite
dibutyl
silicones
Arrotratntng admixtures
(/ASTM C 260)
segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated
reoucers
resrn);some
proternaceous
._"11"-'
materiat;fatry and resinousacidsand rheir sitts; altyibenzene
!..",y^*yl
:."lt",of
surronales;sails ol
su[onated hvdrocarbons
lrthrum and barium,
caoon
phthalrcyanine,
(ASTMC 979)
, sodium benzoate,
admrxtures
aomrxlures
Cementitious
enrrarnrngagents
calciumor ammoniumstearateor
pnosphates
srearate;
Hydraulic properties; partial cement replacement
G@nd granulatedblast-furnaceslag (ASTMC 989)j naturalcemenu hydraulichydratedlime

ASTMC 141r
Pozolans
Pozzolanic activjty; improve workability, plasticity, sulfate

resistance; reduce alkali reactjvity. pem;ability. heat of
hydration; partial cement replacement; filler
shares,
vorcanic pumicites
(AsrM
c 618,
crass
N);fry
31"Jift1"fi"&i8:3tr""i1"":^3l""i,iJ:r,'; tuffs,
P@olanic and cementitlm
Same as cementitious and pozzolan caregones
Highlcium fly ash (ASTMC 61B, ClassC);groundgranulatedblast-furnacestag

{ASTMC 989)
lmprove workability; filler
Marble,dolomite,quartz,granite
Nminally inert
insecticides
powder;rsrnsoap
admixtures,accelerators,retardes
shnnk grout tor sefting steel on masonryor mncrte, till

regletsand cracks)
grounosrag
mtural pozzolans;water
U'rgan|candsynthetic'polymers;organicfloccu|ents;o@
pyrcgenicsiticas;naturatpozzotans(ASTMC 618, CiassN); fty ash
{i
3:y"::t-T-1t?11","ld
oru, LrassesI andC);hyd.atedtime(ASTMC 141)
B)
delay initial set lor difficult placement, or for special finishrng, such as exposed aggregate
both ASTM 494 a n d C ' 1 0 1 7specilications

neously.
Robert W. Shuldes.P.E.;PorttandCementAssociation;
Skokie.llljnois
sugar; tartaric
sates;lignosulfonates
5uperpEs!czerand
retarder (ASTM C 10't 7
fype 2l
reorcer
TvDeAl
* Superplasticizers
are also referredto as high-rangewater
reducers or plasticizers.These admixtures often meet
Lignin:
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
Concrete Foundotions
STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
REINFORCING
/-
/ ,/
COLUMN
FOOITNG
BELow]
193
DOWELS
CONCRETE
CAP
FINISH
FLOOR
/-
\
\
GROUND
WATER
,,'\
TABLE/
CONCRETE
FOOTING,
TYP
SLOPE AS
R E O U I R E OB Y
LOCAL CODE
CONCRETE
SHAfl
IN
TEMPORARY
CASING
COMPACT
SAND
caYJ
REFUSALOR
HARDCUY
(UNDISTURBED
(rrr**
COMBINED
FoorrN)
COMBINED
MAT OR
COMBINED
o
\ couuur
E
L
BELL
DIAMETER
3
o
NOTES
1. Test soils to determin their allowable bearingcapacity.
Refer to localbuildingcodes.
'H'is tunctionof the passiveresistance
of the soil,gen2.
a
erated by the moment appliedto the pier cap.
3. Piersmay be used under grade beams or concretewalls.
Forvery heaw loads,pier foundationsmay be more ecG
nomicalthan piles,
J
U
o
FOUNDATION
SECTION
SPREAD FOOTINGS
BELL
PIER FOUNDATION
STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
0
&
CONCRETE CAP
FOR MULTIPLE
COLUMNS
dz
OR PIERS
MJ
ANCHOR
BOLTS
REINFORCEMENT
FOR COLUMN OR
MOMENT DESIGN
CONCRflE
F
o
o
E
SHAtr
IN
TEMPORARY CASING
;o
J
ôan----"
HAND OR MACHINE
SOCKET
EXCAVATED
CUT INTO ROCK
PILE-SUPPORTED
I
I'.
FOUNDATIONS
OF SOCKET
DEPTH
(CONSULT
ENGINEER)
N OTES
1. Set pier into a s@ket in r@k to transmit high compres'

sion or tensionloadsinto rock by bond.
2. Pier shaft shouldbe poured in dry conditionsiI possible,
but tremie pourscan be used.
FOUNDATION WALL
SOCKET
PIER FOUNDATION
GRAOE
MAXIMUM
STEEPNESS
WALL
AREAWAY
WITH REINFORCING
IF NEEDED
SEAUNT
SUB
ON GRADE
POROUS
FILL
FOR ORAINAGE
CONCRETE
FOOTINGS
DISCONTINUOUS
STEP
FOOTINGS
CONTINUOUS
FOOTINGS
,/,
AREAWAY
SUB
ABUTS BUILDING
FOOTING
AREAWAY
WALL
Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers; Potomac, Maryland

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
194
ConcreteSlobson Grqde
srderable traffic by hard wheel vehicles. such as forklifts. A
semrrigid filler Shore Hardness "A" of at least gO should be
used in joints supponing forklitt traf{ic.
GENERAL
Factors to consader in the design and construction of all
slabs on grade include the intended use o{ the slab or slab
section, the condition and preparatton oI a unilorm subgrade, quality of concrete, adequacy of structural capacity,
lype and spacrng of,oints, frnishing, currng. and apptrcalion
ol specral surfaces The subgrade support must be reasonably uniform and the upper ponion of the subgrade (called
the base) should be of uniform material and densitu. Both
should be properly compacted. A thin laver of comoactable
granular fill may be placed rmmediatelv beneath the slab lo
act as a Oercolation barrier.
Concrete fl@r slabs are monolithically finished as a qeneral

pr@edure by tloating and troweling to a smooth and-dense
top surface finish. ACI 302 provides specific guidance for
appropriate linishing procedures to control the achievable
floor flatness. ACI 302, ACI 360, and ACI I I 7 Drovide ouidance for tlatness selection and the techniqubs bv ';hich
flatness and levelnss are produced and measured. Two
systems are used. The preferred method of measurinq flatness and lvelness (documented in ACI 302 and ACI li 7) ,s
the F-Numbr System. Special linrshes are available to
rmprove appearance as well as surface oroDerties. These
include sprinkled (shake) finishes or high-strength toppings,
erther as monolithic or separate (two-stage floorl surfaces.
Where propagation of water vapor is undesirable, a waterproof vapor barier, with permeance not to exceed O.2O
perms, can be used
Wear resistance (abrasion) is directly related to the condition ol the top portion of the concrete slab. Surface hardness.and abrasion resrstance may be provided by special
addrtrves or hardeners to the surface. The quality of the
overall concrete slab will be enhanced by proper water-te
cement ratro, reasonable slump limits, and wellgraded
aggregates with the maximum size of the coarse aggregate
as large as placing will permit. Exterior concrete subleited
to freeze-thaw cycles should have 4 to 7yo entrained ;ir.
THICKNESS
/-PREVENTBoND
'z
f''-':''1,;;: .>
BUTT
JOINT
CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
BUTT TYPE CONSTRUC:TION JOINT

PUSTIC OR PREFORMED
HARDBOARD STRIP
IF SAWCUT ONLY,
FILL WITH SEALER
(SHORE HARDNESS > 80)
SAWEO OR PREMOLDED CONTRACTION JOINT
PREFORMED METAL
OR PLASTIC JOINT
MATERIAL
DESIGN
In general, the controlling loading to a slab on grade is the

heavrest mncenirated loading lhat it will carry. This is frequently the axle loading of an industrial lift truck or the set
of post loadings {rm heaw rack storage shelves. The concretg slab thickness required will depend on the toading
itself, the modulus of ruptur of the concrete (usuallv based
on the comprossive strength of the concrete). the selected
factor of safety used in th6 design, and the modulus of sub-.
grade reaction (kl of the soil suppon system (subgrade).
Procedures and examples are shown in ACI 360, ACI 330,
'1,
and ACI 302. Class
2, and 3 fl@rs should be no thinner
than 4.or 5 irches. Loading and usage frequently require
floors thic*er than 6 inches.
Rein{orcement in concrete slabS is unnecessary where frequent lornt spacings are used. Where less lrequent ioint
spacrngs are used, reinforcement is placed in the slab, at or
above the mid{epth (generally'/3 down from the top surlace) to act as crack control. Common conlraction ioint
spacing rs 15 ro 25 ft, depending on the thickness ofthe
slab and the construction type. Checkerboard placemenl oI
slabs is no longer recommended bv American Concrete
lnstitute (ACl) 302.1 "Guide tor floor and slab construction,' where strip placement of slabs is recommended for
rge areas.
r/s"RADrus--
TONGUE
AND
GROOVE
JOINT
SAWCUT FILL WITH

SEALER {SHORE
HARDNESS > 80)
COAT OOWEL WITH
NONBONDING AGENT
CONTRACTION
JOINT
WITH
OOWELS
JOINT
SEALER
Three types of ioints are remmmended:

EXPANSION
MATERIAL
1. ISOLATION JOTNTS latso cailed expansion joints): Ailow

movement between slab and fixed pans of the building
such as columns, walls, and machinery bases.
2. CONTRACTION JOINTS (also called conrrot ioints):
Induce cracktng at preselected locations
3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: ProMde stopping places during fl@r construction. Construction joints also function
as control and isolation joints-
AONO
DOWEL SIZE AND SPACING (IN.)
'4 REBAR AT 24" MIN
TYPICAL
C LASS
OF CONCRETE
RECOMMENDED
SLUMP
0N.)
3000
SLABS
RECOMMENDED
2A - DAY
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (PSI)
3500
DETAILS
ON GRADE
USUAL
TRAFFIC
Lrght lool
rool
SPECIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
ncsrqciludt
Suilaces;
mainly with floor coverings
braoe tor dralnage; level slabs

suitable for applied coverings; curing
unrces and churchesi

usually with floor
covenng
sunace tolerance 0nctudtnq

- elevated
slabs); nonslip aggregates
In specrtrc areas
Decorative
CONCRETE
FINISHING
TECHNIQUE
nonsliptinish
where required
Colored mineral aggregate; hardener or

exposed aggregate; artistic joint layout
As required
3500
l-oot and pneurutic

wheel
Exterrcr walks, drivewavs,

garage floors, and sidevialks
Grade tor drainage; proper air

content; curing
4000
l-loat,trowel. or
brmm finish
l-oot and light

vehicular traffic
rrrS!tu!onal
commetctal
Level slab surtable for aoolied

coverings; nonslip aggregate
ror spectTtc areas anl cuflng
trowel finish
4000
hdustnal vehaelar
traff ic---pneumatic whel
Lrght{uty Industrial tloors for

manufacturing., processing,
ano wa16nousrnq
4500
Inous(rar ventcu6r
traffic--+tard whels
lndustnat fl@rs subject

to heavy traffic; may be
subject to impact loads
6ase
3500
Industraal vehicular
traffic--+lard wheels
tsonded twHourse
floors
subject to heavy traffic
and rmpact
odse sraHooo
untrorm suborade:
reinforcement; ioint lavout j lev;l
surface: curino
Toppingr-Coriposed
of welt!raded
alFmineral or all-metallicaqqreoatei
Mrneral or metalhc aggreglie
applied to high-strengrh plain topping
to toughen; surface tolerance; curing
I opprng
As in classes4. 5. and6
Unbondedtopoinas--+reezer
floorson insulition.on otd
floors, or where construction
scheduledictates
Bond breaker on old surface; mesh

reinforcement: minimum thickness
3"(nominal 75mm) abrasion
resrstance. and curing
Supertlator critil surface

tolerancerequired.Special
materials-handling
vehicles
or roboticsrequiring
specifictolerances
Natrow-arsle,hrgh-bay
warenouses: tetevtston
studios
varyrn9 concrete quality requirements

Shakmn hardeners cannot be used
unless special application and great
care are employed. Proper ioint
arrangement
5000 - 8000
ot
Boyd C Ringo;Cincinnati,
Ohio
BREAKER
USE AT NONBEARING
MASONRY PARTITION
WITH 2 *4 REBARS
CONTINUOUS(MIN.)
Sawcutcontrol joints should be rode as early as is practical

after tinishing the slab and should bo fjlled in ireas with wet
conditions. hygienic and dust control requirements. or con-
CLASSIFICATION
JOINT
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
ano
u@d unrtormsubgrade;surtac
tolerance;joint.layout;abrasion
restslance;cuflng
Umd unrtormsubgrade:surface
tolrance;ioint lavout;load transfer;
abrasionresistance;curing
trowel finish
SDectal mtallic or maneral
aggregate; repeated
hard steel troweling
suitable tor subseauenl
bonded topping
Special power tloats
with repeated steel
trowelings
Hard steel
trorel finish
technrques as indacated in
seclion 7.'15 of ACI 302
Concrete Stqirs
RAILING
r95
TYP
I
F
E.
F
o
r/2 REeUTRED
WIOTHMIN
1t tz" MtNa
ICLEARANCE
N FULLY
DOOR
OPENED,
NOT
SHALL
MORE
PROJECT
THAN 7 "INTO
REOUIRED
THE REQUIRED
WIDTH
DETAIL
SLIP RESISTANT
AND ANCHOR
NOSING
SPAN
PLAN
't
DffAIL
Lr==.=
REINFORCEMENT
AS REQUIRED
SLIP RESISTANT
ABRASIVE ON
STEPS AND LANDINGS
PRELIMINARY
SL.AB THICKNESS
BE
SHOULD
SPAN/26
DETAIL B
oEr^tL c
OETAIL B
//
r2
-o
THICKNESS
REOUIRED TO
ACHIEVE FIRE
RATING AND
STRUCTURAL
NEEDS (ASSUME
.NOMINAL FOR
A
MAX
OR
CONCRflE)
FLOOR
LEVEL
DETAIL C
NOTES
1. Structural engineer to determine reinforcement specifi
cations and specilic placement in stairs.
2. Check codes for dimensions and clearances tor accessl
bility standards.
scTloN
U_TYPE CONCRETE
STAIRS
SPAN = CENTERLINE
OISTANCE BETWEEN
THE TWO FIXED ENDS
PRELIMINARY
THICKNESS
SUB
SLAB
PRLIMINARY
- SPAN/26
THICKNESS
TREADS MAY BE
TILTED INWARD
SLIGHTLY TO
COMPENSATE FOR
THE OUruARO
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
OF SOMEONE
WALKING DOWN
THE STAIR
NOTE
N OTE
N OTE
Extend hinge only as required by stair width, unless other

wise permifted by struclural engrneer.
Use of helicoidal concrete stairs depends on very stiff fixed

end support and small support deflection.
Reinforcement must develop full bond in masonry walls

and have tull development length in concrete walls
FREESTANDING
CONCRETE
STAIR
HELICOIDAL
CONCRETE
STAIR
CANTILEVER
CONCRETE
STAIR
Krommenhoek/McKeownand Associates;San Diego,California

Ka.lsbergerand Companies:Columbus,Ohio
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
196
Concrete FloorSystems
GENERAL
NOTES
1. Theinformation
presentedon thesepagesis intendedonlyas a preliminary
designguide.All
structural
dimensionsfor slabthickness,beamandjoint sizes,cblumnsizes,eti,
U"
calculatedand analyzedfor each proiect conditionbt a licensedprofessronar
"ioutO
engrneer.
2. Spansshownare approilmdleandarebasedon use ol m,ldreinforcrnq

steel.Soansmav b,
increased25 to 50yo wrth the use ot prestressrng.
For spansgreateithan ao tt
Posttensionino_
"""ri.r.,
NOTES
l.Advantages: Inexpensiveformwork; ceilings may be exposed; minimum thickness; fast

erection;flexiblecolumn location.
2. Disadvantages:
Excessconcretefor longerspans;low sharcapacity;greaterdsflections.
3. Appropriatebuildingtypes: Hotels,motels,dormitori6s.condominiums,hospitals.
4
is best for moderatespans beeuse it is the most ffinomil floor system and
l-f]1?l?!"
nas me bwest structuralthickness.Avoid penetrationslor pipingand ductwork through the
slab nearthe mlumns. Spandrelbeams may be necessary.
FLAT
PLATE
NOTES
1. Advantages:Longerspans than flar plate:typicallyposttensioned;minimum thiclness.
2. Disadvantages:
Must reuse formwork many times to b economical.
3. Appropristebuildjngtypes: High-risebuildings;sare use as flat plates it flying forms can be
used more than 10 tims.
4- A bandedslab has most of th advntagesof a flat plate but permits a longer span in one
dirpction.lt can resist greaterlateralloadi in the direition of th; beams.
BANDED
SLAB
DRC)P PANEL
DIMENSIONS:
%G OF SPAN
FG
EAG
DIRECTON
OtrIONAL
COLUMN
DES;IGN
N OTES
N OTES
1 . Advantages: Economial for design loads greater than 1SO psf.
2. Disadvantages: Formwo.k is costly.
3. Appropriate building types: Warehouses, industrial structures; parking structures
4. Flat.slabs are most commonly used today for buildings supponing very
heaw ' loads. When
live load exceds 150 lb per sq ft, this scheme rs by fa-r tne'mosi e-conomical.
FLAT SLAB
3. Appropriate building types: Schools, offices, churches, hospitals, public and institutional
buildings, buildings with moderate loadings and spans.
4. This is the best scheme if slabs are too long for a flat plate and the strucrure rs not exposed.
The slab thicknss between joints is determined by fire requirements. ro,sts are most
economrcar Ir beams are the same depth as the
ioists. Orient joists in the same direction
throughout the building and in rhe long direction of long rectangular bays.
JOIST
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,Consutting
Engineer;Cotumbus.
Ohio
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
SLAB
Concrele FloorSystems
go rooo
w"
NOTES
1. Advantages:Uses less conqete than joist slab; lower rebar placingcosts; ioist space used
for mechanicalsystems.Permitslights and equipmentto be recessedbetween ioasts.
2. Disadvantages:Simalarto idst slab;ioists must be designedas beams; {orms may require
specialorder.
for longerfire ratings.
3. Appropriate
buildingrype:Sameas for ioistslabs,especially
4. Ensurethe availabilityof fmwork before specifyingskip joists. For larger projects.a skip
joist slab should be less expnsivethan a ioist slab, and it permits lights and equiprent
recessedbetween ioansts.
SKIP
197
JOIST
NOTES
'1
. Advantages: Long span in one direction.
2. Disadvanlages: Beams interfere with mechanil seryices; mor expensive forms than flat
Dlare.
3. Appropriate building types: Parking garages, especially with posttensioning.
4. This scheme is most favored lor parking garages, but the long span of about 60 ft must be
prestressed unless beams are quite deep. Shallow beams will deflect excessively.
()NE-WAY
BEAM AND SLAB
N OTES
NOTES
spans; attractive exposed ceilings: heavy load capacity.

2. Disadvantages: Formwork costs more and uses more concrete and steel than a joist slab.
3. Appropriate building types: Prominent buildings with exposed ceiling structure; same types
as are suitable tor flat slab but wth longer spans.
4. Column spacing should be multiples of pan spacing to ensure uniformity ot drop panels at
square. or reclangular.
each column. Drop panels n be diarcndshapd,
1. Advantages: Long span in two directions; small detlection; can carry conceotrated loads.
2. Disadvantages: Same as lor one-way beams, only more so.
beam framing is needed
3. Appropriate building types: Portions of buildings in which twlway
tor other reasons; industrial buildings with heaw concentrated loads.
\ivAFFLE
TWO-WAY
1 Advantages: Longer twcway
SLAB
4. The high cost of the formwork and structural interference with mechanical systems make
this scheme unattractive unless heaw concentraled loads must be carried.
SLAB AND BEAM
Columbus,Ohio
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,C onsultingEngineer;
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
198
Concrete Surfqces,Finishes,
ond IntegrolColor
GENERAL
NOTES
Architectural concrete and structural concrete are both

made from portland cement, aggregate,and water, but
lhey have entirelydifferent concretemix designs.A variety
o{ architecturalfinishes and colors can be achieved bv
changingthe mix of these three simple ingredrents.
The
cost of productionusuallydetermnes the limlt of finish
choi@s.There are three basicways to changethe appeatr
ance ol a Concretesurtacelinish:
1. Choosing a placing technique (pumping vs. bottom drop

or other buckel type) is an important step toward achiev,
ing a desired architectural concrete surface and finish.
Evaluate whether architectural concrete forms can also
be used for structural concrete. Verifu that the vibrators
used are of the proper size, frequency, and power.
2. Shop drawings should be carefully checked to determine
form quality and stel reinforcement placement. Require
approval of forru and finishes; field mockuD is advised to
evaluate the appearance o{ the concrete panel and the
quality of workmnship.
MATERIALVARIATIONinvotveschangingthe size, shape,

texture,and color of the coarseand tine aggregate,particularlyin exposedaggregateconcrete,and ch@sing whit or
graycemenl.
MOLD OR FOHM VARIATIONinvolves changingthe texture or pattern of the concrete surface bv means of form
design.form liners,or ioinVedgetreatments.
SURFACETREATMENTinvolvestreatingor tooling the surface after the concretehas cured.
Design drawings for architecturalconcrete should show
lorm details, including openings, jointi (contraction,construction, and rustication),and other important specifics.
Other factors that affect concrete surfacesare mixing and
placing techniques, slump control. curing methods, and
rereasagents.
EXPOSURE
METHODS
METHOO
FINISH
STANDARD
JOINT
DffAL
BEARING
AREA
3. Release agents are chemical treatments applied to the

liner or face of the form that react with the cement to
prevent it from sticking to the lorm. The safest way to
select a release agent is to evaluate several products on
a test panel under actual job conditions. The curing compound, used to retard or reduce evaporation ol moisture
from concrete or to extend curing time, is typically
applied immediately after final finishing of the concrete
surface- Consult manutacturers and the American Concrete Institute for mora detailed informataon about the
compatibility of thse treatments and the form surface
material or other finishes and surfaces to be applied to
the concrete.
FOR ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE
EFFECT
REruCED
BEARING
AREA
IMROWS
TIGffiNESS
OF rcINT
SURFACES
CRITICAL
DETAILS
Slump = 2rl2to i
Joineryof forms
Properreleaseagent
Pointform joints to
avoidmarks
ARCHITECTURAL
CORNER
FEATURE
AT
surfaces
a- Brushblast
Uniformscour cleaning
Cement and fine

aggregate have
equal intluence
b. Light blast
Blastedto exposefine
and some cGrse
aggregate(sandblast,
water blast,air blast,ice
blast)
Fine aggregate pri"

mary, coarse
aggregate and
cement secondary
Scouringatter 7 days
Slump = 2tl, to 31/r'
'loYo
more coarse
aggregate
Slump = 2t7,1e3t7r"
Blastingbtween 7 and
45 days
Water and air blasting
used lvhere sand blasting prohibited
1500 PSIconcretecompressivestrength,min.
c. Medium exposed
aggregare
Blasted to expose coarse

aggregate (sand blast,
water blast, air blast, ice
blast)
Coarse aggregate
All smooth
d. Heavy exposed
aggregate
Blasted to expose coarse

aggregate (sand blast, ice
blast)
80% visible
Coarse aggregate
All smooth
of surfaceset
Hagherthan normal
coarseaggregale
Slump=2163"
Blastbefore 7 days
Specialmix coarse
aggregare
Slump=0to2"
Blastwithin 24 hours
Use high-frequenry
vibrator
SHEAHING
HORIZONTAL
FORMWORK
JOINT
N OTE
A notch at the joint between two form members reduces
the bearingareaat the point of contact.improvingthe tight
ness of lhe joint. A non-notchedioint is acceptable.but a
notch is recommended.
mines etch depth

Strippingscheduledto
prevsnt long drying
betlven strippingand
mshoff
surfaces,sling,
bush hammering,jackhammering,tooling
SHEAfrING
for scaling and tooling

2r/2' minimum @ncrete
cover over reinforced
steel
rrregurar
pattern Corrugated/abrasrve
Venical rusticated/abrasive blasted
Reededand bush hammered
Seededand hammered
Reededand chiseled
and polashang
FORM
LINER
SHEETS
4000 PSIconcretecompressivestfenglh, minimum

on type
rsh desared
Wood flute kerfed and
nailed loosely
blemashes
shouldbe patched
5000 PSIconcretecompressivestrength,minimum
FORM
LINEFI
JC)INT
N OTE
Placing the inner sheet above the outer sheet reduces
shadows, particularlv on sm@th surfaces.
JOINTS IN FORMWORK
D. Neil Rankins;RGAy'r'irginia;
Richmond,Virginia
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
ond lntegtql Color

ConcreteSurfoces,Finishes,
SURFACE
Patterned lorms and liners make it possible lo simulate in

concrete the textures of wood, brick, and stone at a lower
cost. The texture and resulting shadow patterns conceal
minor color variations or damage that would be conspicuous and unacceptable on a smooth surface. Use ol rustication strips at joints n textured liners simplifies form
assembly work.
Sources for coarse and fine aggregates should be kept the

same lor an entire iob to avoid variations in the final surface
appearance, paniculady in light-toned concrete. Following
are the common types of aggregate available:
NOTES
OUARZ is available in clear, white. yellow, green, gray,

and light pink or rose. Clear quartz is used as a sparkling
other colors and prgmented
surtace to complement
cements.
GRANITE is known for its durability and beauty and is available in shades of pink, red, gray. dark blue. black. and
white. Traprock such as basalt can be used for gray. black.
or green.
TEXTURE/FORM
LINER
AGGREGATE
Aggregate is one of three components ot concrete and
greatly affects the final appearance of the concrete surface.
Aggregate should be selected on the basis of color, hard
ness, size, shape, gradation. method of exposure, durabilitv, availability,and cost. Aggregate hardness and densitY
must be compatible with structural requrrements and
weathering conditions.
1. The choice of liner material may depend on whether the

work is precast, cast-in-place, or tilt{p. Thin liners thal
work well lor horizontal casting may wrinkle and sag in
vertical forms, where sturdier liner materials are
required. Form liners such as plastic foams can usually
be used only once, while many elastomeric liners are
good for 100 or more uses with reasonable care.
2. Reusable aluminum wall forms, textured with various
patterns, can also be used; sections are held together
with metal pins. Typical sizes are 3 x 8 {t and larger.
MARBLE orobablv offers the widest selection ot colorsgreen, yellow, red, pink, gray, white, and black.
3. Making a preconstruction mock-up is helpful in choosing

patterned liner materials. lf built on site, the mock-up can
be used as a reference standard for inspectors and workers. lf ribbed liners are specified, the largest aggregate
pa(icle should be smaller than the nb.
LIMESTONE is available in white and gray.
4. Typical form liner materials are
MISCELLANEOUS GRAVEL, after being washed and

screened, can be used for brown and reddish-brown fin
ishes. Yellow @hers, umbers, buff shades, and pure whate
are abundant in riverbed gravels. Check local supplies.
CERAMIC exhibits the most brilliant and varied colors when
vitreous materials are used.
EXPANDED LIGHTWEIGHT SHALE may be used to
duce reddish$rown. gray, or black aggregate. Porous
crushable. this shale produces a dull surface with soft
ors. lt should b tested for iron staining characteristics
must meet ASTM C 330.
prc
and
coland
RECYCLED CONCRETE aggregate is produced when old

concrete is crushed. Primarily used in pavement work, this
material generally has a higher absorbsion rate and lower
density than conventional aggregate. lt should be tested for
durability, gradation, and other properties, as wath any new
aggregate source.
EXPOSEO
AGGREGATE
An exposed aggregate surface is a decorative tinish for concrete work achieved by removing the surface cement to
expose the aggregate. Aggregates suitable for exposure
may vary fromr/. in. to a cobblestone more than 6 in. in
diameter. The extent to which the pieces of aggregate are
revealed is largely determined by their size. Size is generally
selected on the basis of the distance from which it will b
viewed and the aDpearance desired.
Aggregates with rough surfaces have better bonding proP
enies than those with smoother surfaces; bind is impor
tant, particularlv when small aggregate is used. For better
weathering and appearance. the area of exposed cement
matrix between pieces of aggregate should be minimal.
which makes the color of cement in exposed aggregate
concrete less rmportant.
a. Plyform: Sandblasted, wire$rushed, or striated plyform can be used as lorm sheathing or as a liner inside
other structurally adequate forms.
b. Unfinished sheathing lumber: Used to produce rough,
board-marked concrete. this lumber can be used as
form sheathing or liner. Ammonia spray on wood will
raise grain and accentuate the wood pattern.
c. Rigid plastics: ABS, PVC, and high-impact polystyrene
sheets can be molded or extruded to produce nearlv
any pattern or texture. Although typically supplied in
sheets of 4 x 8,4 x 10, and 4 x 12 ft, they can be special ordered in lengths up to 30 ft or longer.
d. Glass tiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP): These look
much like other plastics but are stronger and more
durable, particulady laminated GFRP. Extruded GFRP
is less expensive (and less durable). Custom lengths
up to 40 tt are available.
e. Elastomeric plastics: These rubbery liners, typically
polyurethane, are the most costly, but they are very
strong and durable and flexible enough to accommq
date finer details. Standard sheets in sizes up to 4 x 12
ft arer available,as are larger custom sheets. Typically
attached to lorm sheathing with adhesive, they are
sensitive to temperature change and may deform;
consult manufacturers.
f. Polystyrene foam: Single-use liners are used to produce unaquepat'ternsfor specilic jobs.
CEMENT
COLORED
INTEGRALLY
t99
Colored concrete can provide a cost-effective simulation of

natural stone or other building materials. Two standard
types of cement ar available, ot{ering different shades of
color: standard gray portland cement and white cement.
lntegrally colored concrete is made by adding mineral oxide
pigments to concrete mixes made with one of these two
types. Fine aggregates should be selected caretully, since
they can enhance the color effect. The amount of coloring
material should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement;
any excess prgment may reduce concrete strength, and
strong colors can be achieved with less than 1070 pigment.
White cement is used when lighter, more delicate shades
ol concrete are desired, although it is more expensive;
da.ker hues can be produced using gray cement.
N OTES
1. Variations in all components ot the concrete mix make
color formulas only approximate. After a basic color is
selected, the exact shade may be determined by prepar
ing a number of small panels, varying the ratao ot pig
ment to cemenl, wrth aggregate playtng a more
import3nt role in exposed aggregate mixes. To evaluate
panels properly, store them for about five days under
conditions similar to those on the construction site. Panels lighten as they dry.
2. Batching, mixing, placing, and curing practices must be
uniform, and sources of ingredients must be constant
throughout a iob to maintain color uniformity. Avoid
admaxtures lhat contain calcium chloride, since it can
cause discoloration. Ciean forms and nonstaining release
agents are vital. Consult pigment manufacturers'recommendataons.
3. Pigments should meet the quality standards of ASTM
C979. Finely ground iron oxides are the most widely
used pigments for coloring concrete. Colors and their
sources include blue (cobalt oxide). brown (brown iron
oxide). buff (yellow iron oxide), green (chromium oxide),
red {red iron oxide}, gray/slale (black iron oxide).
integral color and
4. Colorconditioning
admixtureso{fer
have additives that improve workability, better disperse
color and cement, and reduce color bleeding for
imoroved uniformitv. Consult manufacturers.
---4J---
E*+
-y
/-/
-HARDWOOD
R
FMOW
REMOW
||lfiJ-------"",
ryru
\br
WOOD
FORM
STRIP
AND
AND
C A U IK J O T N T
INSERT
'-
SHEET
WOOD
MOVE
JOINT
METAL
WITH
FILLER,
RE.
AND
CAULK
5. Joints in the forms and Iiners must be executed carefuliy

and the liners handed properly to achieve high{uality
workmanship. Check liners for compatibility with release
agents and adhesives.
JOINT
FACE
SPLIT
SURFACE
OPTIONAL
DEtrH
SHEET
N OTE
METAL
FORM
INSERT
In flal concretework, a rotary saw may be used to make a

contractionjoint.
CONTRACTION
J()INTS
SUGGESTED VISIBILITY SCALE

OISTANCE AT WHICH
TEXTURE IS VISIBLE,
AGGREGATE
srzE, tN. (MM)
FT (M)
MOLDED
ROUGH
MASONRY
SHIPT-AP
W,;
PANERN
EXPOSED
f-7-
-u''
r(
'*
I /rr
-o,'
RADTUS
RADIUS
CORNER
%'TO
1,/"' ryP.
'l+
)-f..'.-l
4't
rIF**
rcnc-Fr
7.'TO 3'\
tl
rol
l.
|
|
:i
I lr;
.l iro
l3'
,iI L---, +-
TRAPEZOID
(TYPICAL
FOR
RUSTICA,TION
JOINT)
Fq
--.
fr
l,/
', /. /
X
ROUGH
BOARD
RANDOM
FORM TO
EXERT
MAIMUM
RESSURE
ON
GASKET
ON LUG
FACE -
TIE ROD
/ / ' 't
1.ao
2'+
TRIANGLE
RIGHT
CHAMFER
MISCELLANEOUS CONCRETE
JOINT/EDGE SHAPES
CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
RIETE}ED
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
NPffi:""J;
CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
Ni
RANDOM
JOI NT
PREFERRED
LOCATION
oFrroNAL-\
f-:---7
AGGREGATE
OffIONAL
ENEND
BELOW
STONE
STRIATED
CENTERLINE
GROOVE
NOTE
Consult manufacturers for other available patterns
REUSABLE
FORM LINER PATTERNS
RUSTICATION
JOINT
AT CONSTRUCTION
Virginia
Richmond,
D. NeilRankins;RGA/r'irsinia:
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
200
Concrete Surfoces:Defect Prevention,Repoir,Cootings,ond Treotments
CONCRETE
REPAIR
REPAIR
MATERIALS
Prepackaged cementitious and latex-modified cementjtious

repair materials are available, with tormulations tor thin or
thicker repairs. Where aesthtics are important, use the
same cement and aggregates as in the surrounding work.
Most types of Portland cement are acceptable, but match
lhe origtnal type, rf posstble. Certain prepackaged mrxes
must conform to ASTM C 928. Aggregates should match
the existing concrete aggregate, it possible. For exoosed
aggregate, matching the texture and color may require special mixtures to meet the specitications. Any admixture
used in concrete work can be used in reoair mixtures.
Bonding agents may be requrred for some repairs, especially thin ones; they are typicalty either cement-based.
latex-based (ASTM C 1059), or epoxy-based {ASTM C get ).
Acrylics, methyl methacrylates, and polymers are less
expensive than epoxy bonding agents but are more likely to
shrink. Repaired areas should be sealed or coated to the
same specifications as the surrounding concrete work to
protect against natural forces. corrosives, and chemicals.
Damage or deterioration of concrete can occur at any time

during service life. Minor repairs may be reqoired durjng initial construction, for example, filling form tie holes; patching
lifting l@ps on precast concrete; or repairing broken edgei
on beams, walls, and columns. Distress my result from
inadequate design or construction, or deterioration, natural
eftects, or exposure to aggregate chemicals_ Most repairs
rmprove appearance, blending adjacent surfaces by match,
ing texlure and color. The repair area should be perma
nently bonded to the adjacent concrete and sufficientlv
rmpe.meable lo lquid penelratron lo keep it from shnnkrng
or cracking. Repairs should withstand freezelthaw cycles as
well as surrounding concrete does.
The American Concrete lnstitute delines generally acceptable architectural concrete surfaces as those with minimal
color and texture variation and minimal surface defects
when viewed at 20 lt. Most architectural concrete contains
some irregularities, such as blowholes or buqholes. Criteria
for acceptabiltty should be defrned in advancl. but oatches
should match lhe surrounding area as much as posstble
SIDES
OF
AT RIGHT
HOLE
ANGLES
MrN.
+
+
tl
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I.
EPOXY
OVER
IMAY BE
I EITHER
IRECESlsED oR
IFLUSH
lwTa
ISUR'
I FACE \
CONCRETE
ARA
SOUND
CONCREE
LEVEL
SOLID
PATCH
PLUG
Solid plugs may be made of prest mortar, plastic, or lead.

Monar oI a drytamp consistency will be less likely to smear
on surrounding concrete_ lf surrounding concrete is
smooth, recess plug or patch.
TIE HOLE TREATMENT
OPTIONS
IN CONCRETE
OF DEFECTIVE
CONCRETE
NOTES
1. Floor-hardening
agentsare appliedto reducedustingand
Increasehardnessslightlyat the surface.
2. Consult a quallfied specialistto determine the corect
coatingor sealerfor a particularapplication.
3. There may be restrictionson the use of solvent-based
coatingsand sealersin some areasdue to the Dresence
of VOCs{volatrle
organrc
compounds}.
CONSTRUCTION
SLABS
SU RFACE
CRAZING
sureS
./
GUIOELINES FOR PATCHING

L Designpatch mix to match original,with smallamount of
white cement; may eliminatecoarseaggregateor hand
place it. Trial and error, the only reliablematch method,
shouldbe perlormedon a mock{p lirst_
2. Removdefectiveconcrete down to soundconcrete:for
exposd aggregateconcrte. chrp slightty deeper ihan
maximumsize of aggregate.
3. Clanarea;saturatewith water and arpplybondingagent
to base of hole and to water of patch mix.
4. Packpatch mix to densityof originat.
5. Placsexposedaggregateby hand.
6. Bristleirush after setup to match existingmaterial,
7. Moistrure to minimizeshrinking.
8. Use form or finishto match originat.
NOTE
CRACKING
Decorative coatings usually protect as well and are formu

lated in a wide selection of colors. Decorative coatinqs
Include watetrbased acrylic emulstonj elaslomeric acryIr
resin; liquid polymer stain; solvent- based acrylic stain; port,
land cement-based finish coating; and water-based acidic
stain {a solution of metallic salts).
NOTE
PATCHING
SURFACES
TIE
1/4.-7..
CUT
Sealers are usually clear and are expected to penetrale thF

surtace without leaving a visible film. Coattngs are clear o,
opaque and, while they may have some penelration. thev
leave a visible lilm on the surface. Sealers and coatinqs
should allow vapor emission from the concrele but at the
same time keep moisture from penetrating after curing.
Larger and thicker patches should be anchored mechanically to the surroundingconcrete.
t.
W|TH
SAW
tecl against severe weather, chemicals, or abrasions: lo

prevent dusting of the surface layer; to harden the surface
layer; or to add a decorative finish.
PROTECTIVE
COATINGS AND SEALERS
OULINE
DEFECTIW
CONCRETE
ARA
OEEP
PROTECTIVE AND
DECORATIVE COATINGS
Concrete
surlacesmayrequirea sealeror coatingto pro
PLASTIC
EARLY CONCRETE
VOLUME CHANGES
SHRINKAGE
BEAMS, WALLS, COLUMNS.

AND STRUCTURAL SLABS
ON GRADE
OTHER
CRACKING
5hrnkage ot cement
paste at exposed concrete surfaces due to
concrete mix, toGwet
excessive bleeding,
overtroweling surface, rapid drying of
surface
water al the concrete surtace evaporates too rapidly

due to job site conditions
such as low humidity, high
wand speeds, high concrete
temperatures, high to moderate air lemperatures
As concretecools and hardens,concrete volumeshrinks;crackingwill

occur if slab is restrainedat any point
JUOgraoe
setflement
rrematute
excesstve
loading on slab
unsrgnry cracktng ot
surface layeralthough
surface is probably
sound
Parallel cracking, laidy wide

at the exposed surface but
shallow; doesn't typically
extend to slab edge; crack
spacing and length vary
greatly
Handomor regularlyspacedqacks,
usuallypassing@mpletelythrough
slab; duringsawcuttingof ioints,
crack may iump aheadof sawcut
and crack
through al
edge by heaw
equipment.
eIc.
heouce amount and

rate ot shrinkage at
concrete SUrface by
avoiding wet mixes,
limiting bleeding by
increasing sand or ai.
content, limiting troweling/not troweling
too early, curing as
soon as possable
neouce rale at wntch 5ufiac

morsture evaporates by
erecting windbreaks or
building walls betore slab,
avoidangwet mixes, dampening subgrade before
concrete pour, curing as
soon as possible, avoiding
vapor barrier under slab
unless necessary
Not alwayspreventable;carefuljoint
designor reinforcementmay help;
other measures:tool or sawcut ioints
rL of slabthickness,min.,time
sawcut accordang
to concretecuring
rate; locatecontractionjoints at
columnlines,
min.:for unreinforced
slabs,spacejoints at 24 to 36 times
slab thickness.max.: posttensionat
slab; isolateslabstrom adjoining
structureswith preformedioint filler
or if continuityis required,increase
slab reinforcement
LOillljdct
uenefaIy,
curangperiods
of4toTdays,
tollowed by 1
to 2 days of
oryrng
subgrade well
NOTE
Expecl gme cracking in concrete conslruction. Generally,
cracking is controlled with ioints and reinforcement; how-
ever, not all cracks indite errors or Oerlormanceorob-.

lems,andnot all cracksneedto b reoarred.
Grant Halvorsen, S E., P.E.; Wheaton, lllinois
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
SETTLEMENT
5ameas tor slabs

on graoe;atso,
heavaeramounts
of reinforcement
and natureof
formed or shored
construction
CRACKS
rrexrote
lorms
and insufficient
vibrationcan
increaseliklihood
OTH ER
CRACKI NG
SubgradeOrtormwrk settlement,
earlyvolume
changes,constructim overloads.
errorsin design
and detailing
LOngrtudrnal
cracks develop
over reinforcement bars; can
cause reinforcement bar
corrosion
rroper lorm
design and
sufficient
vibration or
revibration: use
lowest possible
slump, increase
concrete cover
LOnSUltWth structural concrete engi.

neer or consultanl
to prevent
/1
L
I
PrecqstLong-SponDecks,Girders,ond Beoms
a-o"
nPLa
roo"
frPtra
------.,
roeerruo
omroNau
DOUBLE
DECK
TYPE
+ot:
l-'\vaRrES
o o'
50'
I
|
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM SPAN FOR STEMMED DECK SECTIONS
ffi5ntr
U--u
,lt
203
(DT)
TEE
1
i+
5-o'
,f
+\
37.'OR
47.'
TEt
DOUBLE
PRETOPPED
NOTES
l.Sate loads shown indicatedead toad of 10 psf for
untopped members and t5 psf for topped members.
Remainderis live load.
2. Contactmanufacturersin the geographicareaot the prorcsed structure to detemine availabilitY,exacl dimensions.and load tablesfor wrious sections.
3. Check cambr for its effect on nonstructuralmembrs
{partitions.folding d@rs. elc.), which should be placed
with adequateallowancefor error. Calculationstor topping quantitiesshouldalso remgnize cambervariataons
4. Normal-weightconcrete is assumed to be 150 lb/cu ft:
lightweightaoncreteis assumedto b 115 lb/cuft.
STEMMED
DECK MEMBERS
NOTE
Strandpattern designation:
Numberof strands(201
= straisht,D = depressed
I -S
208 Dr
L
Number
of dePressionPoints
I
I
Diameterof strandin sixteenths
Toppingconcrete = 3000 Psi

150 lb/cuft lc = 5000 psi for normalor lightweightdeck
SAFE SUPERTMPOSED SERVTCE LOAD (PLF)* FOR PRECAST BEAM SECTIONS

5PAN
(FT)
m=*
[.,'.:;.'lI
f,r,t"I
[.';.l I
|5=-_+
-f-9;ftz-
oc te'
7E+
['l':.1 .,|
l:
r'{
:: l
l :. -; . : ' -.J_
I . xl
_l_
1 .-..:
|
fl -.-.; r. :t: .. :'i;l t ", 1

r I,
II
l---+--1
I
I
I
l--i
t__ *
l.;1:'l |
|
Ii::.11 |*'i
JI
Iri F-"', , i;r--f

, ,Ii l I " Il
'rl
ft :,.;:.'..:,.;.l
'.1:-'.::'.1:.t I
INVERTED
+ +
TEE
' Safe loads shown indicate507. dead load and 50% live
Ioad;800 psi top tension has been allowed, therefore
additionaltop reinforcerent is required.
ConcreteInstitute:Chicago,lllinois
SidnevFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
CONCRETE
PRECAST
PrecqstConcreteWqll ponels
204
wRrry
FINISH
a'
:'fr+
-- SPECIAL
FINISB
WINDOW
WALL
INSUUTTON
OPENING
rffi
lil[]ll lNqll
tNtl
ill|l|l
ilLllj_tl
FI-AT
OR
.V'GROOVE
F\-
N
lill
l/--l
ill
t{
=-J
\\\j
L(::&TE.'OIN
TE .'OINTS
TO OiANNEL
WATER -
TRUSS
s(
SCULPTURED
?8="ttt
SANDWICH
PANEL
HOLLOW
C:ORE
SANDWICH
PANEL
coLoRs
Select a color. range, as complete unilormity cannot be
guaranteed. White cement offers the best cols uniformitv
gray. cement is subject to color variations even when
sup
plied from one source. Pigmenls require hrgh{uality manJ
tactunng and curing standards. Fine aggregate colo
requires control bf the mixture graduation; c@rse aggra
gate color provides the best durabrlityand appearance.
NN
SPANOREL
COLUMN
TYPE
F!NISHES
Form liner molds provide a wide variety of sm@th and tex
lured finishes. Fintshes after casling but prior to hardenrnq
Inctude exposed aggregate, broom, trowel, scred. float. o,
stippled. After hardening, linishes include acidlched
sandblasted, honed, polished, and hammered rib.
*----!J
V,tr?BK
PANELS
Carefully distinguish between the more specialized arcj

tectural wall panel and the structural wall parel that is.
derivattve ot floor systems. Always work *itt, ^"nuii"ru,
ers early in the design prcess. Careful anention must b.
grven lo manufactufing and joint tolerance during
des,a
Inoroughtv examrne ioinl sealants tor adhesron an
expected joint movement.
AND
CI.ADDING
MULLION
WALL
PANEL VARIATIONS
SRUfrURAL
\ffiHE
SRUCTURAI
WHE
f]J,,Ci.-]
NON.
STRUCTURAL
WTHE
RIGID
INSUUTON
\\-
PUE
INSERTS
(vvELDED
TGETHER)
smucTURAL
\ffiHE
STANLESS
SEEL
OR GALVANI.ZEO
REINFORONG
BAR
PANELS
MESH
RIGID
INSUUNON
BONO
BRAKER
IF REOUIRED
VERTICAL
WALL
PANEL
TO
WALL
PANEL
SLAB-TO-WALL
PANEL
AT
TIE
Panel requires accurate location of ties and reinforcemenr

and established concrete qualitv control.
NOTE
Pocket onnection
SECTTON
N OTE
may be at top of panel.
SAND\/VICH WALL
CONSTRUCTION
BEARING PANEL CONDITTONS
DISCOMINUE
SAUNT
AT VERTICAL
JOINTS TO
DRAIN JOIMSEMM
COMINUES
HORZONTAL
JOIMS
MLD
BNWEEN
CLIP ANGLE AND
CASTIN
PUTE
<SNCRETE
SEEL
BEAM
VERTICAL
AT
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
JOINT
T\^/O-STAGE
SEALANT
JOINTS
FLoOR
SAUM
BAAER
STEEL ANGLE
WELDED TO
STEEL BAM
AND
ROD
CONCRETE
7a"
TAPER
REVEAL
RECESSED
SPANDREL
CONDITIONS
SidneyFreedman;PrecasvprestressedConcrteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST
CONCRETE
JOINT
JOINT DETAILS
MIN
OR
AUIRK
DETAIL
PrecqstConcreteWoll PonelToleronces
20s
alt,
GENERA,L
Architecturai precast concrete rs subiect to the same erec_
tion and manulacturing tole.ances as other building materts
als. When srch tolerances are considered in the design
stage, the task oJ determining and specifying them is sim
pler. By requiring realistic tolerances, architects strengthen
and simplify their standards lor acceptance. Unrealistic,
are costly, panicularly tor custom-proclose tolerares
duced elerents.
Tolerances set the limits of size and shape for precast concrete units. Three groups ot tolerances should be established in prest concrete design: product (manufacturing)
tolerances, erection tolerances. and interfacing tolerances.
Product and etection tolerances usually do not cause site
oroblems. Tolerances are most oroblematic at the intertace
of precast concrete and other building materials.
"1"
D#
Tolerances should be established {or the lollowing reasons:

STRUCTURAL: To ensure that structural design properly
accounts lor faclors sensitive to variations in dimensional
control. Examples include eccentric loading condition. bear
ing areas, hardware and hardware anchorage locations, and
locations of reinforcing or prestressing steel.
FEASIEILITY: To ensure acceptable performance
and interfacing materials in the {inished structure.
of ioints
VISUAL: To ensure thet the variations will be controllable

and result in a structurs that is visually acceptable.
ECONOMIC: To ensure ease and speed ot production and
dimensions for precast
erection by having agreed{pon
concrete Products.
on propsrty lines and to
LEGAL: To avoid encrGching
establish a standard against which the work can be compared in event of a dispute.
CONTRACTUAL: To establish a known acceptabilitY range
and responsibility for developinq, achieving, and maintaining mutually agreed-upon tolerances.
ELEVATION
A = Plan location from building grid datum t'/z in.'
41 = Plan location from centerline of steel 1rl2 in.2
B = Top elevation from nominal top elevation: exposed
individual panel trl in.; nonexposed individual panel
trh in.: exposed relative to adjacent panel r[ in.; nonexposed relalive to adiacent pan6l 1/2in.
C = Suooon elevation from nominal elevation: maximum
lowr/, in.: maximum high '/a in.
D = Maximum plumb variation over height of structure or
100 ft, whichever is less 1 in.r
E = Plumb in any 10 ft of element height 1l in.
F = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges ![ in.
G = Joint width (governs over ioint taper) 1r/a in.
H = Joint taper max.3/s in.
Hro= Joint taper over 10 ft length 1/ain-
->EXrcSED
FAG-
tILENGTH
l
|
J
OF BOW I
BOWING
(PUN)
EXrcSED
(co|.'lr)
= Max. iog in alignment of matching faces l/a in.

= Differential bowrng or camber as erected between
adjacent members of the same design r/. in.
1 For precast buildings taller than 100 ft, tolerances A and
D can increase at the rate ot'/e rn. per story to a maximum ol 2 in.
2 For precast concrete erected on a steel frame building.
this tolerance takes precedence ovet tolerance on
dimension A.
PI,AN
(coNcavE
BOWING)
Pt-AN
(CONVEX
ElowrNG)
LENGTH
OF BOW
(ELEVATION)
FOR WALL
ERECTION TOLERANCES
PANELS
FACE
(coNcavE)
l-sowNo
TRUE PUNE
(ELEVATION)
MS|MUM
wNG
I
i
CORNER
RECAST
CONCRE
te*et"
G BOW
PANEL
EIOWED
PI-AN
ANO
EIOTH
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
BOV\/ING
DEFINITIONS
GUIDELINES
PANEL
A = Overall length and width {measured at neutral axis of

ribbed members): l0 ft or under i1ls in.; 10 to 20 ft +1/s
in., -3116
in.; 20 to 40 ft:1/a in.; each additional 10 ft trl6
in. per 10 ft.
=
Total
thickness
or flange thickness -'ls in., +1/a in.
B
C = Rib thickness |/B in.
D = Rib to edge o{ flange irls in.
E = Distance between ribs ir/s in.
F = Angular variation of plane of side mold ir/3, in. per 3 in.
of depth or frlj6 in., whichever is greater.
G = Variation from square or designated skew (difference
in length of the two diagonal measurements) lr/s in.
per 6 ft of diagonal or trl, in., whichever is greater.'
H = Length and width of blockouts and openings within
one unit t1L in.
Hr = Location and dimensions of blockouts hidden from
view and used lor HVAC and utility penetrations t3l.
in.
H2 = Sore types ot window and equipment frames require
more accurate types of openings. When this is the
case, the minimum practical tolerance should be
defined with inDut trom the oroducer.
I = Dimensions oI haunches lll in.
= Haunch bearing surface deviation from specified plane
t'le in.
K = Difference in relative position of adjacent haunch bearing surfaces from specified relative position trla in.
L = Bowing tL,/360 max. 1 in.
M = Differential bowing between adjacent panels ol the

sare design 1/, in.
N = Local smoothness r/. in. in 10 ft. {does not apply to
visually concealed surfaces.
O = Warping oI distance from nearest adjacent cornerl/,u
in. per ft.
P = L@ation of window opening within panel 1r, in.
O = Position of olates t1 in.
R = Tipping and flushness of plates trl. in.
'Applies
both to panel and to major openings in the
paner.
PANEL
dr,
tx
FOR
IN
PANELS
OISTANCE
ADJACENT
TO NEAREST
CORNER
\^r'ARPING DEFINITIONS
FOR PANELS
FOR PANEL THICKNESS'
TOLERANCES FOR PANELS,

SPANDRELS, AND COLUMN COVERS
OIMENSIONS
' This table should not be used for FEnel thickness selection.
, This table shows a relationship between overall flat panel
dimensions and thicknesses below which suggested
Position tolerance for castin items measured lrom datum

line location as shown on approved erection drawings: weld
plates t1 in.; inserts i,l, in.; handling devices 13 in.: reanforcing steel and welded wire labric where position has
structural implications or affects concrete cover 1'l4 in , othemise t'lz in.; tendons irls in.; flashing reglets 1'la in.;
flashing reglets at edge of panel trls in.; reglets for glazing
gaskets irlro in.; groove width for glazing gaskets trlr6 in.:
electrical outlets, hose bibs, etc. +1/, in.; haunches irl. in.
bowing and warpage

possibly increased.
thickness should be
continuous from one
tolerances should be reviewed and

For ribbed panels, the equivalent
the overall thickness of such ribs if
end ot the panel to the other.
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
SidneyFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
CONCRETE
PRECAST
206
PrecqstConcreteConnections
TOPPING
SLAB
THREADED
BAR
rN TOPPTNG
/-ltBARS
.WTHOUT
TOPPING
BAR
GROWED
IN SHEAR
KIY
DOWELS
IMO MIN
2'frrcK
TOPPING
HOLLOW
CORE
SL.A,E}
z-aST_lN
METAI
PUTES;
RECAST
FLOOR
SLAB
CAST1N
METAL
PUES
BARING
STRIP
BEARING
STRIP
FLOOR-TO-WALL
/.
.
FLOOR-TO-BEARING
DETAII.-S
\^/ALL
CONNECTIONS
SPANDREL
CONNECTIC)N
CON N ECTIONS
GENERAL
PRECAST
COLUMN
'-
To fasten members lo foundations.set them on shims,

tighten nuts to level,then fill spacewith nonshrinkgrout.
PRECASf
GIRDER
CdPLER
PRECAST
WALL PANEL
POSTTENSIONED
RODS
SHIMS AND GROLJT

FOUNDANON
WEL
OOWEL
frRADED
IMO
AN
INSERT
IN
BARING
PAD
JUST
BEFORE
ERECNON
NOTE
NOTE
Verticalposttensioningcan be used to resist uplift forces;

moment resistanceis achivd.
The girder sits on the bearingpad, wl]ich providesuniform

bearing and accommodates sroll movements du to
shrinkage.creep,and temperaturechanges.
Steel haunches are smallr than concrete bearing pads,

which is imrcrtant if headroomis critical-
POSTTENSION
FOUNDATION
DOu/ELED BEAM.TO.COLUM
CONNECTION
HAUNCHED
BEAM.TO-COLUMN
CONNECTION
ED WALL.TOCONNECTION
ffiECAST
COLUMN
STEEL
REINFORCING
LOCKNU
PRECAST
@LUMN
CAST
IN WALL
(SINGLE
PANEL
BAR,
OMONAL)
STEEL
|uE
BASE
STEEL
POCKnS
SHIM AND
GROUT
RETNFORCING
BARS
SHIM
AND
GROf
SHIMS. 1'MIN.
ruBLE
NU'S.
2' MtN.
CORRUGATED
SEEL
SLEEE
asT
rN
FOUNDANON
WtLi
FILLED
WTH GROUT
COLUMN
FOUNDANON
ANCHOR
PANEL
PUCEMEM
@LUMN
FOUNDANON
GROUTED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION
CONNECTION
WELD
AST
WAU
COLUMN-BASE
CON NECTION
PUTE
IN
PANEL
OVERSIZED BASE PLATE AT COLUMNBASE CONNECTION
ru
UE
CAST
ANCHORS
IN
REAST
WALL
PUE
PNEL
PUTE
SEEL
ffiLDED
TO
W{L
AND
FOUNDATION
ruTE
AND
IN
FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
SHIM MH
DRY-PACK
OR NONSHRINK
SHIM AND
DRY PACK
OR GROUT
FOUNDATION
ASTIN
BOLT
WtG
SHIM
DRY.PACK
NONSHRINK
GROUT
OR
DRILLEDJN
APANSION
NOTE
(offroNAL)
Two connections per panel are typical.
BOLTED WALL-TO.FOU
CONNECTION
NOATION
r^/ELDED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION
CONNECTION
Sidrey Freedman;PrecasvPrestressd
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST
CONCRETE
ANCHOR
BOLT
(omloNAL)
v\/ELDED PLATE.TO-FOU
CONNECTION
STEEL PUTE
WELDED TO
FOUNDATION,
BATED
TO WALL
(OMIONAL)
PNEL
N DATION
PlecqstConcrete Connections
207
PRECAST
PANEL
--
INSERT
ROD
BOLT
PRECAST
PANEL
WALL
STRUCTURAL
TUBE
OR
CASTJN
PUTE
sHrM (oR
LELING
-OVERSIZE
HOLE OR
SLEEVE
STEEL
BOLT)
BRACKET
STEEL
(SHOP
INSTALLED
GROUT
LEWLING
s
BOLa
COLUMN
STRUCruRAL
COLUMN
BEAM
PRECAST
gi*'E.
N OTE
Shim stacks occur at two points per panel adjacent to con
nection.
ECCENTRIC
DIRECT BEARING CONNECTION
DTRECT BEARING CONNECTION
THREADED
BEARING
CONNECTION
PRECAST
WALL
_ _ _----\
PANEL
SLONED
OR
THREADED INSERT
PGIN
ROD
WTH
THREAD
AT ONE
END
OR STRAP
ROD
CLIP ANCLE,
BARS, ETC. TO
WITH SLOT
PERPENDICUL4
TO INSERT
WELD
WELD-
STRUCruRAL
BEAM
---
STRUCTUUL
BEAM
EXPANSION
BOLT
PREAST
PANEL
SLONED
OR
THREADED
INSERT
WALL
N OTE
Accommodates
BOLTEO
large tolerance with expansion bolts.
BOLTED
TIE-BACK
TIE-BACK
WELDED
CONNECTION
TIE-BACK CONNECTION
ALIGNMENT
PUTE.
WP
CAST.IN
STEEL
PLATE
RECAST
PANEL
WELD
WALL
PRECAST
PANEL
NOTES
BOLTED
ALIGNMENT
1. Good shear transfer.
N OTE
2. Rigid connection.
3. Possible volume change restraint problems
Alignment plate is welded to one plate only to allow for

possible volume change ot panels.
WELDED
\/vELDED ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT
PANEL ANACHED
WELDING SUB
STRUCruRAL
COLUMN
A|ruR
WELD
/-
PREAST
CONCRETE
PRECAST
T SUB
GSTIN-PUCE
ONCRETE
FL(:ff
COLUMN
COVER
.DOWEL
WELDED
TO BOTH
PUTES
CAST1N
STEEL
PUTES
COLUMN
COVER
PRECAST
THREADED
OR COIL
WtrH
Nf
WASHER
ROD
ROD
AND
INSERTS
IN PANEL
CAST
CONNECTION
WALL
PANEL
NOTES
1 . Avoid use ol this detail at both ends of slab to Drevent
excessrve restrarnt.
N OTE
2. Rotation of wall elements and ef{ects on bracing wall

connections and volume changes must be considered.
Onepiece spandrels may require support and restrict place.

ment of concrete.
SLAB.TO-\^/ALL
PRECAST PERMANENT
CON
NECTION
FORMWORK
PresvPrestressed
ConcreteInstituteiChicago,lllinois
SidneyFreedman:
PRECAST
CONCRETE
208
Tilf-upConcrete
tilevers of 10 ro 1 5 ft. Panels are designed structurally to
resist lifting stresses, which frequently exceed in place
loads. Floor slab design must accommodate panel and
crane toaos.
GENERAL
Tilt-up concrete construction is a fast, economical method
of enclosing a building with durable. load-bearingwalls. The
wall panel units are formed and cast horizontally at the job
sate,on either the building slab floor or on a temporary casting slab. Since the panels do not have tg be transported,
there are tewer restrictions on panel srze. Wood formwork
is typilly used to deline the edges, reveals, details, and
openiogs in the panel. Once the concrete has reached sufficient strength. the panls are lifted, or tilted up, by crane
and placed on isolated or continuous foundations (usually
grade beams). The panels are braced against the floor slab
or a btrace toundation until thev are tied to the roof and floor
system and become an integral part of the completed
structure. Although tilt-up concrete construction is mainly
restricted to buildings ol one story, walls up to four stories
tall have been cast and lifted inlo position.
TOP
PANEL
OF
-_---\
t
BEAM
FINISH
PULLTY
Most of the finishes used for factorv orecast concrete are

possible in tilt-up construction. Panels n be cast either
face down or face up, depending on desird finish and
formwork methods. The faceiown
method, however, is
usually easier to erect. Casting method, desired finish, and
available aggregates affect concrete mix design. Control of
the concrete mix design and placement of the concrete in
the torms are more difficult than with factory{ast units.
Discoloration occurs if cracks and joints in the castrng are
not sealed. Commonly used finishes are as follows:
'1.
Sandblasting (light. medium, or heavy exposure)

2. Fracture (similar to bushhammered)
3. Form liner (metal deck. plastic, fiberglass, EPS)
OESIGN
Panel
thicknss
variesfrom5112
to 11114
in.depending
on
height. loads. span. depth of reveals,surtace finish, local

codes,and conslructionpractices.Full-heightpanelwidths of 20 ft and weights of 30.000 to 50,000 lb are tvpical.
Spansof 30 ft are common for spandrelpanels.as are can-
4. Paint {usually textured)

5. Brick or tile veneer
6. Aggfegate (cast lace down in sand bed)
CABLE
TOTAL
PANEL
MINUS
MIN.
LENGTH
HEIGHT
1'-
LIflING
ANCHOR
CONCRETE
TILT-UP
NOTE
The rigging and anchor configuration show is the mo
common for tilt-up coostruction for plain panels withc.
openings. Other configurations may be required depend .
on the size and shape of the panel; consult a tilt-up coi
struction srecialist.
TILT-UP PROCEDURE
UTERAL
LOATED
BRACE
AT
MID LENGTH
BRACE
(MUST BE
coMNUOUS)
$1r15)
ROVDE
END
ARAG
FOR
TOTAL BRACE
STABILfr
PIPE
BRACE (PPE)
FLOOR SUB
NAILING
|uEFOR
TATERL
BRACE
CONCRETE
PANEL
TYPES
TEMPORARY
BRACING
SPRilD
FOONNG
CONSTRUCTION
SURFACE-MOUffiD
@UNTERFUSHING
BUILT UP
ROOF
STEEL
DECK
STEEL
JOIST
frP. 3' DEEP

PO*ET
AND
EMBEDDED
STEEL ANGLE
IN PANEL 2%'
MIN. BEMING
PARAPET
AT
JOIST
MULTIBAY
LOAD.BEARING
PANEL
CONNECTTONS
AT ROOF (SECTIONS)
JOINT
INSIDE
..
SAGNT
ROD
ON
AND
EACH
2%'
coNcRmFILLED PIPE
BOLURD
OERHEAD
D@R
TRACK
FACE
BACKER
SIDE
PERSONNEL
|:rcR
++k
rllr
OVERHAD
moR
PANEL
DETAILS
(PLAN)
HaynesWhaleyAss@iates,StructuralEngineers:Houston.Texas
RobertP. Foley,P.E.; Con/sr@l Tilt-upSysrems;Dayton,Ohio
PRECAST
CONCRETE
45'
JOINT
JAMB
ANGLE
(GIVANlzED)
MtN
rcWNSrcUT
ADDITIONAL
REINFORCING
GP
S4B
RECESSED
AT rcORSILL
PANEL
REBLS
PRODUCED
FROM
RIBBED
FORMED
LINER
CHNFER
AT
PANEL JOIM
(SECTION)
PIER CONNECTION
CASTIN-PUCE
HOLLOW
MET&
DOC)RFWE
PANEL
NCHOR
PUE.AND
ANCHOR BqTS
AT FULL
DOCK HIGH BUILDINGS
PARAPET
AT
EIEAM
MULTIEAY
Ft-AT
JOINT
210
Mortorond Grout
INTRODUCTION
Mortarand groutare the cementitiousbondingagentsthat
. ntegrate masonry units Into masonryaassemblages.
becauseconcrete,rilasonrymonar, and gr6ut contarnlhe
samepnncipalingredients,
some designersqssumewhat is
gmd practicefor one will also be good praciicelor another.
In reality.the three materialsdifter in proponions,working
consrstencies,
methods of placement.and structuralDertor_
mance.
ASTM C 2o7-Hydrated
Lime for Masonry purposes is
available in four types: S, SA, N, and NA. Because unhydrated oxides and plasticity are not controlled in tvDes N or
NA, only type S hydrated lime should be used foi masonry
mortar and grout.
Clean. potable water that is free o{ deleterious aclds, atta

lres. or organacmaterials is suitable for masonry mortar ano
grout.
MASONRY
COLOR
CEMENT
Eilher.natural or manufactured aggregate may be used.

Uradatron lrmits are givn in ASTM C 144 and C 404 tor
aggregate used in monar and grout. Only tine aggregate
may De used rn mortar; fine and coarse aggregate may be
used an grout. Gradation can be easily altered by adding fine
or coarse sands. Only clean sand is recommended fo-r use
in masonry mortar and grout.
ASTM
TABLE
SPECIFICATTONS
Mo.tar mnlorming to the p.operty speciticationsmust be

establishedby tests of laboratoryprepa.edmortar. which
should be mixed from the monar materialsto be used rn
the masonry strucrure. Table 2 provides th6 propertv
requirementsfor types M, S, N, and O monars.
AlthoughASTM C 270 uses the same leners to desionate
mnar type under both the proponion and propertysftcifi_
etions, the propertiesof these mortar types are not bquivalenl. A mortar mixed to the type N proponionspecificaiion
will havea laboratorypreparedcompressivestrenothsionif_
intly higherthan that of a type N mortar requir6dbv-the
proprty specitictions. Monars mav b made with either
ptrtland cement or masonrycemnl.
ASTM C 476_GROUT FOR MASONRY
This is the standardspeciticationgoverninggrout for rernrorceo and nonrentorced masonry assemblies.Two lypes
ot grout, tire and coarse, are specitied by proponionsof
ingredients.Both types should be proportionedwithin the
limits given in Table5.
Grout consists of cementitious materials and aggregate
thoroughlymixed with sufficientwater to attainthe desired
consistency.Grout should b wet enough to pour without
segregationof the constituents.Grout can be used to bond
two wythes of masonry. to provide additionalmaterialto
resist load, or to bond steel reinforcementto masonryso
the two mterials exert common action under ld.
MATERTALS
PORTLANO CEMENT
Portland. @rent. a hydraulic cement, is the principal
cerentitaousingredientof mrtar and grout.ThreeWpesof
ponrandcerent mvered by ASTM C 1so_Standard
Specifl
cationfor PortlandCment are recommenoeo:
For general use when the specialpropertiesof
Typesll and lll are not requjred
Typell: For use when moderate sulfate resistanceor
moderateheat of hydrationis desired
Typlll: For use when high early strengthis desired
The allowable stresses for the structural design of brick
masonry are based on the results ot tests in which onlv
portlandcementswere used The use of blendedhvdrault;
cerents and naturalcements rs not recommendedunless
the strengthof rhe masonryis tirst establishedby appropii
ate tests. Ftr nonstructuralmasonry,such cements may be
substitutedfor regularponlandcement without testino.
ANO
OTHER
AGG R EGATE
l: PROPORTToN
Air entrainment has the detrimental effect of reducing the

bond between monar and masonry units or rernforcerienl.
use.or arrntrarnrng ponland cements (typs lA, llA, ol
.rne
lllA) and airntrained lime (types SA and NA) tor masonry
monar and grout may not be appropriate. Two different ai;
entrarnrng agents should not be used in the same mortar or
grout. Airntraining admixtures should not be used in
struclural masonry Euildrng cddes mandate lower allow
able flexural lension stresses rf airnlratneo cements ol
lime are used in monar.
REQU|REMENTS
FOR MASONRy
TYPE
MORTAR
lame
PORTLAND
CEMENT OR
BLENDED CEMENT
MASONRY
CEMENT
HYDRATED
LIME OR
LIME PUTTY
ovet I14 to 1/2

ove( l12to 1 114
over 1 ,lato21f
o
M
cement
s
s
N OTE
* Two
AGGREGATE
RATIO
{IVIEA5UKEU
IN UAMH
LOOSE
CONOITTONS)
Not less than 2 r/aand not

more than 3 times the sum of
lhe separatevolumesof
cementttrous
materials.
airentraining materials stE l not be combined in mortar
TABLE 2: MoRTAR
PRopERTy
SpEC|FTCAT|ON
REeUTREMENTS,
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
AT 2A DAYS
MIN. PSI (MPA}
MORTAR
AGGREGATE
RATIO
(MEASUREO IN DAMP
LOOSE CONDtTtONS)
Not less than 2 '/4 and not

more than 3 '/2 times the sum
of the separate volumes of
cementtttous materials_
N OTES
1. Laboratorypreparedmortar only.
2. \Men structuralreinforcementis incorporatedin ementlime morlar, the maximumair content is
12yo.
3 when structuralreinforcerent is in@rporateoIn masonrycement mortar, the maximum air content
is l gyo
TABLE
3: GUIDE
FOR
THE
SELECTTON
OF
MASONRY
MORTAR,
MORTAR
LOCATION
BUILDING
grade
grade
SEGMENT
LOaOmanng watl
Non]@d bearing wall
Parapet wall
RECOMM ENDED
l\
o2
N
founoalron wail, retarnrng wall, manholes,

sewers, pavements. walks, and patios
Load beanng wall
Non$earing panitions
TYPE
ALTERNATIVE
SorM
NorS
S
or
l\
orM
N
NOTES
1 This table does not include many specializedmortar uses, such as chimney reinforcedmasonry
and acid-resistantmortar.
2 Type o mortar is recommendedfor use.where-themason.yis unlikelyto.be frozenwhen saturated,
-' or
- -unlikely
'
to be subjected
to high winds or orher significantraterarroads.Types N or s monar shburdbe used i" ;Gr;;;;;;.
3 Masonryexposedto weather in a nominallyhorizontalsurfaceis extremelyvulnerableto wealheriog.
Mortar tor such masonry
shouldbe selectedwith due caution.
GraceS. Lee;ftippeteauArchitects,pcj Washingron,

D.C.
BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America:Resion,Virginia
StephenS. Szok,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAss'ociition;Herndon.Virginia
MASONRY
MORTAR
MORTARs*
PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
(CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS)
Typel:
HYDRATEO LIME
Hydra_ted
lim, a dry powder, is made by adding water to
quicklime,thus convertinglhe calcium oxide rnio calcrum
hyd,oxide.Hydratedtime can be used without extra prepa_
ration and thus is more convenientto use than ouict<tirire.
ADMIXTURES
Many difterent types of admixtures can be added to mortar

grouts. Admixtures are used in monar to prov.de
color,
enhance workability, reduce water penetration, accelerate
curing, and substitute lor @nventional materials. Admix,
tures are used an grout to increase flujdity, accele.ate cur
ing, and decrease shrinkage. Admixtures must be used
wrth extreme caution so the performaoce of the masonry is
not aftected. Admixtures containing chlorides should never
be used because theV tend lo corrode metal.
These proprietary mortar mixes are widely used in mortar

because of their convenience and good workability.
Masonry cements. however. should not be used in oroui.
The requrrements for masonry cement are coverid in
ASTM C 91-Standard Specifrcation for Masonry Cement.
Masonry cements are prepackaged as types M, S, or N
monar mixes. Most building codes have lower allowable
stresses when masonry cements are used.
Mortar and grout structurallybind masonryunits together,

whereasconcreteis usuallyitself a structuralmaterial.One
of the most importanttunctions of concreteelementsis lo
rry load. whereas the principal lunction of mortar and
grout ts to devetopa complete.strong.and durablebond
with masonryunits.Concreteis pouredinto nonabsorbent
tormswith a minimumamountof water. Mortarand orout
are placed, with much more water, between absor-ptrve
torms (masonryunits).The waterrcementratio,as mixed.is
very imponant in concrete work, but it is less imoortantin
working with mortaror grout for brick masonrv.When mor_
tar or grout is placedwith masonryunits, the water/cement
ratrorapidlydecrasesbecauseof the bricks,absorbency.it
is imponanl to distinguish between the requirementsfor
concrete,masonrymortar, and grout.
ASTM C 27O-MORTAR FOR UNIT MASONRY

This standardspecificationcovers four typs of mortar in
each of two methods: proponion specificationsand Droc
erty specifitions. Vvhen specifying a panicular monir
type,.erther the proportion or the property requirements
shouldbe given.but not both. When neithei proponionnor
propertyspcificationsare specified,the proportionspecili_
cation is mandatd.Table 'l shows the proportionequire_
ments tor types M, S, N, and O monars.
\^/ATE R
Mortqrond Grout
RECOMMENDED
TABLE
TYPES
5: GROUT
MORTAR
No s'ng,letype ol mortar rs best surted tor arl purpose!. but
there a.e several rules lor selecting mortar lYpe. NevQluse
a mortar that is stronger in compression than nee*d by
the structural requirements. Always select the mortar
weakest in compression that is consistent with the perfoL
mance requirements of the project. However, this guideline
should be coupled with good engineering judgment: for
example, it would be uneconomical and unwise to change
mortar types in various parts of a structure lf mortar is
used with reinlorcement in a collar ioint or in a cell of a hollow unit, then the air content must be less than 127o for
portland cement-lime mortars and 187o for masonry
cements. The use of mortar is recommended only in unreinforced collar ioinls of 3/r in. (19 mm) or less.
Following are the recommended
mortar:
PROPORTIONS
PARTS BY VOLUME OF
PORTLAND CEMENT
OR BLENDED CEMENT
TYP E
BY VOLUME
AGGREGATE (MEASURED IN A
DAMP. LOOSE CONDITION)
PARTS BY VOLUME
OF HYDRATED LIME
OR LIME PUTTY
COARSE
FIN E
2 '4'3 trmesthe sum ol

the volumes of
cementitious materials
Ine groul
2 L - 3 t t m e s t h e s u m 1 - 2 timesthe sum ot
the volumes of
the volumesof
materials
materaals cementitious
cementitious
grout
uses fo. different types o.f
Tvoe N mortar: A medium strength mortar surtable for 9en

eral use in exposed masonry above grade and recommended specificaily where high compressive or transverse
masonry strengths are not required.
Brick more than 75olosolid

Net area equals gross area
Full mortar bedding
Type S mortar: A high strength mortar suitable for general

use and soecificallv for circumstances where high trans
verse strength of masonry is desired; for reinforced
masonry, where mortar bonds the facing and backing; and
for areas subiect to winds greater than B0 mph (130 kph).
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL
Hollow unil
Full mortar bedding
(requires
alignmentof crosswebs)
AREA
Type M monar: A high strength mortar suitable for general

specilically for masonry below
use and recomrended
grade or in contact with 6arth, such as foundations, retaaning walls, or paving.
GROUT
Groutshouldbe mixedthoroughlyin a plasticmix suitable
for olacementwithout seoarationof the constituents.Add
enoughwater to achievea slump of 8 to 11 in. (200 to 275
mm). The compressivestrength of the grout should match
that of the brick masonry but must have a minimum compressivestrengthof 2000psi (13.9MPa).
Type O mortar: A low strength mortar suitable for use in

non-load baring applications in walls of low axial compressive strength and where masonry ts not subiect to severe
weathering.
Finegrouti Can be used for groutinginteriorverticalspaces

between two wythes ot masonryor aligned,unobstructed
vertical spaces in hollow masonry units. See Table 4 for
groutspacerequirements.
PRorRUSroNsr
n(
+--L-r
j-ffi
.4ffi
pRorRUSroNs
5
12
24
2
21lt
3
2x3
2 1 1 x, 3
3 x3
1'lz
2
2'1,
3
1 , 1 2x 3
2 1 l zx 3
3 x3
3 x4
\ m-l E
A'A
\WMvz
\wm
Wo\WW
ry.ia
**w
MINIMUM GROUT SPACE

DIMENSIONS FOR GROUTING CELLS
OF HOLLOW UNITS (IN. X IN.}
%WffiW- ffiaz
5
12
24
wr#
HTH
_ -<
B
MINIMUM WIDTH OF
GROUT SPACE (IN.)
[dEq
a > Minimumgroutspacedimension
b > Minimum grout space dimensionplus
horizontalbar diameter olus horizontal
orotrusions(see table)
TABLE 4: GROUT SPACING REQUIREMENTs

MAXIMUM GROUT
POUR HEIGHT (FT)
SECTION
Coarsegrout May be used when the groutspaceexceeds

2 in. (50 mm) in width. l{ the minimum grout space dimen'
sronexceeds6 In. (150 mm), a largeraggregatesize may
be specified.
SPECIFIED
GROUT TYPE
211
ed
sEcrroN a,B
a > Minimum grout space dimensionplus

horizontalbar diameter plus horizontal
(seetable)
protrusions
N OTES
1. Groutspacedimensionis the clear dimensionbetween any masonryprotrusionand shall be increasdby the diametersol the
horizontalbarswithin the cross sectionof the grout space.
2. Areaof verticalreinforcementshouldnot exceed670of the area of the grout space
TYPES
GROUT SPACE REQUIREMENTS
OFJOINTS
Monar serves multiple functions:

1 . Joins and seals masonry, allowing for dimensional vaiations in masonry units.
2. Affects overall appearance of wall color, texture, and patterns.
3. Bonds reinforcing steel to masonry, creattng composrte
assembly-
MORTAR
JOINT
FINISH
.V"
SHAPED
(GOOD)
CONCAVE
OR RODDED
(GOOO)
WEATHERED
(FAIR)
EXTRUDED
(POOR)
BEADEO
(POOR)
GRAPEVINE
(GOOD)
STRUCK
(POOR)
RAKED
(POOR)
METHODS
1. Troweled: Excess mortar is struck o{f. The trowel is the

only tool used for shaping and finishing.
2. Tooled: A special tool is used to compress and shape
mortar in the ioint.
FLUSH
OR
PUIN
CUT
lFAIR)
RULED
(FAIR)
TYPES
OF
JOINTS
(WEATHERABILITY)
TERMS
APPLIEO
TO
JOINTS
MORTAR JOINTS
D.C.
Architecrs,PC;Washington,
GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau
ErianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia
Association;
Herndon,Virginia
Masonry
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcrete
MORTAR
MASONRY
212
Anchorogeond Reinforcement
GENERAL
Masonryconstruction
hasnot alwaysrequiredthe inclusion
ot metal elements- Historically,composite masonry constructionconsistedof multiple wylhes of masonrybonded
together by headers.However, contemperarvmasonry
walls requireties between the inner and.hJter wthes.
whichare thenancho'red
to lhe strucluralframe Manvoeo
ple use the terms wal, ,rb and arcrror interchangeably,but
In practrcethe term tie rters to combining a wythe oI
masonry to its backing system. while anchor rctets to a
componentthal secures structuralelementsto a structural
support.A fasteneris a deviceused to attach nonstructural
elementsto masonry.Anchors and ties with flexiblecomponentscan accommodatedifferentialmovemenl between
the structuralframe and the masonrywall by allowing for
In-planemovement.
CORROSION PROTECTION
The durabilityof any metal accessoryis usuallybasedon its
ability to resist corrosion. Since masonry walls are often
subjectto moisture.metal items must be protected.either
by galvanizingthem or by use of corrosionresistantmetals.
The following ASTM standardsapply to corrosionprotection oI carbonsteel metal accessoriesbased on their location and the sizeof the piece:
1. ASTM A 641-Mill galvanizing:
joint reinforcement,
inte
nor
2.ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized:
joint reinforcement,
wire ties, and wire anchors,exterioror moist interior
3. ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized:sheel metal ties. exterior or moist intrior
4. ASTM A 52s-shet metal tios. interior
5. ASTMA 123 or A 153-steel olatesand bars
Corrosion protection is also provided by stainless steel
anchorsand ties conformingto ASTM A 167,Type304.
ANCHORS,AND
STONE
TO
MASONRY
TYPICAL
METAL
DOWEL
TH
Elti
!l
ttl
lr'l
.l'-fr1
@
\L---
||
J*J
ANCHORBOL
$o"rt5tto,"J=.ot
ffi
Ys??tlt"
ANCHOR
STONE OR PRECAST
CONCRETE TO
MASONRY
DETAILS
REINFORCEMENT
Selectionof anchors and reinforcementis determined bv

the relationshipol the masonry element to the struclur;l
support.Reinforcingbars may b placedhorizontallyor verticallyin masonry.The reinforcementmay be placedin the
cores or cells of masonry units or between vMhes of
rusonry. The use of dovetailslots welded on steel or condete columnsrequirescoordinationduringthe steel or concrele tabrication stags. Th typ of anchor specified.
includingits size, diameter, and spacing,should be called
out on the contractdocumnts.
ANCHOR BOLT/REINFORCING
SPACERS
I
MffAL
CAP
FUSHING
ROD ANCHOR
SET
CONCRETE
WALL
BAR
SIGN
THREADEO
ANCHOR AOLT
IN
NUT WITH STEEL

PLATE OR
WASHER AS
NECESSARY
WEDGE INSERT
CMU SUPPORT
WALL FILLED
WITH GROUT
ASKEW
LEAD BOLT
REINFORCING
BAR
SIGNAGE DETAIL
BRICK
TIGHTEN
NUT AY
HANO ONLY
ANGLE CLIP ANCHOR

TIE
SPACING
REBAR SPACERS
8"x8'xllz"
SLONED
STEEL
PUTE
RECOMMENDATIONS*
TIE AND GAUGE
MAXIMUM
HORIZONTAL
SPACING (IN.
SMOOTH
FUSHING
ON
ROOFING
FELT
ANCHOR
BOLT
FOUNDATION
NOTE
' Masonry
laid in running bond. Consult applicable building code for special bond patterns such as stack bond.
MASONRY WALL TO FOUNDATION

ANCHORAGE DETAIL
ANCHOR
Trimbl;Brick Institute of America:Reston,Virginia
MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
BOLT
DETAILS
213
MosonryTies
m
1ilil
MASONRY
<y
run N
TIES
Wall tres perform one or more functions: they provide a

connection, transfer lateral loads, permtt In-plane move
ment to accommodate differential movements, and may
act as hoflz-ontal structural reintorcemenl. As shown on
thrs oaqe, wall ties include unit ties, loint reintorcemenl
adrustable unrr lres. and adiustable ioint telnlorcemenl Wall
trq soacinq rs |sted rn a table on the ACS page on Anchor
aoe and Aeinforcement. The tres should be staggered in
aiiernate ro*s. and only one row of ties should be located
in the same bed ioint to allow proper embedment in the
mortar.
$+
oo,,s",,,,."
ln wall construction in which masonry wythes are built up

toqether and the toints align, a srngle piece rs la'd ove. bolh
w.lthes. Where one wylhe ol masonry rs lard up before the
other wythe or when joints do not align, adjustable ties may
be necessary Adlustable tres are advantageous tor several
reasons: (1) interior wythes can be constructed betore the
exterior wythe, allowing the svucture to be enclosed
faster, (2) lhe risk of damage to the tles when the exletior
wythe is constructed is reduced; (3) adiustable tres can
more readily accommodate construction tolerances; and (4)
adiustable ties can accommodate larger differential movements. Howevet, adjustable ties must be installed properly
or the tie may be rendered useless. Location of the first
piece rs critical s nce the second piece must engage the
ftrst and be properly embedded in the exterior wythe. I arge
eccentricities may occur between the two pieces, which
would result in less strength and stillness than anticipated.
TIE OETAIL
ADJUSTABLE JOINT REINFORCEMENT
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM TIE

DIAMETERS AND GAUGES
NOT E
MINIMUM SPECIFIED
OIMENSIONT
Differential movement must always be accounted {or in

stud-backedwall systemswith adjustableties.
TI E SYSTEM
ADJUSTABLE
STUD BACKUP
DIAMETER
(|N.)
GAUGE
UNIT TIE FOR STEEL

TRUSSTYPE
z{\l
-r{4l
UNIT TIES_STEEL
LONGITUDINAL
WIRE LADDER
TY
REINFORCEMENT
JOINT
BACKUP
MASONRY
ll
FRAME
LONGITUOINAL
TRUSS TYPE
FOR
a&?
Unit
and "2"
Rectangular
Corrugated
Jointreinforcement
Ladderand truss
Tab
22
9
I
Unit
Bectangular and "2"
Dovetail/channel slot
Corrugated
Connectior slot
Slot plate
Backer plate
Joint reinforcement
Standard section
Tabs
'Thicker diameters and gauges are available
ADJUSTABLE
BACKUP
-.s9s>'
UNIT TIE-STEEL
FRAME
AOJUSTABLE
\"
UNIT TIES_MASONRY
TIE DET
NOTES
TIE
ADJUSTABLE UNtT TIE FOR CONCRETE

FRAME BACKUP
1. Z ties can be used only with solid masonry veneer units

r/, in. onto solid
2. Tie must extend a minimum of 1
masonry unils and be fully embedded in mortar on the
outer face shell of hollow masonry units.
UNIT TIE FOR MASONRY
BACKUP
TYPICAL ADJUSTABLE
UNIT TIE
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Beston,Virginia
ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
214
MosonryAccessoriesond Reloledltems
PUSTIC OR
COATEO
ALUMINUM
WEEP HOLE
VENT
(RESTRICTS
INSECT
TRAVEL)
3 TO 4'' OF PEA
GRAVEL TO
FACILITATE
D R A I N A G EA N D
PREVENT
CLOGGING
NAILING
ALOCK
SET FLUSH
TO
ADJACENT
BRICKS
BY MORTAR
HEAD JOINT
BEHIND VENT
KEPT FREE
oF oEaRts
SHELF
ANGLE
FUSHING
24" O.C.
HORIZONTAL
WEEP HOLE VENT
ATTACHED
ANCHORS
SET INTO
MIODLE OF
AED JOINTS
CONON
ROPE
WICK, COILED
INTO CAVITY
FUSHING
SHELF
ANGLE
ROPE
WICK
NAILING
BLOCK
3 TC 4" OF PEA
(ALSO
GRAVEL
RECOMMENDED:
I2" HIGH PUSTIC
DRAINAGE MESH)
PUSTIC
WEEP HOLE
FLASHING
SHELF
ANGLE
(OPTIONAL
INSECT WRAP
HEAD JOINT
KEPT OPEN
AND FREE
OF DEBRIS
SHELF
V\/EEP HOLE
DETAILS
SCREEN
DRIP EDGE
BRICK OR BLOCK VENT
NAILING
RECEIVERS
\/VEEP HOLES AND VENTS

Withproperdesignandinstallation.
weepholesand
NAILING
PLUGS
BLOCKS
POTENTIAL
MATER|ALS
E
U
\.\
MATERTALS
f
J
Aluminum
BETWEEN
COMMO
o
(n
U
zd
<u
JU
<F
(1d
FF
00
o
o
o
Lead
o
z
il
LASHING
o
o
o
o
U
N
z
o
o
a
o
o
REINFORCING
BARS
FOR
#4
#5
*7
#8
#10
#lt'
' Bar sizeslargrthan
\/lr'EIGHT (LB/FT)
0-3,/ti
0.668
1.043
t.bu2
2.O44
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
DIAMETER
0.500
0.625
0. /50
0.875
1.000
tza
270
410
*1 I are not permitted in masonrywork
Grae S. Lee and A. HarrisLokmanhakim.AIA; RippeteauArchitects,pC: Washington,D.C

BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America; Reston,Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAsjociation; Herndon,Virginia
MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
o
o
a
o
o
gO
UGF
tr<z
:5f;
f>u
o
O
a)
o
a)
MASONRY
NOMINAL
BAR SIZE OESIGNATION
)U
NOTES
'1.
Galvanic action will mur. hence direct contact should be avoided.
i
ellon ray @cur under cenain circumstances and/or over a period of tim.
tl ::lwl!c
baNanrc
(J
actron rs Insrgnttrcant: metals may come into dir*t contact under normalcircumstances
2 Galwnic ctrrosion is apt to occur when water runoff from one material comes
In contact wtth a Dotentaallv reaclve mare1.
STANDARD
MATERIALS
o
o
a
o
o
(IN.)
DIM
cRosS-s
AND
WALL
Wood nailingbl6k shouldbe of seasonedsoftwood to ore_

vent shrinkagand be treated to inhibrtdeterioration.Thev
shouldonly be placedin the head,ornt.Metal wall plugsare
made of galvanizedmetal and may containwooden oi fiber
insrts.,Suchplugs may be placedin either the heador bed
OTmasonry.
JOtnIS
z
<J
>u
(SET IN MASONRY)
The prrcedure for attaching other materials,tixtures. and

the like to brick masonryis relativelysimple and can be executed either during or after construction.postconstruction
fastenrs, such as lag bolts and sh,elds, are commonlv
used bus6 ot their flexibility in placement. However.
when the prgcise l@ation of the fastener is determined.
nailing blocks and metal wall plugs are an acceptable
means of attachmentto brick masonry.They are placedin
mortarioints as the bricksare lajd.
u
t!
Zinc alloy
ASTM
PLUGS
\^/EEP HOLE DETAILS
GALVANIC CORROSION (ELECTROLYSIS)

CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
ucTroN
METAL WALL
drscharge water and moisture as vapor in wall cavrtre

musl always be used with flashing. \/vhsn vents are lr
at the bottom of the wall. directly abore flashing and ,.
lunctron with small openings at the top o{ the cavrr.
vord rs vented, allowing moisture removal from the
Ine rype or weep hote chosen is not critiel as long a
properly sized and spaced at the required lmtioni.
t
holes are sometimes created by placing greased ol
tubes or coils into the mortar and then extractino
when the monar is ready to be tmled. For CMUi
adverse weather conditions, it ruy be n4essary to
weep holes at the base of the first @urse at all oDen c
as well as at the head,oints for wall vity venting
holes should never be loted below grade and sho
small enough to keep out rodents.
WATER STOP
-\--{.t
ANGLE
WEEP HOLE TUBE
CAST ALUMINUM
BLOCK VENT
FLASHING
MTAL WALL
PLUG Sfl IN
HEAD JOINT
OVER END)
FLASHING
OPEN HEAD VENT
INSECT
METAL WALL
PLUGS Sff IN
BED JOINT
IONS _
ROUND
SECTTONS
AND
SELECTED
^â
:x<
rrX
3
Exx
;ige;
u
!J
F
o
z
t
o
o
o
o
C
o
o
MosonryMovementJoints
INTRODUCTION
MOVEMENT
The various materials and elements used to construct a

building are in constant motion. All building materials
change in volume in response to internal or external stimuli,
such as temperature changs. moislure expansion. nd
elasl,c deformatron due to loads ot creep. Restraining sich
movements mav cause stresses within the building'blements, which in turn may result in cracks.
Thereare varioustypes of movementioints in buildrngs:

expansionjoints, controljoints,buildingexpansronjoints,
and construction joints. Each type oI movement ioint is
designedto perform a speci{ictask and should not be used
interchangeably.
To avoid tracks. the building design should minimize volume change. prevenl movement, or accommodate ditlerential movement between materials and assemblies. A
system oI movement joints can prevent cracks and the
problems they cause. Movement joints can be designed by
estimating the magnitude ot the several types ol move
ments that may occur in mason.y and other building materi
als.
OF
MOVEMENTS
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
The designand constructionof most buildingsdo not allow
precisepredictionof movementsof buildingelements.Vof
ume changesdepend on materialpropeniesand are highly
variable-Age of materialand temperatureat installationalso
influence exoected movement. When ntean values oI
material propnies are used in design, the actual movement may be underestimatedor overestimated.Designers
values.
shouldusediscrelionwhen selectingthe applicable
The types of movement affectingvariousbuildingmaterials
are indicatedin the table.
JOINTS
Expansionioints are used to separatebrick masonry into

segments to prevent crackingfrom changes in tempera
ture, moisture expansion,elasticdeformationdue to loads,
and shrinkageand creep in concreteframed buildings.
Expansionjoints may be horizontalor venical. They are
formed ot elastomeric materials placed in a continuous,
unobstructedopening through the brick wythe. This construction allows the ioints to close iI the size of the brickjoints must be Iocatedso the
work increases.Expansion
structural integrily of the brick masonry is not compre
mised. In some casesexpansionioints are necessaryin
concrete masonry walls. Architects often designatethese
joints as control joints.
A construction (cold) ioint is used primarily in concrete construction when construction work is interrupted. Construction joints are located where they will least impair the
strength of the structure.
SPACING OF EXPANSION
CONTROL JOINTS
AND
No single recommendation on the positioning and spacing

of expansion and control joints can be applicablelo all structures. Each building should be analyzed to determine the
extent of movement expected within that pa.ticular structure. Provisions should be made to accommodate these
movements and their associated stresses with a series of
exDansion and control ioints.
Controljoints are used in concrete or concrete masonryto

create a plane of weaknessthat, used in conjunctionwith
reinforcementor loint reinforcement,conrrols the location
oJ crackscausedbV volume changesresultinglrom shrinkage and creep.A controljoint, usuallyvenicaland formed ot
inelastic materials. will ooen rather than close. Control
joints must be locatedso the structuralintegrityof the concrete masonrywall is not afJected.
A buildangexpansion(isolation)joint is used to separatea
building into discrete structural sections so that stresses
developedin one sectionwill not affect the integrityof the
Expansion and control ioints do not have to be aligned in

cavity walls; however, they should be aligned in multiwythe walls.
OF
MOVEMENT
BUILDING
MATERIAL
CONTROL
entire structure. The isolation joint is a through-the building

joint, including the roof assembly.
Generally, spacing of expansion joints is determined by

considering the amount of expected wall movement and
the size of compressibility o{ lhe expansion joint and expansion joint materials. Expansion joints are often sized to
resemble a mortar joint, usually 3/r in. {10 mm) tor/2 in. (13
mm). The maximum size of the expansion joint may
depnd on the sealant capabilities. Extensibility of highly
elastic expansion ioint materials is typically in the range ol
25 to 507'. Compressibility of backing materials can range
up to 75olo.
TYPES
THERMAL
bncKmasonry
Concretemasonry
Concrete
Steel
Wood
SEAUNT AND
AACKER ROD
215
OF
BUILDING
REVERSIBLE
MOISTURE
MATERIALS
IRREVERSIBLE
MOISTURE
ELASTIC
D EFOR MATION
CREEP
X
X
x
x
x
X
x
x
JOINT
UNIT
CONTROL JOINT SPACING FOR

MOISTURE CONTROLLED, TYPE I
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
CONTROL
BLOCK
CONTRACTION
JOINT
PRFORMED
GASKfl
SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROD
SASH
INTERIOR
EXPANSION
JOINTCOVER
-
BLOCK
VERTICAL
UNIT
EXPANSION
JOINTS
BRICK
FLEXIBLE
METAL TIES
CONTRACTION
JOINT
GASKET TYPE
SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROD
EXPANSION JOINT AT
MASONRY CAVITY WALL
BUILDING
PAPER
CONTRACTION
JOINT
CORE FILLED
WITH MORTAR
SEAUNT ANO
BACKER ROO
EUSTIC SEAUNT
AND BACKER ROD
OUT-OF-PUNE
CONTROL
RSTRAINT
JOINTS
CONTRACTION
JOINT
HORIZONTAL
EXPANSION
EXPANSION
JOINTS
JOINT
OOUSLE WYTHE MASONRY

EXPANSION
AND
CONTROL
JOINTS
PC;Washington.
D.C.
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
Herndon,Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociaiion;
MASONRYACCESSORIES
216
Floshingin MosonryWqlls
PURPOSE
Flashing in masonry construction is necessary to collect
moisture that enters the wall system and to channel it to
the exterior through weep holes. Moisture enters masonry
walls through condensation, penetratiotr of winddriven
rains, failed sealant joints, interfaces with other components, or other components themselves. such as windows
or roofs.
There are two types o{ flashing. Exposed {lashings can be
applied to all masonry construction, while use of embedded
flashing is usually limited to drainage-type watls. Masonry is
a durable, long-lasting construction material- Thus, the
flashing materials selected should also be durable and have
a long life. especially embedded flashing materials. which
are difficult to replace.
MATERIALS
Flashingmay be made of sheet metal {copper,lead, stainless steel, galvanizedsteel, or aluminum).plastic,or composite materials {usually paper-backed,coated, metallic
sheet, or fibrous glass mesh). When selecting flashing
materaals,
avoid those that would have thodic reactions
with mortar, other metals, or other constructionmaterials.
The thicknessof the flashingmaterialspecifiedshould take
into accountthe span between embedment,bends,or connections.Coppermay cause a patina,which may be desir-
able. Lead and galvanized metal may result in some white

staining. but this may be minimal if coated materials are
used. Choose aluminum as an embedded tlashing only if it
is properly coated, so it will not react with the mortar. Polyethylene should not be used as flashing unless it has been
chemically stabilized so it will not deteriorate when
exposed to sunlight (ultraviolet radiation). Asphalt impreg
nated building paper (building telt) is not air acceptable
flashing material. Adhered flashings must be held back
from the lace ot the wall to avoid deterioration and stainino
caused by high temperatures.
INSTALLATION
Embeddedflashing is typilly used in drainagewails at the
base, above all openings,at sills and shell angles,and
under copings. Continuousembedded tlashing should be
lappedat least 6 in. and sealedwith an appropriatesealer.
Discontinuousflashing should have the ends turned up at
least I in. to form a dam. Dams Dreventwater collectdon
the flashingfrom drainingoff the ends of the tlashingback
into the wall system or into framingor mullions.
Embddedflashing should extend at least 8 in. vertically
within the wall system; it shouldextendat least 't% in. into
the Interiorwythe and throughthe exteriorwythe at teastlL
m. to fom a drip. The drip minimizes possible staining.
Sometimes,it may be necessaryto avoidthe drip, as with
rough textured units and ribbed,scored,or fluted masonry
unrls. The tlashingmust be refully broughl to the surtace
ot the recessed portion of the masonry. Plastic flashino i.

often exposed and cul off llush wrth the tace of lh.
masonry lf the flashing is recessed and d@s not reach th.
surlace, water collected on it may be channeled by mo.tar
under the flashing and back into the wall svstem.
Weep holes are required in the head ioints oI the course ol
masonry immediately above all embedded flashing. Weel,
holes may be open head ioints, holes formed with nvlorl
rope o. oiled rods, plastic or metal tubes, fib.ous rooe. o
conon sash cord. Open head ioints are often titted wrtt
vents or screens to keep out insects or rodents. Formed
weep holes should have a minimum diameter of r[ in.;
tubes used for weep holes should have a minimum inside
diameter of l/a in. Weep holes are preferred as open head
joints occurring no more than 32 in. on center, although il
brick masonry it is generally recommended that thev be
spaced no more than 24 in. on center. lf cord or roDe is
used, the material should be at least 16 in. long. Weep
holes other than open head joints should be spaced no
more than 16 in. on center.
Drainage within the wall syslem is critical for proper perfor
mance. Placing two to six inches of gravel or draanage
material immediately above embedded flabhing will hetp
ensure proper drainage within the wall and effective chan
neling of water to the weep holes. The drainage material or
pea gravel will act as a drainage field within the wall svstem
and help keep mortar dropprngs from clogging the wepp
notes.
CONTINUOUS SON
JOINT
/
/
RETNFORCED
CONCRETE
SPANoREL
MSAL
SILL
FLASHING
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR SLOT
CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
MASONRY
(:
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING
REGLS
SILL
CONTINUOUS
gEEL
ANGLE
CONTINUOUS
REGLET
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING
SEAUNT
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR
SLOT
SPLICE
CEMENT
FULL
LIPPED
TAL
JorNT
sofl
FLASHING
BRICK
HORIZONTAL
SON
JOINT
HORIZONTAL
SOtr
JOINT
\--
CAVITY WALL
FLASHING
CAVITY WALL
FLASHING
OUTSIDE CORNER
AOJACENT CONsiTRUCTION
CONTROL
STEEL
ANGL
FLASHING
VERTICAL
CONTROL JOINT
JOINT
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING
COMPRESSIBLE
FI|JR
BACKER
wEEP HoLE
ROO
ELASTOMERIC
SEAUNT
SEAUN]
LIP BRICK
CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
STEEL
ANGLE
COMPRESSIALE
FI[ER
BACKER
HORIZONTAL
50tr
JOTNT
ROD
EUSTOMERIC
SEAUNT
HORIZONTAL
SOFT JOINT
HORIZONTAL
son
WEEP HOLE AT 24" O,C

TUBE WEEP HOLE
END DAM
Lsqa!'re D. Sherman,AIA; Lev Zetlin Assmiates, Engineersand Designers;New york, New york
ErianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America;Reston,Virginia
MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
HORIZONTAL SOFT JOINT AND

VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
JorNT
Linlels
BONOM
OF FLOOR
OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION
BOfrOM
OF FLOOR
OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION
Simple lintel without arch action

carries less wall load than triangle
above opening: Hr or H, < 0.68
Simple lintel wth arch actron carries wall load only in triangle above
opening:C>BandD>B
LOADING COND|TIONS
LINTEL
(CONSULT
HANDBOOK
ALLOWABLE
FOR STEEL
FIREPROOF
CAVITY WALL
5 x3'l2x 1la
x 6ls
j/n
x
6 x 3 1 l 2 x1 l a
I s/ro
, 3/e
NOTE
FireprooJlinlel for long spans. All steel members to be

designed by structuralengineer Flashing details must be
designedto suitiob condition.
STEEL
LINTEL
(IN
LB)
SPAN (FT}
(CENTER TO CENTER
\/vEIGHT
PER FT
(LB)
x 3/a
24- O.C
WALL
LOAD
SUPERIMPOSED
UNIFORM
ANGLE
LINTELS
SIZE
'l2x '14
3\J
x b/ro
3 1lrx3 llrx lla
^ ,16
4x3 tlrx lla
PUTES
Lrntels at movement lornts requrre

special design considerations.
Lintel with concentrated load carries wall and portion of concentrated load distributed along
length B,
FOR DESIGN FORMULAS)
ANGLE
CARRY BRICK
ACROSS OPENING
'-
Lintel with uniform lloor load carries both wall and floor loads in
rectangle above opening: C < B
STRUCTURAL
217
PER
OF REQUIRED
BEARING)
to
FOOT
LINEAR
l2
YCO
6.6
5.8
7.2
6.2
7.1
9.1
10.6
7.O
4.1
't2.0
1.9
9.8
1 1. 7
11 6 6
1281
1589
1622
2110
2434
2760
2600
3087
4224
3577
4390
5200
637
891
910
11 8 4
1365
1548
'1460
1733
2371
2009
2465
2922
323
406
507
144
232
290
338
855
978
490
I 106
1047
1283
888
1574 1090
r 865 1291
113
1M
179
210
262
305
349
398
486
655
798
945
118
139
173
20'l
230
2U
323
439
538
65
80
95
138
t5d
184
224
302
306
375
443
68
85
98
113
132
217
221
271
320
62
71
a2
97
1r9
160
201
237
60
73
89
120
124
t5l
179
NOTE
DETAILS
Allowable loads to the left of the heavy line are governed by moment, and to the right by deflecrion. Fy = 36,000 psi. Maximum
deflection 1t00. Consult structural engineer for long spans.
MlN. I
AIRSPACE
REINFORCED
CMU LINTEL
REQUIRED
REINFORCING
CONCRETE
REINFORCED
8'BEARING
FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED

MASONRY
LINTELS
REQUIRED
REINFORCING
CLEAR
SPAN
#4
STEEL LINTEL
WITH FUSHING
MIN.4- AEARING
MASONRY
LINTEL
DETAIL
NOTES
1. Includes weight of lintel
2. Wall loads assumed to be 300 lb per linear ft
3. Floor and roof loads including wall loads assumed to be 1000 lb/linear ft
4. 8 in. lintels assumed to weigh 50 lb/ft
5. 16 in. lintels assumed to weigh 100 lb/fi
MAXIMUM
DESIGN
LOADS
FOR
PRECAST
CONCRETE
CLEAR
REINFORCEMENT
2*4
2*5
3 -4
4-O
4 -A
rtoc
1855
1300 9 1 0
1425 1410 r 005
LINTELS
9 -4"
5 -4
665
725
(LBILINEAR
500
535
380
410
300
315
235
250
IUU
t45
195
150
155
o -o ro -a
115
120
125
100
NOTE
pRECAST
CONCRETE
LTNTEL DETAIL
FT)
SPAN
L i n t epl r o p e r t i e s i w i d t h = 7 % i n . , h e i g h t = 7 % i n . , w e i g h t = 6l b0i 4 i n e a r lf't".= 2 5 0 0 p s i
Architects,PC;Washington,D.C.
BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia
Herndon,Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
BRICK BONDS
Vvhena circular rusonry wall is to b laid up in running
bond, the proiectionsot the @mers ot units beyond the
face of the units on the @urs6sabow and blow mav need
to be limited for aestheticrasms. Gonerally,projectionsof
approximatelyr/s in. for nomiml I in. long units and i/{ in.
for nominal16 in. long units are a@ptabl. lf the wall surface is to be stuccodor otheNi$ covered,prcjectionsof
r/, to in. may not be objectionable.However,if it is
%
desirable to obtain a sm@th appeatancefor the curye or limit
lhe shadows createdby th priiected @rners, the projectronsshould not exceedtho$ indieted abov. proiections
of less than t/s in. are usuallyimpraclicalbecauseof constructrontolerances.
!
b?li:r l)
"o,_i{...JL_
J u p p E R \ , r \ l \P
/l zls['.) Yr
l\
MINIMUM
RADII OF MASONRY
'/. tN- EXTERTOR MORTAR
JOTNT
'/z tN. EXTERTOR
NUMBER
OF UNLTS
tN 360'
\^/ALL
NOMINAL
LENGTH
27',-5'
41'-9"
In. {"/. In., cuts
interiorface, both
enos,
In. {t
tn., cuts
interiortace. both
nos,
Interaormortarjoints maintainedat approximatelyr/" in.
_/'
RADIAL \^r'ALLS AND
IN.
WALL
TO
IN.
BRICK
PROJECTIONS
WALL
IN.
WALL
TO
IN.
WALL
A IN. WALL TO 8 IN. WALL
I Z IN.
WALL
CORNER
TO
I2
IN.
WALL
LAYOUT SHO\/vTNG ALTERNATING
IOIN.WALLTO
COURSES
A. Harris
AIA: RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C.
,Lokmanhakim,
Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonrvAssociation:
Herndon.Vrroinia
Brian E. Tnmble.;BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
a\
-Lr
MASONRY
UNITS
IOIN.WALL
MORTARJOTNT
NUMBER
OF UNITS
rN 3600
PROJECTION
OF UNIT (IN.)
Cloy MosonryUnits
BRTCK
AND
TILE
ent applications in which brick can be used. Bricks must

meet a grade ot SW. MW, or NW based on the weathering
index and the exposure thev will receive. The weathering
index is the producl of the average annual number of freezing cycle days and the average annual winter rainlall in
inches (see map below). The exposure is related to
whether the brick is used on a vertical or horizontal surface
and whether the unit will be in contact with the earth (see
table 3). A higher weathering index or a mo.e severe exposure will require face brick to meet the SW requirements
The grade is typically based on physical properties of the
brick. The grades {or each specification are listed in table 2.
CLASSIFICATION
Brick and tile are classified accordrng to the specific location

where thev are used. Standard specificalions have been
develooed to produce uniJorm requirements for brick The
American Societv for Testinq and Materials (ASTM pub
lishes the lnost widely accepted standards on brick Standard specifications include strength, durability, - and
aesthetlc requtrements.
CLASSIFICATIONS
TYPE OF BRICK
A5T M
D ES IG NATIO N
UNIT
Buib-frg_-brcl<
Ech-sEak
c62
c216
t-tottow brick
C652
Pavingbrick
LS02
Ceramic Alazed brick
c 126
Thinbrickveneerunits
C 1088
Smr
TABLE 2: GRADE REQUIREMENTS

FOR FACE EXPOSURES*
AND
ln contact wrth eanh

Not in contact with earth
ln other than vertical surfaces:
ln contact with earth
Not in contact with earth
and manhole brick

' C279
Chemiml resistant brick
C410
l n d u s t r i a lf l o o r b n c k
C34
Structural clay load bearing tile

Sreturet
C 56
clav non-toad bearrnq tile
Structural clay facing tile
C212
51rus1srs1elav non-load bearing

screen !te
C530
TABLE 3: EXPOSURE
Ceramic glazed lile
C 126
ASTM
STANDARD
C 2 16 Grade
C 652 Grade
C 902 Grade
c 1261
Cl088 Grade
sewer2
C32
Grade manhole
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
mayinclude
tor classification
Termsusedin eachstandard
exposure, appearance. physical iloperties, efllorescence,
dimensional tolerances, distortion, chipping, core, and
froos. Bricks can be classitied by use, grade. type, and/or
cla;s in most specifi@tions. All options should be spcified,
as each ASTM standard has minimum requirements for
grads and type that apply automatically il an option is omatted. lf the desired requirements are not specified, a delivery
may contain bricks unsuitable for the intended use.
APPEARANCE
Brick tvpes are related to the appearance ot the unit, and
soecificallv to limlts on dirensional tolerances. distortion
tolerances, and chippage. The brick type can be selected
depending on whether a high degree of precision is necessary, a w,der range of color or size is permitted, or a charac
teristic architectural effect is desired. The tvpes of bflck tor
each soecrfication are listed in table 4
TABLE 4: APPEARANCE
AST M
STA N DAR D
LOOSER
TOLERANCES
TIGHTER
TOLERANCES
C 216 Type
C 652 Type
c 902
applicatron
C 126 Grade
C1088 Type
C 32 sewer
FBX
HBX
PX
AESTHETICS
AND
FBS
HBB
HBS
PS
SSS
TBX
TBS
None
None
VERE
POSURE
SEVERE
EXPOSURE
SW
SW
MX
NX
When specifying the size of units, dimensions should be

listed in the following order; width by thickness by length.
The size of the brick influences cost because larger units
require fewer bricks, normally resulting in less labor. Specially shaped bricks are available to add interest to a wall,
includrng water table bricks. radials, caps, copings, corners,
and others. Consult the manufacturer lor specilic sizes and
availabilitv.
SM
SS
MS
CORNER
BRICK
NOTES
1. No requirementstor durability.
2. Basedon durabilityand abrasion
EXPOSURE
l: STANDARD
MODULAR
UNIT
OESIGNATION
RADIAL
BRICK
FOR BRICK SIZES
NoMENCLATURE
NOMINAL
DIMENSIONS
(IN.
BRICK SIZES
JOINT
THICKNESSI
d N.)
SPECIFIED
DIMENSIONS'
(IN.)
VERTICAL
COURSI NG
covE
TABLE
BULLNOSE
WATER
TAALE
BRICK
NONMODULAR
'BA
SHAPES
tsxrenor
Soecific qrades of brick are required to accommodate the

v;rious climates found rn the United States and lhe diffeF
TABLE
FBA
HBA
PA
Brick is readilv available in many sizes, colors. textures, and

shapes, all adaptable for vinually any style or expression.
Brick's small module can be related to the scale of the wall,
and its sizes can be combined to create different appear
ances and oatterns. Sizes available are shown in table 1.
*See map below
TYPE OF TILE UNIT
219
SHAPES
BRICK SIZES
N OTES
necrtctare
L Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Actual joint thicknesses vary between bed joints and head joints.
2. Specified dimensions may vary within this range among manufacturers.
uoornlre
sevene
wEATHERTNG
wEATHRrNG
weerHERrNG
U.S. WEATHERING
INDEXES
Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke. P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute of America: Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
220
Concrele MosonryUnits
GENERAL
Concretemasonryunits (CMU)conlormto ASTMstandard
specitications.The most common concrere masonryuntts
used in buildingconstructionare load bearingunits a;d c;;_
cretebrick.Non-ioad
bearingunitsmay be specifred
for par
Irlronsand are commonlyused for lrre protdctronof steel
cotumnsand frre-rated
oanittons
VOLUMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL

HOLLOW
MASONRY UNrTS (7 "/.x ts % tN.)
\^/IDTH
ilN.)
Typ_eI or moisture{ontrolledunits are specifiedto obtain a

unitormdegreeot volume changedue to moistureloss in a
pa.trcutar
ctimate.The specification
of Type I unils facili_
tatesthe l@tronof controljoints.Type li or non_moislure
controlledunits may be more economicalbut will typically
requrrecloserspacingof controljoints_
Concretemasonryunits are availablein a varietyof colors.

sizes,lextures, configurations,and wetgnts to accomme
qate oesrgn,deta,ltng,and @nstruction.Colors
are now
providedwith ligtttfastmetallicoxide pigments conforming
to ASTM C 979. Tle texturesmay be sr;oottr, grouna,spiii
floDeo,or otheMtse preparedto maxrmizedesign versatil_
rry. )mootn tnrshes and more color options ar6 available
with pretaced,'integral glazed"concrete masonryunits.
Concretg.rusonryunits are specitiedas width by height by
rengrn.Ine nomrnatdimensionsare usually in. larger
%
than the actual uoit dimensions.The most common nominal widths of @rcret masonryunits are 4 in-, 6 in., g in.,
'10
in.,and l2 in.The nominalheightsare mostlyg in.and 4
rn., except concrete bricks are typicaily 2
% in. high. The
nomrnarrengthsare usually16 or tg in. Concretebrick
tengthrs usually8 in. but is often 12 In. Lengthsmay be I g
ot 24 in. in some regions.Theselonger leng-thsare usually
more economtel tor Dlacement
GROSS
VOLUME, CU
IN. (CU FT}
SHELL (IN.)
432
(0.25)
u.t5
1.00
{0.388)
YUU
(0.526)
ln addirionto type, concrete bricks are specifiedby grade.

GradeN is intendedfor use as architecturalveneerin! facing units in exteriorwalls and for use when high strength
and resistanceto moisture penetration ana s-everefr6it
actronare desired.GradeS is intendedfor generalmasonry
where moderatestrengthand resistanceto trost actionand
morsturepenetrationare required_
MINIMUM THICKNESS
I 145
(0.664)
(0.803)
2 CORE UNITS
wEB (tN.)
0.75
1.00
.00
.12
.25
.37
PERCENT
SOLID VOLUME
73
2.66
5l
64
50
12
12
59
.25
.37
.50
12
12
25
3.43
3.60
3.A2
53
4.35
4.50
4.62
4.91
5.20
5.12
46
51
54
1. 1 2
1. 1 2
't.25
46
49
52
1.25
The weight of the units also varies.Dependingon the

aggregateused. concrete masonryunits are typicallymade
usrngMcretes with densitiesrangingfrom g5 to 140pcf.
rne trghteruntts tend to providemore fire resistance
and
have an improved noise rduction coefficient. and lhev
often are more economil to place in tt"
ffejuili
unrts tend to provide increasedcompressivestrength,
".inbet_
ter resastanceto sound penetration,higher water
f,enetraton resrstance,and greatorthermalstoragecapabilities.
F3l'JXi,'.:t'.,'"?i''
b4
.00
.00
1.37
1.50
1.75
CONCRETE
5.10
6.05
ASTM
STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS
C sG-Concrete Brick
C THalcium
C gH-oad
SilicateFaceBrick (sand-limebrick)
BearingConcreteMasonry Units
C 12g-Non-load BearingConcreteMasonry Units

C l3Honcrete
Masonry Unrts tor the Constructionol
Latcn Bastnsand Manholes
C.144--Prcfaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry
Units
ce3'-solidconcretelnterlockinsPavinsun
(h
we@CAW_J
@ao
@ @ffiffi @ffiffiffiffi
6h
/a>
STRETCHER
CORN ER
z>,
COREO
FROGGED
CORNER
RETU RN
-.s,
_..\
FROG OPEN
IN REAR
I 0096 so|-tD
LINTEL
CONTROL
JOINT
JAM B
JOIST UNIT
A.BLOCK
BOND BEAM
H-BLOCK
BOND BEAM
UNtT
&
ffi
AOND BEAMS
CLEANOUT
L4r"
U-BLOCK OPEN-ENtr UNITS
A-BLOCK
ffiffi@ffi@@@@tu
A X A SCOREO FACE
SPLTT FACE
RIBBED OR SCORED
SPLTT RIBBED
FLUTED
COLUMN
PILASTER
IN SERT
RIGID
INSUUTION
A*
<///>)
\lv
CHIMNEY
TYPICAL
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNITS
T J T { 1 AS H A P E S
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConrete.Masonry Association;

- - ' Herndon,
- --' Virginia
GraceS. Lee; RippteauArchitects,pC; Washingtdn,O.C.
MASONRYUNITS
SCREEN
| il tl
!ry
22r
MosonryFoundotionWqlls
Thermal protection may be provided with interior turring
and batts or rigid board rnsulation, an exterior rigid board
insulation and protection system, or with rntegral rnsulation
strategies. The latter include foamed-in-place insulation.
granular lill insulations, and premolded polystyrene inserts.
Use of interior and exlerior insulation rather than premolded
inserts allows reinforcing steel to be installed more easily
GENERAL
Masonry walls have long served as foundations tor struc
tures. Today, most masonry foundation walls consist ot sangle wythe, hollow or solid masonry unit construction.
depending on the required bearing capacity. The wall systems may be used as perimeter walls for slab{n-grade
construction or to form crawl spaces or basements. The
walls are reinforced as necessary to resist laleral loads.
Generally, such reinforcement should be held as close to
the interior lace shell as possible. to provide lhe maximum
tensile strength most economically-
Optimal insect protection can be achieved using anterior or

integral insulation and a termite shield. Metalllashing materials often perform well as termite shields. For extenor insulation strategies in locations where termites are a concern,
the termite shield musl extend over the exterior insulation.
Foundation systems, especially basement walls, need to do

more than simply support the structure. They must protect
against heat, insect infestation (particularly termites), fire,
and penelralron of warar
soil gas.
"nd
THICKNESS
FOUNDATION
OF FOUNDATION
WALL
Waterprooting and dampproofing are specified by building

codes, as discussed in chapter 7. Generally, waterproofing
makes the foundation or basement wall resistant to air infil
WALLS
MAXIMUM DEPTH OF
FILL (FT)
UNBALANCED
NOMINAL
THICKNESS (IN.)
CONSTRUCTION
hollow unrts, ungrouted
tratron and thereby resistant to soil gases such as radon.

Typical waterproofing consists of a minimum 3/ain coat of
cement stucco pargrng and an approprate lrquid applred
membrane, but some lrquid-applied membranes alone or
combined with built-up membranes are acceptable. Surface-bonding mortar mixes are also effective for resisting
water and soil-gas penetrat,on. A good perimete. drainage
system in contact with open air or connected to a sump pit
should be used for effective drainage.
lf radon is a major concern, the top course of the masonry
and the course of masonry at or below the slab should be
constructed of 100% solid unrts or hollow unifs fully filled
with grout. French drains (drainage channels at the Intertaces of foundation walls and floor slabs), which often are
used to collect and drain condensation moisture in basements, should be avoided in areas where soil-gas entry rs a
concern.
Architectural masonry units may be used to improve the
appearance of foundation walls, often in the above{rade
portion of the walls. Masonry units with architectural finishes facing the interior can be used for economacal con
structron of finished basement spac.
Masonry easily accommodates any floor plan, and returns
and corners increase the structural oerformance of the wall
tor lateral Ioad resistance. Returns and corners that supoort
porches, fireplaces. and the like may also serye as wane cellars. Returos for window wells permit an increase in daylighting. making below{rade areas more atlractive as
habitable soace.
solrclunrts
hollow or solrd unrts,
N OTE
Drainagemust be providedon surfaceand below gradeto removegroundwater from foundationwall. The backfillmust be granular and soil conditionsnonexpansive.
,d
CONCRETE
MASONRY
ANCHOR
BOLT IN
FULLY GROUTED
CELL
UNIT LINTEL
f-T
SOLID GROUT FILL

WITH REINFORCING
WINDOW WELL
BASEMENT WINOOW
FREE
DRAINING
AACKFIU
TYPE
S MORTAR
OAMPPROOFING
AND PARGING
Î
-2
p shz
o.1
Wherei
CONCRETE
FLOOR SLAB
GRAVEL BED
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
FULL
PERFORATED
MORTAR
BED
PIPE
CONCRETE
MASONRY
CONCRETE
UNIT
P = allowable total horizontal projection of corbeling

p = allowable projection ol one unit
t = nominal wall thickness (actual thacknessplus the
thickness of one mortar joint)
h = nominal unit height (actual height plus the thickness of one mortar joint)
d = nominal unit bed depth {actual bed depth plus the
thickness of one mortar joint)
N OTE
Corbeling is used to increase wall thickness to suit bearing
requirements above foundation. Corbeling may be equal on
both sides of the wall.
FOOTING
LIMITATIONS
TYPICAL
FOUNDATION
ON CORBELING
WALL
Grace S. Lee; RappeteauArchitects, PC; Washington, D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke, P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
222
MosonryFoundolionWqlls
NOTE
S = spacing of vertical reinforcing bars
B = bar size
H = height of backfill
FOUNDATION WALL
REINFORCEMENT
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
INCLUOING JOIST ANO
SUAFLOOR
TO PROVIOE
LATERAL
SUPPORT
TO
TOP OF WALL
VERTICAL
BAR SIZE AND
REINFORCEM
MAXIMUM
H EIGHT
ENT
BAR SPACING
OF BACKFILL.
VERTICAL BAR
POSITIONER IN
MORTAR BED
ONE COURSE
BELOW BOND
BEAM
HOR IZO NTAL
MORTAR
JOI NT
JOI NT R E I N FO RC EM E NT
HEIGHT
OF BACKFILL.
l3
ga
VERTICAL BAR
POSITIONER IN
MORTAR BED
TWO COURSES
ABOVE FOOTING
9ga
Y ga.
I ga.
6 ga.
9ga
9ga
I ga.
I ga.
I ga.
v ga.
9 ga.
u ga.
Y ga.
9ga
I ga.
v ga.
9ga
I ga.
v ga.
9 ga.
Yga
9a
ga
8 ga.
ga.
NOTES
1. The empiril design method of the Building Code
Requirementsfor MasonryStructures,ACI 530/ASCES,
chapter9. allorc up to 5 ft of backfillon an 8 in. nonreinforced concretemasonrywall.
2. As an alternate,9 gauge joint reinforcementplaced in
ioints numbers3, 4, 5, 7, 8, andl 1 may be used.
CONCRflE
FOOTING
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
8" CMU (TYP
SPACING
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I 6" (TYP.)
CONTROL
JOINTS
A- CMU {TYP.)
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I6" (TYP.)
CONCRETE
SOLID CMU
8"X8'Xt6
DOWELED
CONTROL
8-
8- CMU (TYP.)
CMU
FOOTING
DETAIL
(TYP.)
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I 6- ffYP. )
CONTROL
WALL FOUNDATION
BEARING WALLS
FOR INTERIOR
\/VALL FOUNDATION FOR NON.BEARING

OR BEARING INTERIOR V\/ALLS
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC; Washington,D.C.

StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon.Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
REINFORCED
WALL DETAIL
FOUNDATION
o!
)--.--
.Xoo9;
GRAVEL STOP
AND FASCIA
noorrnc
\.
STEEL
AEAM
/BAN
INSUUTION
'/4' x a LoNG
BENT PLATE AS
R E Q U I R E DA T
4 -O O.C.(TYP.\
2 DtA
WASHER
INSUUTiON
STEEL
JOIST
CONTINUOUS
STEEL BAR
ANCHOR
BOLT
GROUTED
BOND AEAM
REINFORCING
BARS
1/z otA
ANCHOR
EMBEDDED
t5 AT6 0C
VENT /
I
\
CORES
FILLED
ANGLE
5X3XY1 X6
LONG AT
4' - O" O.C
{ T Y P .) .
GROUT
THROUGH
FUSHING
CMU
METAL
LATH
LINTEL
wtNoow
HEAD
PREcAST
--__\
LTNTEL
RIGID
INSUUTION
INSERTS
SEAUNT
JAMB
PRECAST
STONE SILL
WITH ORIP EDGE
Bgl
_ _lg1 [ . tffil
.:El
wtNDow
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
IN GROUTED
lt{
FrNrsH
lf
vaRrES----ll:.'
JUy'/l
sEAuNr --l
..i El
.". .ffi|
HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD

BEARING WALLS - STEEL FRAME
t;4%4
I ll I I
_L\,/|LI
:T.' _
-_rffiru|
iH?J=
ffi
t tl|
-L---4.
JAMB -
METAL DECK WITH

OR WITHOUT CONCRFTE
I O GAUGE PUTE
8,' LONG (TYP.)
1[
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNIT
FURRING
STRIPS
PRECAST
SILL
ANGLE
5x3xr/4x6
LONG AT
4 -O" O.C
ruo-wtRE
TRUSSOR
UDDER TYPE
HORIZONTAL
JOI NT
REINFORCEMENT
FUSHING
GRAOE
\
WALLBOARD
GRAVEL
BASE
% PREMoLDED
JOINT(TYP,)
HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD

BEARING \^/ALLS _ METAL DECK
INSUUTION
(IF REOUIRED)
;LE WYTHE
=L FRAME
GLE
WYTHE
MASONRY
WALL
\^/ITH
WYTHE
SINGLE
FRAME
WOOD
MASONRY
WALL
WITH
MASONRY
wythe masonry wall construction is common for

lpolications, both load bearing and non-load bearing
terior and exterior walls. These systems are lreused as interrot partrtions for file pfotectio..
r single vvythe walls may be integrally insulated with
rr fill insulation, foamed-in-place insulation. or site
d or {actory installed molded polystyrene inserts.
wthe walls mav also be insulated on the interior or
r lhe insulation mav be adhered or mechanically
fastened directlv to the masonry, or it may be installed in

coniunction with conventional furring or studding sYstems.
The benefits of thermal mass are generally optimized with
Integral and exterior insulatron strategies.
When single wythe walls are used as exterior walls and a
high degree ol water penetration resistance is required. the
use of integral water repellents; exterior coatings, sealers,
or finishesj or both may be required {or concrete masonry
construction- Clay masonry does not requrre these treal
ments.
ELECTRICAL
OUTLET
BOX IN CMU WALL
S Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington. D.C.

:n S. Szoke. P.E; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
Trimble; Brick lnstitute of America; Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
224
SingleWytheWolls
GENERAL
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT 16" O
3/B"ANcHoR
ROD I 2" LONG
FINISH
VARIES
GROUTED CMU
BOND BAM
REINFORCE AS
REOUIRED
CONCRffE
ON
MffAL
DECK ON
r/." x 3/16 TW|STED

STEEL PUTE AT
6 - O" O.C. FOR
The action of roof and floor diaphragms affects the distribu.

tion of lateral forces to the shear walls. Diaphragms are
classified into three groups: rigid, semirigjd (or semiflexi
ble), and flexible. In design, the rigid diaphragm is assumec
to distribute horizontal forces to vertical shear walls in pro
ponion to their relative rigiditis (longer or thicker walls
being more rigid than shorter or thinner walls). More com.
plex design approaches may consider the diaphragms to be
semirigid or flexible. The distribution of toads in th!se more
complex designs is similar to @ntinuous beam desion and
design based on tributary areas, respectively
For the diaphragms to be effective, there must be adeouare
connections between the rool and floor systems and the
masonry walls. In many instances, adequate connection is
achieved with the walls supported on masonry bond
beams. Horizontal members (roofs and floors) are often
connected to the walls with reinforcing steel. Adequate
connections may be reinforcing steel into bond beams or
may be coordinated with the masonrv wall reinlorcement
Connections will vary with the requirement to resist loads.
4" MtN.
BEARING
CMU WALL TO WOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE
Design oi multistory bearing wall buildings rs based or

combaned structural action of the {loor and root svstem
with the masonry walls. Floors carry the venrcal loads and
actrng as diaphragms, also distribute tateral loads to rhe
walis. In masonry bearing wall buildings, lateral {orces fronl
winds or earthquakes are usually resisted by shear wal|:,
parallel to the direction of the lateral force. Bv thejr shearjno
and flexural resistance, these walls transfer lateral forces t6
the ioundation.
CMU WALL TO STEEL JOIST ANCHORAGE

PRECAST COPING
PROVIDE METAL
CRAMP AT JOINTS
CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
WATERPROOFING
TREATMENT
REINFORCEMENT
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
(FILL CEL6
AT
REINFORCEMENT
AS REOUIREO
FINISH
vARlEs=-_l
PREcAsr Horrow
BASE AND
COUNTERFUSHING
PRE.FAB CANT
I
I
BUILT-UP ROOFING
ON INSUUTION ON
PRECAST HOLLOW
CORE
LEOGER 3,' X 8" MtN

MIN. CONTINUOUS
WITH AOLTS TYP.
(USE WITH SAME
DEPTH AS JOISTS)
ANCHORAGE
3 MtN.
AEARING
REINFORCEMENT
BOND BEAM
#4 REINFORCING
ROD IN JOINT
X 2, . O,, LONG (TYP.)
GROUT SOLID
GROUTED
CMU BOND
BEAM REINFORCE
AS REOUIREO
INTERIOR WALL TO JOIST ANCHORAGE
WALL
CMU WALL TO CONCRETE JOIST ANCHORAGE
5/16"Roo WELDED
TO COLUMN
AT 5" O.C
GROUT CEL6
,/,.
ANCHORAGE
DETAILS
Grace S Lee; RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
Brian E. Trimble;Brick Instituts of America;Reston,Virginia
(-1r
/\
MASONRYUNITS
CONCRETE
COLUMN
3/ro" FLEXtBLE
ANCHOR
TO COLUMN
CMU PARAPET TO CONC:RETE

ROOF ANCHORAGE
DETAILS
STANDARD
BENO I " (TYP,)
WALL
SLAB
OOVETAIL
SLOT
REINFORCEMENT
STANDARD
In many applicarions,single wythe wails are reinforced. The

Reinforcement
paniatty reinforced is erroneous.
E(m
schedules are designed for a particular applition, ant all
is
necessary
the required reinforcement
MASONRY
Walls are often partially grouted, that is. only the cells or
cavities of the wall containing reinforcement are grouted.
When walls are partially grouted, special units or construction fabric are used for vertical containment of the grout.
Horizontal containment is usually provided by mortaring the
webs of the masonry units. When steel placement is lrequent, it may become economical or nece$ary to fully
grout the wallsStructural components of a building using reinforced
masonry combine the tensile strength of reinforcement
with the compressive strength oI the masonry to resist
design loads. Walls. columns, pilasters, and beams are
designed to resist dead, live, wind, seismic, and lateral
earth pressures using reinforced masonry. The benefits of
incorporating reinforcement are improved ductility. structural integrity, and resistance to flexural and shear stresses.
Reinforced masonry walls are extensively used Jor warehouses, institutional buildings, retaining walls, shear walls,
basement walls, and load bearing walls, particularly in
multistory hotels and apartment bualdings. Reinlorced
especially
construction,
masonry provides economical
when a high degree of resistance to lateral loads is neces-
MATERIALS
SELECTION
FOR
MASONRY
REINFORCED
REI N FORCEM ENT
MORTAR ANO GROUT
UNITS
beaflng
MasonryConstructionASTM A 615
MasonryUnits
ASTM C 476 Groutfor Masonry
A S T MC 2 1 6 FacingBrick(solid
ASTM A 616
masonryunits madelrom
clayor shales)
(hollow
ASTM A 706
ASTMC 652 HollowBrick
uBc 24-15
masonryunits made from
clayor shale)
BOND BEAM COURSE

EVERY 4A" O,C (TYP
Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel

Bars
RaifSteel Deformed and Plain
Bars
Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars
Joint Reinforcement tor
Masonry
STEEL
HORIZONTAL
IN BOND BEAM -
PUCE METAL UTH OR WIRE

SCREEN UNDER BOND BEAM
TO CONFINE GROUT
VERTICAL STEEL
sary.
SismicperformancecategoriesA and B requireno special
orovisions.In manv instances,the wind loads will govern
the minimum reinforcinglevetsin seismicperfomance category C and above.
For designs in seismic performance tegory C, venical
reinforcementof at least 0.20 in. in cross-sectionalareas
shall be providedcontinuouslyfrom suppon to support at
each corner,at each side of each opening,and at the ends
of walls. Horizontalreinforcementof not less than 0,20 in.
shall be providedat the bottom and top of all openingsand
extend not less than 24 in. nor less than 40 bar diameters
past the opning. Horizontal reinforcement should be
installed continuouslyat structurally connected roof and
floor levels,at the tops of walls, and at the bottom of the
wall or at the top of ths foundation;maximum spacingis 10
ft unless uniformly distributedioint reinforcementis pre
vided.
For designs in seismic performancecategoriesD and E,
walls shall be reintorced both vertically and horizontally.
Reouirementsin additionto those for seismicperformance
category C include that spacing shall not exc@d 4 ft,
except for designs using moment resisting space frames,
where the spacing ot principal reinforcement shall not
exced 2 ft. Also. the diameter of the reinforcementshall
not be less than % in., excepttor ioint reinforcement.
CELLS
CONTAINING
STEEL ARE
wlTH GRoUTi
Fl[ED
SOLIDLY
VERTICAL
CELLS
SHOULD
PROVIOE
A CONTINUOUS
FREE OF MORTAR
SPACE,
AND AT LEAST
DROPPINGS,
t112, x 2,, tN stzE (TYP.)
(SEE GROUT TABLE.
PAGE 2 I ! )
PLACE MORTAR ON CROSS

WEBS ADJACENT TO CELLS
THAT WILL BE GROUTED
TO FORM OAMS
METHODS OF REINFORCING
C = 24 in. minimum bul not Iess than 40 bar diameters.ln seismicperformancecategoryC,

categoriesD and E, S = 4 ft maximum.
S = 10 ft maximum:in seismicperformance
REINFORCED
LOAD BEARING
BRICK OR CMU WALLS
D.C.
Architects,PC;Washingron,
Herndon.Virginia
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America:Reston,Vrginia
MASONRYUNITS
MULTIWYTHE
MASONRY
Multiwythe masonryconstructionis common for many
applications,both load bearing and non- load bearing and
tor interiorand exteriorwalls. Thesesystemsare frequently
used as exteriorwalls or other applicationswhen exposed
architecturalmasonrv units are required on one or both
sides ol the masonrv.Such walls are constructedwith full
collar joints between wythes of masonry.The most cofr
mon multiwythewall is the compositewall, which consists
ol a clay brick wythe and a concretemasonrywythe with a
3/ain. collar,oint, and brick headersor anchors.The collar
ioint is often difficult to fill and may be {illed by pargingthe
backupor by grouting.Generallythe method of lilling the
joint sh@ld not be specified.The mason shouldbe permit-
ted to use the method that is most etlective based on the

talent available,the wall configuration, and the construction
sequence. Often a single wythe of the wall might be rein,
forced. See the section on single wythe walls for a discussion of reinforced masonry. In multiwythe construction the
collar ioint may contain reinlorcement lf this is so, the collar joant width must be increased to provide adequate coverage for the reinlorcement. The diameter of the
reinlorcement should not exceed half the collar ioint thick,
ness. When fine grout is used there must be at ieast,/. in
between the reinforcemenl and the masonry. When coarse
grout is used. the space must be at least '/, in.
Multiwythe walls may be constructed as pa.tially grouted
walls, using cavity wall or multiwythe wall construction. For
GRAVEL STOP
this type of wall, the grout is contained horizontallv wth

building fabric and vertically wrlh dams. The ddms are tvol
cally masonry units placed withan the cavitv. In oartiailv
grouted hollow wall construction, {lashrng may be neces
sary at horizontal interruptions in the cavity.
Insulation tor exterior walls may be integral in a wythe ol
masonry or may be on the exterior of the wall, but it is usu
ally on the interior. The insulation may be adhered or
mechanically tastened directly to the masonry, or the insu,
lataon system may be pan ol a conventional furring or stud
ding system. The benefits of thermal mass are generally
optimized with integral and exterior insulation strategies.
METAL COPING
wlTH I/2" DtA.
ANCHOR (TYP.)
CAP ANO BASE
FUSHING
CONCRflE
OR STONE
wooD
CAP
PREFAB CANT
NAILERS
BUILT,UP ROOFING
BRICK CAP
ROOF
wooo
ON
FUSHING
AND
WEEP HOLES
JOISTS
JOIST
REINFORCEO
GROUTEO
CMU BOND
EEAM
I r/a" x 3/,6" TwtsTED

STEEL PUTE AT
6' - O" O.C. OR EVERY
4TH JOIST (TYP-)
TWO WIRE
TRUSS.TYPE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
MflAL TIES AT
r6 0.c. (TYP.)
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES AT
24 O.C. (TYP.)
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR
STEEL
LINTEL
SOLID CMU
wtNDow
DOUBLE ANGLE
STEEL LINTEL
TRUSS
OR
UDDER,TYPE
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
REINFORCED
CMU LINTEL
REINFORCEMENT
SEALANT
SEAUNT
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES
(otr.)
coRRosroN
RESISTANT
WIRE TIE
CMU WYTHE
'-''---
RECESS AND SILL DETAILS IN BRICK

\/VALLS
BRICK WWHE
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
SILL UNITS
WNDOW
I5" MIN SLOPE
SILL FUSHING
WITH END OAM
SEAUNT
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES AT
24' O.C. (TYP.)
MASONRY TIE
AT | 6" O.C. ftYP.)
When backup
wythe is more than
4 an.nominal,use threewre horizontal joint

reinforcement.
INSUUTION
coRRosroN
WALLAOARO
RESISTANT
WIRE TIE
SEEL
fUO
WALL
FILLEO COLUR
JOINT
3/.' coLLAR
JOINT (flP.)
coRRostoN
RESISTANT
WIRE TIE
TWO WIRE
LAOOERWPE JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT r6- O.C. (TYP.)
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES AT
24" O.C. (TYP.)
RECTANGULAR
CONCRflE
suB
FULLY GROUTED
WIREMESH OR
HARDWARE
CLOTH
FUSHING
WITH
WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP
r/r- PREMoLDED
JOINT
(TYP.)
collar joint is intended as an

barrier, flashing is not
RIGIO
INSUUTION
necessafy
MULTIWYTH
E MASONRY
\,VALL
ALTERNATE
SECTION
Grace S. Lee: RippeteauArchitects.PC;Washington,D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America:Reston,Virginia
A
'rJ
MASONRYUNITS
MULTIM/YTHE
WALL
STEEL AND CONCRETE

ANCHORAGE
COLUMN
Multi-WytheWolls
227
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
OR METAL
WALL TIES
FIRECUT
EXPANSION
JOINT
WOOD FLOOR
ON WOOD JOISTS
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR
t t/o'x 3rro rutsrED

STEEL PUTE JOIST
ANCHOR AT 6'' O O.C
OR EVERY 4TH
JCIST (TYP.)
3" MIN BEARING
GROUTEO CMU
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COLL}R JOINT
BACKUP ROD
\A/ALL TO \,VOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
OR METAL TIES
AT t 6" O.C. (TYP.)
CONCRETE
AND
BEAM
\l
COLUMN
I a2/
\l
HOLLOW
PRECAST
CORE SUB
ANC
Mz'.<
NOTE
Placement of positaoners
or other means ol securing anchorage is required
to prevent displacement
by construction loads or
by placement ot grout or
mortar.
TYPICAL
REBAR
POSITIONERS
G R O U T D A M _ V E R T I C A LC O U R S E
OF UNBONDEO MASONRYUNITS;
USUALLY BROKEN BRICK OR BLOCK
WALL TO CONCRETE
ANCHORAGE
JOIST
CONCRTTE ON
METAL DECK
ON STEEL
JOISTS
REIN FORCING
HORIZONTAL
AS REOUIRED
STEEL. SPACING
3/s- encHon
ROO. I 2- LONG
4"
VERTICAL
POSITIONER
r/4" MtN. covER

FOR FINE GROUT
t/2'FoR coARSE
GROUT
MIN. EEARING
GROUTED
COLUR
CMU
NOT E
Cleanouts are required at bottom o{ wall (tirst
course of masonry) if grout pours exceed 5 ft
Cleanouts should be adiacent to vertical rebars
and soaced no more than 32 in. on center.
JOINT
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
OR METAL TIES
AT 16" O.C. (TYP.)
WALL
TO
STEEL
JOIST
ANCHORAGE
GROUTED
HOLLOW
WALL
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C

SteohenS. Szote, p e.; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America;Reston.Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
GENERAL
Cavity walls consist of two wythes ol masonry separated
by at least a 2 in arrspace The airspace may be increased
lo 4rl2 in. wrth only minor increases rn tie size and or spacing. lf the cavity is to be more than 4rl2 in., the wall system
should bc approprrdtely engineered. Either or both w!.thes
ot the wall system may be load beari.g.
METAL COPING
ASSEMBLY
The cavity wall is a drainagetype wall that provides excellent resistance to water penetration. The mass and discontinuity of construction provided bv the metal ties result in
optamal sound penetration resistance. The calculated fire
resistance of cavity walls usually exceeds 4 hours. Interior
and exterior wythes may be considered as the.mal mass
for spcific thermal requirements. Either or both wvthes
may be used to provide the desired architctural finishes.
anterior or exterior. For these reasons, the rusonrv cavitv
wall is generally prefetred.
When the cavity wall is selected because of its thermal Derfomance, generally only the interior wythe is load bearing.
This construction permits the insulation layer to be continuous within the wall and pass the slabs, minimizing thermal
bridges. The Insulation may be granular fill or rigid board
insulation. lf rigid board insulation is selected, there musr
b a nominal 1 in. airspace between the back of the exterior
wythe and the exterior surface of the insulation board. The
insulation board may be held in place with the wall ties.
Twepiece adiustable ties serye well tor this application.
Seams in the insulation should b6 made with tongue-and,
groove joints, shiplapped, or sealed with tape, lf the ties
selected are not appropriate for holding the insulation
against the backup wythe, then the rigid board insulation
stlNld be adhered or mechani@lly fastned to th6 backup.
It granular fill is used, it is necessary to select weep hoie
systems that wll permit drainage bul ksp the granutar till
within the wall system. Typical cavity walls may contain 2
to 4 r/2 in. of granular fill insulation or 3 1/, in. of rigid board
insulation-
ADJUSTABLE
MASONRY
TIE
ROOFING
'\
CEIL!NG
JOIST
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
IN GROUTED
CELLS
Il z ' X 2 0 '
ANCHOR
BOLTS
4 'O OC.(TYP
3x6x1/4"
PUTE (TYP,)
INTERIOR
FINISH
OPTIONAL
OOVETAIL
ANCHOR
SHELF
ANGLE
EUSTIC SEALANT
AND AACKER ROD
INSUUTION
WOOD TRIM
REINFORCED
LINTEL
END OAM
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
WINOOW HEAO
WEEP HOLE
SEAUNT
FLASHING
STEEL
PRECAST
LINTEL
LINTEL
BLOCKING
2 X lO
PUTE
M ETAL
FUSHING
WALL TIE
METAL
24
SEALANT
0.C.
t/2- BoLT
4 -O"O.C
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
3X6Xr/4STEEL PUTE
WELDED
TO BOLT
BRICK
SILL
wlNDow
CEILING
t:
wooo
RIG'D
INSUUTION
TRrM
FUSHING
cypsuu
DRYWALL
ALTERNATE
CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
ROOF DETAIL
AIR SPACE
WALLBOARD
WEEP HOLE
ADJUSTABLE
MASONRY TIE
ELASTIC
SEAUNT
WITH BACKER
FUSHING
ROD
MtN. l/e
SPACE
BELOW
SHELF
ANGLE
z coNcRfiE
(=T
SEAUNT
ALTERNATE
EXPANSION
JOINT
DETAIL
RIGIO
INSUUTION
PEA
GRAVEL
*/-
FACE
ARICK
GYPSUM WALL
BASE
FINISHEO
FLOOR
2'
RIGIO
INSUUTION
(TYP,)
WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C. {TYP
WEEP HOLES
GROUT
WIRE MESH AND
BUILDING
PAPER
ORIP
BOND AEAM
OR SOLID UNIT
sofl
JOINT
EXPOSED
SLAB
DETAIL
BRICK AND CMU CAVTTY WALL
GraceS. ^Leeand A HarrisLokmanhakim,AIA RippsteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C

StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Hemdon,Virginia
BrianE- Trimble;Brick lnstitute of America;Reston.Virginia
-1r
JOIST ANCHOR
EVERY FOURTH
JOIST (TYP.)
MASONRYUNITS
ALTERNATE
BRICK AND CMU CAVITY
WALL SECTION
Covity Wolls
METAL WALL TIES

AT 16''O C (TYP )
rtrtsr
4.
MIN
BEARING
ON METAL
CONCRETE
DECK ON STEEL JOISTS
vlRtES'
WOOD FLOOR
ON WOOD JOISTS
229
METAL
AT I6"
WALL TIES
O C ITYP )
FINISH
VARIES
HOLLOW
PRECAST
CORE SUB
FIRECUT
PAPER
3/s" ANcHoR
12' LONG
I IL X3/T6 TW|STED
STEEL PUTE JOIST
A N C H O RA T 6 ' - O O C .
OR EVERY FOURTH JOIST
RoD.
GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
3'' MIN. BEARING
WOOD
STEEL
FLOOR
WALL TO FLOOR ANCHORAGE
JOIST
GROUT
FILLED
4"
BEARTNG
MrN
. GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRYUNIT
METAL WALL TIES

AT 16" O.C. ffYP.)
GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
DAM
PRECAST
FLOOR
HOLLOW
CORE
FLOOR
AT CAVITY WALLS
METAL WALL TIES

AT | 6" O.C. (TYP.)
OOVETAIL SLOT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COMPRESSIBLE
GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
SPANDREL
COLUMN
DETAIL
BOX TIE I PER 4
SO fr OF MASONRY
FLEXIBL
DOVflAIL
ANCHOR AT I6'' O.C
VERTICAL
AND BEAM ANCHORAGE

DOVETAIL
HORIZONTAL
REINFORCEMENT
DETAILS
ANCHOR
SLOT
CONCRETE COLUMN
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
GYPSUM DRYWAI
COLUMN
DOVETAIL
SLOTS
CONCRETE
FUSHING
suB
RIGID
BRICK
INSUUTION
BRICK
FUsHING REGLET
AT COLUMN
HORIZONTAL
RINFORCEMENT
METAL ANCHOR
SET IN DOVETAIL
SLOT
GYPSUM
ORYWALL
FURRING
RIGID
INSUUTION
CONCRETE
MA5ONRY UNIT
DOVETAIL ANCHORS
AT CORNER
- CONCRtrE
SHELF
ANGLE
lz
BOX TIE
t PER4
WHEN ANGLE
ARE GREATER
BOLTS
THAN 9'' FROM CORNER,
WELD '/S" THICK PLATE TO
OF RELIEVING
BOTOM
(BOTH PIECES)
ANGLE
MASONRY
CONCRETE
M A S O N R YU N I T
SHELF ANGLE AT CORNER
COLUMN
Architects,PC:Washington,D.C
He.ndon.Virginia
SteohenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
230
Covity Wolls
NOTES
'1.
Eoth wythesof solidmasonryunits (75% solidor
m.ore).
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or less. Wythes should
h erectedsimultaneouslyfor this tie strategy.
MtN.
NOTES
1 . Horizontal ioint reinforcement as tles at g, I 6, or 2.1
in. on center vertically (typical) as required.
2. Both wythes constructed simultaneously.
I t/2" .
EMBEOMENT
UDDER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT

REINFORCEMENT. WITH THREE
LONGITUOINAL WIRES
TWO LONGITUOINAL
WIRE UDOER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
LADDER-TypE
HORTZONTAL JOTNT RETNFORCEMENT
FOR 4 IN. V\/YTHES OR LESS
MtN. l/2"
EMBEDMENT
ON FACE
SHELL
AS TrES
LADDER.TYPE HORIZONTAL JOTNT REINFORCEMENT

FOR MORE THAN 4 IN. VI/YTHES
NOTES
NOTES
1. Rectangulartab ties and horizontalioint reinforcement in alternatingcoursss (typical).

2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or lass.
3. Both wythes constructedsimultaneouslv.
4. Z-ties are ac@ptable if both wythes are constructedof solidmasonry.
1. Rsctangulartab ties and horizontalioint reintorcement in allernatingcourses (typical).

tt2' MtN.2. Both wythgs mnstructed sjmultaneously,
RECTANGUTAR
TAA TIES
RECTANGUUR
TAA TIE
WWHE
OF
MASONRY
TRUSS OR UDDER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT. ruO
LONGTTUOINAL WIRES
HOLLOW
WWHE OF SOLID
MASONRY
soLro
MASONRY
NOMINAL
OR LESS
TWO LONGITUOINAL
WIRE TRUSS
OR UDOER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
RECTANGULAR
TAB TIES FOR 4 IN. WYTHES
OR LESS
RECTANGULAR
TAB TIES FOR MORE THAN
SOLID
MASONRY
NOMINAL
OR LESS
4"
MtN. I '/2"
EMBEDMENT
FOR SOLID
UNITS
HOLLOW
NOMINAL
4 IN. \/VYTHES
NOTES
1. Maximummi$lignment ol couGes is I r/! in.

2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or loss.
3. Both wyths not constructedsimultanoously
4. Pintlshold rigid board insulationin prace.
NOMINAL
HOLLOW
MASONRY
MORE THAN
NOMINAL 4-
NOTES
souo 4"
AS TIES
/
I
Ir
HOLLOW
MASONRY
MORETHAN
NOMINAL
4"
1. Maximum mi$lignment of coursesis j '/4in.

2. Both wythes not constructedsimultaneously
3. Pintelshold rigid boardinsulationin prace.
EYE AND
PINTEL TIES
4"
OR LESS
l/2"
REINFORCEMENT
a" oR | 6' o.c.
VERTICALLY
(TYP.) AS
ADJUSTABLE
TIES FOR 4 IN. \^/YTHES OR LESS
GraceS. _Lee;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:Brick Institute oI America;Reston,Virginia
A
-1r
MASONRYUNITS
ADJUSTABLE
TIES FOR MORE THAN
MtN
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
a" oR r 6" o.c.
VERTICALLY
(TYP.) AS
REOUIRED
4 TN. WYTHES
231
BrickVeneer
-
AVEL STOP
D FASCIA
2' MtN
ATRSPACE
1-t
BUILDING
ROOF
PAPER
JOIST
I
MtN.
AIRSPACE
FLASHING
ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
INSUUTION
VENEER
BRICK
STEEL BEAM
METAL TIE
AT STUDS
BUILDING
SHEATHING
ADJUSTABLE
Tl
WALLBOARD
FUSHING
FUSHING
WEEP
EXTERIOR
LINTEL
STEEL
WOOD TRIM
WINDOW
HEAO
END DAM
SILL
ENO
ADJUSTABLE
WIRETIE
SEAUNT
STEEL LINTEL
FLASHING
DAM
BUILOING PAPER
2" MlN.
AIRSPACE
I,, MIN. AIRSPACE

WINOOW JAMB
AOJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
AT STUD
SEALANT
wTNDOW
JAMB
SILL FUSHING
END DAM
wtNDow
WINDOWSILL
WINDOWSILL
BRICK
MATERIAL
BELOW
ANGLE
SHELF
TRACK
wrNDow
HEAD
HOLE
EUSTIC
JOINT
SEAUNT
SHEATHING
HOLE
AOJUSTABLE
TIE AT STUDS
WEEP
SHELF ANGLE
DETAIL
CONCRtrE
MASONRY WALL
SEAUNT
WIRE UTH
BRICK SILL
SILL
TRACK
FUSHING
BUILDING
PAPER
INSUUTION
BETWEEN
STUDS
ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
AT STUD
SCRATCH COAT
AUILDING
PAPER
BOND COAT
INSULATION
SHEATHING
BRICK VENEER
STEEL STUD
WALLBOARO
WALLBOARD
PLYWOOD
WEEP HOLES
Ar 24- O-C.
(TYP )
1;;il;
THIN BRICK
FUSHING
FLOOR JOIST
THIN BRTCK VENEER ON CMU
RUNNER
FUSHING
THIN
CORROSION
RESiSTANT
METAL SCREW
AOJUSTABLE
TIE AT STUD
WEEP
MASTIC
ADHESIVE
SLOTS
\y^\\ys
MORTAR
WITH
FUSHING
WEEP HOLES
AT 21" O.C.
.
Hl%,F,.'
CEMENT
WOOD
;\:fb\\\YN lJ,,r'. . l:,

PAPERilIRE
BRICK
BOARD
STUD
WALLBOARD
MESH
siÂXff:
VENEER
BRICK
BACKUP
ANCHORED
ON
WOOD
STUD
VENEERS
Masonry veneers provide an aesthelrc, durable noncombustrble, weather resislant tinish for structural masonry or
lioht tramrno construction. The inherent mass of the veneer
sound penetrapiovrdes inireased thermal perlormance
iion resistance. and lire resistance. Anchored veneers typr
callv consist of nominal 3 or 4 in. wythes of masonry taed to
a backing system. Veneers are not intended to support any
loads other than their own weight All lateral loads are
intended to be transferred to the backing system. Empirical
design permits the construction of masonry veneers with a
nominal thickness of 4 in. to heights of three stories, 30 ft
VENEER
BRICK
BACKUP
ON
STEEL
STUD
at the plate and 38 ft at the gables. For veneers wlth a nominal thickness of 3 in., the heiqht is limited to two stories,
20 It at the plate and 28 ft at the gable. For building heights
greater than two stories, the brick veneer must be supoorted by a shelf angle at every floor.
Veneers are drainage-type walls. Although a nominal 1 in
airsoace is acceptable for drainage In most low-rlse, resF
deniial aoolications. a minimum 2 in- airspace between the
back of the masonry and the exterior surface of the backing
or exterior sheathing is recommended for masonry veneers
in mrGrise and high{rse conslruction.
THIN
BRICK
VENEER
ON
WOOO
FRAME
ADHERED VENEERS
Thin brick veneer, also referred to as adhered veneer, is an
'/, to |
%
aoolication of thin brick veneer units-between
a backing system. Adhered veneer relres on
in. thick<n
the bonding agent between the thin brick units and the
backuo subltrate. This construction may be classified as
either thin bed set or thick bed set. The thin brick can be
adhered to a stud backing, attached to a concrete masonry
backing. cast into concrete panel, or laid into a preformed
modul;r oanel. Thin brack oanels can be prefabricated or laid
in place, depending on the size or intricacies of the project.
Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects. PC; Washington, D.C

Brian E. Trimble: Brick Institute of America: Reslon, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
232
BrickVeneer
FRICTION FIT
METAL COPING
OPTIONAL
FUSHING
DEPENDING
ON
TOLERANCES
OF
STRUCTURAL
FRAME
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNIT
SEAUNT
FUSHING
AT COLUMN
THREE WIRE
UDDER-TYPE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
HORIZONTAL
EXPANSION
JOINT
ROOFING
REGLET
FUSHING
FOR
WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP
LIP BRICK
FUSHING
ANGLE
ANGLE
COMPRESSIBLE
BRICK VENEER
MATERIAL
EUSrC
SEAUNT
AND BACKER
ROO
DOVSAIL
SLOT
REINFORCEO
LINTEL
STEEL LINTEL
WALL ANCHORAGE
WEEP HOLES
24- O.C.
IN CONCRETE
COLUMNS
AND BEAMS
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR
FASTENED THROUGH
SHEATHING TO STUD
RIGIO
INSUUTION
INSERTS
INTERIOR
SHEATHING
INSULATION
A'RSPACE
(TYP.)
S.rt.",o*
wtNDow
SHEATHING
SEALANT
WOOD TRIM
WALLBOARD
.BRICK
VENEER
BRICK
VENEER
THRE WIRE
LADDER.TYPE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
BUILDING
PAPER
THROUGH
ANCHOR ROD
WELOEO TO
FUSHING
CONCRETE
suB
\
ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR WELOED
TO STRUCTURAL
STEEL
COLUMN
FRAME
AOJUSTAALE
ANCHOR
STEEL ANGLE KICKER
WEEP HOLES
AT 24' O C. (TYP
VERTICAL STEEL
ANGLE SUPPORTING
WEEP SLOTS
AT 24' O_C. (TYP
SHELF
ANGLE
STEEL
SHELF
STRIP
ANGLE
wtNoow
FUSHING
qRrcK VENEER ON CONCRETE

MASONRY UNIT BACK-UP
GraceS. LeejRippeteau
Architects,pC; Washington,
D.C.
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot Amenca;Reston,Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
WALL ANCHORAGE
MULLION
IN STEEL COLUMNS
AND BEAMS
WINOOW
ond Beoms
Columns,Pilqsters,
li'r'i r,
[:jilt---l
t -')
ti::ij
UTERAL
TIES
T I E S E M B ED D E D O N
MORTAR JI )INT5
FULL HEIGHT OF
REINFORCING
CAGE NOT SHOWN
233
UTERAL
TIES
EMBED EXTRA
TIES OR PART
OF REQUIREO
LATERAL
REINFORCE
IN MORTER
JOINTS
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
TIED TO OOWELS
IN
EMBEDDED
FOOTING
CONTROL
JOINT
ntr
t]
TYPICAL SPECIAL PILASTER UNIT FOR

USE v\/ITH CONTROL JOINTS
TIES E
EM
MI B E D D E D O N
M O R T rAR
A R JOINTS
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
WHEN CLEANOUTS
ARE NOT PROVIDED
MAX. POUR HEIGHT
SHOULD NOT
EXCEED 4,
FOOTING
COLUMN CONSTRUCTION
USING LOW.LIFT
GROUTING TECHNIQUES
UTERAL
ALTERNATE COURSES
DOWELS EMBEDDED
IN FOOTING
UTERAL
TIES IN
MORTAR
JOINTS
12 IN. SAUARE
BRICK COLUMN
REINFORCED
r/4" DtA. BARS BENT

IN FORM OF U.
GREASED LEGS AND
SPACED I 6- O.C.
20 IN. SQUARE
BRICK COLUMN
TYPICAL
COLUMNS
PILASTER
ED WALL'PILASTER
ZE AND RETNFORCEMENT
LAYOUTS
FOOTING.
AS REQUIREC
PILASTER CONSTRUCTION USING

LOW.LIFT GROUTING TECHNIQUES
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
NOTE
4
HORIZONTAL
STEEL
BRTCK
JOINT
SEAUNT
PUCED IN ALTERNATE
COURSE TO AVOID
CROSSOVER OF STEEL
IN SAME JOINT
REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY COLUMN
REINFORCEO
BONO BREAK
BRICK
PILASTER
MASONRY
BRICK CURTAIN WALL AND PANEL WALL REINFORCEMENT

, 75b"
STEEL STIRRUPS
SPACED
3'' APART
t-fr.
"d
['i;' ..,-trl
CONTINUOUS
REINFORCING
RODS TOP
AND
l.:.o....'iY:{
'/2" MtN.
CONCRETE
COVERAGE
FFir-6.--Il
r::: .1.I
GROUT
SETTING AED
lx
t-.f:......t11
Ie-.+3__+
BEARINGZONE (W X H)
MUST BE CONCRETE,
SOLID MASONRY OR
GROUTEO MASONRY
' d * -
DOUBLE
COR E
3ut"
cMu
CONCRETE
PRECAST CONCRETE
ffi
4{
m
m
m
m
v2
+F
Azr
m
tu
ai}u
REINFORCED
BOTOM
'l
l/,///)
vvz
Cut block in first course before laying to form cleanout

openings at base of cells to be lilled. Remove all mortar
droppings, set and inspect venical reinforcement, and form
over opening before filling with grout or concrete. When
cleanouts are not provided maximum pour should not
exceed 4 ft.
COLUMN AND PILASTER

CONSTRUCTION
NUMBER
AND
REQUIRED
OF
SIZE
}
INTEL TYPE
letnlorceo concrere
{7 5/s" square section)
'PAN
MAX.
4',- Q'
8',-0'
Concretemasonryunlt
{7 %" squaresection)
n o m i n a8lx 8 x 1 6 u n i l
4-O8'- 0"
REBARS
BRICK
ao LB./SQ
:T)
4-*3
4-#4
4-*5
2-#4
2-#5
2-#6
a-
(Aazr
mm
mm
mm
varn
Ai.iVt
vzm
12'
ffi
vzr2vrz
METAL
TIE
OR GROUTED
AND
REINFORCED
mmm
nmm
mma
cMU
(5O LB/
4-#3
4-*3
4-*4
2-#4
2-#5
NOTES
1. For precast concrete and reinforced concrete masonry
loads.
unitlintelswith no suoerimoosed
2. fc' = 3000 psi concreteand grout; ly = 60,000psi
AND CMU BEAMS OR LINTELS

I
IF CAVITY WALL. USE

METAL SCREEN
OR
MASONRY GROUT
DAM TO CONTAIN
POUR
mmm
2',..::a.t..{4
mmm
BRICK BEAMS OR LINTELS
D.C.
Architects,PC;Washington,
GraceS. Lee; Rippeteau
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia;S
Herndon.Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
MASONRYUNITS
234
MosonryArches
pER FEET oF spAN
SKEWBACK-r/2
FOR EACH 4 " OF ARCH DEPTH
KEYSTONE
CAMBEF
t/a-
PER FEET
OF
TYPES OF JACK ARCHES
FOUR.CENTEREO
ANO TUDOR
\l-'-
-''
---l--t't
. ,l . t l \
;J";iJ-l---
---
G L|NE
I
Esonry must
rtal thrusts.
York
MASONRYUNITS
GOTHtc
Arih is calledpointedwhen radiiare equal to span and

is calledlancotwhen radiiare graterthan span.
Fireploces:Generol Informotion
GENERAL
The frreplaceand chimney are usually large elements In tesidences. but their scale can be adapted to any archltectural
style. The purpose of the residential fireplace has changed
over the years from heating to decoration. However.
increasing public interest in renewable forms of energy has
instigated a new demand for tireplaces tor heating homes.
Fireptace design and construclion are governed by building
and mechanical codes. The internal diagram of a working
fireplace shom the several required pans and their vertical
organization. Each part is illuslrated on succeeding pages.
The main function of the fireplace and chimney is to sustain
combustion and carry smoke away safely. Their design is
CONCRETE
CAP
based on empirical data proven with years ot safe perfor

mance. The charts on the following pages show the appre
priate sizes o{ fireplace and chimney elements. One of the
mosl important design decisions is the l@ation of the lire
olace. To orevent heat loss to the exterior, it is best to
locate a fireplace at the center oJ the house. Again to
improve perlormance, a fireplace should not be located
opposite an outside door or near an open stairway leading
to an upper tloor, a forced air furnace, or a return air register. Combustion can be improved by providing a measured
supply of outside air, independent of room air, to the fireplace. This is done by installing an air duct trom the exterior
of the house to the fireplace. The chimney must be proP
edy sized to carry the combustion products away. Two factors primarily affect the chimney draft: size of the tireplace
opening and height of the chimney. The figure on the tollowing page should be used to size the tlue accurately
based on these factors.
Several distinct types of fireplaces are currently used in residential applications Single-face tireplace styles are the
most popular and include the conventional tireplace, the
Rumlord fireplace, the Rosin fireplace, and air circulating
fireplaces. Multiface fireplaces are also popular and include
the see-through fireplace, the corner fireplace, and the freestanding fireplace. The masonry heater. or masonry stove,
is a specialized type of fireplace and is the most efficient of
all these types.
FLUE
SEAUNT
CONCRETE CAP
235
LINER
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COUNTERFUSHING
BASE
FUSHING
ROOF
FELT
CRICKET
ATTIC
SHINGLES
WOOO SHEATHING
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRE CUY
FLUE LINER
STRUCTURAL
SUPPORT FOR
FIRE CUY
FLUE
MANTEL
SMOKE
CHAMBER
LINER
SMOKE
DAMPER
FIRST
INCLINED
BACK WALL
FLOOR
INCLINED
BACK
WALL
FIREBRICK
SMOKE
FIREPUCE
LINTEL
SHELF
THROAT
HEARTH
ASH
OUMP
VERTICAL BACK WALL
FIRE
BRICK
AIR DIFFUSER
ASH
DUMP
ZOUTSTDE
AIR INTAKE
HEARTH SUPPORT
(INNER ANO OUTER)
AIR INTAKE
BASEMENT
HEARTH
ASHPIT
CLEANOUT
DOOR
-
CLEANOUT DOOR
BASE FOUNDATION
FOOTING
REINFORCEO
CONCRSE FOOTING
SECTION
ISOMETRIC
Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute ot America; Reston, Virginia

Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
236
Typicol FireploceDimensions
CONVENTIONAL
FIREPLACES
The design of single-face fireplaces has been well doc

mented, resulting in the development of a reasonably acc!
rate set ol design dimensions for fireplace openiogs
damoers. and {lue liners.
Single-face fireplaces can be efficient radiant heaters. Thl
amount ol heat radiated and reflected into lhe room :,
direclly proportional to the masonry surface area exposec
lo the fire. Th Rumford fireplace is a variation oI the singte
face fireplace with a shallow firebox, a high throat, and
widely splayed sides, all features that contribute to optima
direct radiant heating.
In addition, the energy efficiency of new fireplaces can b.
improved by following these recommendations:
1. Locate the fireplace on the interior of the house.
2. Supply outside air for combustion and maintenance ol
oositive rmm oressure.
3. Provide glass fireplace screens to prevent unwanted a|
inliltration when the fireplace is not in use.
CONVENTIONAL
SI NGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DTMENSTONS*(tN.)
FINISHED
OPENING
CONCRETE
SUB
FIREPLACE
B
1
SID
26
28
SECTION
24
2t
FIRE CLAY
FLUE LINER4
36
tq
42
48
32
40
,1, /
to
to
19
to
60
|
'
CHAMBER
, -/\
14
14
14
14
14
14
't4
'18
34
J6
23
4U
50
56
22
22
42
to
to
t8
30
ou
72
72
&t
td
l8
't8
30
30
96
108
4t)
40
76
IJ
24
3
6
6
7
r0
16
29
l'l
40
ta
18
\\
84
96
ROUGH
BRICK\^r'ORK
E
21
21
24
2l
32
45
45
45
56
36
42
ot
75
NOTE
DAMpER a
'Determineflue linerdimensions,
G. Dimensions
are
equalto ths outsidedimnsions
of thefluelinerplusal
leastI in.(25mm).
- \ \ \l\
::+
STEEL ANGLE \
RUMFORD SINGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DIMENSIONS*
FINISHED
OPENING
FIREPLACE
FRONY ELEVATION
FRONT
ELEVATION
40
40
40
32
37
40
48
48
&
48
to
to
to
z6
20
2a
33
32
t4
to
20
44
48
48
48
32
40
56
56
r8
l8
JZ
40
46
40
16
to
20
2t)
29
29
ro
to
20
4A
4A
(IN.)
ROUGH
BRICK\^/ORK
2Q
20
2V
20
20
20
zv
20
20
66
66
12
24
36
45
42
45
NOTE
* Determine flue liner dimnsions, G. Dimensions
are
equal to the outside dimensionsof the llue liner plus at
least 'l in. (25 mm) for airspacesurroundingflue liner.
(TYP,)
NONCOMBUSTIBLE
FIRESTOPPING TO I "
BELOW BONOM OF JOIST
FLOOR FRAMING AT FIREPUCE
FIREPLACES
BACK TO AACK IN PARTY WALL
CONVENTIONAL
RUMFORO
FIREPLACE
FIREPLACE
GraceS. Lee; FippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MASONRYUNITS
MosonryHeoters
GENERAL
CEILING
STRUCTURE
Masonrv heaters male Jse ol two baSlc princlples lo oblarn

arr
hiqh combustion and heatrng elictencies{onttolled
iniake to the combustion chambe/firebox and d heat
exchanqe svstem of baffled chambers through which hol
combuJtron gases are crrculaled Such heaters are elficlenl,
clean burning devices.
a"
)-.
(2m mm)
utt \:
2 (50 mm) MlN. TO

COMBUSTIBLE FRAMING
HEATER
CAPPING
SUB
MASONRY
HEATER
Brick masonry heaters or masonry stoves used in North

America are adapted from those used in northern and eastern Europe, which were employed for cooking as well as
heating- Modern masonry heaters come in a wide variety of
shams and sizes. The size and layout of the house, the clF
mate, and the needs of the homeowner are all considered
in the design of a masonry heater. For optimum pertormance. however, it should be located near the center of the
house. Masonry heaters may be custom built on sate or
Modern
pre{abricated
components
from
assembled
rusonry heaters may incorporate lire viewing, bake ovens,
benches.
warming
stoves, and
Two safety
but are not
integrity of
perature of
concerns that apply to brick masonry heaters

listed in the maior model building codes are the
the enclosing walls of the healer and the temthe exterior surfaces of the walls:
To maximize the integrity of masonry heater walls, theY

should be constructed of two wythes of brick (ASTM C 216
or C 62 for facing brick) with a nominal 1-in. airspace
between lhem- Fill the airspace with a compressible, noncombustible material such as insulation, and tie both
wythes together with corrosion-resistant metal ties. Add
horizonlal joint reinforcement every sixth course (only at
exterior wythe).
To safeguard against the effects ot the high surface tefr
peratures of the heater (between 100" and 1 9ffF), a minimum 12-in. clearance should be observed between the
heater and any combustibles and there should b a 2Gin.
extended hearth in {ront.
DOWNDRAN
FIREBOX OPENING'
EXTENSION
HEARTH
\x
,,><\
(1@ mm,
48
iI2OOmm)TO
MATERIAS
COMBUSTIBLE
MIN
NOTE
For clearancestrom specifictypes of tirebox openingsand
other requirements,consultASTM E 1602 and localcodes.
Most clearancesmay be reducedit an engineeredprotec'
tionsvstemis orovided.
FOR
CLEARANCE TO COMBUSTIBLES
MASONRY HEATERS
FLUE
LINER
DAMPER
SHUTOFF
BYPASS
KACHEL (MASONRY
HEATER TILE)
(4'' NOMINAL,
237
DAMPER
CAPPING SUB
INSUUTION
FIREBRICK
GERMAN TILE/BRICK
(GRUNDOFEN)
HEATER
SHUTOFF
DOWNDRAff
CLEANOUT
FIREBOX
ASHBOX
COMBUSTION AIR
FIREBOX
DOOR
N OTE
ln Finnish or contraflow heaters, heated air is forced from
the top of the smoke chamber doM through the baffles on
the sides of the heater, Mile room air rises by convectlon
along the exterior surfaces of the masonry. This construction allows for even heating of the masonry and efficient
radiant heating of the room. The baffles converge below
the firebox and open out to the flue at the base of the chimnev.
FINNISH
(FOUNTAIN-STYLE)
HEATER
N OTE
Russian heaters are typically deep with a small opening to
the firebox. above which is a svstem of either vertically or
horizontally aligned batfles in place of lhe smoke chamber.
Alter circulating through the baffle system. exhaust gases
oass directlv into the flue.
RUSSTAN (MULTIFLUE)
HEATER
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C.

Brian E. Trimble, Engineer; Brick lndustry Association; Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
238
Cleoronces,Connections,ond Crowns
FIREPUCE OPENING
EQUAL TO OR GREATER
THAN 6 SO FT
WHERE TRIM PROJECTS

MoRE THAN
I r/2" FRoM
EXTERIOR
FActNG
WHERE TRIM PROJECTS

uP to
t ttz" FRoM
FActf
FIREPLACE
LESS THAN
OPNING
6 SO fr
FIREPUCE
FACING
HEARTH
EXTENSION
REQUIREMENTS
FIREPLACE
EXTENSION
HEARTH
DETAILS
FIREPLACE
FIREPUCE
CLEARANCE
TO COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
CLEARANCES
MORE THAN IO'
to'
CHIMNEY
3'MtN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
2,MIN-
CHIMNEY
3 MtN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
2 MrN_
CHIMNEY
TERMINATION
CHIMNEY
LESS
THAN
IO'FROM
RIDGE,
WALI.-
AEOVE
ANY ROOF
SURFACE
wtTHtN I O'
HORIZONTALLY
-+
TERMINATION
MORE THAN
IO'FROM
No height above parapet

required when
distance
trom walls or parapet is
more than 10 ft
RIDGE, WALL, OR PARAPET
CLEARANCES
BACKER ROD
AND SEAUNT
MtN. t 2 TO
COMBUSTIBLES
l2-oFBRtcK
(
E
l
J
L
\
r
rACl.Onv_
Jllll
.'*=.*" \l I
;Tr
frfr-tiilER"*
z
=
CONNECTOR
USE CHIMNEY
MANUFACTURER'S
PART TO ATTACH
CONNECTOR
SECURELY
SOLID INSULATEO
L'STEO FACTORY.
BUILT CHIMNEY
LENGTH
INS|DE OF //
FLUE __--/
TwoArR
CHANNES
EACH tl
J
L
AIR CHANNELS
-.
EACH I
CONSTRUCTED
OF SHEET METAL
coNNLCron-\>
fflJs,? /
NOTES
1. Minimum chimney clearance trom
rusonry to brick, sheet steel suF
ports, and smbustibles 2 in.
2. Masonry chimneys constructed to
N F P A2 11 .
1::2..
=F
J lF
IHH- 1ffi;1".
lHH\.",**." \S--'*
'tr
=
.
CHTMNEY
ZSHEET
STEEL
,../
suppoRTs
/ /
' f
| /|-CHIMINEY
| /l sEororu- '
l/|---
corurecroa ffi
/l_-T
-_
sHEffMffAL
SUPPORTS
MASONRYUNITS
CAP
_ MtN.
f
l
?^
=
I
u
| \
""'"tev
coNNEcToR
\
\2-lrnspaCg
SYSTEMS AND CLEARANCES
Grace_S.Lee; BippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C.

BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America;Resion.Virginia
I
I
DETAIL AT CHIMNEY
SHES STEEL
SUPPORTS
MrN 6Fl\
GUSSFIBERIII
r N s u u T r o N" l I
CONCRETE
CROWN
q'F+
|FHI :srig+'""-tlN
llF
ANCHOR
NoNsoLUBLE
REFRACTORY
CEMENT)
CHIMNEY
CHIMNEY
OR VENT
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
2 MtN.
WALL OR
PARAPff
PARAPET
THAN
CHIMNEY
3, MtN.
CHIMNY
3,MIN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
2,MIN.
OR VENT
OR
MORE
FROM COMEUSTIgLE
titeeaNce
CEMENT
WASH
I
AIRSPACE
TO CHIMNEY
LENGTH
CHIMNEY
CONNECTOR
CHIMNEY
LENGTH
SUPPORTS
\MILLS
CHIMNEY
POT
FlueSizes,Shopes,ond Fireploce Froming

HEIGHT OF ADJACENT FLUES
SHOULD VARY APPROX 4'
239
*m
lffi
-t
ti
tr
'--*f
IHH
IHH
l|-,#
'k,.@,
'#
RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (STANDARD)
NOTE
Eachlareplaceor stove requires
its own separateflue.
FRAMING
INSULATION
OF WOOO
MEMBERS
AT A CHIMNEY
RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (MODULAR)
INCOMBUSTIBLE FILL
BRICK CHIMNEY CONCEALEO
BEHIND STUD WALL
FLUE
ANGLE
NOT LESS
THAN 60'
CUT FLUE
TO ENSURE
TIGHT
JOINTS.
MAINTAIN
INCOMBUSTIBLE
AIRSPAC
ROUND
FLUE
LINING
DAMPER
FIREPUCE
BRICK
CLAY
FLUE
LININGS
CHIMNEY
CHIMNEY
EXPOSEO
FRAMING
AND
INSULATION
NOTES
1. Availability ol specific clay flue liners varies according to
location. Generally, round fiue liners used in construction
with reintorcing bars are available in the western states,
while rectangular flue liners are commonly found
throughout the eastern states- Check with lmal manufacturers for available tyDes and sizes2. Nominal flue size for round flues is interior diameter;
nominal flue sizes for standard rectangular tlues are the
exterior dimensions and, lor modular flue lif,ings, the outside dimensions plusr/, jn.
TYPICAL RESIDENTIAL
3. Areas shown are net minimum inside areas.

4. All flue liners are generally available in 2 {t lengths.
5. Fireplace flue sizes can be approximated using the tollowing rules of thumb: One-tenth the area of fireplace
opening recommended: one-eighth the area of opening
recommended if chimney is higher than 20 tt and rectangular flues are used: one-twelfth the area is minimum
required; verify with local codes.
CHIMNEY
MASONRYUNITS
240
FireplqceOpenings:Dompers,Ash Dumps,ond Cleqnouts

FRAMED
METAL
PRE.FAB
FLUE
COMBUSTIBLE
HIGH FORMED DAMPER
(IN.)
HIGH FORMD DAMPERSprovide corect ratio of throattefireplace opening with an optional pretormed smoke
shelf, which can reduce material and labor reouirements.
They are useful for both single and multiple opening fireoraces.
FORMED DAMPER
(IN.)
SQUARE FORMED DAMPER (IN.)
SOUAREFORMEDDAMPERS
havehighslopingsidesthat
promote even draw on alfsides ot multiple opening fireplaces. They are proprly proportiored for a strong draft
and smokefreeoperation.
FORMEOSTEEL DAMPERSare designed to provide the
correct ratio of throat-t}tireplace opening,producingmaximum draft. Thsse dampers ar equippedwith poker type
controland ar easilvinstalled.
FORMED STEEL DAMPERS
''1.-\
|
l\
NOTES
1. Locateboltom of damperminimum 6 to 8 in. from top of
fareplaceopening.
2. Mineral wool blanket allorc for exoansion of metal
damperwalls.
3. Dampersare availablin heavygauge steel or cast iron.
Checkwith l@l suppliersfor specificforms and sizes.
4. A cord of w@d consistsof 128 cu ft or a stack 4 tt high
and 8 ft wide, with logs 4 ft long.
5. A face cord ot w@d consistsof 64 cu ft or a stack 4 lt
high and I ft wide, with logs 2 ft long.
6. Logs are cut to lengths of 'l tI 4 in., 2 ft 0 in., 2 ft 6 in..
and 4 ft. Allow 3 in. minimum clearancbtween loas
and each side of fireDla@.
--..
\/-
a\
I\ASHPIT.1
CLEANOUT
DOOR
DOOR DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
DUMP DtMENStONS(tN.)
BlTlelr0
NOTE
Ash dumps and cleanout doors are available in heavy gauge
steel or st iron. See local manufacturers for available
typs and sizes.
CLEANOUT
OR ASHPIT
DOOR
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
ASH DUMP
Designof Speciol Fireploces
241
GENERAL
Multifaced fireplaces have more than one face ol the firebox open to the r@m. There are three types of multifaced
fireplaces: projected corner, with two adjacent sides open;
double faced, with two opposite sides open; and three
taced, with only one side built of masonry construction.
Multifaced fireplaces usually are not as energyfficient as
conventional, single-faced fireplaces because there is less
mass surrounding the lire to hold and radiate heat to the
room. However, multitaced tireplaces usually are located
on the interior of a space, not on an exterior wall. and their
can be augmented by the features disenergyefficiency
cussed below.
The addition of energyfficient features to fireplace design
can increase both the combustion oJ the wood and the abi!
ity to heat the room or building. Energyfficient features
for conventional lireplaces include glass doors, damper
controls, and outside air intake to the firebox. Designs that
increase radiant heat also are energyf{icient. For example,
fireplaces
the obliquelv llared sides ot Rumlord-type
increase radiant heat. Air{irculating tireplaces ancreasethe
fireplace
through
from
a
heat
emanating
amount of radiant
natural con /ection or by forced-air circulation.
TYPICAL
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
TYPICAL
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
NOTE
The sides of the lireplace are partiallyenclosedby recessing the brick into the wall behind the fireplace.This design
helpseliminatesmoke from cross{rafts.
fireplaces
The narrowness and length of narroslront
require that they be fitted with two squarend dampers.
To allow for expansion, the dampers should be neither solidly embdded in mortar nor mechanically fastened to steel
angles.
TffiTFIREPLACE
ffis-paggD,
FIREPLACE
NOTE
SINGLE
NARRow FRoNT
DOUBLE LOW
HIGH
DAMPER ARRANGEMENT
BONOM
OF DAMPER
TYPICAL
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
(IN.)
N OTE
N OTE
The fireplace must be l@ated and designed to allow proper
updraft through both openings. Exterior doors should not
be located opposite the tireplace on either side because
they may cause cross{ratts through the fireplace.
T\^/O-FACED
FIREPLACE
NOTE
This design is similar to the projecled{orner
THREE-FACED.
FI REPLACE_S
\/vIDE FRONT
ECTIO N
fireplace
fireThe significant difference between a projectedtorner

place and a conventional singlejaced fireplace is the shape
fireplace uses a square
of the damper. A proiected{orner
end damper instead ol a taperednd damper. The open
side should have a shon wall to help stop the escape of
occurcombustive gases when crossiralts
PROJECTED-CORNER
FIREPLACE
D.C
Architects,P.C.;Washington,
Rippeteau
MASONRYUNITS
242
StructurqlFocingTile:Wqllsecfionsond Properties
GENERAL
WALL SECTIONS
Structural clay facing tile rs chosen as an attractive and

durable wall system in many speciatrzedapplicatrons,espe.
cially when maintenance and.esistance to vandalism are
consadered. Applications include walls and-partitions in correctional lacilities. schools, public buildings. and food processing facilities. Structural clay tile can be glazed or
unglazed, load bearing or non load bearing, and behaves
similarly to brick. Structural clay rile is manutactured in
many sizes and shapes. Numbers and letters shown on the
units in the ligures indicate the standard shape classifications of structural clav tile used bv manufacturers.
WALL
AND PROPERTIES
TYPE NUMBER
loao
(lb/linear ft)
Marenar quanilty
(per 100 sq tt)
(BTU/sqft hr "F)
Lateralsupportspacing
required{tt)
resrslance
NOTE S
'1.
% in. plasteron backof theseunitswill producet hourlire rating
2. lf collarjointis tilled,add 2.6 cu ft per 100sq ft of wall.
ffi
ll
GUZED
FACING
TILE
ARICK
FACING TILE
2- STRETCHER
4,' STRETCHER
4- STRflCHER
MffAL
TIES
] 6'' O,C, VERTICALL
36
0.C.
MSAL TIES
I6. o.c. VERTICALLY
HORIZONTALLY
HORIZONTALLY
TYPE 4
6 IN. WALL
FACES BOTH SIDES
METAL TIE BONO
SECTION
IN.
WALL
FRAME
CLOSURE
6T54NR
6Trc2NL
6T54ANL
4 IN. SINGLE-FACED
WALL
WITH
SILL AND JAMB;
SQUARE
LINTEL
RUNNING
BOND
BULLNOSE
SECTION
SECTION
GraceSj Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C.

FacingTile Institute;Washington,D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
EXTERIOR BUCK
6 IN. DOUBLE.FACEO WING WALL BONDED

TO MAIN WALL WITH TYPICAL BUTT JOINTS
FRAME
FITTTNGS
TYPE 5
I O TN. CAVITY WALL
BRICK ONE FACE
TILE ONE FACE
Teno-Cottoond Cerqmic Veneer

TERRA-COTTA
N OTES
Te.ra{otta is a high grade ot weathered or aged clay,

which, when mixed with sand or with pulverized f ired clay,
can be molded to a hardness and compactness no6obtainable wilh other materials. Used extensively until the 1930s,
terrarotta has been largely replaced with ceramic veneer.
Ceramic veneer can be anchored or adhered to masonrV.
Terra{otta was usually hollow cast in blocks, open to the

back lo reveal internal webbing.
Ceramic veneer is not hollow cast but is a veneer of glazed
ceramic tile that is ribbed on the back. lt is frequently
attached to metal ties that are anchored to the building.
Other tvpes of terra{otta
are:
l.Brownstone terratotta. A dark red or brown block,

which is hollow cast. Used extensively in the mid- to late1gth century.
2. Fireproof @nstruction terra{otta. Inexpensive and light
weight, these rough-finished hollow burlding blocks span
widely
bams. The blocks are available but not used
today.
3. Glazed architectural terra{otta. Hollow unats were hand
cast in rulds or carved in clay and heavily glazed. Sometimes called architectural ceramics, this terrarotla type
was used until the 1930s.
The ceramic veneer manufacturer should provide scale

shop drawings as detailed from the architect's drawings. To
be used for setting, the shop drawings should indicate all
dimensions and sizes of joints, and all anchors. hangers,
expansion, and control or pressure-relievingjoints.
Nonferrous metal anchors should be embedded in the
masonry and encased for Drotection from corrosion.
The minimum thickness ol anchored-type ceramic veneer,
exclusive of ribs. should be 1 in.
Ceramic veneer should be set true to line in setting mortar.
Spaces between anchored ceramic veneer and backing
walls should be lilled with grout: spaces % in. or more in
width with pea gravel and spaces 3/. in. with monar.
The minimum thickness of adhesion-WDe ceramic veneer,
including ribs, should be lL in. with ribbed or scored backs.
An evenly spread coat of neat portlano @ment and water
should be aoolied to the wall and the entire back of the
ceramic veneer panel about to be set. Then one hall ol the
setting mortar coat should be immediately applied on the
chosen wall area and the other on the ceramic veneer
piece's entire back. Tap the piece into place on the wall to
completelv fill all voids, with the tolal thickness of the mortar averaging % in. Th6re should be some excess mortar
forced out at the joints and edge of the cramic veneer.
243
MOLD-PRESSED CERAMIC
VENEER
The minimum thickness ol the exposed faces of moldpressed ceramic veneer is 1 in. Eacks of special shapes
should be open and ribbed.
For placement, turn all units bottom side up and fill solidly
with grout liller fo. mold-pressed ceramic veneer. When
the fill has set sufficiently to permit handling. set the units.
When applied to soffits, each piece of ceramic veneer. in
addition lo the usual centers and wooden wedges, shall be
supponed by bent and vertical wooden shores. A constant
upward pressure is needed unlil the mortar coat has set.
Adhesion can be tested with a 1 x 1 x 4 in. vitrified test bar.
First dissolve vinyl acetate in methyl iso-butyl keytone.
Applv to the ceramic veneer surface and test bar. The adhesive is heated by means ol an infrared lamp until bubbling
ceases. Press the two surfaces together until cool. Then
knock or pry off test bar.
TERRA-COTTA
PANEL
VENEER
PRECAST
Terra{otta precast panels have a keyback design, which

allows each piece to easily become an integral part of the
precast unit through a mechanical bond. No fasteners are
neeoeo.
W I N D O WU N I T
SEAUNT
C E R A M I CV E N E E R
3/a" MoRTAR BED
r/s" ANcHoRs
METAL SUPPORT
SYSTEM ANGLE
CLIP WELDED TO
METAL PUTE
ANO STUD CAST
IN CONCRffE (TYP.)
MASONRY
BACKUP
LOOP OOWEL
ANCHOR AT I S- O.C
r/4" Roo
1/." PtNs AT JotNTS
. EXTRUOED TERRA.
.DOVETAIL SLOT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
LOOP
DOWEL
l/s" ANcHoR
CERAMIC
BACKER PANEL
METAL ANCHOR
(TYP.)
VENEER
TERRA.COTTA
OOVffAIL
IN AACKUP
DOVflAIL
PRECAST
SLOT
SYSTEM
ANCHOR
3/4" MoRTAR BED
l/s" ANcHoR
I CERAMIC
VENEER
CERAMIC VENEER
CERAMIC
VENE
r/4" RoD
MffAL UTH
l/2" scRATcH
COAT
3/i" MoRTAR BED
rs " o.c
r/s" ANcHoR
BACKUP SYSTEM
'
I CERAMIC
VENEER
C E R A M I CV E N E E R
TERRA.COTTA
ETE
METAL FRAMING
L@P- DOWEL
ANCHOR AT
ADHESION
PANEL
CONCRETE OR
BLOCK BACKUP
(ANCHORED)
STUOS
WOOD FRAMF
MEMBRANE
WATERPROOFING
MORTAR
DOVETAILED
VENEER BACK
t/s'ANcHoR
CERAMIC VENEER
TYPICAL
AASE
NOTE
ADHESION TERRA-COTTA
(ANCHORED)
WIREMESH
l/4" scRATcH
COAT
3/a" MoRTAR BED
I CERAMIC
VENEER
CERAMIC VENEER ON WOOD STUDS
Design of Eest Products Corporation
TER RA-COTTA
VI/ALL SECTION
ANCHORING
SYSTEMS
GROUT-ADHERED
CERAMIC VENEER
Architects,PC;Washington,D.C
EricK. Beach;Rippeteau
MASONRYUNITS
244
GlossBlock: DesignDolo
GENERAL
PANERNS
OCCUR ON
THE INTERIOR
SURFACE PRIOR
TO FUSING
Glass bloct rs a drverse buildrng malerial whose many apphcatrons exhrbrt ils multilaceted: characteris{ics. I he varying
forms of glass block - 1ype, thrckness,.jlize, shape, and
patterns - along wrth the methods of insblfatron can combine to create unique design solutions. Applications range
from entire facades. windows, interior dividers. and partitions to skylights, floors, walkways. and staiMays. In all
applications. glass block units permit the control ot light,
both natural and artificial, for function or drama. Glass block
also allows for control of thermal transmission, noise, dust,
and dratts. With the use of thick-faced glass block or solid 3
in. bullet-resistant block, security can also be achieved.
EXPANSION
STRIP
The basic glass blck unit is made of two halves fused

together with a panial wcuum inside. Facesmay be clear,
figu.ed, or with integralrelief forms.
Glassblock is availablein thicknessesrangingfrom a minimum of 3 in. for solidunitsto a maximumof 4 in. (nominal)
tor hollow units. Metric thicknessesranqe from 76 to 98
mm
MORTAR
glassblockunitsis 'l
An optimummonarmixfor installing
panportland
cement,I /2partlime,and4 partssand.
The table below gives the number of glass block that can
be installed with a mortar batch consisting oI:
1.0 cu ft (1 bag/94 lb) portland cement
0.5 cu ft (20 lb) lime
4.0 cu ft (320 lb) sand
SQUARE
GLASS
BLOCK/MORTAR
BATCH
End block units have a rounded,finished surfa on one

edge. They may be used to end interior partitionsor walls
as well as spacedividerswhen installedhorizontally.
41ltin.x 4'lzin.
6 in. x 6 in. (5% in. x 53/!in. actual)
1lrin.x71l.in.
8 in. x 8 in. (73t in. x 73L in. actuall
91/,in. x 91/,in.
12in. x 12in. (11%in. x l1% in. actual)
END BLOCK
1 1 5m m x 1 1 5m m
'190
190 mm x
mm
240 mm x 240 mm
300 mm x 300 mm
NOTES
Metric sizes are available from foreign manutacturers
through distributorsin the UnitedStates.
1. Includesl 57owaste
2- Basedon a r/. in. exposedjoint
#
SOUND
sTc,
*'tA'
PANEL
REINFORCING
Jf*'t;
TRANSMISSION'
stze
PATTERN
X5
XJ
AII panerns
x8" x4
All patterns
ASS EM B LY
CONSTRUCTION
sy
REGUUR
THICKSET
Some manufacturersprovide thick blocks for criticalapplicationswhere a thick-faed. heavierglassblock is needed.
These bl@ks haw a superior sound transmissionrating
propertis.Their faes are three times as thick as regular
unrrs.
All patterns
with LX
fibrousfilter
E xE x4
thick {aced
block
hrck blocl
<>o9 p
t_trtL\,'
45" BLOCK
J"
THICK BLOCK
50ltd block
solidunits
NOTES
1- Testedin accordance
with ASTM E90-90"... Measurerent ot AirborneSoundTransmission
Loss..."
2.STC rating value in accordancewith ASTM E413-87
"Classificationfor RalingSoundInsulation."
3. Test method and STC rating value in accordancewith
ASTM E9G81and ASTM E413-73accordingly.
THERMAL
BLOCK
PERFORMANCE/LIGHT
TYPE
HEAT
TRANSMISSIO
U-VALU E
( BTU/H R FT" "F)
Solid glass block units (glass bricks) are impacl resistant

and allow throughvision.
CORNER
BLOCK
Solarmntrol units have either insertsor exteriorcoatingsto

reduce heat gain. C@ted units requireperiodiccleaningto
remove alkali and retal ions that can harm the surface
coating. Edge drips are requird to prevent moisture rundou,n on the surface.
PANEL
REINFORCING
fr,C
fr rmo
TRANSMISSION,'
THERMAL
RESISTANCE'
R-VALUq
( H R FT' -FIBTU
THERMAL
EXPANSION
cpEFFrctENT
(rF\
CORNER
SHADING
COEFFICIENT'
BLOCK
A few manufacturershave spcialshapes to execute cor

ner designs. These units also may be placed together for
varyingpatternsand fo.ms.
SPECIAL SHAPES
sheet glass
NOT S
1. Valuesequalr 5%.
2. Winter night values.
3.To calculateinstantaneousheat gain through glass block panels, see ASHRAE Handbookof Fundamentals,1985, section
22.41
.8.
4. Basedon I in. squareunits: ratio of heat gain throughglassblockpanelsvs. that througha single light ol doublestrengthsheet
glassunderspecificconditions.
D.C.
GLASSUNITMASONRY
(CORNERS)
n{tt4ffi
-suRFAcEDESrcN
Surfacedecorationmay be achievedwith fused{n ceramic,

etching, or sandblasting.Glass block units ruy be split or
shippedin halvesin order to apply some decorationto the
inside.Blocksthen must be resealed.Resealedblocks will
not perform the same under various stresses as factory
sealedunits. Placementin walls or panelsshouldbe limited
to areasreceivingminimum loading-
GlossBlockDeioils
MAXIMUM
PANEL
DIMENSIONS
245
NOTE
Full bed of mortar typrcallyr/a
in. wide at face ot wall. Mortar
to be type S optimum mixture:
'1
part portland cement
'/, pan lime
4 pans sand
SECURE
METAL ANCHORS
PANEL TO
BLOCK
GUSS
CONSTRUCTION
ADJACENT
(BEND WITHIN
EXPANSION JOINT)
PERIMETER
SUPPORT METHOD
STRIP
EXPANSION
TO ALLOW FOR
DIFFERENTIAL
NOTE
Maximum exterio. panel sizes are based on a design wind load ot 20 lb/sq ft with a 27 salely
tactor.
JOINT
HORIZONTAL
AS REOUIRED
REINFORCING
FOR EACH INSTALUTION
MOVEMENT
CLEAN SURFACES
AFTER E]RECTION
WITHORDINARY
SCRUB
H O U S E H O L D SCRUts
HOUSEHOLD
BRUSH W|TH
STIFF BntStUES --
GLASS BLOCK
J32''
MIN.
,/
./
PANEL COMPONENTS
RAD
ELEVATION
NOTES
1. Area of exterior unbraced panel should not exceed 144
sq ft.
2. Area of interior unbraced panel should not exceed 250 sq
ir.
3 Panels are designed to be mortared at sill, with head and
jambs providlng for movement and settling. Deflection of
lintel at head should be anticioated.
4. Consult manufacturers {or specific design limitations of
glass blek panels. Thickness of block used also determines maximum panel srze.
(65' MIN. RAD

A" SOUARE BLOCK)
INTERMEDIATE EXPANSION
JOINTS ANO SUPPORTS
NUMBER OF BLOCKS
FOR lOO SQ FT PANEL
GLASS
BLOCK
CURVED
PANELS
LASTIC
PERMANENTLY
SEALING
COMPOUND
FOR
MINIMUMS
RADIUS
PANEL CONSTRUCTION
MANUFACTURER'S
EXPANSION JOINT MATERIAL
INTERMEOIATE EXPANSION
JOINTS AND SUPPORTS
DO NOT BRIOGE EXPANSION

REINFORCING
JOINT WITH PANEL
JOI NT
THICKNESS
BLOCK
NOTES
N OTE
Expansion ioints should be installed at every change ol
direction ol a multicuryed wall, at points o{ curved wall
intersection with straight walls, and at cenler of curvature
in excess of 90 degrees.
GLASS BLOCK EXPANSION
CURVED
JOINT
1. lt is suggested that curued areas be separated from flat

areas by intermediate expansion ioints and supports. as
indicated in these drawings.
2. When straight, ladder-type reinforcing is used on curued
walls, the innermost parallel wire may be cut periodically
and bent to accommodate the curuature of the wall.
XU
6" x 6
CURVEO PANEL CONSTRUCTION
D.C
GLASSUNITMASONRY
(IN.)
246
GlqssBlockDetoils
TYPICAL
CRITERIA
SUPPORT
DESTGN
METAL
FSSHING
STEEL
STUD
(STRIPPED
IN)
HORIZONTAL
REINFORCING
When specifying supports and shelf angles. the installed

werght and deflection limitation of the glass block should
be taken into account. Local building coCes should be
checked for any limits on panel sizes or installation details.
INSTALLED WEIGHT
OF GLASS BLOCK
SEAUNT
WEEP
STEEL
TUBE
STEEL
LINTEL
. WELO
CHANNEL
TO TUBE
SPACE
V\/EIGHT
STEEL
SEAUNT AND
BACKER (TYP.)
PANEL
AND
BACKER (TYP.)
STEEL CHANNEL
INSUUTION
DEFLECTION
INSTALLED
(LBISA FT)
FRAMING
CHANNEL
EXPANSION
STRIP
HEAO AT STUB WALL WITH BRICK
EXTERTOR
FrNrsH ---_\
I
|
DEFLECTION LIMITATIONS
Maximum deflection of structural members supporting
glassblockpanelsshallnot exceed:
oerucloru
,)
SPACE --___j-l
GUSS
Where L = distancebetween verticalsuppons
BLOCK UNIT
BACKER(TYP.)
MASONRY UNIT WALL
HEAO AT CONCRETE
GUSS
EXPANSION
STRIP
CHANNEL
SEAUNT AT
WELO TO TUBE
LINER (TYP. )
JAMB AT STUD WALL WITH BRICX
'" u'r$l
L
600-
BLOCK
UNIT
STEEL
STUO
STEEL TUBE
SEAUNT AND
AACKER (TYP.)
FILL SPACE WITH
EXPANSION STRIPS
BLOCK UNIT
MORTAR
PRECAST
CONCRtrE
ASPHALT
I\
--
EMUsroN
SILL
I
i|
/|NTER|OR
lcuss
CONCRETE
MASONRY
BLOCK UNIT
UNIT
HORIZONTAL PANEL
REINFORCING
FtN|SH
ll"
tNTERtoR FrNrsH --l

SILL AT CONCRETE
EXTERIOR
MASONRY UNIT WALL
CONNECTION
STEEL ANGLE
ztt2x2xttal'fyp.)
JAMB AT CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT WALL
DETAILS
MffAL
STEEL BRACE .SECURE

TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
STUD
FRAMING
SEAUNT
ELEVATION
(TYP.)
HORIZONTAL PANEL
REINFORCING
-tSEAUNT AND
BACKER (TYP.)
MORTAR
rtr
GUSS
/'"-
SUSPENDEO CEILING
\ OEFLECTION
SPACE
ASPHALT
EMUT-SION
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
BACKER
SEAUNT
PANEL ANCHOR
MULLION
AND
(TYP )
(TYP.)
BLOCK UNIT
PANEL ANCHOR
souo
BLOCKING
EXPANSION STRIP
EXPANSION STRIP
HEAO AT SUSPENDED
CEILING
JAMB
AT
INTERIOR
PARTITION
METAL STUD (TYP.)

METAL STUD FRAMING
PANEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
STRIP
GYPSUM BOARD
\L-cYPsuM
DEFLECTION
BoARD
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
MORTAR
MULLION
PANEL
ASPHALT
EMULSION
HORIZONTAL
REINFORCING
SOLID BLOCKING
(TYP.)
EXPANSION STRIP
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
HEAD AT INTERIOR
Gt-ASS
BLOCK
SEAUNT
BACKER
UNIT
ANO
(TYP,)
INTERIOR
SOLID
BLOCKING
PARTITION
CONNECTION
JAMB AT PERPENDICUI-AR
PANEL
GUSS
BLOCK
PANEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
UNIT
STRIP
PARTTYION
DETAILS
PANEL
ANCHOR (TYP.)
SHELF
ANGLES
IN
VERTICAL
PANELS
MULTIPLE
HOLLOW
MffAL
OOOR HEAO
EXPANSION
STRIP
(TYP,)
SEAUNT
JAMB ANCHOR , SECURE

TO STEEL BAR
CONTINUOUS
STEEL BAR , SECURE
TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
(TYP.)
STEEL BAR
LINTEL
PANEL ANCHORS
ANACHED
TO
STEEL PUTE
HOLLOW METAL
DOOR AND JAMB
HEAD AT OOORFRAME
SUPPORT
IN
HORIZONTAL
MULTIPLE
PANELS
SECTION/ELEVATION
HORIZONTAL
REINFORCING
PUTE
EXPANSION
N OTE
Panels with an expansion joint stiffener incorporating a con_
cealed vertical plate should be limited to 10 ft maximum
height.
HEAD AT DOORFRAME
SECTTONS AT SUPPORTS
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C
GLASSUNITMASONRY
DOORFRAME
PUN
DETAILS
(JOINT ABOVE JAMB)
STRIP
PANEL
StoneUsesqnd properties
GENERAL
The threeJock classes are rgneous, sedrmentary. and

mela_
morpnrC. UOmmon COnSlructiOnSlOneSare marketed
Under
the names grven in the table below, although specialtv
stoneS sUch aS soapstone and serpentrne a'so are avarlable
tach stone has various commerctal graoes. Ltmestone
grades are A, statuary; B, selectj C, sranOarO;D. rust,c;
E,
varegated and F, old Gothic. Marbte rs gradeo A, B, C, or
D
on the basis of working qualities, uniformity, and ftawi and
rmpertectlons.
N a t u r a l s t o n e r s u s e d , n b u , l d i . g a s a f a c t n g .v e n e e r ,
and
oecoratron. lhe malor lactors affecbng the suilability and
use ot stone fall under two broad. bul overlappinq qj19q9_
nes: physrcal and structural propertres and aesthetic quilrlres. lhe three lacrors of burldrngStone that most influence
therr selection by archttects for aesthetic reasons are oaF
tern, texture, and color. Consideration also should be oiven
to costs, availability, weathering characteristics, phtsical
propenies, and size and thickness limitations.
PHYSICAL
STONE
Stone patterns are highly vailed, and they provrde special

teatures that make burldrng stone a unique material. Tex_
rufe rs vafled, rangrng trom coarse fragments to fine grains
and crystalline structures. Texture also varies with ththardness of minerals composing the stone. To accuratelv compare stone colors lhe rock color chart publshed by the
Geological Society of America (Boulder, CO) is recom_
mended. Samples also may be used to eslablish acceptable
color ranges for a panicular installation.
Pattsn, texture, and @lor all are affected by how the stone
is fabricated and finished. Granites tend to hold their color
and pattern, while limestone color and pattern changes
wrlh exposure Texiures may range from rough and flamed
lrnrshes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder lhe
stone, the better it takes and holds a polish.
STONE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING
PROPERTIES
OF
The physical characteflstics ot a panicular stone

must be
surraore lor tts tntended use. lt rs imporlant to determine
the physical p.operties of the actual stone being used
rather lhan using values from a geneilc table, *n,cn'can
Oe
very mrsreadlng. uonsrderations of the physrcal propentes
of the stone being selected include modulus ot,rpture,
shear.strength. coefticient of expansion, pe,maneni iirt_
versrore growlh and change in shape, creep deflectron,
compresstve strength, modulus of etastrcrty. moisture
resistanc, and weatherability. Epoxy adhesrves, otten
used wrth slone, are affected by cleanlness ot surfaces to
be bonded and ambient temperature. Cunng time rncreases
wrth cotd temperatures and decreases with warmer tem.
peratures.
TO QUALITIES AFFECTING
C LASS
SPECIAL
FABR ICATION,AND
241
INSTALLATION
With the rntroductron ot new syslems of tabr1s61,91

a.a
rnstailatron.and recenl developments rn the destgn
and
oelailrng ol slone cu[rng, suppoat, and anchoraqe. costs
are btter controlled. Correct design of ioinls, seieclion ol
monars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durabiljtv
of installation.Adequate design and Aetiitinq'of the anchei'
age of each piece of stone are required. The size and thick_
ness ol the stone should be established based on physjcal
propedies of the stone, its method of anchorage,
and the
loads it musl resist. Appropriate safety faclorishould be
developed based on the variabtlity ol the stone properlres
as well as other considerations such as imperfect work_
manship, method of support and anchorage, and degree of
exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for
stone support and anchorage may be necessarV to Oreclude
unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be
prolected from slaining and breakage during shipment,
delivery, and installation.
Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type o{
stone and installation, the designer should consult itone
supptrers,stone.-se_tting
specialty contractors, industry stan
dards (such as ASl Ml, and other publicatrons to hetp selecl
ano rmptement a stone cladding system. Resource rnforma
tron is available in publications such as the Indiana Lime_
stone lnstitute's lndiana Limestffie Handb@k and the
Marble lnstitute of America's Dimensioned Stone. lvol. g.
USE
FEATURES
HARDNESS
CHIEF
USES
red;may tarnishto brown
to black: also blue{rav and

light to dark otive gieeh; also
prnKtsn
rgneousrock)
used tor building
colorsor angularrock
pises or fossils
may have irregular lractures
stonebut usuallyin
panels
decoratave
May be bandedwith pink,

whrte, or gray streaksand
Not.necessanly
anyregular
panrngDuttractures
irregularly
Not necessarilyany regular
partrngbut may fracture
rrregulafly
6urldrng
stone,but als
panelingif attractively
colored
Vafies: pank,purple, black;

usable, rarely almost white
Burldrngstone, but also use(

an panels if nicely banded or
crystalline
as strong as granite; if
buildingstone; not
decorative
txceltent ior burldrng but
hard to "shape"
dark brown, usuallygray;

may be banded
crystals give slaty {acture
gray wrth some

whtte. or hght gray
PHYSICAL
ts
bands very weak, however
PROPERTTES OF REPRESENTATIVE
IGNEOUS
PHYSICAL
PROPERTY
quanzile: scratches easily
GRANITE
No special paning; tends to

break along banding
be decorative if banded
STONES
ROCK
SEDIMENTARY
LIMESTONE
ROCK
METAMORPHIC
ROCK
SLATE
strength {psr)
Imate stress {psi)
stress(psi)
ensron -
allowable
Ing stress
water (percentage by
expansron
N OTE
Pnicular stones may vary greatlV from average properlres
shown In table. A panicular stone s physical propenres. as
well as its allowable working values, always should be

developed for each panicular application.
The McGuire & Shook Corporation: lndianapotis, Indiana

Christine Beall, RA. CCS; Austin. Texas
STONE
248
StoneMosonry;;;tt
ono veneer
-
-tl
tl
tl
It
l{
FIELOSTONE
UNCOURSED
PATTERN
COURSED
ASHLAR
RUNNING
ONE-HEIGHT
BOND
PATTERN
(SINGLE
RISE)
tf
ililtl
=I
=-l
llll
]|----''----.--l|
IFL
lF-rr
ilil
il
lL
TWO-HEIGHT PATTERN QO
6096 AT s rN.)
ASHLAR
UNCOURSED
LEDGE ROCK PATTERN
RANDOM COURSED
UNCOURSED
ROUGHLY SQUARE PATTERN
RANDOM BROKEN COURSEO ASHI.AR
RUBBLE STONE MASONRY

ELEVATIONS
PATTERNS -
SPLIT STONE
PATTERNS -
gr
ANCHOR
ANCHOR
THREE - HEtcHT PATTERN ( | 5

40% AT s lN.; 4s96 AT 7% tN.)
AT 2rl. lN.;
SPLIT STONE MASONRY HEIGHT

ELEVATIONS
PATTERNS -
MASONRY
ELEVATIONS
TYPE C OR D
TYPE A OR B
A"f 2'1.IN.i
STONE TO STRUCTURE
STONE TO STONE
ANCHORS
SQUARE
COLUMNS
INSTALLATION
ROUND/QUADRANT
NOTES
'L
A course is a horizontalrow oI stone. Bond pattern is
describedby the horizontalarrangementof verticalioints
(Se also Brickwork.)Structuralbond refers to the physi'
cal tying together of load bearingand veneer portaoisol
a comoosite wall. Structuralbond can be accomplished
with metal ties or with stone units set as headersinto
the backup.
2. Ashlar masonry is composed of squared{ff building
stone units of varioussizes.Cut ashlaris dressedto spe
cilic designdimensionsat the mill. Ashlaris oflen used in
randomlengths and heights.with jointing worked out on
the job.
3. All ties and anchorsmusl be made of noncorrosivemate
rial. Chromiufrnickel stainlesssteel types 302 and 304
and eraydoalloyzincare the most resistantto corrosion
and staining.Use stainlesssteel type 316 in highlycorrosive environments{potlutedor near the sea).Copper,
b.ass,and bronzewill stain under some conditions.Local
buildingcodes often governthe tYpesof metal that may
be used for some stone anchors.
cement mortarshouldbe used on porous
4. Nonstaining
and light colored stones.At all cornersuse extta tles ano
when possible,larger stones. Joints for rough work are
usually1/, lo I 1/, in. and 3/sto 3L in. Jor ashlar.Prevent
electr@hemicalreactionbetween different metals combined in the same assemblyby properlyisolatingor coat
Ingtnem_
COLUMNS
DETAILS
SPOTS
MORTAR
AT ANCHOR
LOCATIONS
BACKUP
BACKUP WALL
AIRSPACE
NONCORROSIVE
CORRUGATED
SCRATCH
COAT
CAVITY VENEERED WALL
TYPICAL
WALL
THIN
VENEERED
SECTIONS
GeorgeM. Whiteside,lll, AIA and James D. Lloyd: KennettSquare,Pennsylvanaa

BuildingSton Instilute: New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;RippeleauArchitects.PC;Washington,D C
STONE
WALL
(INTERIOR
ONLY)
StoneCornicer, por
HOLD GRour
---__1
Fnov
I 1lr" Dta HoLEs
gXoJJu!?roDSrN
d euoins
/.
/-
3t4- Dta cALv
sieic oo;rLs /./
24g
otA. GALV. srEEL
-3ta
;A"EADEDRoDs
METAL FUSHING
FOR GUNER
BALUSTER
l-
II
BALUSTRADE
5' HOLE FOR

RAIN LEADER
CORNICE
tlz'
t"
WITH BUILT-IN GUTTER
ELEVATION
GROUT AROUND
ROD
HOLE INBALUSTRADE
IN 3" DIA
BASE
- FusHtNG
( ,.o"rK rNREGLET
!ft
SECTION
CORNICE
AT
JOINT
SECTION
STONE
MtrAL FUSHING
OVER STONE
JOTNTS -=\
BALUSTRADE
CORNICE WITH SEPARATE PARAPET

CAULK
IN
REGLET\
METAL FUSHING
SECTION
WEDGE
STONE STEPS AND CUR
.lo" oln. eorr-{

MffAL
FUSHING
OVER JOINTS
BOLT
FLASHING
DETAIL
v
N OTE
Dowêl between stone pieces allows flat interrupted flash:
ng. Dowel set vertically is typicdt for stepped ftashing (mrn.
z oowels oer stone)
GOTHIC-TYPE STONE COPINGS, INSTDEWASH
l t/2" MlN
PARAPET
STONE
AS
CORNICE
PARAPET
STAGGERED
DETATLS
PATTERN
STONE QUOIN
CENTER DOWEL
2 VERTICAL
DOWELS
PER
DRIPS
STEPPEO
EACH
SIDE
ALTERNATING
PATTERN
IN BRICK WALL
PLAIN
STONE
STONE
FUSHING
COPING
COPINGS
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile.

Maryland
STONE
StoneDoorond WindowSurrounds
250
lRoN
1t r"' x 31e" wRouGHT
AND
ANCHOR GALVANIZED
SET INTO HORIZONTAL
sTONE
JOINT
-sroNEWALL
/ll/'ANcHoR
/-MFaal
(3PERJAMb
l/
\tl
GROUT CAVITY
HOLLOW
DOOR
METAL
FRAME
FRAME
THAN
METAL FRAME
sToNE WALL
METAL
ANCHOR
GROUT
HINGE DETAIL SHOWING
CONTINUOUS
CAULK
METAL DOOR
FASTENER
STONE ANCHOR
METAL
FRAME
I l/e" x 3/e" GALVANIZED

WROUGHT IRON ANCHOR
SET INTO HORIZONTAL
DETAILS
HEAD ANO JAMS
ELEVATTOTWOOD
WALL
AT STONE
DOOR IN STONE WALL

'i,sTONE
\'
TRIM
wooD
SCRff
STEEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
AOLT
wooo
SIDELIGHI
HEAD (AND JAMB)

AT SIDELIGHT
HEAD (ANO JAMB)

AT DOOR
\,VOOD FRAME
STONE
WALL
STONE
ARCH
STRIKE DETAIL SHOWING
CONCEALED
DETAILS
ANCHOR
STONE ANCHOR
DOOR DETAILS
HEAD AND JAMB DETAILS AT CAVITY WALL
METAL FRAME
ALTERNATE
DETAILS
STONE
LINTEL
LIMESTONE
TRACING
GUSS
3/e'DtA.
GALVANIZED
BARS. 12- TO I
o.c. To
REINFORCE
GUSS
LEADEO ART
STONE
LUG
SILL
ANO
DETAIL
LINTEL
Z-
sToNE St[
SILL
ELEVATION-\^r'INDOv\/
IN STONE
VI/ALL
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
STONE
STONE
DETAIL
SECTION
A_WINDOW
IN STONE
WALL
SLIP
ALTERNATE
SILL
--
STONE
SLIP SILL
LINE
OF
OETAIL
STONE TRIM DETAILS
StonePonelson SteelFromingond SfoneCornices
251
N OTES
Use of the steel stud supporl system as shown requires an
archilect o. engrneer to develop adequate and real.strcper
lormance criteria. including thorough consideration o{ the
long-term durability and corrosion resistance of light gauge
members. mechanical fasteners, and other svstem comoc
nents: provisions for adequale thermal movementj devel
opment
of adequate system strength and stillness;
recognition of the structural interaction between the stone
support system; and consideration of vapor retarders and
flashing to control moisture migration. lt also is important
that adequate provisions be developed to ensure qualitv
workmanship necessa.y to implement the system and to
achieve the expected quality and durability.
The
stone thickness depicted is a minimum oI 111, in.
'|
hrcker stone malerials can use the same type of support
system; however, engineering analyses ot the system will
be necessary to ensure proper performance and compliance with recommended design practices.
Design criteria for stone anchorage must include consider
ation of the panicuiar stone's average as well as lowest
strength values for safety, particularly at ancho.age pojnts.
The proposed stone should be tested for adequate design
propenaes and values. Stone anchorage size and location
depend on establ;shing the particular stone's strength val
ues, natural faults, and other properties; the stone's thickness and supported area; the expected lateral as well as
gravity loadjng; and the amouot ol thermal movement 10 be
accommodated.
STONE
DOWEL
HARD
STONE
CANT
PANEL
RAKE
JOINT
TO RELIEVE
POSSIALE
COMPRESSIVE
SENING
MEMBRANE
TREATED
NAILER
WOOD
STEEL SPLIT,TAIL
ANCHOR
IN VERTICAL
JOINT
(SHIM AS REQUIRED)
CONCRETE
FILLED
STEEL
OECK
RIGID
CONCRETE
ROOF
STRUCTURE
ANCHOR
ANCHOR
BOLTS ANO
PUTES
SHOULD BE
INSTALLEO
AT VERTICAL
LIMESTONE
ARCHITRAVE
LIMESTONE
FACING
WALL
INSUUTION
INSULATION
SPANDREL
FUSHING
STEEL SHELF
ANGLE
WITH DOWEL WELD OR
BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE
CEILING
LINE
NOTE
Required steel fireprooling has
been omitted for clarity.
SECTION THROUGH
ROOF PARAPET AT HARD STONE PANEL
WINDOW MULLION
(SHIM AS REQUIRED)
REVEAL
GYPSUM BOARD
I 5{ FELT OVER GYPSUM

BOARD SHEATHING {TYP )
PADS
STRIP
FIRESAFING
CONTAINED
IN STEEL CLOSURE
SEALANT WITH
BACKER ROD
STANOARD
STRAP
STEEL
ROOFING
SEAUNT WITH BACKER

ROO AND WEEPS
ROOFING
AND ROOF
FILL )
CAP WITH
ANCHORS
FUSHING
STEL
SPLIT.TAIL
ANCHOR
AUNKET
INSUUTION
STEEL ANGLE WELD TO
EMBEDDEO STEEL ANGLE
FIRESAFING
FLOOR
CONTAINED
IN STEEL CLOSURE
EMBEODED
WITH POST
STEEL
ANCHOR
SPANOREL
FUSHING
CONCRETE FILLED
STEEL DECK
SECTION
Shown here is the most common method of anchorino a

co.nice, which has a projectron large enough to be balanc;d
in the wall.
The bed ioint immediately below the heaw cornice is open
far enough back to remove anv compresstve stress that
would have a tendency to break off stone below.
PUSTIC
SHIMS
AS REQUIRED
SEAUNT WITH BACKER
ROO WITH WEEPS
PROVIOE SLEEVE
WITHIN STUD SYSTEM
FOR VERTICAL
EXPANSION
STEEL SHELF
ANGLE
WITH OOWEL WELD OR
BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE
STEEL
SPLIT-TAIL
ANCHOR
IN VERTICAL
(SHIM AS REOUIRED)
N OTE
JOINT
SECTION THROUGH
Required steel fireproofing

has
HARD STONE PANEL AT WTNDOW WALL

I 5f, FELT OVER
GYPSUM BOARD
SHEATHING
t1--1--:
N OTE
Shown are live possible cornice
desagns. Indiana limestone can
be fabricated easily and economically to almost any profile. See
examples.
TRADITIONAL
CORNICES
SPACER SLEEVE
BOLTS THROUGH
GYPSUM
BOARD
SECTIONAL
FOR
STEEL SHELF ANGLE

ON A STRESSLESS DISC
OVER A BED OF EPOXY,
DEAO BOLT TO REAR
FACE OF STONE
AT VERTICAL JOINT
STONE
PANEL
SEAUNT
WITH
STEEL
ON A
OVER
DEAD
FACE
SHELF
ANGLE
STRESSLESS
DISC
A BED OF EPOXY,
BOLT TO REAR
OF STONE
SECTION AT VERTICAL JOINT
The SpecterGroup;North Hills,New York
STONE
StonePonelson SteelFroming
252
CONTINUOUS
COPING STONE
SEALANT WITH
BACKER
ROD
STEEL
STAINLESS
ANCHOR
SPLIT.TAIL
IN VERTICAL
JOINT
(SHIM AS REOUIREO)
FLASHING
r/4 RouNo DR|P
STEEL STUD
BUILT.UP HEAOER
KERF IN STONE
CONTINUOUS
TO BE FILLED WITH SEAUNT
IS PUCED
ANCHOR
AflER
ORIP
TEEL STUD
AUILT.UP HEADER
ROOFINGMEMBRANE
3/a'' EXTERioR PLYwooD
ON STEEL STUDS
TREATEO WOOD
NAILER
GRIO
CLIP
SYSTEM
t 5I BUILDING FELT OVER

GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING
RIGID
INSUUTION
PANEL
STEEL
STAINLESS
FUSHING
ANGLE WITH DOWEL

CHANNEL
TREATED WOOO
NAILER
CONTAINED
STEEL CLOSURE
STONE
STEEL
STAINLESS
WITH
STRAP ANCHOR
DOWEL AT JOINT
HEAVYGAUGE SLIDING
AOLT SEAUNT OVER
OOWELED CONNECTION
ROOFING MEMBRANE
3/4" EXTERTORPLYWOOD
ON STEEL STUOS
I 5I FELT OVER GYPSUM

BOARO SHEATHING
FIRESAFING
IN STAINLESS
CONTINUOUS
COPING STONE
STEEL STRAP
2 STAINLESS
WITH OOWEL AT JOINT
ANCHORS
RIGIO
INSUUTION
FIRESAFING CONTAINED
IN STEEL CLOSURE
INSUUTION
STONE PANEL
PROVIOE SLEEVE
WITHIN STUD
SYSTEM FOR
VERTICAL
EXPANSION
AS REOUIREO
BRACING
STAINLESS
STEEL
ANGLE
ON
SHLF
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD

BOLT TO STONE PANEL
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF
ANGLE BOLTED TO STEEL
STUD THROUGH GYPSUM
BOARO SHEATHING WITH

AND WINDOVVLESS
has
SEALANT WITH
BACKER ROO
STONE
STEEL CHANNEL BOLTED

TO STEEL STUDS THROUGH
GYPSUM BOARD WITH SPACER
SPLIT.TAIL
STAINLESS
STEEL
ANCHOR
IN VERTICAL
JOINT
(SHIM AS
I 5' FELT OVER GYPSUM

AOARO SHEATHING (TYP.)
PANEL
CONTAINED
STEEL
STAINLESS
STEEL
SHELF ANGLE
ON A
DISC OVER
STRESSLESS
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD
GYPSUM BOARO
SEAUNT OVER
OOWELED CONNECTION
CONTINUOUS KERF IN
STONE TO BE FILLED
WITH SEAUNT ANER
ANCHOR IS PUCED
INSUUTION
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF

CLIP ANGLE AND DOWEL
GYPSUM BOARD
FLOOR
STAINLESS STEEL
SHELF ANGLE BOLTED
TO STEEL STUD
THOUGH GYPSUM
AOARO SHEATHING
WITH SPACER SLEEVE
EPOXY.FASTENED
STONE RETURN
WITH OOWEL
(FACTORY FABRICATED)
STEEL STUD
BUILT.UP HEADER
SEAUNT WITH
BACKER ROO
AND WEEPS
CEILING
HAD
FLASHING
WINMW
HAD
MULLION
SPANDREL
INSULATION
I5* BUILDING FEL
FLOOR
SHELF
STEEL
STAINLESS
CLIP ANGLE ANO DOWEL
STAINLESS STEEL CLIP

ANGLE WITH THREAOED
T PIN AT VERTICAL JOINTS
INSUUTION
STEEL
STAINLESS
ANCHOR
SPLIT.TAIL
JOINT
IN VERTICAL
(SHIM AS REOUIREI
WINMW
FLASHING
CONTINUOUS KERF IN
STONE TO AE ALLED
WITH SEAUNT ANER
ANCHOR IS PUCED
PUSTTC SHTMS
BRACING
AS
REOUIRED
WINDOW HEAD FUSHING

INSULATION
EPOXY.FASTENED STONE
RETURN WITH CONTINUOUS
DOWL (FACTORY
FABRICATEO)
BUILT-UP
HEADER
LINE
CEILING
LINE
WINDOW
HEAD
N OTE
AT \^/INDOW
HEAD AND SILL
has
SEAUNT
WITH AACKER
ROD
WEEP
ANO
STONE
HOLE
SPANOREL
AT \MINOOV\/ HEAD ANO SILL
HEAVY GAUGE SLIOING BOLT
STONE PANEL
CHANNEL
15I FELT OVER G
STONE
GRID
SYSTEM
PANEL
INSUT.ATION
SHEATHING
STEEL SPLIT.TAIL
STATNLESS
IN VERTICAL
JOINT
ANCHOR
(SHIM AS REOUIRE
FUSHING
CONCRffE
WALL
BRACING AS REOUIRED
BOLT TO STONE PANEL
OVER
SUB
FELT OVER
I 5I BUILDING
AOARD SHEATHING
GYPSUM
STEEL STUDS
STEEL STRAP
STAINLESS
WITH DOWEL
ANCHOR
(SHIM AS
FLOOR
OVER
SUB
FUSHING
CONCRETE
WEEP HOLE THROUGH

PUSTIC
AND \/vINDOWLESS
has
STAINLESS STEEL
STRAP ANCHOR WITH
2 DOWELS AT JOINT
PROVIDE SLEEVE
WITHIN STUO SYSTEM
FOR VERTICAL
EXPANSION
CLOSURE
BOARO
AT ROOF PARAPET
Required steel firepr@fing

STONE STOOL (SHIM

AT OOWEL AS REOUIRED)
STRAP
SEAUNT WITH
BACKER ROO
STONE
BOARD
N OTE
SEALANT WITH
BACKER ROD
FUSHING
FIRESAFING
IN STAINLESS
FOR
EXPANSION
GYPSUM
SILL
STAINLESS
STEEL
ANCHOR
WTTH 2
AT JOINT
@WELS
STONE
VERTICAL
SHIMS
SECTION
WALL
HIN STUO
STEEL
STAINLESS
ON A
SHELF ANGLE
OISC OVER
STRESSLESS
A BED OF EPOXY. OEAO
BOLT TO STONE PANEL
PUSTIC
N OTE
AT ROOF PARAPET
SECTION
INSULATION
WEEP
PUSTIC
SHIMS
HOLE
THROUGH
SHIMS
AS REOUIRED
AS REOUIRED
STONE SPANDREL
AT GRAOE
The SpectorGroup; North Hills, New York
STONE
STONE SPANDREL
AT GRADE
GYPSUMBOARD
MULLION
3 in. StoneVeneer
253
NOTES
CRAMP
l.Throughout this section, flashing, sealants, and other

ancillary materials necessary for sound weatherproof
constructron sometimes have been omitted for clarity.
See flashing and sealant details elsewhere.
2.Allow lor tolerances by including correct shimming to
prevent installation problems or performance failure
3. All stone anchors embedded in or in contact with stone
shall be slainless steel lype 300 sefies.
4 Stone support or anchor systems should be designed by
an a.chitect or engineer experienced in stone claddina
desrgn and construction.
ANCHOR
DOWELS
BACKUP WALL
DRIP EDGE ,
,^:::'^.'"".-sr
COPING
FASCIA
PANFL
CO PI NG
BACKUP
WALL
CLIP ANGLE WITH

WELDED
BAR TO
RETAIN STONE
DISC AND
ROD
SUPPORT
ANGLE
EYE ROD AND DOWEL

TWISTEO
DOWEL
STRAP
VERTICAL
SELF.SUPPORTING
STONE
LINTEL
CLIP
ANGLE
FIN
WITH
WELDED BAR
SUN SCREEN
WINDOW HEAD
WINDOW
HEAD
STONE VENEER
CRAMP
ANCHOR
ROD ANCHOR
EYE ROD AND DOWEL
STONE VENEER
JAMB SHOULD
ANCHOR TO
WALL NOT TO
ADJACENT
STONE VENEER
STONE VENEER
BACKUP WALL
WINDOW JAMB
ADJUSTABLE
WI NDOWS ILL
INSERT
ANGLE
WITH
WELDED
BAR
CRAMP
ANCHOR
CONCRETE
WEDGE INSERT
CLIP
ANGLE
WITH
WELDED BAR
CLIP ANGLE WITH

WELDED
BAR
BONO
WALL
ANO
HOOK
HOOK
BASE
STONE VENEER
DOWEL
NO. 4 REBAR
ANGLE
DETATLS: OPT|ONS
ROD
SENING
SOFFIT
ROD
SOFFIT
HOOK ROD
ANCHOR
ROD CRAMP
STRAP
ANGLE WITH
WELDED BAR
PLATE WITH
WELDED
TIE.BACK
ROD
ANCHOR
ANCHOR
COLUMN
WITH
r\t\
ANCHOR
STONE VENEER
l,i .1r' "o*tt
j
PLATE WITH
WELDED SAR
STONE VENEER ON CONCRETE

MASONRY BACKUP
f\f
| ;/1
I.f 1
TURNED INTO
STONE BOTH
WAYSi WELO
TO COLUMN
METAL
ANCHOR
COLUMN
CLIP OR
CONTINUOUS
ANGLE
T , SUPPORT
ON STEEL FRAME
t sxtv
OOWEL
PI N
CONNECTION
BASE DETAILS
George M. Whiteside. lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square, pennsyrvanra
Building Stone Institute: New York, New york
Alexander Keyes; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
SIONE
I r/oin. lo 2t/ain. SfoneVeneer
254
SEAUNT
FOAM
hhm
ANO
ffiffiffi
ROD
SENING
DIMENSIONS
'/., ir
Standard flat stck anchors are made of strap 1 md I
wjde by'/s, 3/,6,andr/4 in. thick. Lengths vary up to6, 8, 10. an(l
r/a
in. overall with 3 '/, in
12 in. Dovetail anchoG are usually 4
prciection for fa@ o{ mncrete. Bends are %, 1, ard 1 r/. in.
ANCHORAGE
STEEL
STAINLESS
DOWEL WITH
HOOK ANCHOR
BEO
FLASHING
STONE VENEER
HORIZONTAL
CONNECTION:
DOWEL ANO CRAMP
DOWEL
CONNECTION
ANCHOR
Round stock anchors are made f.om stock ot any diametef

'/e in. (#11 ga l
'/. and
% in. are most common for rods:
'/r and
through 3/16in. (#6 ga.) for wire anchors; and
% in
are most common tor dowels. Dowel lengths re usually 2
to 6 in.
BOLT
NOTES
1. Refer to page on 3 in. stone veneer for additioal anchor
age information.
2. Allow for tolerances by including correct shimming to
lail
prevent installation {itting problems or perfmnce
ure.
3. Stone anchorage systems should be desigrEd by a pro
tessional engineer experienced in stone claddng design
COPINGS
oowELs
RIGID
INSULATION
SUPPORT ANGLE
AND
MORTAR
4. Sizes may ditfer widely lrom the standard sizes listed

nre.
SUPPORT ANGLE
AND
MORTAR
5. Soecifv stainlass steel.
CRAMP AND
SEAUNT AT
SLOTTED CLIP
JOINT
HEAD (JAMB SIMIUR)
(JAMB
HEAO
SIMII.AR)
USE DOWEL TO
CONNECT SEVERAL
PIECES
STRAP AND
DOWEL
METAL INSERT
RIGID
INSULATION
STRIP UNER
WITH OOWEL
STONE VENEER
SILL
SI LL
WINDOr/v
ASKS
BOLT AND
WEDGE INSERT
ASKEW BOLT AND

WEDGE INSERT
SUPPORT ANGLE
WITH
SILL DETAIL
DETAILS
*4 REBAR
BARS WELDED
IO ANGLE
MORTAR
SEAUNT
WEEP VENT AT
TOP OF CAVITY
STAINLESS
STEEL CLIP
ANGLE WITH
BARS WELDED
WIRE ANCHOR
SLOT ANCHOR
SEAUNT
RIGID
INSUUTION
SLOT
RELIEFANGLE
WITH LINER
RELIEF ANGLE
ANCHOR
EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL
ANGLE SUPPORT WITH SHEAR RESISTANCE
SUPPORTS
N OTE
FLASHING
It is recommendd that water repellent treatment be provided at the

sidewalk.
MORTAR
WEEP VENT
IN JOINT
GRADE
CONCRETE
CORNER
DETAILS
BASE DETAILS
GeorgeM. Whheside,lll, AlA. and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsylvania

BuildingStone Institute;New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
STONE
WEEP HOLES IN
VERTICAL
JOINTS
I r/oin. to 2tlt in. StoneVeneerGrid StrutSystem
255
DOWEL
FUSHING
MORTAR
METAL
CONCRETE
INSERT
JOINT
STRIP LINING
CLIP
MflAL
STRUT
STRIP
AND
STRUT
STRUTS
CLIP
LiNER
METAL
STONE VENEER
COPI
COPING,
FASCIA.
ANO
HEAD
CLIP
STONE
VENEER
NG
STONE VENEER
AND
LINER
METAL STRUT
FASCIA AND WINDOW HEAO
SOFFIT
ANCHOREO
EXISTING
BUILDING
FACING
TO
EXISTING
STRUT ANCHORED
TO
FLOOR
CONNECTION
TO EXISTING FACING
EXPANSION
SPACE
BETWEEN
STRUTS
SHEAR WALL SUPPORT
STRUTS
RETENTION
ANGLES
ANCHOR
SLOT
FILLED
WITH
SEAUNT
SEALANT
BACKER
BASE
OR
AND
ROD
SHEAR
STARTER
SUPPORT
WALL
SIOE
(PLAN)
RETENTION
GRID STRUT SYSTEM . METAL FRAME

GRID ANCHOR
STRUT
SIZE -
SPACING
MARBLE
COLUMN
RETURN
AND
N OTES
WIDTH, DEPTH
AND SHAPE
1. Engrneering design of all supports for this type of con

struction is essential.
2. Grid strut spacing is subject to engineering design.
NOT ES
CLIP
ANCHORING
GRID STRUT
FRAME
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
. CONCRETE
1- "X" = dimension between strut and outside face of stone

2. "X" = 1 5/"" lor 1/"" marble.
3. "X" = 1 3/a" for I '/a" marble.
George M. Whiteside, lll, AlA. and James D. Llovd; Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Euilding Stone Institute; New York, New York
Alexander Keyesj Rippeteau Archirects, PC: Washington. D.C.
STONE
PreossembledStonePonels
256
ELEVATION
SPANDREL,
AND
AND
- SILL,
SECTION
SOFFIT
UNIT
+Ew-Lr --\d.-l
ffi\'.l
l--+-*.;.1,/
5.,i!S:.i
STONE TRIM
UNIT ON
COLUMN
VIEW OF BUILDING
PREASSEMBLED
ELEVATION AND SECTION _
FACADE
STONE
UNIT WITH
PLAN -
PARAPET UNIT
COLUMN
,/-
-sEAuNTAND
BAcKER RoD
\-.-
Outnrf O
CORNER
TRIM UNIT
EPOXY ON STEEL FRAME

PREASSEMBLED
PANELS
Preassembledstone panel technologyotfers savingsin onsite laborand accuratecomponontstone unit ioining.

+
i
;
METAL
SUPPORT
SYSTEM:
ANGLE CLIP
WELDED TO
METAL PLATE
ANO STUO
CAST IN
CONCRETE
.+
ll j
t
Shippingand erection stresses on the stone panels and

stone anchoragesystm to the preassembledunits should
be evaluated.
Design of sealant joints between preassembled units
should include at least the following: thermal movement,
fabrication and erection tolerances, irreversible material
groMh or shrinkage,and sealantmovementpotential.
STONE ON STEEL FRAME WITH EPOXY
J O IN T S
Stone units are mounted in a steel frame plus expansion
anchors and dowel pins (as recommendedby manufac
turer). Joints in stone are epoxied and held to approxi
mately 1/sin. when finished for delivery.All stones in the
assembly are anchored as a unit to the structure. Preas
plumbleveling,
sembledunit installation
reducesindividual
ing, and aligning,and on-site joint sealing is not as
extensiveas with individualstone oanels.
UNIT ELEVATION
COMPOSITE ASSEMBLIES OF STONE ANO

CONCRETE
VIEW OF BUILDING
STONE
Stone units are bonded to reinforcedorecastconcreteDan

els with bent stainlesssteel anchors.A moisturebarrierand
a bonding agent are installedbetween the stone and concrete in conditions where @ncrete alkali slats mav stain
stoneunits.
FACADE
UNIT PRECAST
V\/ITH CONCRETE
BACKUP
STONE ANO STEEL ASSEMBLIES WITH

SEALANT JOINTS
WALL UNIT B
(SIMILAR TO UNIT A)
Stone units are shimmed and anchoredto a steel frame

using standardstone connecting hardware.Joints may be
sealedon site, along with joints betweenassemblies.
UNIT A
MAXIMUMPANEL
lo'-o"x20'-o'
STAINLESS
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE
PREASSEMBLED
ELEVATION _
UNIT A
STONE UNIT ON STEEL FRAME
GeorgeM. Whileside, lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsytvania

BuildingStone Institute; New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;BippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
STONE
SECTION _
UNIT A
CONNECTION
OETAILS
STEEL
THREADED
ANCHOR
StoneDetoils-Residentiol
ryre
w-;l
F *.. t'p,ffi I 7
w-,
l'=-...1
E "....ilrF|
, "ryr
//zlt t.:,7
f'*#--
o..
ROCK
PITCH
OR
SAWED
FACE
I, l--=l
,:,,2.
I fiil/ll/lll/llll/ii/ll
P-
iliiiillillillillliiili
E--,-,.,-..j
p:::r:=:=.:.:
l
lllillllllllllillllllll
tll/iittlltillll/llt/tE
i 1 : - - - .-:r-- ' - - : . 1
SHOT SAWEO
(R O U G H )
FINISH
"n
1--..
illp'fliflilflilt,
-l
llllrlllllllrllllrrll ry
E
: -...-:l
E"
E, s"" E
E 1
' 72 "'/,2l;:r4
257
MACHINE
( PLANER
FINISH
POINTED
FINISH
[]ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SLIP
SILL
4'' FOR
BUSH HAMMERED
PATENT BUSH
HAMMER
DROVE OR
BOASTEO
RANOOM+PARALLEL
PEAN
HAMMERED
-l
[I$,,ffi
ffitrffiffiWffi
illl]llIlll1Tll1llllll
EE=EE=EEI
tr*"
[.:'i:.i,:l$,',i,:,1
il|Jffiillillf,ilmilffifi|il
lllllllllllllllllllllll
E===E===l
I ;J;: I
HANO
TOOLED
LUG
SILL
Nffi ffiffiilffiffiilffifril
il]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]1|
EEEEEEEEJ
[11
STONE
PARALLEL+RANOOM
CRANDALLED
PLUCKER FINISH
MACHINE TOOLED
TOOTH CHISEL
N OTE
Consult stone fabricators about which {inishes are appropriate for which type of stone.
SILL
TYPES
SMOOTH-RUBBED
(WET FINISH} OR
VERY SMOOTH
(CARBORUNDUM,
HONEO, ANO
POLTSHEO)
TYPICAL STONE FINISHES
;t r+l
SECTION
'-l
-f"-MORTAR
RUBBLE ASHLAR
OF GRANITE
SQUARED
STONE
MASONRY
GRANITE. SANOSTONE.
AND LIMESTONE
(GENERAL USE)
LIMESTONE
(FINE WORK)
SPECIAL
INTERIOR
WORK
TYPICAL STONE JOINT SPACING
lti
tl
-r-
aaa
t--
lll
RUSTICATED JOINTS
I+ L_
s+
[TYPICAL
JOINT
l,
r--
f-
GROOVE
PROFILES
+_
I
::::??"
ELEVATION
STONE
LUG
SECTION
SILL
PROFILES
STONE
BRICX
StoneDetoils-Residenliql
258
GENERAL
A traditional structural stone wall typically consists of two

independent laces {interior and exterior) of. closely fitted
stones with a code-drescribed prcentage of bonding unit
stones that extend the full thickness of the wall. Together,
these two stone faces create a massivelv thick wall, rarelv
less than 24 in. thick. An interior finish backup stud or
furred wall with a vapor barrier and insulation typically completes the wall system.
FACE STONE
ON BOTH SIDES
STEEL REBAR
sET 3 -O O.C.
AND PUCED
3'-O" MtN.|NTO
STONEWORK,
For structural stone walls. it is best to lay the stone In regu'l

lar courses, 2 to 15 in. high per course. Limiting the heighl
trom the top of one level course to the top of the next level
course ensures that the wall joints will be consistently
bridged, thereby avoiding long continuous vertical joints
both perpendicular to and parallel to the plane ol the wall
face. This will help prevent long cracks lrom developing,
which can cause large sections of the wall 1o split and tall
off. Control joints should be built into masonry construction
in wall sections up to 30 ft long to account {or expansion
and contraction of the stone.
STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL
N OTES
RIGID
INSULATION
for masonry construction is to

1- A simple rule{f-thumb
rely on gravity, not the bond of mortar, as the predominant "bonding agent" lor stone.
FUSHING
2. Consult codes to determine the minimum percentage of

bonding units per structural stone wall. Some codes
require that 15% of the face area be composed of bondIng unrts.
-l
r-1-
il
L_-JL-'Jc----l
I
tr
,l
I
I
BONOING UNIT TYPE 2
STUD
STONE OR
CONCRSE
FOUNDATION
lt
<t
a TOP OF LEVEL
STONE COURSE
RIGID INSUUTION
WALL
BACKING
STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL
FUSHING
STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING
STUD WALL
STONE WALL
COURSES
STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
ri.
STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING
BACKING
STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL
FUSHING
BONDING UNIT TYPE I
''
AIRSPACE
N OTE
STUD WALL
Some building codes require full span bonding units and

some permit a minimum 6 in. overlap between adjacent
stones,
STONEWORK JOINTS-NOT
RECOMMENDED
STONE WALL
BONDING
STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
UNITS
,'
AIR VENT
STONE
TYP.-
VENTEO
INSUUTEO
AACKUP
FLASHING
METAL TIE
16" o.c.,
VERTICAL
TYP
SOLID
STONE
LINTEL
FUSHING
STONE
STONE
VENEER
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
BACKING
A' CMU
FUSHING
RIGID
INSUUTION
SEAUNT
wtNDow
UNIT
SOLID
STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
STONE
LINTEL
STONE
ARCH
CONCRETE
STONE
WALL
LINTELS
STONE
WITH
BACKING
REINFORCED
STEEL
LINTEL
STONE
VENEER
TYPICAL
WITH
CMU
BACKING
\ilr'ALL SECTIONS
260
Propertiesof MetqG
PROPERTIES
OF METALS
in two broadcatBasicmetalsandtheiralloysare ciassified

egories.Ierrous and nonferrous.Ferrousmetals are marnly
iron,andnonferrousmetalalloysnormallycmtain no iron.
FERROUS
METALS
lron. stel. and their alloys are usuallythe most cost-eftective metal choiceslor structuralapplications.
lron that contains no trace of carbon is soft, ductile, and
easilywqked. but it rusts in a relativelyshort time and is
susceptibleto corrosionby most acids.
The characteristicsof the many types of cast iron vary
widely arcng six basic groups: gray, malleable,ductile,
wiite, mpacted graphite, and high alloy iron. All cast
irons haw high compressive strengths, but tensile and
yield strengthsvary widely dependingon basic type. Cast
iron is relativelv corrosion-resistantbut cannot be hammeredor beateninto shaoes.
Gray irons are rather brittle becausethey have a high carbon and silicon content. Castings of gray iron possess
excellent tor damping {absorbingvibrations)and are prc
duced io eight ASTM classes or grades with tensilestrength ratings lrom 20,000 to 60,000 psi. Applications
includedecorativeshapes, such as fences and posts, gratings, and stair components,as well as utility uses such as
mnhole @vers and fireplugs.
Malleableiron.which is more expensivthan gray iron, has
been usgd for decads in applicationsthat rquire greal
toughress and high ductility. This lowcrbon white iron is
st. reheated,and slowly cooled,or annealed,to improve
its wtrkabilitv.
Ductile irm is rude by adding magnesiumto molten iron
shortlybetore the metal is poured-intomolds. The magne
sium alte6 the surface-tensionmechanismof the molten
iron and brsipitates the carbon out as small spheres
insteadof flakes,which make the iron castingmore ductile.
Ductileirm is less brittle. stitter, stronger,and more shockresistant than gray iron. Ouctile iron castings are more
expnsiw than gray iron but usually less than mallable
iron. Ductile iron is the fastest growing segment ot the
mtal sting industry.
Ductileirons are produced in strength ratings from 55,000
to 130,0@psi. Ductilecastingsusing a specialaustempering heat-treating process offer much higher lensile
strengths.rangingfrom 125,000to 230,000psi. CalledADI
stings, tEy rivalor surpasscenain alloystl castingsin
tnsileand yiold strengths.
\A/hiteiron castings,which are extremely hard and brittle,
are used primarilyin industrialmachineryparts that experiene high wear and requireabrasionresistance.
The characteristics
of compactedgraphiteiron fall between
those of gray and ductile iron- The propertiesot this metal
are so difficult to control during productionthat very few
retal Gsters manulactureit.
Highalloyironsare gray,ductile.or white irons with an alloy
mntent of 3 to more than 30yo. Their propedes are signiti6ntly differenl from those ol unalloyedirons.
Wrought irm or steel is relatively soft. corrosion- and
fatigussistant, and machinable.lt is easily worked, making it idaltQr Eilings. grilles, fenes, $reens, and rious
types of marental work. lt is commerciallyavailablein
bars.rods,tubing, sheets,and plates.
Carbonstl is iron lhat contains low to medium amounls
of 6on. A higher carbon content increases metal
strength and hardress but reduces its ductility and weldability. The @rosion resistance of carbon steels is
improvd by galEnizing, vvhich is a hot zinc dipping prG
@ss, q applying an organic coating. Some architectural
uses includestructuralshapes such as welded fabritions
or stings, retal studs and joists, lasteners. wall grilles,
and ceilingsuspensiongrids.
Highstrength,low alloy{HSLA)steels havebetter corrosion
resistancothan rbon steels, and thy are chosen when
weight is a considerationand higher strength is specified.
Low allov stels are seldom used in exterior architectural
applitions that involve water runoff because adjacent
materialscould become stainedwith rust.
Eobert C. Rodgers,P.E.;RichmondHeights,Ohio
r=
rh\
tl/
METAL
MATERIALS
Tvpicalelements used to modity steel include the following:

1.Aluminumlor surtacehardening.
2. Ch.omiumfor corrosionresistance.
3. Copperfor atmosphericcorrosionresistance.
4. Manganesein smallamountslor additionalhardening,
In largeramountsfor betterwear resistance
5. Molybdenum, combined with other metals such as
chromium and nickel, to increasecorrosionresistance
and raisetnsilestrengthwithout reducingductility.
6. Nickel to increase tensile strength without reducang
ductility;in high concentrations,nickel improvescorrc
sronresrstance.
7. Siliconto strengthenlow alloysteelsand improveoxF
dation resistance;larger amounts produce hard, brittle
castingsthat are resistantto corrosivechemicals.
8. Sulferfor free machining,espcially.
9. Titaniumto prevent intergranularcorrosaonof stainless
steels.
10. Tungsten,vanadium,and cobaltfor hardnessand corro
sronresrstance'1.5%
chromium.Nickelis
Stainlesssteels are at least 1
addedto boost atmosphericcorrosionresistance;molybdenum is added when maximum corrosion resistance is
needed,such as lvhsn iron will come into contact with sea
water. Stainlesssteel is used in constructionfor flashing,
coping,fasciae.wall panels.flmr plales,gratings.handrails.
hardware.lasteners,and anchors. Decorativeshapes and
statuarycan be cast in stainlessstee..
NONFERROUS
METALS
Nonferrousmetals and their alloyscan be categorizedinto

seven major groups for architecturalapplications:those
based on aluminum, mpper (pure copper. brasses, and
bronzes).lead, zinc, tin, nick|, and magnesium. Another
approachis to divide nonterrous alloys into tlvo groups:
heaw metals {copper-,zinc-. lead-,and nickelSased and
light metals(aluminum-and rugnesium- basd).
ALUMINUM
The nonterrousmetal workhorse {or architecturalapplications is aluminum.lt has g@d forming and sting characteristics and offe6 good--conosion rgsistance. When
exposed to air, aluminum dcs not oxidize progressively
becausea hard,thin oxide ceting lorms on the surfaceand
sealsthe metal from its environment.
Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds,are
widely availablein common commrcial forms. Aluminum
alloy sheets can be formed, draM, stamped, or spun.
Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded,
brazed,or soldered,and aluminumsurfacesreadilyac@pta
wide varietyof finishes.both mechanicaland chemical.
Althoughit is light in weight, commerciallypure aluminum
hasa tensileslrengihof about13,000psi. Most aluminum
alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures.At subzero
temperatures,on the other hand, aluminum is stronger
than at room temperaturebut no less ductile.Cold-working
the metal may nearlydouble its tensilestrength.Aluminum
can be further strengthenedby alloying it with elements
such as manganese,silicon, copper. magnesium.zinc, or
lithium.Th manganes+basedaluminumalloy3003 is usd
for roofing,sheet metal, siding,and electricalconduit.
BRASS, COPPER, AND BRONZE
G@d thermal and elst.il @nductivity,corrosion resistance,and easy tormingand joiningall make copperand its
alloysusefulin construction.However.copperand rony ot
its alloys have relativelylow strength-teweight ratios,and
their strengthis even further reducedat elevatedtempera
tures. These metals are ofterd in rod, plate, strip, sheet.
and tube shapes:Iorgings;stings; and electricalWr6.
These metals can be groupedaccordingto compositionin
severalgeneralcategories:copper,high{opper alloys,and
many types oI brass and bronze.Monel metal is a coppernickel allov that offers excellentcorrosionresistance;it is
fasteners.
often used for corrosion-resistant
Bronzeoriginallywas a copper-tinalloy,but today there are
aluminum bronzes,silicon bronzes.and leaded phosphor
bronzes,among others. Phosphorbronze is a coppr-tanphosphorus alloy; and leaded phosphor bronze is composed of copper,lead.tin, and phosphorus.
alloyingelement.lr
Brassis copperwith zincas its principal
is importantto know that some brassalloysmay be called
bronzeseven though they have little or no tin in theri
Some common nonbronze brass alloys are commercia
bronze (9070copper, 10yo zinc), navalbrass (60% copper,
29Vozinc.and.17otin). Muntz metal (60% copper,40%
zinc),and manganesebronze(587ocopper,39%zinc,anc
1yotin and iron).When a metal is identifiedas bronze,the
alloy cannot contain zinc or nickel; if it d@s, il is probabiy
brass. Architectural brasses and bronzes are actuallv al
brasses;they are used for doors, windows, d@r and win
dow frames, railings,trim and grilles. and finish hardware
Muntz metal,also calledmalleablebrass,is a bronzealloy
resemblingextrudedarchitecturalbronzein cold. lt is avail
able in sheet and strip and is used in flat surfa@sin archi
tectural comoositions in connection with extruded
architecturalbronze.
Copperbased alloys characteristicallyform adherentfilms
that are relativelyimpervious to corrosionand protect the
base metal from further attack. Cenain alloy systems
darkenrather rapidlyfrom brown to blackoutd&rs. Under
most outdoor weather conditions. however, @pper sur
faces, such as roofs or statuary, develop a bluereen
patina. Lacquercoatings n help retain the qiginal alloy
color.
LEAD
An extremelv dense metal, lead is corrosion{esistantand
easilyworked. Alloys are added to it to improveproperties
such as hardnessand strength.Typicalapplicationsof lead
include waterproofing, sound and vibration isolation,and
radiationshielding.lt can be combinedwith tin alloyto plate
iron or steel, which is commonly called "terneplate." Care
should be taken how and where lead is used becauselead
vaporsand leaddust are toxic if ingested.
ztNc
Although it is corrosion-resistantin water and air, zinc is
brittle and low in strength. lts major use is in galvanizing
(dippinghot iron or steel in molten zinc), althoughzinc is
also used to create sandtast or die{ast components.
Major building industry uses are roofing, flashing, nails,
plumbing hardware, structural parts, and decorative
shaoes.
TIN
Key propeniesof tin are its low melting point (45O'F), rela'
tive softness, good formability. and readiness to form
alloys.Principaluses for tin are as a constituentof solder,a
@ating for stel (tinplate. terneplate),and an alloy with
other metalsthat can be cast. rolled,extruded.or atomized.
Tin is most popularas an alloy for copper,antimony,lead,
bismuth. silver, and zinc. PeMer alloys contain 1 to 8%
antimonyand 0.5 to 3% copper.Alloy metal in tin solders
rangesfrom 40% lead to no lead and 3.57osilver,
NICKEL
Whitishin color,nickelis usedfor platingothermetalsor as
a basefor chromiumplating.Nickelpolisheswell and does
not tarnish. lt is also widely appliedas an additivein iron
and steel alloys as well as other metal alloys. Nickeljron
castingsare more ductile and more resistantto corrosion
than conventional cast iron. Adding nickel makes steel
more resrstantto rmoact.
CHROMIUM
A hard, steelray metal, chromium is commonly used to
plate other metals, includingiron, steel, brass,and bronze.
Platedcast shapescan be brightly polishedand do not tarnish. Severalsteel alloys,such as stainlessplate,containas
much as 189ochromium.Chromiumd@s not rust,which
makeschromiumalloysexcellentfor exterioruses.
MAGNESIUM
Lightest of all metals used in construction.pure magnesium is not strong enough lor generalstructuralfunctions.
(For comparison,if a block of steel weighs 1,000lb, equal
volumesof aluminumand magnesiumweigh 230 lb and
'186lb
respectively.)
Combiningothermetalssuchas alumi
num with magnesiumresultsin lightweightalloymateraals
used in ladders,lurniture,hospitalequipment,and wheels
lor automobiles.
Propertiesof Metols
METAL
CORROSION
Corrosion. which is caused by galvanic action, occurs

between dissimilar metals or between metals and other
material when sufficient moisture is present to carry an
electrical. current. The galvanic series shown in the table
below is'a
useful andicator of corrosion su$eptibility
caused by galvanic action. The metals listed are arranged in
order from the ieast noble (most reactive to corrosionl to
the most noble (least reactive to corrosion). The farther
apart two metals on the list are, the greater the deterioration of lhe less noble one will be it thev come in contact
under adverse conditions.
Metal deterioration also occurs when metals come in contact wath chemically active mate.ials, panicularly when
moisture is present. For example, aluminum corrodes
when in direct contact with concrete or mortar, and steel
corrodes when in contact with certain treated woods.
Pitting and concentralion cell corrosion are other types ot
metal deterioration. Pitting takes place when particles or
bubbles of gas are deposited on a metal surface. Oxygen
deficiency under these deposits sets up anodic areas,
which cause pitting. Concentration cell corrosion is sim;lar
to galvanic corrosion; the difference is in the electrolytes.
Concentration cell corrosion can be Droduced bv differences in ion concentration, oxygen concentration, or toreign matter adhering to the surface.
SHAPING
AND
FABRICATION
OF
METALS
Many different manutacturing pr&esses

are applied to
metal to produce structural forms and shapes required in
the construction and ornamentation of buildings.
Rolling hot or cold metal belween pressurized rollers prG
duces mosl ot the readilv available. standard construction
material shapes. Baked enamel{oated aluminum is cold
rolled to make srding and gutters.
In the extruding process, heated metal ingots or bars are
pushed through a die orifice to produce a wide variety oI
simpl and complex shapes. Sizes are limited only by the
size or capacity of the die.
THE GALVANIC
Casting rs a process in which molten metal is poured into

molds or torced into dtes and allowed to solidifv in the
shape of the mold or die. The castjng process is used with
vlrlually all metals; however, surface qualrry and physlcal
characteflstrcs are greatly atfected by the metal alloy aod
casting process selected. Almost all metals can be cast in
sand molds. Only aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are ord!
narily cast In metal dies in what is called either a dierasnng
or permanent'mold process. Round, hollow building products such as cast-iron pipe {or plumbing and sewer applica,
tions are made by centrilugal casting machines.
ln the drawing process, either hot or cold metal is pulled
through dies that alter or reduce its cross-sectional shape to
p.oduce archatectural product configurations. Common
drawn products are sheets, tubes, pipes, rods, bars, and
wires. Drawing can be used with all metals except iron.
Forging is hammering hot metal or pressing cold metal to a
desired shape in dies of a harder metal. The process usually
rmproves the strength and surface characteristics of the
metal. Alum'num, copper, and steel can be forged
Machining is used to finish areas of castings or forgings
requiring highly precise fits or contours. Shapes can also be
machined from heavy plate or solid blocks of metal
Eending produces curved shapes in tubing, pipe. and extrusions.
Piercing punches holes through metal without removino

any of the metal
Fusron welding is used to ioin metat pieces by melting filler
metal (welding rod) and the adjacent edges brjellv with a
torch and then allowing the molten metal to solidify. Two
common types of fusion welding are electric-arc and gas.
Electric-arc or metallic-arc welding normally uses metal
welding rods as electrodes in the welding tool
Gas welding is also known as oxyacetylene welding
because it uses a mrxture of oxygen and acetylene to fuel
the flames produced by the bloMorch. Oxvacetylene blow
torches are widely used in construction work to cut through
metal structural beams and metal plates.
Soldering is a metal joining process that uses either hard or
soft solder. The metal pieces being joined together do not
melt as they do in the welding process because solders
melt at much lower temperatures. Sott soiders consist of
lin with a high percentage ot lead and melt at temperatures
of 360'ro 370'F. Hard solders are comoosed o{ tin and a
low content ol antimony or silver and melt at temperatures
ranging from 430 to 460'F.
Erazing, which is sometimes called hard soldering, also
ioins two pieces of metal togethr by torch melting a filler
rod material between them. The filler has a high content of
coooer and melts between 800 and 900"F.
Brake forming of metal plate o. sheet metal is a process of

successive pressings to achieve shapes with straight-line
angles.
MELTING
In the spinning process, ductile types of sheet metal {usually copper or aluminum) are shaped wirh tools while being
spun on an axis.
TEMPERATURES
OF METALS
Embossing and coining are stampd metal with textured or

rarsed patterns.
Blanking is shearing, sawing, or cutting metal sheets with a
punch press to achieve a desired configuration.
Perforating is punching or drilling holes through flat plate or
sheet metal.
SERIES
WEIGHTS OF
METALS FOR BUILDINGS
Electric current flows from

posative {+) to negative (-)
TYPES.AND
PROPERTIES
NAME
OF
BRASS
ARCH ITECTURAL.
BRONZE
Copper(Cu)
Zinc (Znl
Lead(Pb)
261
COMMERCIAL
BRONZE
MUNTZ
METAL
600
400
Light yelJow
workabrlrtY
Hot workabilily (and soldering and

polishing)
propertres
free-machiniog
Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio
METALMATERIALS
Finisheson Metols
262
GENERAL
metals tall
The finishescommonlvused on architectural
into three categories,
.
changMECHANICAL
FINISHES
are rhe resultof physically
ing the surfaceof the metal throughmechanicalmeans:the
lorming process itself or a subsequent pr@edure perlormed either before or after the melal is fabrited into an
end{se product.
CHEMICALFINISHES
are achievedby meansof chemicals,
which may or may not have a physicaleffect on the surface
ol the metal.
FINISHES
areproducedby makDIRECTIONAL
TEXTURED
ing tiny parallelscratcheson the metal surfaceusinga belt
or wheel and fine abrasive,or by hand rubbingwith steel
wool. Metal treatedthis way has a smooth.satinysheen.
are achievedby firinga streamot small
PEENEDFINISHES
steel shot at a metal surfaceat high velocity.The primary
peening
is increasingthe fatiguestrengthot the
aim of shot
component; the deorative finish is a byfroduct. Othr
nondirectionaltextured finishes are produced by blasting
metal, under controlledconditions,with silica sand, glass
beads,andaluminumoxide.
CHEMICAL FINISHES
COATINGSare appliedas finishes.either to the metal stock

or the fabricatedproduct.Thesecoatingseither changethe
metal itself, througha prmess of chemicl or electrochemical conversion,or they ar6 simply appliedto the metal surlace.
CHEMICALCLEANINGcleans the metal surface without

affecting it in any other way. This finish is achievedwith
chlorinatedand hydr@arbonsolventsand inhibitedchemical cleanersor solvents(for aluminumand copper)and pickling, chlorinated,and alkalinesolutions{Ior iron and stoell.
Applicationenvironments,seMce requirements,and aesthetics together determine lvhich metal finish or coatingis

best to specify. Finishes are usually selected tor both
appearanceand function: Chromiumplatingon metal bathroom water faucets and handlesor baked enamelon sheet
metal lighting fixtures, for 6xample, m6t be attractiveas
well as functionallyprotective.
ETCHEDFINISHESproducea matte, frosted surfacewith

varyingdegreesol roughnessby treatingthe metal with an
acid (sulfuricand nitric acid)or alkalisolution.
For structuraland exterior metal buildingprodrcts. such as

steel lraming products. metal siding, and outd@r lighling
fixtures, function and operating environments are more
imponant dteria. From a designstandpoint.it is important
to recognizehow variousfinishesand cctings rsist rear,
corrosion.and erosion. To chms the right @ting or finish, architectsmust know which materialor prcess is best
suited for a specificapplition.
COATINGis typicallycategorizedas a chemCONVERSION

ical finish, but since a layer or coating is produced by a
chemicalreaction,it muld be considereda coatingas well.
Conversionmatings typicallypreparethe surfaceof a retal
for painting or for rmeiving another type of finish but aro
also used to producea patina or statuaryfinish. A mmpc
nent is treated with a dilute solutionof phosphoricacid or
sulfuricacidand other chemicalsthat convertthe surfacof
th m6tal to an integral.mildly protectivlayerof insoluble
crystallinephosphateor sulphateor the lik6. Such mtings
can b applied by either spray or immersion and provide
temporary resistance to a mildly corrosive environment.
Thy can be specifiedfor gray, ductile, and.malleabloiron
castingsas well as steel castings,forgings,or weldments,
such as railingsand outd@r furniture.
MECHANICAL FINISHES
AS-FABRICATEDFINISHESare the texture and surface
appearane given to a metal by the fabri@tionprocess.
BUFFEDFINISHESare produd by successivepolishing
and buffing operationsusing fire abrasives,lubricants,and
soft fabric wheels. Polishingand bufiing improveedge and
surfacefinishesand render many types of est pans more
durable,efticient.and safe.
PATTERNEDFINISHESare availablein varioustexturesand
designs. They are produced by passing an as-fabricated
sheet betweon two rotchsd{esign rollers,embossingpattems on both sides of the shet. or btween a sm@th roll
and a design roll, embossingor coining on one side of the
sheet onlv.
COMPARATIVE
APPLICABILITY
FINISHES
NOTE
For more information,see the "Metal FinishesManualfor
Architecturaland Metal Products,"publishedby the Archilctural Metal ProductsDivisionof the NationalAss@iation
of ArchitecturalMetal Manutacturers
Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights. Ohio
r=
COATINGS
ORGANICCOATINGSon metal n provideprotectiononly
or seru both Drotectivoand decorativs functions. Th6
former categoryincludesprimersor underffits, pigmnted
topcoats in hidden areas,and clear finishes.OrganiccGtings seruingdoubleduty includepigrented coatingsin visible areas,clear finishes used for gloss, and transparentor
translucentcloarfinisheswith dves add6d.
OF VARIOUS
TYPE OF FINISH
OR TREATMENT
MECHANICAL
The BRIGHT FINISH process. not used widely, involves

chemicalor electrolyticbrighteningof a metal surface,typicallvaluminum.
METAL
MATERIALS
FINISHES
FOR ARCHITECTURAL
Organiccoatingsusuallyfallunderthe generalcategories
of
paints,varnishes,
enamels,lacquers,plastisols,
organisols.
powders.
and
Literallyhundredsof differentorganiccoalrn!
formulationsofler an almost unllmited range of proprties
Many organiccoatingsare appliedwith brushesand rollers.
but dipping and sprayingof paints account for most indus
trialand commercialbuildingprolects.Dippingis usefulfor
coatingcomplex metal parts,but sprayingis used for most
architecturalapplications.Sprayingis fast and inexpensive.
and new computertontrolled guns can lollow even com'
plex curyatures.Conventionalspraying,however, has two
disadvantages.For one thing, there is no easy, inexpensive
way to collect and re-use the coating material.And when
solvent-basedpaints are used, there is the addedproblem
of meeting environmentalrestrictions.
popularalternative
ELECTRODEPOSITION.
an increasingly
to spraying,is similar to electroplating,except that organic
resins are dpositedinstead oJ metal. Electrodepositionis
basedon the principlesof electrophoresis-the movement
of charged particles in a liquid under the influenceof an
appliedvoltage.
Electrodepositionoffers several advantages:The coating
buildsup to a uniformthicknesswithoutruns or sags;very
little paint is wasted; low levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCS)are emitted; and coatingscan be deposited
even into deeply recessedareasof a complex shape.Electrodepositionalso has disadvantages.Coatingthicknessis
limited,and becauseonly one coat can be appliedthis way,
subsequentcoats must be sprayed.
POWDERCOATING is perhaps the best known environmentally acceptable painting process. Powder coatings
otfer several advantages.Beeuse the paints are solventless, they are safer and "greener." In addition,the paints
cost less and last a long time.
Powderedpaints are formulatedin much the same way as
solvent-basedpaints, with the same pigments, tillers,and
extenders,but are dry at r@m temperatures.Heat{eactive
or "heatiatent" hardeners.catalysts, or cross]inkers are
useo as cunng agenrs.
Powdercoatingsare either thermoplasticor thermosetting.
As the term implis,thermoplasticcoatings,which include
vinyl, polythylene,and certain polyesters,are melted by
heat during applition. Before such coatings are applied,
tho surfacemust be primedto ensuregood adhesion,Thermosetting paints undergo a chemicalchange; they cannot
be remelted by heat. The thermosets do nol require a
primer. Coating powders include epoxies, polyurethanes,
acrylics.and polyesters.
APPLICATIONS
METAL
CARBON
STEEL AND
IRON
Finishes
on Metols
GENERAL
The two most common methods of applying powdered finrsnes to metat are spraying?nd dipping, the same as those
used ror-solvent-based paint. Electrostatic sprayrng is used
tq apply powder litms from 't to 5 mjt thick. A mixt:re of air
and powder moves from a hopper lo a spray gun. ihe mixrure rs cnarged. etectrostatically as rt passes tl.rough lhe
spray,gun. ca.usingit to stick to any grounded metal;bject.
Powder lhat talls to the floor is recvcreo.
For cortings thjcker than 5 mit. ftuidized_bed dipping is
used. The powder is placed in a special tank into wircli air
rs blown, turning the powder into a fluidlike mass. parts
are
dipped in the "fluid" and baked to cure the finish.
ANODIC
COATINGS
Anodic oxides are widely used to protect aluminum and

many of its alloys from corrosion. When the metal is anod_
rzed in one of a vafletv of acids, a protectrve oxide rs formed
on the,surtace. Dependtng on lhe acid, the oxide may range
irom thin and nonporous to thick and porous. three
typ6s
of anodizing are used for aluminum: ctrromic, sutturic,'inO
nardcoat.
CHROMIC ANODIZING results in a retativety soft coaring
and is the least used of the three types, but it does offei
several advantages. lt has excellent corrosion resistance,
so rinsing is_not as important. lt is suitable for complex casi
pans and offers a coating of the most consrstently
uniform
thickns55 366 tha rost endulng tatigue strength.
SULFURIC ANODIZING. the most widely used method,
produces a harder coating than chromic inoaizing,
but ii
can.be scratched. lt offers a pleasing appearance ind can
oe dyed In several colors. Corrosion reststance is good.
HARDCOAT ANODIZING
produces a relatively thick,
extremely hard coating that can be dyed in a range ol selors,.Corrosion resistance is g@d. Hardcoats
poroui,
makrng them suitable as a base for paints and adhesives.
"rj
REPRESENTA
IVE ARCHJTECTURAL
Since alJanodrc processes produce porous alumrnum{xtde

coalngs, seatrng rs usuallv destrdble Ihe coat,no
rs
rmmersect In hot water, the oxide ls hydrated,
and the p;res
swell shut. Several manufacturers claim that their
sealino
agents do the same lhrng through catalylrc action
at lowei
Iemperatures. Chroric
and SUlfuric-anodtzed coatings
nearry atways are sealed, but hardcoats are not.
VITREOUS COATINGS are composed ol Inoroanic qlossv
mateflats {glass). porcelain enamels are the most
com'_
monly used vitreous coating for architectural applications.
Arrnougn one ol the hardest and most durable finishes,
they are brittle. Deformation of metal surfaces
cir.e
cracktng and spltlting. porcelain enamel coattngs ""n
come in a
woe range ol cotors and finrshes and are typically
applied
to steel and alumrnum {bathtubs, srnKs, corumn covers].
Emoossed palterns and textures may be apphed bv alterrno
the metal backing surtace or the coaiing itselt.
HOT DIPPING of ferrous metal objects consisls of immers_
Ing crean parts Into a molten bath of the desired
coatino
metal- In general, molten aluminum, lead, zinc, and
som6
ailoys can b_e app|ed as hotdrp coatrngs to rrons.
Lach
orrers specrflc advantages. Hot_dip coatings are particularlv
surtabte tor rntflcately shaped cast ter.ous ilems such
as
merar rooirng components and natls and other fasteners.
METALLIC PLAI ING rs done by either electrodeposition
or
erectrootatrno
In electrodeposition, an electrical current is carried
across
an eleclrolyte and an organic resrn substance depostled
on
an erectrode {rhe metal oblect berng painted}. In electroolat_
-substance"
Ing, the
rs a melal, such as chromium, in an
erect.otyte Water usually seryes as the solvent in the
elec_
trotyte. Although chromium is commonly used for
olatino_
many metals can be deposited on the substrate.
Similarly. a wide range of plating qualty is available.
For
exampte, a thtn coating of zrnc wll protect a metal compo
USES AND COMPARATTVE PROPERTIES
263
nent trom rust or co(osion for a short ltme chromrum

olar
-'
ing, on the other hand, protects longer and tqet
| 6p11.-rMaterials widely used to plate complex metal components
Inctuoe Oronze, brass, chromium, cadmtum.
cbromates
copper, lead, lead-tjn, nickel, phosphates, silver, tin nickel
and tin-zinc. Not all of these matenals can O" o.oos,tea
on
all metal substrates. For example, ,inc erect,opriJlJn"
6f
used on steel but not on cast iron. Therefore. coat,nc/sutl
strate compatibiltty is a crucial constderation,r maichno
coatrng performance to application requrrements. IVOicaj
applcatons ror ptatrng include food servrcrng areas, plumb
Ing txlures, extenor metal, and architecturat products.
LAMINATED
COATINGS
Lamination involves bonding preformed plastic lilms

to
metats wath adhesives. Laminated coatings provide finrshei
for products such as interior paneling, pJrtliions,
and exte_
rior metalwork..Three-types ot ptastli tit_iO"fv u!"i,
potwjnyl chloride lpVC). polyvinyl fluoride (pVf),
"ru anU acrviic.
PVC films provide excellent stain and abrasion resrstance.
Available in five or six colors, these ta.,n"r"s -uv
Jo,i.""
wilh.grarning o, embossrng to simulat" *ooa gr",n, i""if,ei
orraoilc I ttm thrcknesses range from 0.004 i.. lo 0
04t In,
but most common and most economical are those from
0.008 and 0.014 in.
PVF iilms are usually laminated in a thickness of
0 OO2 in
and have a sm@th, medium gloss surface. Despite
their
thlnness.,.they are very strong, tough, and weather resis_
tant, making them panicularly suited to exterior apolications
such as.siding materials. Their color range as li;ited,
bui
-well.
they resist staining and chemiel damage
Acrylic films are low cost products that sland up
well to
weather and are widely used for exterror melalwor*. Thev
restst UV radiation and yellowing and,etarn their fleribtltv
wrrn agrng I hey are usually applied in a thickness
ot 0.00i
In. and are reasonably priced.
OF COATINGS
BINDER T
WELDABLE
AS PRIMER
Solvent,reducible
yes2
Water-reducible:
air dried
baked
yes2
ye52
polyethylene
formaldehyde
chloride
s
0norganrcl
modified
polymers
(aliphatic{ured)
L-low; M-moderate; H-high; VH-very hrgh; NA{ot apDll

cabte or not available: p-pmr; F_fair; Ggmd; t+xcellent
I AII coatings
may be shop applied; all may be lield applied
except sotvenl reducible acrylics, baked acrylic, celluiose,
ano tuorocarbons
2 For light nonstructural

welding only
Robert C. Rodgers. P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio
METALMATERIALS
StructurqlWelds
264
STRUCTURAL
JOINT
\^/ELDING
welds can be made with hundredsot-different

Structural
The most common are lorms ol
welding processes.
'metat
arc and oxyfuel gas welding These pro
"tieiaei
designed tor the speci{ic welding conditions:
*.!"i
metal, siructural requirements weld position' and
Wpe of "t"
Normally,however,the designerdoes
l6inrsoeciticaiions.
hJ-s-i."itv the process whrch rs lo be used to make a
Ga,Io i"iirt. ihii designer specifies the tYpe.andsiz-eof
reld neededfor the specificioint and leavesthe detausor
how the joint is to be made up to the fabricator.
The two most important types of structuralwelds are fillet
welds and groovewelds. They are the most useful in structural aoplicitions.Back welds are used in conjunctionwith
iinot"'itooue welds to complete the weld penetration
FG, rr6t, ino tr"re *elds are ot secondaryimponanceand
are limited in application.
PREQUALIFICATION
Welded ioints that contorm to all American Welding Society

code ani specrficatron provistons tor design matellal and
workmanshio are prequalified joints There are a variety of
specific fillet and groove welded joints that meet most
siructural work requirements and are recommended lor
oeneral use in buildings and bridges. Joints that are not
quali
;requalrtied under the AWS code are required to be
iied bv tests as orescribed by the code
CONCAVE
coNvEx
FILLET WELD NOMENCI-ATURE

The model cross section of a fillet weld is a right triangle
with eoual leqs. The leg size designatesthe effective stze
oi inii.r"ro. ihe length-ofa fillet weld is the distancefrom
en+t@nd of the fulisize tillet, measuredparallelto its root
fillet welds the effective length is equal to
iin". Foi
length,measuredalonga line bisectingthe throat
ihe thrcat"uruea
For ouick reference and more advanced considetation, the

preqr]alilied joints are shown in AWS "Structural Welding
cod+Steel. "
FLARE .V. GROOVE
EFFECTIVE
THROAT = R/2
FLARE .BEVELGROOVE
EFFECTIVE
THROAT -(5R)/16
INCLUDEO
ANGLE
FILLET u,ELO JOINTS

vvith a triangular cross section, fillet wlds ioin two
surfaes appr6ximatelyat right anglesto each other in lap,
ts. and corner ioints. They are also used with gr@ve
@lds as reinlorcementsin cornerjointsFILLET
The cross section of a fillet weld nBy diffr irom the -right
trianqle model in severalways The includedangle ot the
*eid".av u"rv tto.60'to 135', ot unequalleg welds may
be emoloved.When unequalleg welds are used' the use ot
the no;ru| throat sizeas the effectiw size in weld strngth
calculationswill, in most cases,be conseryativeHowever'
-hln tn" included angle of weld deposit is substantially
oreater than 90 ", the etfectivethroat size shouldbe oeter;ined lrom the actualdimensionsof the weld acmrding to
AmericanWeldingSocietyspcifitims.
FLAREWELD NOMENCUTURL
Flarewelds are spcialcasesof groove welds in which the
qr;ove surlaceoione or both partsot a,oint is convex This
ionvexity may be the result of edge preparation.but more
offen one or both components conslsts of a round rod ol
Co.plete penetrationin a flare weld is usurcunaed
"ttap".
tb acnieveand the qualityof the weld is difficult
attvaitticutt
iJ'"ont.t: therefore, design vaiuesshould be appliedconseruativelvand special considerationsneed to be taken In
certaininstances.
FLARE
\/vELDS
WELDS
Gr@w welds are welds made in a groove betwen adl&

cent nds, 6dges, or surfaces of two parts to be lorneo In a
butt. teo. or corner lolnl.
The edqe d ends of pans to be gr@ve welded are usually
planing
oremrdd bv flare cutting, arc air gouging' or edg
gr@ves lhat
io orwide square. vee, bevel, U-' or J-shaped
ird straight dnd true to dimension. The preparation is.done
to ensure that the base metal is welded evenly comptely
rhrouoh the ioint. With thicker metal it is also done to open
up thiioint drea for welding. RelatrvelY thin rolerial may be
gr@ve welded with square cut edges
JOINT
VEE CORNER
SINGLE
'
FILLtr
WITH REINFORCING
DOUBLE VEE gUfr

JOINT WITH SPACER
SINGLE SOUARE
BUfr JOINT WITH
BACKING
BAR
GROOVE ANGLE
WED THROATWELO SlZE
ROOT OPENING
FULL PENETRATION
NOMENCLATURE
GROOVE WELD
Except where backrng bars are employed, speci{ications

reouire that lhe weld roots generally must be chipped.or
lo sound metal before mking lhe second weld
oouoed
-ourooses
of stress computation. the throat dlmenston
For
full
oia iutt'p"n"ttarion groove weld is @nsidered to b the
tnl"tneis of the lhinner part joined, exclusive of weld reinforcement, such as backing bars.
PLUG AND SLOT I\,ELDS

Pluo and slot welds are used in lap joints to transmitshear
loais. oreventbuckling of lappedparts' or join component
mrts of built{p mehbers. Round holes or slots are
Lun"trea or oth!ruise forred in one component of th
With pans in position.weld metal is
LiniO"io*
'deposited
or com.
the openings,which may be pa-rtially
in"""".01v.
on the thicknessot the puncneo
tilled,
depending
oletelv
lrateriat.aWS "structuiatWeldingCode-Steel'shouldbe
consultedfor atlowableproportionand spacingof holesand
slots and the depth of welds.
It is necessaryto distinguishbetween plug or slot welds
and fillet welds placed aroundthe inside of a hole or slot
Filletwelds in a slot are easierto make and inspectand are
uiuatty preterea ouer fillet welds in round holesor plug and
slot wdds.
PLUG AND SLOT \,vELOS
ROOT
GROOVE SIZE
SOUARE BUT
EFFECTIVE
. THROAT
ROOT
T JOINT WITH
REINFORCING
FILLET
SINGLE U
CORNER JOINT
WITH REINFORCING
FILLET
OF COMPLETE
EXAMPLES
WELDS
GROOVE
SINGLE BEVEL BUTT

JOINT WITH BACKING BEAO
J BUN JOINT WITH
BACKING BEAD
PENETRATION
The two types of groov welds are complete penetrallon

and mrtial Denetratlon. A complete perettation weld is one
that;chieves fusion of weld and base metal throughout the
d"ottr ol th" ioint. lt is made by we ding {rom both srdes of
th; ioint. from one side to a backing bar, or back welding
the iirst weld.
GROOVE
EFFECTIVE
THROAT
VI/ELDS
METALFASTENINGS
WELD
PARTIAL PENETRATION
NOMENCUTURE
EXAMPLES OF PARTIAL PENETRATION
GROOVE WELDS
Partial penetration groove welds are employed -when
to b" tt"n.ferred do not require full penetration, or
.ti""sej
wirLn wetaing must be done from on side of a ioint only
and it is not p.-ossibleto use backing bars or to gouge weld
penetration
ioors to, Oait welds. The applcation ot partiai
qr@ve welds is governed by specrfications and may lmlt
the mateof
thickness
the
or
thickness
throit
ihe effective
rial on which theY are to be used.
OPENING
GROOVE WELD
peneiration
Edoe oreoaration of base materral for partial
we-lds is simrlar to that for tull penetration groove welds
less than the {ull thickness. The etfecOut it uiuittv
"ou"t.
and, hence, the weld strength ot par
riu" tf,ro"t thickness
iiai oenetration groove welds is normally limited to less
than the lull ioint thickness.
The use of partial penetration welds is subiect to AWS code
and other specilication provisions. These are more restnctive in bridgb specifications than in building codes'
BASIC
\n/ELDING SYMBOLS
BASIC
The three basic parts needed to form a welding symbol are:

an arrow pointlng to the joint, a (elerence line upon which
the dimensional data are placed, and a weld device symbol
indicatjng the weld type required. The tail of the welding
symbol is only necessary to indicate addttional data, such as
specification, process, or detail references.
The atrow indicates the joint where the weld is to be made.
The basic weld device symbol or device indacates the type
of weld to be made. for example: fillet, Uroove, bevel, or
plug. The position ol the basic weld symbol or device indicates which side of the joint is to be welded. The boftom
side of the reference line is designated as the arrow side,
meaning any welding operation shown on this side of the
reterence line is to be performed on the same side of the
loint as the arrow. When an operation is shown on the top
side ot the reference line it is to be oerJormed on the ioint
side ooDosite the arrow.
BACK
\^/E LD
FILLET
WELDS
lf the length of a fillet weld is omitted, it is understood to

mean that the weld is to extend the full distance between
abrupt changes in the part of the joint outline specified by
the weld symbolarrow. lf the same size fillet is required lor
the full length of all sides of a particular joint. regardless of
abrupt changes in its direction, the weld-all-around symbol
can be used to simplify the drawing.
DEVICE
PLUG
OR
FI LLET
\/1/E LD
NoTE:
V Y
I
WE LD-ALL.A.ROU
ND
FIELD - WELD
-fI-
FLARE
BEVEL
tr
il
FLUSH
CO NVEX
For additional basic and supplementary weld symbols, see the American Welding Society A2.4,79
FINISH
CONTOUR
SYMBOL
GROOVE
ANGLE OR INCLUDED
ANGLE
OF COUNTERSINK
FOR
PLUG WELDS
SYMAOL
ROOT OPENING,
DEPTH
OF FILLING
FOR PLUG
AND SLOT WELDS
DEPTH
FLARE
BEVEL
\^/ELD SYMBOLS
SPACER
FI
OR BUTT JOI NTS
GROOVE
tf
SUPPLEMENTARY
BACKING
SYMBOLS
SQ UAR E
The weld dimensions, size. length, pitch, etc.. are placed on

the reference line next to the weld device. These dimensions read from left to right regardless of which side the
arrow is on.
The dimensions needed for fillet welds are weld size and
length and, for inremittenr fillet welds, pitch. The weld size
is equal to the weld leg size, Gsuming that the legs are equal.
In the rare instance that ihe legs arc not equal, the sire is not
given in the welding symbol but instead the weld legs re dimensioned iD the drawing to avoid confusion- Iftherc is a typical weld size for a paniculd dnwing, the sirc may be nored
in the notcs ad left off of the symbol. If the joint is to b
welded on both sides, thcn both sides must be dimensioned,
even it they ile the same.
WELD
LENGTH
OF WELD
IN INCHES
PITCH (C TO C, SPACING)
WELDS IN INCHES
FIELD
OF PREPARATION
OR SIZE IN INCHES
WELO
OF
SYMBOL
/.-
WELD-ALL-AROUND SYMBOL
SPECIFICATION,
PROCESS
OR OTHER
REFERENCE
TAIL tOMlnED
,_--\;
WHEN
REFERENCE IS NOT USED)

REFERENCE LINE
BASIC WELD DEVICE
SYMBOL OR DETAIL
THESE PARTS OF WELD SYMBOL ALWAYS
READ THE SAME DIRECTION REGARDLESS
OF WHiCH OIRECTION THE ARROW IS POINTTNG-/
ARROW CONNECTS REFERENCE LINE TO

ARROWSIOE OF JOINT. USE BROKEN LINES
SHOWN TO SIGNIFY THAT ARROW IS POINTiNG
TO THE GROOVED MEMBER IN BEVEL OR
J.GROOVED JOINTS
,/
N OTES
1. Size, weld symbol. length of weld, and spacing must read in that order from left to right along the reference line. Neither orien
tation of reference line nor location of the arrow alters this rule.
2. The perpendicular leg ot \, / P lf weld symbols must be at left.
3. Arrow and other side welds are of the same size unless otheMise shown. Dimensions of fillet welds must be shown on bolh
the arrow side and the other side symbol.
4. The point ot the lield weld symbol must point toward the tail
--7-l
'/o\ zoo
' t 4 v 2 @6
5. Symbols apply between

dimensioned.
abrupt changes in direction of welding unless governed by the "all-around"
symbol or otherwise
6 These symbols do not explicitly provide for the case that frequently @curs in structural work, where duplicate material {such as
stiffeners) occurs on the far side of a web or gusset plate. The fabricating industry has adopted the following conventroni when
the billing ot the detail material discloses the existence of a member on the far side as well as on the near side. the wetdino
shown for the near side shall be duplicated on the tar side.
STAGGERED
INTERMITTENT
FILLET WELDS
Pitch is used with intermittent fillet welds to give the center

to center dimensions between welded sections. When
using pitch, length is the dimension ol the individual weld
sections.
COMPLETE
PENETRATION
GROOVE
STANDARD
LOCATION
OF ELEMENTS
OF A WELDING
taces ot the device and above the root opening The angle
is understood to be the total. or included. angle of the
groove_
V\/ELDS
When detailing complete penetration groove welds the

dimensions usually include the weld size. root opening, the
groove angle for vee, bevel, J, and U welds. and the groove
radii for J and U welds. The length ot groove welds is not
given, because the welds are amepted to go from end to
end of pieces welded. Any deviation from lhis requires
additional detailino.
There is no provision for dimensioning radii of U and J

gr@ve welds in the AWS welding symbol. This is usually
covered by the fab{icator's standard weld proportions, with
reference to AWS prequalified ioints. lf not, it must be
shown by note or sketch in the drawing.
PARTIAL
PENETRATION
GROOVE
WELDS
Partial penetralion groove welds require all of the same

dimensions as complete penetration groove welds, plus
two additional dimensions: effective throat and weld size.
With partial penetration groove welds, the weld preparation
usually is less than the thickness of the material being
welded. Because of this the weld size must always be
given. The effective throat must also be given because it
UNSYMMETRICAL
GROOVE WELD CALLOUT
Normally the weld size ol a complete joint penetration

groove weld is understood to be the full thickness of the
thinner metal connected, and its dimension need not be
shown on the welding symbol. However. it the preparation
of a double groove weld is not symmetrical, the size of
each side of the weld must be shown.
The root opening is shown near the root of the gr@ve
device The g.oove angle is to be shown within the groove
SYMBOL
can vary from the weld size due to welding process, welding position, or the groove angle used. Depending on these
factors, the depth of weld deposit, or the ef{ective throat,
can be less than the depth of the groove, or weld size.
Panial penetration groove welds can be used as intermif
tent welds. Consideration must be given to the transition at
the beginning and end of the weld. Therefore, contract
design drawings should only specify the etJective weld
length and the required effective throat. The shop drawings
should then show the groove depth and geometry that will
grovide for the reouired effective throat.
PLUG
ANO
CONTOUR
PARTIAL PENETRATION
CALLOUT
GROOVE WELD
SLOT
\^/ELDS
The saze for plug welds specifies the diameter of the

punched hole. For slot welds the size includes the width
and length of the slot. Plug and slot welds will be com,
pletely filled unless the depth of the filling is shown inside
the weld symbol. Slot welds are noted by detail references
in the tail that refer to dimensioned sketches of the slot for
clarity. The arrow and other side indicates which side of the
joint is to be punched. The flush weld symbol is used if the
top of the weld is to be leveled off.
SYMBOLS
The flush and convex symbols are used to modity the

shape of the weld face. The contour symbols are placed
over the weld device. Almost all of the basic weld symbols
can be combined with each other and with the spacer,
backing bar, back weld, and contour symbols to create
many di{ferent welds.
METALFASTENINGS
266
SteelBeqmsond Columns:LoodToble
SAFE TOTAL UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (KIPS) FOR BEAMS

A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL, ALLOWABLE
LATERALLY s;UPPORTED-ASTM
I For capacityof beams not shown see AISC Manual of

Steel Construction,2d ed. (load and resistance factor
design)and gth ed. (allowablestress design).
2 Depth = steel designation(in.);weight = lb/lt; kip = 1000
tb.
STRESS DESIGN'
NOTES
ALLOWABLE
LoAD
aPPLrtrD
rN PUNE
1. Consultstrucluralengineerto verify lateralsupport .

2. Multiply lffids by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitiesto(
, loadand resistancefactor designmethod.
MUST
BE
oF Y Y ars
Y
i
+l
/
COLUMN
-I\\EN
./ PAmtAL
BOLED
PLATE
CONNECTION
1' REruRN
END
\aCH
SH@ WELDED TAA FIELD

HGH STRENGTH EOLTED
T
FIELD
SHOP ffiLDED
HIGH STRENGTH BOLED
SHOP reDED
TAB TO COLUMN
reB
ND
fuTES
FIELD H.S. BOLED
WEB.FIELD H.S- BOLED

FUNGE_PARTIAL
PENETRATION
SHEAR
BEAM
NONMOMENT
CONNECTION
BEAM
TO COLUMN
FLANGE
NONMOMENT
CONNECTION
E'EAM
TO COLUMN
WEE}
COLUMN
FI.-ANGE
CONNECTION
TO GIRDER
SPLICE
AND
WEB
CONNECTIONSAND SPLICES
5AFE TOTAL CONCENTRIC
LOAD (KIPS) FOR COLUMNS_ASTM
A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL
(w SHAPES) AND ASTM A sOO STEEL (TS-SHAPES AND PIPE, 46 KSt), ALLOWABLE STRESS DESTGN *
DESIGNATION
' For addirionalcolumns and actual dimensions

see AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 2d ed. (load and
resistancefactor design) and gth ed. {allowablestress

design).
** Weight per ft for W columns. Wall thickness for tubing.

kip = 1999 lb: K = effective length factor (verify with
structural engineering consultant).
Arerican Institule of Steel Construction;Chicago,lllinois
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
N OTE
Multiply loads by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitieslor
load and resistancefactor design method-
W qnd M Steelshopes
W SHAPESDIMENSIONS FOR DETAILTNG
NATI O N
T H rcKNE
ilN
.)
NATIO N
WEB
NATION
THICK.
NESS
tN.)
M SHAPES_
DIMENSTONS
FOR
DETAILING
American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
267
S, HP,C, MC, qnd L SteelShopes
268
ANGLES
DIMENSTONS
FOR
CHANNELSMISCELLANEOUS
FOR DETAILING
DIMENSIONS
DETAILING
S SHAPESDIMENSIONS
*+q-b
ill
'-tll-ill'1-----------.)
tr = flange thickness
tw = web thicknss
.
oxltx
.
DETAILING
d=deprh
tl
n
l
ttl
FOR
lrl
-/trL * -o:
lll
b, = width
t, = llangethrckness
t* = web thickness
- { " At I+
SIZE AND
TH ICKNESS
(r N . )
D E5IG.
NATION
AMERICAN
STANDARD
DIMENSIONS
CHANNELSFOR DETAILING
d = depth
9.4
br = width
tr = flange thickness
t* = web thickness
HP SHAPESDIMENSIONS
FOR
DETAILING
DESIGNATION
D ESIG.
NATION
Ameri@n Instituteot Steel Construction:Chicago,lllinois
METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
HICK
ESS
StructurolTees
Cutlrom W ond S Shopes
STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM W SHAPESDIMENSIONS FOR DETATLING
THICK
NATION
d = depth
IN.)
NATION
STEM
DESIGNATION
tcKNE
ilN
.)
STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM S SHAPES_
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING
American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
269
270
SteelFromeSYstems
FRAME
MOMENT-RESISTING
{rame'slateralslabrlityand resrstance
A moment-resislinq
to wnd and seismri lorces dependon a fixed connecttonot
ls
beams and columns. A moment-resistingconnecllon
*tt"n the lop and bottom flanges ot each beam
"inieu"J
welded to the llanges of the connectingcolumns wrth
ire
tulldeothwelds. By ditectlyweldingthe beamweb to the
column flange, the beam's holizontalreactronto wlno
torces is transferred to the column. (A connection uslng
*"0 inslu" and high-strengthbolts is also permined ) The
ouitdinb;sttoors ae designed to act as draphragmsthal
aff of the columni and beams, enablingthe build
"."."it
ing to reactas a unit.
Momentiesisting frames are uneconomil in tall steel
L'uitiinqsO"""ut-" ttte largerlaleral lorces in such buildings
cin Oe'tranateOmore efficiently by compressionand teniion aiagonalmemuers. as found in braced{rames To save
co"ts, oiien the upper stories of a braced lrame building
beafrcolumn connectionsto resist
i."'.omtnt-resi"ilng
wind loads.
-...-,.-----STEELWIDEFUNGE BEAM
STEEL WIOEFUNGE
COLUMN
'
RIGID FRAME
Rioid frame construction combines columns and a beam or
Such a
oirier welded toaether
-venicalto make a rigid connection
loads and resist horizontal forces'
ir"-e
c"n carry
sinusuallv
are
*inO o, d"i"-ic. Rigid frame buildings
"irtr"i
qle story and are available with provisions lor cranes, balce
sloped'
mez?anrnes. The r@fs are generally
ii"".
permits the use of combined r@{ decks and waterwhich ",io
1
piooini
systems: the slope varies but is usually at least
STIFFENER
i^ 12.
Because thev span fairly long distances relatively cheaply
t*idths ,"nq" between 30 and 130 ft), rigid frame struclrgnt
tures are us;d for recreational buildings: warehousesi
Industrial burldingsj and commercial buildings, such as
ga'age-ssuoermarkets, auiomobile dealer showrooms, and
30
eii ;i."; ai" lsuaty 20 to 24 ft but mav be exiended to
ft. the roof protile is most often configured as a symmerts
necessrty
cal oable. but such a profile is not a structural
i'0. *"rt" aie usually covered with 26-gauge coln.oii
"ô siding; insulation options vary. Some manufactutr
orld steel
tsreers offer precast concrete and masonrY sldlng
roor
engineered buildings most often use rigid frames lor
and wall suPports.
-.-..-._MOMENT'
RESISTING
CONNEC'
TION (TYP.)
PURLINS
RIGID
FRAME
RAFTER
EAVE
STRUT
ANCHOR
BOLT (DEPTH AS
NECESSARY, 2 PER
COLUMN) Sff INTO
CONCRffE FOUNDATION
TYPICAL
SEISMIC
FOUNOATION
CONNECTION
EMBOSSMENTS IN
STEEL DECK PROVIDE
KEYING EFFECT TO
STEEL OECK
WELDEO TO
STEEL BEAM
(SPAN 6.TO
GIRT
ROD BRACING .
ENO
COLUMN
RIGID
MOMENT.RESISTING
STEEL
BEARING FRAME
RANER
FRAME
PURUN TIES
(2 PER BAY AT THIRD
POINTS FOR SRHI 60'
THROUGH I 20' WIDE)
FRAME
STIFFENERS WELDED TO COLUMN AT

POINTS OPPOSITE
BEAM FLANGES
COLUMN
WELD
WEB CUT AWAY AT
JOINT WITH COLUMN TO ALLOW
CONTINUOUS WED
AT UNDERSIOE OF
TOP FUNGE
NOTES
1. For nonlire-ratedceilingsituations
2. Typicellyused for heavy loads; noncompositefloor sys
tem for light loads
C O M P O S I T EF L O O R A N D B E A M S Y S T E M
BEAM
WELD
CONCRETE FILL
WELD
STEEL DECK WELDEO

TO BAR JOIST
BEAM ANO WELDED TO BEAM IN FIELE

MOMENT-REgISTING
COLUMN-TO-BEAM
CONNECTION
COLUMN
STEEL ANGLE SHOP
WELDEO OR BOLTED
IN PLACE (WITH
ANCHOR BOLT) FOR
HIGH.RISE CON.
STRUCTION (MORE
THAN IO STORIES)
WELD ALL AROUND
SPAN
GIR
ROD
ARACE
FLANGE
CONTINUOUS
SPAN GIRT
COLUMN
BASE PUTE
ANCHOR
BOLT
l ! .-:=-i' . . . i i
ii
li
I:
:i
--nNcHoR
BoLT sET
lNTo coNcRffE
FOUNDATION
(2 MtN. PER PLATE)
COLUMN BASE PLATE OETAIL FOR
LOW.RISE CONSTRUCTION
MOMENT.RESISTING
FRAME
BEARING PUTE
SECONDARY
BEAM
STEEL
NONCOMPOSITE
RIGID FRAME
Maryland
DonaldJ- Nubauer.P-E.;Neubauer- Sohn.ConsultingEngineers;Potomc'
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Cromsville, Maryland
METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
TYPICAL
FLOOR
FLOOR
SYSTEMS
BAR JOIS]
{SPAN
t5'TO
20'TYP.)
SteelFrqmeSystems
FRAMED TUBE
FLOOR BEAM
GUSSET PUTE
WELDED TO
BONOM FLANGE
DIAGONAL BRACE
AOLTED TO
GUSSET PUTE
lr the framed tlbe system. slruclural

steel members {orm
rne roaO Deanng extenor perimeter wall, thrs wall rs
OesrgneoSo the ertrre building becomes, in effect, a structurat steel tube. The tubular strength is achieved in
two
ways the,exteflOr Columns are spaced closely rogelher
oernaps b ll on center, and connected to Spandrel beams;
the slructure is stittened by the fl@rs to foim a tors,onalij
lgro tuDe. the spandrel beams are generally very deep. in
units of teet as opposed to inches. ihe columns and sfan_
drel beams are welded together to c.eate a moment{esist.
Ing connection. Often thrs system is referred to as a
prerced tube, the pierced areas being lhe window
oDen_
ings.
The framejl tube system is most economical for very tall
buildings. The World Trade Center Towers in New yori and
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION AT FLOOR

BEAM-INTERMEDTATE
(MIDSPAN)
lhe Sears Tower In Chtcago are the most conspicuous

examples. Syslems lte rhat;l rne Sea,s fo*er, a
fJm6i"#
tron of njne framed tubcs jn a 3 by 3 array a,. ,o-"t,il"-,
caileo 0undted tubes
BRACED
CORE
ln the braced core system, walls around elevator shafts

and
starrweils are designed to act as vertical trusses that canti_
lever up from the foundation. The chords of each truss
are
building columns; the tloor beams act as ties. Diagonals
placed In a-K pattern (occasronallyin an X pattern) coriplete
the truss A system employrng knee braces rs used in sersmrc. areas beca^Lseof its greater abtlrty to dtssrpate earth.
quaKe energy. brdced core systems can be used effrcrently
In srngte-storybuildings as well as in buildings over b0 stories.
LOAO BEARING
EXTERNAL
WALL
CORE
271
BRACED CORE
BOX
KNEE BRACE AT
LONGITUOINAL
SIDE
-COLUMN
A,BRACE AT
SHORT SIDE
OIAGONAL BRACE
BOLTED TO
T-STUA GUSSET
T.STUB GUSSET
BOLTEO TO
COLUMN
SPANDREL
TYPICAL
SHEAR
CONNECTION
BRACED CORE
COLUMN
N OTE
Bracing design to be determined by
based on specific loading configurations
FLOOR
FUNGE
BEAM (TOP
CUT OUT
englneer
COLUMN
WELD TOP (AND
BOTTOM)
FUNGE
TO COLUMN
IF
MOMENT
RESISTANCE
ALSO NEEDED
FOR T.STUB)
DIAGONAL
AT FLOOR
struCtural
BRACE
CONNECTION
BEAM_END
STEEL GUSSET
PUTE BOLTED
TO CROSS
ARACES
STEEL
ANGLE
WELD (IN
SHOP)
OIAGONAL
CROSS BRACE.
Externalwall units typicallystaggeredin one-storyheights
COLUMN.TO.BEAM
P E R I M E T E RW A L L D E T A T L
COLUMN
CROSS BRACING CONNECTIONINTERMEDIATE
SHEAR CONNECTION
GUSSET PUTE WELDED
TO COLUMN ANO BEAM
STEFL PUTE
BOLTED TO
OIAGONAL
STRUT
SPANOREL FUNGE
CUT OUT TO
RECEIVE COLUMN
SPANDREL WEB
BEYOND
SPANDREL
BEAM
CONTINUOUS
WELD BMEEN
FUNGE AND
BACK OF
SPANDREL WEB
-SHEAR
PUTE
WELDED TO
SPANOREL;
BOLTED IN
FIELD TO
ADJACENT
SPANOREL
AEAM
DIAGONAL
STRUT
TIFFENER
DIAGONAL
CROSS BRACE
BOLTED
TO
GUSSET
PUTES
CROSS
BRACING
VERTICAL
CONNECTION_ENO
BRACING
DETAILS
WELDED TO
SPANDREL,
{OPTIONAL)
COLUMN-TO.
COLUMN
WELD
SPANDREL
AND
COLUMN
FRAMED TUBE
OETAILS
SHEAR
CONNECTOR
TYPICAL DIAGONAL BRACE

CONNECTION OETAIL
BRACED CORE
DonaldJ. Neubauer,P.E.;Neubauer- Sohn,ConsultingEngineers:

potomac,Marytand
RichardJ. Vitullo,AtA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville.
Marytind
SIRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
Spoce Flomes
272
GENERAL
A soace frame is a three-dimensionaltruss with lnear

-.-fiGis ttt"t tot. a series ol triangulatedpolyhedrons lt
can be seen as a plane of constant depth that can sustaln
iiirly long spansand variedconfigurationsof-shape
ROOFS
FOR
RATIO
SPAN
DLPTH-TO
1 1A IF COLUMN-SUPPORfED
---.--
MODULES:
ryPIGL
4 ' , 5 , e ' , .1 2 ' ,
1 :2O lF WALL-SUPrcRTED
N OTES
1''. The Drime attributesof spaco frame structural systems
arJ thelr light weight; inherentrigidity:their wide variety
of form. size. and span; and compatibleInteractlonwlm
otner uultoindsuppdrtsystems, primarilyHVAC'
2. Most svstemsare dsigred for sp@ificapplications,and
-'a
stru&uraf engineer with space frame experience
should always be consulted.Manulacturerscan provlde
the full rangeot capabilitis-loadingspans,shapes,spq
cific details-for their products Standardizedsyslems In
4- and s-ft modulesare available
3.
- Metal space frames ars classified as noncombustible
*ntttuition and can usually be exposed when 20 ft
abovethe fl@r. However,an automaticfire extinguishrng
svstem or a rated ceiling may be requird.Consultapplts
cablebuildingand fire codes.
4. The finishes commonly availableare paint, thermoset
polyester,gaivanizing,stainlesssteel, or metal plating'
15%
CANTTLEWR
3@
OF SPAN
N OTE
the
Select a space frame module that is compatible with
buildinq planning module in shap (e.9.' a square module
plannrng
(a
the
multiple ot
with orthogonal plan) and size
module);is consistentwith th limitationsof the interfacing

svsieml 1".g.,the maximum span of the rgoj degk ollYll
ri6n'ip""'itlii in" glazingsystim); and satisliesthe spatia
and aestheticetfcts in scaleand torm.
AND CHARACTERISTICS
MODTJLE SELECTION
=T
UTOLITI
NOTE
Squaretubes or angles within their span range are often
the most economical.
MEMBER
TO
4sft
HEXAGONAL
TETRAHEDFTON
GRID SHAPES
SHAPES
,r{
K
*V
SUPPORT
TYPES
ffi
ffi
ffi
\,,W
MvM
OFFSET
1/2 MODULE
DIRECT
xxffi
ffi
WXDOOK
ffi
res4
W
ffi
KXXD0(
reCIoe'eK
\izl\ro
MULTIFACETED
FIJAT
PTJATE
BENT
A
FULL
NOTE
ffi
ffi
\W
WAI\A/
ffi
ffi
AJS#A#A
\izlv\,w
ElOX
SEOON
offi
GORD
V_VV__V
DIRECT
FOR
OF UDDING
r=
LA\
el/
ANACHMEM
OR GLNG-
PARTIAL
SPHERE
SPHERE
Space frame supports are at panel joints only, not along

membersNODE CONNECTIONS
WOOD
RATEO
BLOCKING. WP.
MTTAL
PTJATE
SPACE FRAME
SAFEil
ftP
COANG.
1'-
-\
DOME
..f7--x
re
HYPERBOLIC
FORM TYPES
GUSS
GTJZING
ruME
sEqroN
ANGLE
FI.AHING
SPHERICAL
NODE
META
FLISHING,
SEMM
STEEL
JOIST
STMP,
WP
SAl.AT
UPPER
MEMBER
GLAZNG
ruRLIN
GLAZING
AT
LOWER
METAL
AOSURE,
FRNE
SPACE
STRUCruRE
SUrcRT
WP.
CONCRETE
6LUMN
BRACKET/
E}OTTOM
SUPPORT
SLOPED
Ass@iates:New York. New York
FRAMING
METAL
STRUCTURAL
MEMBER
OR
Many proprietarynode systems are availablefor spectftc

aoplicationsand budgets.Keep {ield connectionsto a mrnF
mum: welded connectionsoften eliminatejoint pieces.
PATTERNS
Y
l\
<t>
FOLDED
ffiffiQ#
SHAPE
CHANGE
OFFSET
iA MODULE
Severud
a-\
OFFSET
SKE\n/EO
DIRECT
SKE\^/ED
COMMON
PLATE
GI-AZING
BEARING
PUTE
ANCHOR
BOLTS
ROOF AND FLOOR CONNECTIONS
Open-WebSteelJoists
PRELIMINARY
JOIST
NOTES
'l.Total
SELECTION
The accompanying tables are not to be used for final iojst

design bul are Intended as an ard In selectrng steel lorsl; lor
preliminary design and planning. Determining the final
design must be a separate and thorough process. involvino
a complete Investrgatron of penrne.t condrltons; thrs pag;
is not intended to support that etfort Consult a structuial
engrreer.
safe load = live load + dead toad. Dead toad

Includes the weight of the joists. For dead loads and rec
ommended hve loads, see pages on weights of materi_
als. Local codes will govern
2. Span should not exceed a depth 24 times that of a nomi,

nal joist.
JOIST
2116" FILLET
WELDS
1 " LONG
OR
j/2' BOLTS
ruO
-
IN FLOOR
AND ROOF TO SIEEL BEARING

PurE
wtrH ANcHoRS rveeodao
INTO WALL
HORIZONTAL
BRIDGING
ANGLES
WELDED
TO CHORDS
2" MIN,
CONCRETE
OVER
STEEL
FL@R
DECK
t[lil Til
f lil
lil
t[
JOIST
THROUGH
L-
Chord
K-series
Nominat depth (in.l
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usually covered by 21l,

to 3 in. of concrete on steel decking. Concrete thicknesa
may be increased to accommodate electrical conduit or
electrical/communications
raceways.
Precast concrele,
gypsum planks, or plywood can also be used for the floor
sysrem.
JOIST BEARING
CONTINUOUS
DECK
BEARING
ANGLE
ANCHOR
BOLTED
TO MASONRY
SECTION
I
I
CEILINGS: Ceiling supports can be suspended from or

mounted directly to the bottom chords of ioists, although
suspended systems are recommended because of dimen,
sional variations in actual joist depths.
2.b'
MIN,
SECTION THROUGH
ROOF CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usuallv covered with

steel decfrng lopped with erther rigrd insutatron board or
lightweight concrete fill and either a roof of built-uo felt and
gravel or single ply roofing with ballast. plywood, ooured
gypsum, or structural wood fiber deck systems can also be
used with a built-up roof.
BEARING
EVERY
JOISTDESIGNATION:
25 K 10
FOr greater economy, the K-series joist replaced lhe Hseries Joist in 1986.
-4
AfrACH
NOTE
The followinginformationappliesto both open-weband
long-span
steeljoists.
i t l
3. For more information, refer to the standard specifications

and load tables adopted by the Steel Joist Institute.
An example of how to use the informatjon presented here

follos: Assume a particular clear span. By assuming a lorst
spacing and estimating the total load, a joast can immediately be selected trom the table. Then proceed with preliminary design studies.
VIBRATION: Objectionabte vrbrations can occur rn open

web joist and 2112in. concrete slab designs for open floor
areas at spans between 20 and 40 ft, especiallv at 28 tt.
When a floor area cannot have partitions, objeclionable
vibrations can be prevented or reduced by increasing slab
thickness or modifying lhe ioist span. Attention should also
be given to suppon for framing beams, which can magnify
a vibration problem when unsupported.
OPENINGS lN FLOOR OR ROOF SYSTEMS: Smail openings betwen ioists are framed with angles or channel supported on the adjoining two joists. Larger openings
necessitating interruption ot ioists are framed with steel
angle o. channel headers spanning the two adlornrngjoists.
I he Interrupted lo'sts bear on the headers.
ROOF DRAINAGE: On level or near tevel roofs, especially
those with parapet walls, roof drainage should be carefullV
considered. Roof rnsulatroncan be sloped, and toists can be
sloped or obtained with top chords that slope in one or both
directions. Overflow scuppe.s should be provided in para
pet walls. lf roof slope is less than r/4 in. per ft, the roof svs,
tem should be jnvestigated to ensure stability under
ponding conditions.
PROFILES
JOISTS
SELECTED LOAD TABLES: K SERTES-TOTAL

SAFE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (LB/FT)
SPAN
tAll
273
NUMBER OF ROWS OF BRIDGING
(FT)
ioists 40 ft or longer require a row of bolted bridging in place before hoisting lines are
slackened.
, Where the designed joist span is equal to or greater
than this span, the row of bridging nearest th midspan of the joist shall be installed as bolted diagonal bridging. Hoisting iables
shall not be released until this bolted daagonalbridging is completely inatalted.
' Last digit(s)of joist designation shown in

accompanying load table.
, Check maximum joist span for required midspan
bolted diagonal bridging
N OTE
Distances are clear span dimensions {ft).
Kenneth D. Franch, P.E., AIA; Aguirre, lnc.; Dallas, Texas
METALJOISTS
Long-SponSteelJoists
274
6' MrN BEARING
/--
BRACING
AT
DIAGONAI
PROVIDE
WfiH
BONOM
CHORD
BIARINC
trNDS
5'(a1h'
DLH
ND
1A
19)
SOUARE END FOR SONOM

CHORD BEARING
INTERIOR
(CRIMreD
MEMBER
VERTICAL
ANGLE)
STEEL
STEEL BEARING PGTE WITH

EMBEODED ANCHORS AT
TOP OF MASONRY WALL;
ANCHOR JOISTS WTH ruO
'/.. FILLET WELDS 2, LONG
NOTE
Web member type depends on span and load characteristiG
SECTION THROUGH
JOIST BEARING
BOTTOM CHORD
SQUARE END
DECK
BARING
CONTINUOUS
BOLTED
TO
ANGLE
ANGOR
ryPICALLY
PARALLEMASONRY,
TO JOISTS
BEARING AT
DIAGON&
E]RIOGING BOLED
AT MIDSPAN AND
TG*ER
TO CLIP ANGLES AT JOIST CHORDS
BRIreING
HORIZOMI
AT SIST
CLOSE TO WALL
OR PAIRED JOISTS
SECTION
THROUGH
JOISTS
FIRE
RESISTANCE
RATING
TIME
(HR)
FLOOR/CEILI
NG ASSEMBLIES
TIME
(HR)
ROOF/CEILING
2'l2 In. rerntdcd mrete, lrsteo"/. In.

gypsumplasteron retal lath attachedto
bottom chordof ,oist
Built{p r@ting on listed l'16an.wood wrth cement btndorfioerboardover 1'l2 in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath attached
to furring channelssupportedfrom joist
2'l2 In. rernlorcs oncrele. lrsteo "/s In.

type X wallboard attached to furring channels tid to bottom chord of joist
metal deck with listed % in. gypsum plaster ceiling on metal lath
attached to turring channels supported lrom joist
2rl2in. reanforced
@ncrete.lrstedi/! In.
rcod fiber gypsum plasterover metal
lath on channelsseored to joist
Built-uproofingon listed 1 in. expandedprliteboardover 1'/2In.

plasteron metal
metal deck with listed7s in. gypsum-vermiculite
lath attachedto runnerchannelssuooortedfrom ioist
NOTE
These are abbreviatedassemblydescriptions.Table7{ ol
the Uoiform Euilding Code gives complete descriptions.
LOAD
sERIES-TOTAL
TABLES:
LH
AND
SAFE UNIFORMLY
UndeMriters Laboratoriesand FactoryMutual Drovideadditional system, material,and approvalguidelines-
DLH
DISTRIBUTED
CLEAR
JOIST
LOAD (LBIFT)
SPAN
(FT)
DESIGNATION
BOTTOM
Charles
r=
r.R\
el/
M. Ault; Setter, Lsach & Lindstrom,Architects& Engineers;Minneapolis,Minnesota
METALJOISTS
CHORD
EXTENSION
DETAIL
Determiningthe tinal design must be a separate,thorough

process. involving a complete investigation of pertinenl
conditions;this page is not to be used for that purpose
Consulta structuralengineer.
An exampleof how to use the informationpresentedhere
follows: Assume a particularclearspan. By assuminga joist
spacingand estimating the total load, a ioist can immedi
ately be selectedfrom th table.Then proceedwith preliminarydesign studies.
NOTES
l.Total saf load = live load + dead load. Dad load
includesthe wsight of the joist. For dead loads and recomrended live loads, see pages on weights o{ materi
als. Lmal codes will govem.
2. Spanshould not exceed 24 tires the depth ol a nominal
ioist for r@fs, 20 tihes the depth ot a nominaljoist for
floors.
3. For more information, refer to standard specifications
and load tablesadoptedby the SteelJoist Institute.
AND
BRIDGING
NOTE
MEMBER
ANGLE)
JOIST SELECTION
PRELIMINARY
The accompanyingtables should not be used lor final ioist
design but are intended to speed selection of stel joists
for preliminarydesignand planning.
LH
Number preceding letter is ioist depth (32LH10 is 32 in. deep)
WRICAL
SEEL
IffiRIOR
(CRIMED
ASSEMBLIES
Euilt{p r@ting on lrsted 1 In. wood wth cement btndernoerboardover 1rl2in. metal deck with listed% in. gypsum plastr
ceilingon metal lath attachdto furring channolshung lrom ioist
Bualt-uprootingon lrsted1 In. wood ttben]oardover 1'/aIn.
deck with listed % in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath
attachedto furing channelssupportedfrom joist
|6ted "/sIn.
2'l2 In. rerntorcdffiet,
gypsumplasteron metal lath attachedto
boftom chord of ioist
2 In. rerntord concrete.lrsted"/sIn.
cement olasterover retal lath attachd
to bottm chord of joist
SELECTED
WELD
OR BOLT
DLH
BRIDGING
SPACING
(FT)
N OTE
Welded horizontalbridging is used for typical ioist spans
Checkioist bridgingrequirementswhen joist spans require
midspan bolted diagonalbridging.For spans of more than
60 ft, all bridgingshouldbe bolted diagonalbridging.
Metql Floorqnd Roof Decking

METAL
DECKING
Some of the many types of metal decktng avarlableare

1 . Roof deck
2. Floor deck (noncomposite)
3. Composite floor deck interacting with concrete
4. Permanent forms for self-supporting concrete slabs
5. Cellular deck (composite or noncomposite)
6. Acoustical rmf deck
7. Acouslical cellular deck (composite or noncomposite)
8. Electric raceway ellular deck
9. Prevented rof deck (used with lightweight insulating
concrete fill)
INSTALLATION
AND
Floor deck loadrngs are vrftuallv unlmited In scope, rangrng

lrom lrgnt resrdentral and insl[ulronal loads to heaw-dutv
industrial floors utilizing composite deck with slabs up to 24
in. thick. Designers can setect the deck type.. depth, and
gauge most suitable for the application.
Roof-mounted mechanical equipment should not be placed
directly on a metal roof deck Equipment on built-up or pre
tabricated curbs should be supported directly on marn and
supplementary structural members and the deck must be
supported along all free edges. Heavy items such as cooltng towers that must be elevated should be supported by
posts extending through pitch pockets directly onto structural members below the deck. Openings through the deck
may be handled as discussed above.
FIRE RESISTANCE
OESIGN
All metal fl@r and .oof decks must be secured to all suppons, generally by means of puddle welds made lhrough
the deck to supporting steel. Steel sheet lighter than 22
gauge (0.0295 in. thick) should be secured by use of weld
ing washers. Shear studs welded through the floor deck
also serye to secure the deck to supporting steel.
3 A vanety of depths and rib patterns is availabte.

4 Acoustical treatment is possible
5 Metal roof decks can serve as the base for insulation and
rcofing.
6. Fire ratings can be obtained with standard assemblies.
7. Metal roof decks can provide a lateral dlaphragm
8. Metal roof decks can be erected quickly and economi
carly
9. Metal roof decks make it easy to create roof slopes for
drarnage.
RATTNGS
'o'1.
."1
Fire resistance ratings {or roof deck assemblies are published by UndeMriters
Laboratories and Factory Mutual.
Ratings ot 1 to 2 hr are achieved with sprav{n insulation a
1-hr rating with a suspended acoustical ceiling and a 2-hr
ratrng with a metal lath and-piaster ceiling.
Side laps between adjacent sheets of deck must be

secured by bunonfunching
standing seams, welding, or
screws, an accordance with the manufacturer's recommenoalrons.
Decks used as lateral diaphragms must be welded to steel
suppons around their entire perimeter to ensure development ot diaphragm action. More stringent requirements
may govern the size and/or spacing of attachments to supports and side lap fasteners or welds.
Consult the manufacturer's literature and technical representatives for additional information. Consult the Steei
Deck lnstitute Design Manual for Floot Decks and Roof
Decks and the Tentative Recommendations
for the Design
of Steel Deck Diaphragms by the Steel Deck Institute,
Roof deck selection must consider construction and maintenance loads, as well as the capacity to suppon unilormly
disrributed live l@ds. Consult Steel Deck lnstitute recom,
mendations and Factory Mutual requjrements.
AOVANTAGES
OF METAL
Rc}OF
DECKS
1. A high strength-to-weight ratio reduces r@f dead load.

2. Metal roof decks can be erected in most weather conditions.
--l
CANT
Floor deck assembly fire resistive ratings are available both

with and without spray-appliedfireproofing and with regular
weight or lightweight concrete fill. Ratings from 1 to 3 hr
are possible using only concrete till; consult UndeMriters
Laboratories Fire Resistance Index for assembly ratings.
275
END CLOSURE
STRIP
FILLER
PLATE
ROOF
DECK
RIDGE/VALLEY PUTE
ACCESSORIES
REINFORCING
ROOF DECK TYPES

TYPE
REMARKS
'"fi&
Narrow
(l in. wide)
6t
*_-*
, , , " t . r t - t r [ - - -l fJ:
"'FU
6
6"
l+-+
,r,"]-t/-r
't,--l- t--/
.t+
u
insulation; max.
surface area on
top for adhering
insulation
N OTES
1. Small openings (up to 6 x 6 in. or 6 in. in diameter) usually may be cut in a root or lloor deck without reinforcino
the deck.
44"
to
11{"
13to'
,*+n,r,"f-L-!ntr
(2 r/, in. wide)
1)
z1tz"
I r-i
LJ
\---
2. Openings up to l0 x 1O in. or 10 in. in diameter reoui.e

rernlorcing of the deck eithe. by weldrng a reintorcrng
plate to the deck all around the openings or providino
channel-shaped headers and/or supplementarv reinforc-,
ing parallel to the deck span. Fleinforcing plates should
be 14{auge sheets with a minimum oroiection of 6 in.
beyond all sides of the opening, and they shoutd be
welded to each cell of the deck.
3. Larger openings should be framed with supplementary
steel members so that all tree edges of the deck are suF
ooneo.
OPENINGS
ror useas
electricalrace
'2'b'
tto
J-+
way or as acous,
tacalceiling;
bottom plate is
perforated for
sound
aDsorplron
",,'Fffi
| 2sla' I
,fr'
.1.--_
3,
i_&_;uL_+
IN DECK
lrJ "-},r
+3 +
to
30 {"
NOTE
Preformed recessed sump pans are available from deck
manufacturers for use at roof drains.
RECESSED
SUMP
PAN
Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers: potomac, Maryland

Walter D. Shapiro, P.E.; Tor, Shapiro & Associates: New york, New yoik
METALDECKING
Melol FloorDecking
276
COMPOSITE
FLOOR
DECK
WITH
CONCRETE
REMARKS
PROFI LE
oecK
PRESET
INSERTS
FILL
LOnVeXemoossments bond with

concrete fill:
reverse deck for
concave
embossments
r 2'l''
tonvex
embossments
oecK
embossmenls
F
;PAN
FT.IN.)
\^r'IDTH
(lN.)
9{
lo
12'4"
36'
MAX.
LENGTH
(FT-lN.)
ACCESS
HOLES
to
13'{"
JO
or
7',4"
to
t4'4"
or
36"
SEPARATE
TROUGH FOR
P O W E RL I N E S
TRENCH DUCT
CELLULAR
METAL DECK
NOTE
Electric raceways may be built into floor slabs by using cel

lular deck or special units that are blended with plain deck
Twcway distribution is achieved by using trench ducts that
sit astride the cllular units at right angles.
NONCOMPOSITE
FILL
FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE
TYPE
R EMA,R KS
PROFILE
\^/IDTH
fl N.)
SPAN
FT-tN.)
MAX.
LENGTH
(FT-rN.)
Narrow nb
35"
36"
to
5''
Using trench ducts with composite lloor deck may reduce

or eliminate entirely the effectiveness ol composile action
at the trench duct- This is also true for composite action
btwen
steel floor beams and concrete fill. Trench duct
locations must be taken into account in deciding whether
commsite action is possible.
DUCT
ELECTRICALTRENCH
f7
f A-"/i
t='-r^]...A,Jf
3"
POUR STOP
Narrow nb
to
r0'-o"
6Z
JJ
f;
Narrow tb
Intermedrate
deck
3l
424'
to
ffi
$u/
U
li'^l""lxil;"'
?'
Narrow nb
deck
4{to
11'-O"
36"
oecK
to
14',4"
COMPOSITE AND NONCOMPOSITE

CELLULAR FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE
36"
INTEGRAL
HANGER TAB
FOUR
AND
STOPS
CLOSURES
N OTE
A convenient, economical means of supporting lightweighi
acoustical ceilings is attaching a suspension system to
hanger tabs at side laps. piercing tabs driven through the
deck, or pre{unched tabs in the roof deck. Do not use this
ta$and-metal deck arrangement to support plasler ceilings,
piping. ductwork, electrical equipment, or other heavy
loads. Such elements must b susoended directlv from
structural members or supplementary sublraming.
FILL
S.SECTIONAL
FLOOR
DECK ACCESSORIES
TYPE
sq
(35 sq in./sheet)
deck {for stel

Jramesrequiring
studs)
JXUrn.CeilUtar
(not suitable for
I /.4 sq In./cell
sq in./sheet)
structuralstudsl
sq In
io
8',-o"
rre
Donald Neubauer,P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;Potomac,Maryland

Walter D. Shapiro,P.E.:Tor, Shapiro& Associales;New York, New York
METALDECKING
30'
36"
(24 sq in./sheet)
METAL
FLOOR
DECKING
Two items to keep in mind when designing with metal

decking:
1- Vvhen lightweight concrete is used in the construction,
use galwnizeddeck material.
2. In a fireproofassembv. retal componentsshouldbe un
onmeq.
ADVANTAGES
DECKS
OF
METAL
FLOOR
1. Metalfloordecksprovidea workingplatform.eliminating
temporarywood plankingin high-riseuse.
2. Compositedecks providepositivereinforcementfor con
crete slabs.
3. Both noncomoositeand comoositedecks serve as forms
tq concrete,eliminatingthe need for lorming and strip
pang.
4. Consultthe UndeMriters Laboratoriesdirectorvfor spe'
cific fire ratingrequirements5. Acousticaltreatment is possible.
6. Electricracewaysmay be built into the floor slab.
7. Meral floor decking provides economical floor assemblies.
Cold-FormedSteelFromingMqteriols
ALLOWABLE
NOMINAL
JOTST StZE
(WtTH MIL
TH ICKNESS)
SPANS
FOR
I O PSF DEAD
SINGLE-SPAN
FLOOR
LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LoAD
JOISTS
1O PSF DEAD LOAD + 40 PSF LIVE LOAD
SPACtNG O.C. (|N.
SPACTNG O.C. (
l2
10 tt 7 rn
x6x
ll it6rn.
2tt8rn.
2 tl4 tn.
3ft
nbrn.
Stlzrn
l4 ll 7 in.
x8x
6tt1 in.
5ft8in.
xdx
nltn
xBx54
18ft4in
xBx68
19tt8in
xdx
ltI
tuln.
9tt I In
ult/rn
9tt/rn
l1 ft6in
lull5rn
12 ft 4 In.
1 1f t 2 i n
1 3t t 3 i n .
15tt6in
1 6f t 8 i n .
1 7t t 1 I i n .
1 9t t 1 0 i n .
8tllUrn
4lturn.
12tt0rn
3lt3rn
ott/rn
ttlrn
b tt ti rn.
14 tt 1 In-
1l tt6rn
3lt2rn
l2 tt I rn.
4n110
Tt / In_
15lt / rn_
tt 4 rn.
ti ft I rn.
tn
It ti rn
l
ln
lrn
t9n luIn
'16
tt B in
22 tl 1 tn.
20tt I In
17tl6rn
20 tt 1 In.
18 tt 3 in
23nErn.
zti tt 4 rn
2l lt tt In
18 tt l0 In.
21tt 6 rn.
1 9t t 7 i n .
23n l'l rn
2A tl
23 tt 1l In
2l lt9rn
tn
17
:13 tt b In.
ZUtt3rn
14 tl
tn
20tt ll rn.
l6 lt l0 rn
25n9rr
lJlt4rn
t9 il
tn
23 lt4 In
2 1t t 3 r n
tn-
xllx
/l nE tn.
l5nl
25ll lIn
22 ll ltJ tn
Irn
tn
tn
tbrn
4;-
l2tn
x12x
2l tl
"iL4"
ENUIN
18 tt 8 in.
rn
./4
7l
tn
titt3rn
15tt3in.
In.
In.
blt2rn.
t/ttlttn
18 tt 8 In
2tJ tt ti rn
t6
l0ft0in
urtYrn,
1l rn.
tn
ll tt3rn
tn.
f4
"12<
+
.'.,.1 |
-Zo.zt
"l
atl-4'
+Y+
B
ALLOWABLE
NOMINAL
JOrST StZE
(wtTH MtL
TH ICKNESS)
SPANS FOR MULTIPLE-SPAN

I O PSF DEAD
LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LOAD
SPACING
'f I
({
B
FLOOR JOISTS
I O PSF DEAD
LOAD
+ 40 PSF LIVE LOAO

FURRI NG
CHANNEL
SPACTNG O.C. (rN.)
O.C. ilN.)
277
2x6x43
2x10x43
2 x 10 x 54
2 x 1 2x 6 8
NOTES
l. The tables above provide maximum joist spans, in feet
and inches. For multiple spans, span is either to the right
or lett of the interior suooort.
2. lnterior baring supports for multiple span joists should
consist of structural {bearing)walls or beams.
3. Bearing stiffeners should be installed at all suppo.t points
and concentrated loads. End bearing stiffene.s are not
required for floor joists 54 mil or thicker, spanning 14 ft o.
less, {or one-story houses (walls and roof only} in areas
with maximum ground snow load of 30 psf or less-
MO
EOUAL
4. Joists supporting a roof and single wall only may cantilever up to a maximum of 24 in. measured from the centerline of the bearing point, provided that bearing stiffeners
are installed at the end of the cantilever and the bearing
point and no punchouts are allowed in the cantilevered
section. Hole reinforcements may be used to cover up
notes.
RUNNER
CHANNEL
5. Deflection criteriar U4B0 for live loads: U24O for total

roaos
SPANS
NOTE
Members available an dimensions of 33 through 97 mil
LIGHT.GAUGE FRAMING
MEMBERS
American lron and Steel Institute; Washington, D.C
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
278
Cold-FormedSteelFromingMoteilols
COLD-FORMED STEEL-MINIMUM
MATERIAL THICKNESS
' 1 mil = 1/1000in.

cEtLtNG
JOISTS
WITHOUT
x4N
lUn6rn
x4r
tt n / rn
tzntsrn
1 4f t 1 1 i n ,
1 1f t 2 i n
UNJIN
lln4rn
10ft4in
9TI | | rn
8 lt l0,n
12tt4an
11h2rn
13ft2in.
1 2t t 0 r n .
12n 10 In.
l0 tt 4 rn.
'14
tt 1 rn.
tJ[/ln.
12 tt I In.
15 nb In
l0ftbrn.
n2rn
ztt0rn.
Ynorn
9n5rn.
x.o x
l2 tt'l rn
13 tt 0 rn.
xtix
Iti n J tn.
xux
t2 tt / tn
xur
tJnbrn
XUI
t4Tt4rn
x6x
x6x
t5n5rn
17ft8in
x tu x
14ft5rn.
13n4rn
x l0x
l5 tt 4 rn.
l4ftzrn-
fi9tn
x l0 x
l5nzrn
x lUx
16n5rn.
18n/rn.
3ft7in
Snzrn
x l2 x
15tt2rr
x12x
iti tt I In.
xf2x
t/n Jtn
x llx
tYn5tn
14nl rn
lSnurn
1 5f t 1 1 i n .
1 7f t 1 0 i n .
ttll
In.
4n1l
!n.
nurn.
nbrn.
13 ft 4 in.
l4ft3in.
16 tt 2 in.
I/nl
STORAGE
BRACING
THIRD.POINT
SPACING (IN.)
12
t6
9tt2rn
'10
ft 8 in.
l1ft7in.
t4ttutn
ATTIC
MID.SPAN BRACING
SPACING (IN.)
t6
l2
I tt l0 In.
x4x
SPANS,
UNBRACED
SPACING (IN.)
NOMI NAL
JOTST StZE
X4X
SPANS-SINGLE
ALLOWABLE
In
uil
l In.
Un9rn
n/rn
3ft2in
0ftOin.
1ft3in.
',1't
1 ft
in
2it9in.
4tt5rn.
2nl rn.
znurn
3n5rn
4ft4in.
5 ft
't'l
in
10n4rn.
12ft4tn
ll nzrn
l0 n ti In.
13ltztn
li fizrn.
l4n
tznurn
zn tutn
ft 1 in.
tt8
5
JOTSTS
ALLO\^/ABLE
SPANS-SINGLE
14 tt i rn.
l2fi4rn.
t5nbrn
14fi5rr
bnlurn
t5n / rn
lunurn.
13ft10in
/nllrn
t.bn / In
t4nvtn_
9nzrn
ztnbrn.
7ft8in.
l8ft10an
t/nurn
1 9f t 1 0 i n .
16tt5in
lTttOin
5 t t l0 in
l7 tt 8 in.
'14tt
9 in.
l 5 n l0 rn
16ft2an
1 1t r 7 a n
'18tt 1 tn.
0
20tt2n
22n4n.
21 tt b rn.
ZU TI U IN.
18tt7in
21 tt 3 in.
23ftErn.
zu tt 2 rn.
zt n4rn.
22ft8in.
z5n trn.
zl n4rn.
zzn I tn.
23ft11in
26 tt 4 in.
l9ft8rn.
l6ft9rn.
'llftErn.
SPANS,
2l tt lU In
9n6rn.
lutt9tn
bntl
tv n tu In_
7 n l0 in
2l ftOin
2 3t l 2 i n
l 9 f t 1 0i n .
2 0 f t 1 1i n .
zz\ztn
18ft ll in
20ft9in.
17ft11in
1 8 f t 1 1i n
24ft4t^.
WITH
ATTIG
rn
* Bearing
stiffeners shall be installed at all suppon points
and concentrated loads.
NOTES
'1.
The tables above provide the maximum ceiling joist span
in teet and inches.
2. Detlection criteria: L./240 for total loads.
3. Ceiling dead load = 5 psf (0.24 kPa)
4. I in. = 25.4 mm, 1 ft = 304.8 mm, 1 psf = 48 Pa.
Areracan lron and Steel lnstitute; Washington,D.C.
r=
e/
COLD_FORMED
METALFRAMING
In.
tn
nll rn
lrn
18ft4rn.
ln-
23 tt 0In.
20 tt 3 rn.
l9nbrn.
2 1f t z n .
24lt4tn
2:1ft I n.
ln.
25 tt I rn.
2JttlI
ztsn4rn
24ft8in
26 tt 0 in.
27 tt 6 rn.
30 tt 2 rn.
26tt I in
zbnJrn.
ln
tn_
22ft11 in
24112 in.
2b tt 6 ln.
2/ltll rn.
24 tt 3 rn.
zcn
19ft11in
29tt0rn
2ltt10tn.
3l tt 8In.
21 nO tn.
29n4rn.
(2O PSF)
In.
In
27 t16 tn.
STORAGE
MID.SPAN BRACING
SPACING (IN.)
NOMINAL
JOTST
StZE
I rn
btt9rn.
* Bearingstifteners shall be installedat all support points

and oncentrated loads.
cElLtNG
24
l6
ll ft4rn
9ft0in.
9tt9rn
/ In.
tn.
tn.
4rn
tn.
Cold-FormedSteelFroming-Open
TOP
,Z-
TRACK
DOORJAME
HEADER
BEAM
-
-.
TRACK
TRACK
METAL
STUD
-.
MNAL
STUD
CRIPPLE
STUD
FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
AT EACH
JAMB
STUD
CRlPPLE
STUD
CLOSURE
TRACK
EXTENDED
AAOVE
AND
BELOW
AS
OPENING.
REOUIRED
FOR
STRENGTH
STIFFENER
AOSURE
TRACK
EXTENDED
ABOVE
OPENING
AS REOUIRED
FOR
STRENGTH
AS
REOUIRID
MULTIPLE
STUDS.
BACK-TO'BACK,
AS REOUIRED
MULTIPLE
STUDS,
BACK-TO-BACK.
:r
SHEATHING
BOfrOM
TRACK
SILL
TRACK
CRIPPLE
STUD
AS REOUIRED
THROUGH
BOTOM
TRACK
AT
EACH
JAMB
STUD
BONOM
TRACK
WINDOW
OPENING
DOORJAMB
BASE AT FLOOR FRAMING
CLIP ANGLE
OR SECNON
DOOR OPENING
SPTI!"J
OF]RCK.
FASENERS
AS REOUIRED
DOWN
FASTEN
JAMB\
AND
TO
\\'r /
It \ li l il /
HEADER
BEAM
rtW
MULNPLE
MEMBERS
SUPPORT
MEMBER
Z CUT TRACK
AND
BEND
TO ALLOW
ENENSION
OF FGNGES
FOR
CONNECTION
AS REOUIRED
AT JAME -
SECTION
OF STUD
FUNGES
TO ALLOW
COE
MENSION
OF THE WEB FOR
"'4
TRACK
ll
J "MULTIPLE
MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED
FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
ffEND
CLOSURE
TRACK
AS
REOUIRED
FOR
HEAD
CONNECTION
AND JAMB
STRENGTH
SECTION
CLIP ANGLE
NO LESS
'zz'
THAN
LESS
THAN
NO T E
Detailmay be applicableto largeropeningsin interiorpartitions.Fornonaxialloads.
HEAOER BEAMS FOR WIOE OPENINGS
HEAD AT OPENING LESS THAN

(LOAD-BEARING
WALL)
TOP RACK
MULTIPLE
MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED
-AT JAMB
SECNON
OF MACK
SCREWS
AS REOUIRED
AT JAMB
FASENERS
AS REOUIRED
MEMAER
SECTION
OF SruD
FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
METAL
AS
AT
MULTIruE
MEMBERS AS
REOUIRED AT
HEAD
STUD
HAD
TRACK -
ESEND
CLOSURE
TRACK
AS
REOUIRED
FOR
HEAD
AND
JAME
STRENGTH
REQUIRED AT
EACH SIDE OF JAMB
N OTE
N OTE
For nonaxial loads.
For axial loads.
OPENING GREATER THAN OR EQUAL

TO 4 FEET(LOAD-BEARING
WALL)
TOP TRACK
OR DISNIBUTION
ENEND
CLOSURE
TRACK
AS
REOUIRED
FOR
SILL
CONNECTION
AND JAMB
STRENGTH
EIEND
CLOSURE
RACK
AS
REOUIRED
FOR
HEAD
CONNECTTON
ANO
JAMB
STRENGTH
MULTIPLE
MEMBERS
REOUIRED
JAMB
SILL CONNECTIONS
SECTION
OF STUD
SECTION
OF STUD
CRIPfuE
STUD
4 FEET
JAMB ANO SILL AT OPENING

THAN 4 FEET
LESS
OPENINGS GREATER THAN OR EQUAL

TO 4 FEET(LOAD.BEARING WALL)
Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington,

D.C.
METALFRAMING
COLD-FORMED
Cold-FormedSleelFromingqnd BrqcingDetqils
280
STEEL
.-
GENERAL
STUDS
Lightweight steel traming is coldJormed, which means the

by brake-forming and
components
are manufactured
punching galvanized coil and sheet stock. Steel framing
members consist ol two basic types of components that
are C-shaped in section: one type has '/cin. flanges foided
inward and the other has no flanges. Studs, ioists, and
rafters are made with flanges to stitfen them so they will
more readily stand vertically, Components without fiaoges,
called tracks. have unpunched solid webs. For added
strenglh, tracks are sized slightly larger than the flanged
members so the tracks wili fit snugly inside them as sill or
top plates or as pan of posts or headrs.
Steel framing is strong and versatile. The strength (and
load{arrying capacity) of a membet can be increased simply by increasing the thickness, or gauge, ol the metal; the
dimensions of the member, or the spacing. do not necessarily have to be increased. There is little limitation on the
length ot steel framing members; joists or studs may be
fabricated in lengths up to 40 ft. lf handled with care, steel
framing is straight and consistent; also, it is not affected by
morsture content.
AT
rWELD
CLIP ANGLE
(OPTIONAL)
2' X 2' X 16
GAUGE
CLIP
%'
ANGLE
THAN
LESS
WIDTH
STUD
4 FRAMING
SCR&S
REOUIRED
AS SHOM
\NELD
ATTACHMENT
(FOR
3ela'OR
STTJDS:
SMALLER
OR
16-GAIJGE
HEAVIER)
LIMITING HEIGHT TABLES FOR

INTERIOR PARTITIONS AND
CHASE WALL PARTITIONS
PARTITION
TWO
LAYERS
WIDTH
LIMITING HEIGHT
IA MIL STEEL STUD ASSEMBLIES
SCREW
ATTACHMENT
(FOR
3q6' TO
A'STUDS)
N OTE
Channels to be spaced as required by design.
LATERAL
BRACING
ATTACHMENT
AS
SGEW
REOUIRED
AT ACH
STUD
Disadvantages of steel lraming include lack of insulating

qualities, difficulty in cutting compared to wood, and dangerously sharp edges. Consult the American lron and Steel
lnstitute (AlSl) for further information.
BRACING
Buildings must be properiy braced to resist racking under
wind and seismic loads. Diagonal strap bracing is sloped to
resist racking lorces in tension and tastened by screws or
welds to studs and plates. Propdy spaced lateral steel
bracing resists stud rotation and minor ais bending under
wind, seismic. and axial loads; it is especially critical during
construction. before sheathing or finishes are installed.
FUT
SRAPS.
NOTGED
CHANNEL.
X.E}RIDGING,
OR
ROMIflARY
BRIreING
(EACH
SIDE):
SPLICE
UP
4'
STRAPS
MtN- (102 MM)
SCREWS
AS REOUIRED
(EACH SIDE) J
33 MIL STEEL
STUO ASSEMBLIES
NOTE
Number of rows of bridging as required by design.
FUT
STRAPS
WALL
BRIDGING
UERAL
STABIUry
STRAP
OR NOTCHED
AS REQUIRED
ANGLE
(EACH
SIDE)
BY DESIGN
STEEL
ANCHOR
CHANNEL
MEMBERS
MULTIPLE
AS REOUIRED
CONCRETE
AT ENDS
SUB
LIMITING HEIGHT
I A MIL CHASE WALL
ANCHOR
PARTITIONS
N OTE
The top detail is for one-to-two story buildings and the bottom dtail tor buildings greater than two stories. Steel channel, plate, and anchor size dpend on applied uplift and
horizonta! shear torces.
RACK,
BOfrOM
AS
GAUGE
REOUIRED
TO
TPANSFER
LOS
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING

ANCHORAGE
DETAILS
SGEWS
AS REOUIRED
NOTE
SOLID
NCrcR
BRIreING
TO SOUD BLOCXING
BL(:gIre
mx-BRrretre:
FIT BEMEN
5'O'Mg
(FOR
1%'
MEMBERS)
FIRST VO
AND UST MO
JOISTS OR
MU
RAffiR
SPAGS
(REPEAT
AS
REOUIRED)
\
Strap forces may requireadditionalstilfeningof the bottom

track or structuralangle.
DIAGONAL STABILITY
ANCHORAGE
SCREW TO
EACH STUD
'
BOfrOM
ANAG
FUT
SMAP.
NOTCHED
CHANNEL.
X-BRIDGING,
OR
PRORIETARY
BRIreING
TO
ACH
IST
\\
TRANSFER
BRIDGING
FORCES
UTERAL
STABILry
SYSTEM
\
\
I
|NTO
TRACK
AS REOUIRED
TO TRANSER
BRACING
UTERAL
STAAILfr
SMAP
OR NOTCHED
ANGLE
AS REOIRED
(AG
BY OESIGN
SIDE)
MULNfuE
MEMBERS
REOUIRED
AT ENDS
AS
N OTE
ADDINONAL
STIFFENER
ADJACENT
Limiting height lo( 112o( sls inthick panels and 5 psf uni
form load perpendicular to partition or furrjng. Use onelayer
heights for unbalanced assemblies. Consult local code
f-bending
authority for limiting criteria (d--deflection,
stress).
FASENERS
AS REOUIRED
I
-/
./
STRUfrURAL
ANGLE BELOW
X.BRIOGING
N OTE
N OTE
lf sheathing is not installed on members, bridging is

requiredon both flanges.
Strap forces may require additionalstiffening of top and

bottom track or structuralangle.
JOIST OR RAFTER BRIDGING
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING

INTERMEDIATE FLOOR
Americanlron and SteelInstitute;Washington,

D.C.
r=
L'i\
\l/
t 33 mil chase wall partitions.
SHATHtre\
COLD-FORMED
METAL
FRAMING
AT
,
JOIST
Cold_FormedSl.elFr@
2gl
OR
CLIP
ANGLE
HEADER
-
CLIP ANGLE,
r/.' LESS
THAN
JOIST
DEPTB
OR
HANGER
JOIST
wPrcaL
6tsT
oR
J
RAflER
TYPICAL
Jotsr
aND
TRACK
HEADER
AS REQUIRED
BY DESIGN
./
_-/
OPENING
.-
IN JOISTS,/RAFTERS
JO|ST
JOIST.TO.JOIST
STEEL
BEAM
(OR BUILT.UP
COLD.FORMED
MEMAER
OR
FASTENER
AS REOUIRED
STUD
HEADER
NOTES
WEB STIFFENER
AS REOUIRED
cfHrs srDE oR FrT
BEruEEN
JOIST
FCNGES)
l.Continuous bridging is required between each joist

above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may
be used in lieu of bridging.
2 When a bearing wall is above, studs must align wrth
Joists below.
FLOOR JOISTS SUPPORTED BY BEAM

OR BEARING WALL (OVERLAPPED)
-
STEEL BEAM
(OR BUILT-UP
COLD-FORMED
MEMBER. OR
STUD BEARING
\.
\
-
WALL)
615T
FASTENER
AS REOUIRED
\
-i
NOTES
DOUE}LE
DETAIL
l.Continuous bridgingis required between each joist

above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may
be usedin lieuof bridging.
2. When a bearingwall is above,the studs must alignwith
the joistsbelow.
3. Web stiffeners are not requiredwhen continuous solid
blockingis used.
TFIACK
RIM JOIST DETAILS
JOISTS OVER BEAM OR BEARING

WALL (CONTTNUOUS SPAN)
SruD--\
MO
SREWS
AT EACH
STUD
JOIST
AND
TRACK
AS REOUIRED
BY
J()IST
HEADER
HEADER
DESIGN
TO BUILT.UP
JOISTS
STUD
MO
SCREWS
AT EACH
STUD
-\
./'-*ot*
JOISTS
JOIST
TRACK
CONCREE
FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
SHEATHTNG
aii<;ue as
REAUIRED
NO LESS
THAN
CLIP ANGLE.
JOIST
'/"' (ANACN
MINUS
Df4H
CI IP
aND
TRACK
To coNcRETE
wrrH
E'PANSION
OR ANCHOR
BOLTS)
FLOOR
JOISTS
PAR^LLEL
TO \ /ALL
L^
r crrur
SHEATHING
\:*.
waLL sruD
Provide solid blocking and bridging as required
SHEATHING
WE8
STIFFENER
AS REOUIRED
SIOE G
cfHIS
FT BEMEEN
JOIST
FUNGE)
NOTE
Provide soljd blocking and bridging as required
V\/ALL
FLOOR JOISTS
EXTERIOR
ALIGN SruOS
WTH .'OISTS BELOW
SHEATH'NG
lr
1i
BOLT
N OTE
AT CONTINUOUS
ii
/,
FLOOR
JOIST
SUPPORT
FLOOR JOISTS
SCREW
AT EACH
FUNGE
--\
PARALLEL
.\
BELOW
(FAR
SIDE)
ANACH
TRACK
IO
JOIST
WITH
AT EACH
SCREWS
(NOT
FDNGE
REOUIRED
WEB
STIFFENER
IS USED)
JOIST
.-
FLOOR
JOISTS
FOUNDATION
WALL
rc
SCREWS AT
EACH STUD TO JOIST
-
TO
PARALLEL
TO
STUD ({IGN
wtfr
FLooR
JO|ST BELOW)
TRACK
IF
-
TRACK
WEB STIFFENER
AS REOUIRED
C|HIS SIDE OR
FIT BEruEEN
JOIST FLANGE)
SCREW
TRACK
TO TRACK
ADJACENT
TO SUPPORTS
STUD
JOIST
WALL
(ALIGN
STUD
\ rotsr
WITH
BELOU4
=rao-*,aa
SHEATHING
JOISTS SUPPORTED
BEARING WALL
BY BEAM OR
FLOOR FRAMING AT EXTERIOR WALL
FLOOR
JOISTS
FOUNDATION
BEARING
ON
Americanlronand SteelInstitute;Washington,
D.C
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
]
/
Cold-FormedSleelFromingDetoils
282
BL@K
W@D
SLCUREO TO S]UD
volD
TO I ILL sluo
-.-,/
DIMENSONAL
LUMBER AS
REQUIRED
SECURED TO
STUDS WITH
SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
WMD
BASE
PUTE
NAILED
TO WOOD
REINFORCEMENT
REOUIRED FOR
PENTTRATIONS
,,|iPl
IECS[=.,L
RUNNEF-
TO RUNNER
llql
..D
tw
SECURED
WITH
AOHTSIW
'\oceNtNe
CEMERED
IN WEB
GYPSUM
BOARD
NAIL TO
W@D
BL@K
AS REOUIRED
HEAVY FIXTURE
PENETRATION
NO REINFORCEMENT
REOUIRED FOR
PENETRATIONS <
PUNCHOU
DEffi,
AS NOTED
ryCEff
ATTACHMENT
OR
JOISTS
WOOD RUNNER
NOTE
This detail is optional depending on contractor preference
NAII-ABLE
BASE
PLATE
RAFTERS
N OTES
TOP
TRACK
1 . Do not notch or cut flanges.

2. Capacity verification by design is required for any openings located at concentrated loads and bearing nds.
3. For unpunched members, consult the manufacturer.
JOIST, STUD, OR RAFTER WEB

PENETRATIONS
INTERSECTION
WALL
FRAMING
CLIP WITH
AT EACH
SGEWS
AS SHOWN
TUCK
SGSS
AS REOUIREO
(acH
srDE)
STUD RUNNER
TOP AND
BOTTOM
TRACK
SPLICE
TOP PLATE INTERSECTION
A'v"
ilt-n
ll lll 1,4
ll I ll l.,g
20 GA- frr()<
STUP
WIH 2 SCREWS AT
EACH SruD
MECHANTCAL
FASTENERS
NOTES
'1.
Where blocking material thickness allows, notch and
bend track 90 degreesfor connection.
2- Where provisionsare made for transfer of flange forces
to solid blockjng,blockingneed not be in the lull depth of
the member.
Dimensional lumber may also be used for backing,

BACKING
FOR
CABINETS
STUD (ALIGN
WIH FL@R
615T BELOW)
/-].Re
GA
AS
SNFFENER
REOUIRED
- CLIP
ANGLE
Load-bearing studs must be sated tight to track web.
JOIST
TRACK
PUNKING
STUDS (BELOW
AND ABOW)
ALGN
WIH ruOOR JOIST
rRACK
//-
JOIST
AS
u3[.o"]?^""
FUNGE
N OTE
STUD-TO.TRACK
wooD
SOLID
BLOCKING
sruD
RUNNER/GaCK
WELDS.
AS
REOUIRED
SOLID BLOCKING
SHAGING
MULNRE
MEMBERS
2)r
<'v :-
SOLID
BLOCKING
20 GA. frrCK
SruD
COPE fuNGES
AS
AND SECURE
SHOM
WITH 2 SCREWS AT
ACH
SruD
N OTE
StuD
CON NECTION
2 ROWS
OF SOLID
BLOCKING
2 SCRWS
BE]reEN
AP
ANGLE
AT EACH
END OF
BL@KING
CLIP ANGLE
AT EACH
END
FOR
BLGKING
SHEATHING
IST
(ALIGN
SHEAfrING
SruD
E}tLOw)
t^"_
STUD
1-
COMNUOUS
JOISTS
PARALLEL
TO SEP
IN
rcWN
BALCONY
(OR PROVDE
HEADER)
SruD
(AUGN
wmD
rcIST, P.T.
JOrST)
MULTIPLE
.,OIST
MEMBERS
AS
REOUIRED
JOIST
HANGER
OR CLIP
ANGLES
SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
NOTES
3. Where axial load-bearing members do not align venically,

provide top track distribution members at wall below.
1. Balconiesrequirespecialdetailingand protectionagainsl
moistureand thermalbridging.
2. Where axialload-bearingmembersdo not alignvertically,
providetop track distributionrembers at wall below.
N OTES
'l
. Balconiesrquirspecialdetailingand protectionagainst
moistureand thermal bridging.
2. Where axialloadSaringmembers do not alignvertically,
provide top track distribution members at top of wall
oelow-
FLOOR
BALCONY
\MOOD DECK BALCONY
1. Provide continuous
lower wall.
bridging between
each joist at the
2. Solid blocking in every other space may be used in lieu of

bridging.
CANTILEVER
NOTES
Amencan lron and Steel Institutej Washington, D.C.
r=
ti\
e1/
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
\,VITH STEP DOWN
Cold-FormedSteelFromingDetqils
JOIST AND TRACK
AS RIDGEBOARD
283
SHEATHING
T6FE5.'"8
----[--;----
SCREWS
REOUIRED
AS
RAffER
ROOF
GAE}LE
CLIP ANGLE,
LESS
HAN
DEPTH
--
END
1Z'
RAilER
\/
SHEATHING
RA-ERS
OR TOP
CHORD
2 TRACKS
ONE
STUD
-.,
WALL
INTERSECTION
FRAMING
RIDGEBOARD
(PROVIOE
RA-ER
CONTTNUOUS
BRIDGING
OVER
WALL
OR SOLID
BLOCKING
AT EVERY
OTHER
SPACE)
.- SCREWS
AS
REOUTRED
RE.
/,/
STUD, WP. -
WITH
SCREWS
AS REOUIRED
CANTILEVERED
CLIP
NGLE
ROOF
GAE}LE
END
N OTE
Provide bridging at ceiling joists and r@l rafters and continuous bridging between rafters at wall.
ROOF END DETAILS

ANGLE AS REOUIRED
FOR EAVE AOARD
WALL
SruO
DISMIBUTION
MEMBER
WHERE
JOISTS
DO NOT
ALIGN
WTH
SruDS
BELOW
CORNER
FRAMING
MASONRY
ROOF EAVE AT CATHEDRAL

OR
TOP CHORD
WAI
CONCREE
GYPSUM WALLAOARD
.
CEILING
SCREWS,
AS REOUIRED
@NTINUOUS
BRIreING
AS REOUIRED
Z FURRING
COLLAR
cLrP aNGLE
.=-
INSUUTION
BONOM
WALL
CLIP
TIE DETAIL
CHORD
TRACK
ANGLE
WALL
STUD
MEMBER
RIBWON
WHERE JOISTS rc NOT

4IGN
WITH STUDS BELOW
FURRING CHANNELS
Z
;J'-'-.
CONCRETE
- \--
HAT
OR
ROOF TRUSS
MASONRY
cHANNEL
WALL
IST
OR BOfrOM
CHORD
CONNECED
TO RAMER
FURRTNG
TOP OF NON-LOAD
EAVE DETAIL
PARALLEL
RA|TR
OR
TOP
CHORD
. --
COMNUOUS
AS REOUIRED
BRIDGING
ALIGN
AND
JOIST
RATER
OWR
WALL
STUD
BELOW
WALL
CLIP
TO
BEARING WALL
JOISTS
MUBLE
JOIST
SECTIONS
AS REOUIRED
8Y DESIGN
WHEN
DO NOT
STUDS
ALIGN
WIH
JOISTS
BELOW:
AT EnERIOR
WALLS.
CONTINUOUS
JOIST
TRACK
MAY BE
SUBSTITUTED
FOR
ONE
JOIST
SECTION
-
ABOVE
.SruDS
SCREWS
REOUIRED
TRACK
ANGLE
CONTINUOUS
FASTEN
ANGLES,
MH
SCREWS
AT
EACH
MEMBER
DISTR!BUTION
MEMBER
WHERE
JOISTS
DO NOT
ALIGN
WTH
STUDS
BELOW
FURRING CHANNELS
SOFFIT
FRAMING
AS REOUIRED
(oflroNAL)
i\-warr
ROOF EAVE OETAIL
JOIST
sruo
SHEATHING
AS
STUDS
BELOW
ALTERNATE
DETAIL
FOR
FILLER
STUD
TR'EUTION
MEMBER
AS REOUIRED
8Y DESIGN
WHERE
JOISTS
AND/OR
STUOS
DO NOT ALIGN
WTH
STUDS
BELOW
TOP TRACK DISTRIBUTION
MEMBER
Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington,

D.C-
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
Miscellqneous
MetolAngles,Tees,Zees,qnd Chonnels
284
NOTE
should be checked for availabilitvol sizesother than

those in the* tables. Where nsessrv, and where
extra cost is warranted, other sectionsmav be produced by welding,cutting, or other methods.
STEEL
AN6LE6
UNEQUAL
LEOA
6TEEL
EQUAL
-l|n
ANGLEE
LEGS
STEEL ANGLES
_EQUAL LEGS_BAR
slzEx t
StzE x t
STEEL CHANNELS_BAR
S|ZE (IN.)
STEEL ANGLES
_UNEQUAL LEGS_BAR
SIZE (IN.)
IL_
SIZE flN.)
stzE x t
t/a x 1t/a x./rc
2x2x3lrc
1/z x 11/zx3/ra
2x2x3le
xs/e x le
2 x2 x./t
2xelrc
3la x3/a x1/e
2t/2 x 1t/2 x3,$
x3/rc
lllz xrlz x1/a

2x1xl/e
11/z x'|.1/z x3/rc

13/t x1/z x3/rc
g/ro
1xlx3/ro
3/ax13/exlle
txlx'/4
3/a x 13/a x3/rc
11/2x1t/ax3h6
2 x 1ltz x3trc
l1rxlrlaxl/s
2x1'/2xl/a
2'h x 2 x3ta
NOTE: For siructural channel sizes ( d = 3 i n . ano

larger) see Dimensions of Channer Shapes in t h i s
21tzx2x3e
NOTE: For structural anqlesizes{3 x 2 x 3/'o'in. and

larger)seeDimensionsof AngleShapesin this chapter.
/olI -JF'
-.1.- u
STEEL TEES_BAR
2r/t x21/t xl/a
2rlz x21h xrlt
STRUCTURAL
21lz x21/z xs/ ra
3x2rr/ro x21rlrcxt/a
lt/a x 11/ax3/rs
21/z x21/z x3/e
3x2r1/rc
x2rt/ra
41/a x33/rc x 33/ro x 3/e
x3/d
5x31/a x31/a x1/z
4 x 3 1 / r c x 3 1 1 r cx l l t
Srlre x 35/ro x35/rc x3/a
4rlre x3r/e x31/e x5/ro
6x31/z x3rh x3/a
s r z Ex t
s r z Ex t
tlz xlxrla
x2 x 1la
3x3xt/e
4x1rlz xlle
13lax1x1/e
5x2x3/ts
ANctLE
ALUMINUM
CORNERA
AOUARE
lxlxr/8
2xl
ALUMINUM ANGLES_SQUARE
CORNERS_EQUAL
LEGS (IN.)
11lax5/e xlla
stzE x I
sizes and Aluminum Assaiation Standard sizes.se

Dimensionsof ChannelShaDesin this chaoter.
stzE x I
stzE x I
1/2x1/2xt/j6
1/2x1/2xt/B
5/ex5,'sxl/s
lxlx3/ro
2x2x5/ro
31lz x3'/z x 1/z
3/a
lxlxr/r
2x2x3/a
4x4xtlt
txtx,3
lth
21/z x21lz xl/e
4x4x5/rc
I x I x-16
2x2xtte
lllt x 11/ax3ls
21/z x21/z x3l s
|X
2x2x3.'rs
11ltx1lltx1/a
21/z x2r/z xlla
4x4x3la
4x 4x rlz
3r,rx31.!x3,h
3t /2 x 31,2x t/2
lr,ex1lex3ro
2x2xtie,t
4x4xlta.3ta,1'z
2ttzx2ltzxtb
|X
a6.
2r/c x'la xrla
2t/2 x 2ti2 x3h6
J'l2xJ't2x,t4
x3/a x
xtle
2x2 xt/e
31/z x31/z x3le
t/z
12x /A
2
3/e
7t/z x 11/z xt/a
Ztlz x21lz x5/ra
4 x 4x3/t
11i. x 11/4x1/s
2r/z x21/z x3la
5X5x'/B
UNEQUAL
11lz x11/z x1/a
3x3x3/ro
5x5xr/z
13lt x 13h x1/e
3x3xr/r
6x6x3/E
13/t x 13/t x 3/ rc
3x3x5/re
6x6xr/z
lt/tx13/txt/t
3x3x3/s
8x8xr/z
2x2x1/e
3x3xr/z
3x3x',b
JXJX"r5,-b,
rc,xia
'l | r -JII
tl
ALUMINUM TEES_
SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
3rr:x31rzxr.r
x3;a,
bxdxt
6x6x3/s,12
I x3la x1/e
LEGS.(IN.}
3/a x3te x3b2
-+-----.1r-
ALUMINUM
TEE6
SQUARE
CORNERB
'/2 x
t,s
ltlz x lrlz x3lto
lxlxr/e
2x3ta xlia
2x1x'e
3r,2x3x'ze
ALUMINUM
TEES
SQUARE
CORNERS
2\1t/2x1,6
STRUCTURAL
UNEQUAL LEGS (IN.)
2 1 l zx 2 x 5 / r s
5X
I X
Strax2jtaxtie
(IN.)
2x2x1la
l3x3x3/e
STAINLTSS
ANGLES
STEEL
l3rx1r'zxre
3 x2 x3/te
l3/t x11/a x1/e

5 x3t/z
3 x21/z x 1/t
x3/a
5x31/z xt/z
3x21lz x3/t
2x11/z x3/rc
5/ex1x1/e
2xr/z x1/e
2 x 2 xlra,'ta
lllz x11/a x1/a
x1/z x1/e
3x 1 x r/a
5/e xsle x 1/e
1 x3/a x 1ls
2x2x1/a
11/zx11/a x3/te
rlz x2tlz xr/e
l xrlz xlle
1 x l x1/e.rlre,
l1/z x'lt/q xt/t
rlz xllz x1/a

1lz x5/a x t/a
4 1 l zx 2 x r / a
3/rx3/ox1/a,1/rc
x11/a xlle
llzx1r/zxl/a
13/t x3lc xtla
I Sx3'/axrlz
stzE x t
x3/lxl
'lt x 11/< xlla
rlz x1llz x1/a
3x2111* x21r/rs x1/z
ALUMINUM ANGLES_STRUCTURAL
_EQUAL LEGS (tN.)
dxbxt
dxbxt
5x31la x31/e x5/ta
STRUCTURAL
ANGLE
t--'lt
-l ll
-+-a
llc x3/t xr/e
1/z xllz xtlzz
11lex11/ax1/a
ALUMINUM
6TRUCTURAL
Tnn
3lg x3ls xllaa
1 3 l t x 1 1/ a T z f t x 3 f r 5
11/<x11/t x1/e
| 4x3x3/e
11/t xl1la x1/a

2x2x1/a
21/z xZt/z x1/z
NOTE:
NU
I t: For
l-or structural anglesizes(3 x 3 x 3/ro inin. and
ar
larger)seeDimensionsof Angle Shapesin this chapter
dxbxt
dxaxbxt
3x3x5/ro
21/z x21lz x5/ta
ALUMTNUMCHANNELS +I.
_SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
SIZE (tN.)
3t2'l.ffi
21/z x21lz x1/a
21/z x21/z x3/a
aLUMTN'M .HANNEL
souaRE
coRNERs
H
_+_'
---)
TIES
z'12x z'12x rl 16
t2 x 11/2 x3/6
11/ax11/e xl/e
l3,rxllrx3'rs
x 3/ro
chapter.
6TEEL
lx1xr/s
2xlrrxra.3ro
2x1"2xl/e
11/z x3/t x1/a
1 r/e x
2x1'ax3ro
ALUMINUM
ZEES
seuaRE coRNERs
ALUMTNUMZEES-
31/z x2tlz x t/a
6x31lz x1/z
J',t2XZt2X.ta
6x4x3/e
dxaxbxt
6x4xr/z
t/z x1/z x1/z x3/zz

3/a x3/a xz/t x1/e
8xOx3,'r
7/a x3/a x3la x1/s
2tlz x11/z xlla

21lz x2 x3/ ta
HMC Group;Ontario,California
METALFABRICATIONS
-+-t+
I
-----1i
STAINLESS
:L_L.
lo
dxaxbxt
I x'11/gx 11/ex l/e
I x5/e x1/e x1/e
STEEL
ANGLES
(tN.)
2t/z x21/z x 1/<
3x3x1/r
3x3x5/ro
MetolTubingond Pipes
RECTANGULAR TUBING - STEEL
T = WALL THICKNESS
(B\^/ GAUGE OR IN.)
285
ROUND PIPE . STEEL
RECTANGULAR ALUMINUM
TUBING (IN.)
srzE (lN.)
INSIDE DIAMETER
(BW GAUGE)
NOMINAL
INSIDE
D IA.
SQUARE ALUMINUM TUBING (IN.)
Rectangular
and squaretubingwith sharpcornersis usually
usedfor miscellaneous
architectural
metalwork.
ROUND
TUBING
- COPPER
N OTE
Round pipe is made primarily in three weights: standard,
extra strong (or extra heavy), and double extra strong (or
double extra heavy). Outside diameters of the three
weights of pip in each size are always the same: extra wall
thickness is always on the inside and therefore reduces the
inside diameter of the heavier pipe. All sizes are specified
by what is known as the "nominal inside diameter."
Round pipe is also available in aluminum and stainless
steel. lndividual manufacturers'cataloqs should be consulted for sizes.
NOTES
Round tubing, usually manufactured for mechanical pur
poses, is used for architectural metalwork to supplemenl
round pipe. Round tubing is measured by the outside diameter and the wall thickness by gauge, fractions, or decimals
of an inch. Round tubing is used where a high grade finish
is required and exact diameters are necessary.
Round tubing is available in steel, aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and other metals. lndividual manufacturers' cata'
logs should be consulted for availability of materials and
srzes.
","=_.,...oo@
"""oooo
TUBING.
COPPER
ROUND TUBING AND PIPE
SQUARE TUBING.
WALL
STEEL
THICKNESS
(B\|r'GAUGE OR IN.)
DDnn
STEEL
RECTANGULAR
ALUMINUM
AND SQUARE TUBING
HMC Group; Ontario, Californra
METALFABRICATIONS
286
PrefobricqtedFireproofedSteelColumns
CONCRETE
GENERAL
Lallv columns are orefabricated structural units that consist
of a load-bearing steel column, filled with concrete. This
creates a column with increased loadbearing capacity in a
space no larger than a standard column. Firepbof lally col.umns have a thin steelFirell and a layer oI insilating material between the shell. and the structural steel..Fire ratings
range trom two to lour hours depending on thqthickness ot
the insulating material. The protective steel shell allows
fireproof lally columns to be left exposed in either interior or
exterio. applications.
STEEL
FILLED
TUBING
LOADS
SAFE
ALLOWABLE
U.L. RATED/ FIREPROOFED COLUMN
IN KIPS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH

RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION
OUTER
otM ENStOt THICKOF TUBING N ESS
oz
a
53
6E
ov
119
2a
12
18
7x7
297
369
90
98
357
MO
t8
20
3 HR.
4 HR
7x j
8x8
9x9
8x8
9xg
1 0x 1 0
2 HR.
oxo
bxb
bxb
85
a2
tla
t05
243
301
lol
177 l 5 l
rcu t s
128
221 208 1 8 9 t 0 6
279 255 230 2M
346 334 321 306

427 412 395 371
291 272 2U 236

355 334 3 1 1 286
245 273 259

354 337 320
183
226 204
zcl
x8
l6
4Q
102
241 224 215 200

299 283 267 244
55
60
xo
l4
185 172 1
5 8 t41 124 1 0 3
'194
173 r 5 0
229
40
44
x5
10 | 12
40
42
SQUARE SHELL
stzEs ilN.)
ttl
146
9x9
10x101lx11
215 l 0 x 1 0 1 1 x 1 1 1 2 \ 1 2
259
J@
1 0 xl 0
482
592
tJz
142
471 460
579
M8 435 4 1 9 404
550 533 5 1 5 495
388
474
369 350 1 2 x 12 1 3x 1 3 1 4 x 1 4
424
N OTE
Load table based on Fy = 46 ksi
TYPICAL
LALLY COLUMN
CONCRETE
SHAPES
FILLED STEEL PIPE

ALLOWABLE
DIAMETER
OF PI PE
(lN.)
SAFE
LOADS
U.L.-RATED
IN KIPS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
IN FEET KL WITH
RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION
THICKNESS
to
PER FT
l2
l4
t6
22
24
SQUARE
26
17
23
58
94
.318
22
75
56
.674
21
36
93
r55
76
86 '122
139
102
.zaa
JO
.375
.750
,z6u
.432
.864
39
52
oo
1 3 9 1 3 0 120 1 1 0 98
84
230 215 1 9 8 174 1 5 6 132
.500
.875
56
314
475 460
423
.500
178
ztv
415 406
SHELL
SIZES (IN.)
3 HR.
8xB
6%
6%
YXY
o '/.
d ./s
9x9
6 'le
8 sle
10x10
8Y"
8 5/a
8%
10 3l^
1 03 1 "
12 3l^
t2 3l^
4 HR.
6x6
7x7
52
8x8
4HR
8x8
ol
r 4 0 125 'r09
225 r 9 8 1 6 9
9x9
68
9xg
10x10
11x11
11x1l
12x12
13x13
1031e
1 4x 1 4
lbxl
14
IYU
295 283 270 257 242 226 209 1 9 1 171

444 425 404
359 334 307 274 244
534
COLUMNS
46
tzJ
I t4
1 9 7 'r88 1 7 8 t @
327
293 272 249
zac
91
111
ROUND
2 HR.
3 HR.
bxb
6%
FIREPROOFED
SIZES (IN.)
2 HR.
39
60
4{'
79
.300
.600
SHELL
394
383 370
356 342
326
309
507
496
470
442
'426 409
444
457
291
t5x t5
to x to
NOTE
Load table based on F, = 46 ksi
wooD
NAILER
CONCRtrE
SANDARD
5@
ONE WAY
THRU PUTE
PSI CONCRETE
STEEL PIPE
COLUMN
STIFFENER
STRUqURAL
STEELTUBE
(OPTIONAL)
5m
PSI
CONCRETE
(OPTIONAL)
INSUUTING
MATERIAL
FIREPROOF
ULLY
COLUMN
|'-
STRUCTURAL
STEEL
TUBE
PARTITION
INSUUTING
MATRIAL
MASONRY
ANCHOR
WELDED TO
DOOR FRAME
SCREWED TO
SHELL
STEEL
SHEI
STANOARD
STEEL BASE
STEEL
FIREPROOF COLUMNS
TYPICAL
LALLY COLUMN
TYPICAL COLUMN
ASSEMBLIES
Eric Gastier;Alexandria,Virginia
METALFABRICATIONS
BASE ANO CAP
ATTACHMENTS
TO STEEL SHELL
BEAM CONNECTIONS
8%
10 3lo
SteelStoirs
287
d. Bails should be arranged to discourage climbing
GUIDELINES
1. Width of stair:
a. Dwelling stairs: minimum 36 in. treads.
b. Public exit stairs: minimum 44 in. treads.
c. Rescue assistance a.ea (ADA):48 in- between handrarls.
2. Treads:
a. Dwellings:9 in. minimum (nosing to nosing).
b. Olher (ADAI: l1 in minimum (nosing to nosing).
c. Uniform width wirhin one Ilight.
e. Concentrated load nonconcur,ently applied at the top

rail shall be 200 lb per ft in vertical downward and horizontal direction. The test loads are applicable for railjngs with supports not more than 8 tt apart.
6. Handrails:
a. Dwellings: on one side only, required.
b. Other (ADA): required on both sides.
c. Height:34 to 38 in.
d. Grip surface: 1'/ato 11lri^.
e. Clearance at wall: 1rl, in.
3. Risers:
f. Projecting or recessed.
a. Dwellings: 81/zin. maximum.

b. Other (ADA): minimum 4 in., maximum 7 in
c. Uniform height within one flight.
4. Nosing: maximum 1rl2 in. with 60" under nosing: maximum r/, in. radius al edge.
5. Stair rails:
1ST
g. Extension at top of run: 12 in.

h. Extension at bottom of run: 1 2 in. plus width of tread.
i. When a guardrail more than 38 in. high is used, a separate handrail should be installed (ASTM).
j. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of
nanos.
STAIR
SECTION
7. Regulators and standards; building codes, ADA, ASTM,

ANSI. NFPA. and OSHA.
a. Height in dwellings:36 In.

b Herghr In evit stairs: 42 in
c. Rails should be arranged so that a sphere 4 in. in diameter cannot be passed through.
12'
ENENSION
MUST NOT
4" SPHERE
-.
ANY POINT
,".4qi'i:'"^"
5.
REQUIRED
PT-AN DIMENSIONS
(ADA)
ASSISTANCE
FOR
RESCUE
5'
TO
;
;
1'/1'
5'
5'
FIELD
MLD
CONCRETE
FILLED PAN
PIAN
SHO\^/ING
E)<TENSIONS
HANORAIL
STAIR RAILS
STEEL
r-ru
ME
T_
HANGER
tr:lN il tH
FffTT|
AND
BARS
fuTES
PUTE
TUBE
--l
|f"-
FROM
HEAW
BACK
BEARING
AND
BAR
END
:$,,j-aw-
PDTE
FLOOR
NOSING,
BAR
PLAiES
END
NOSING
OF ANGLE
AND
ABRASIW
STRIP
AND
ENOS
BAR
STEEL
suPPoRr
:i:.=*
STRINGER
10'MINSMINGER
WPE
CHANNEL
CffiRIER
PI ATE
\
---
-=.-.-
BEARING
-J'
PLATE
'-
.t
..-l:
'n"' o,o. to..=

IN STRINGER
'^
FURR,NG
1'7.' x 1v^" x ik"

ANGLE
STEEL
SUPrcRTS
t- ltflFs
.H
Fll
ll
I lu-,llr+E
o*.,. =[]-Elfl
-!El---s
Fr33*'o*r1-
NOTE
This stair is not suitable for persons with disabilities.
INDUSTRIAL
AND SERVICE STAIRS
FURRING
2". cRoss
OWRGP
MINUM)
\RW
='ffi
t**'*o,
CHANNEL
\--,v"'(steeu)
2ra'(aLU-
Hffi
--w
TREADS
STRINGER
F=fl
f-xF=-H
L/ltl
ff
f-.m_n
NTffi
-___^
WELDED To
r.rrrSTRTNGER_=l--i{
PLATE
CHECKER
NOSING,
BAR
PUTES
END
NOSING
OF
SPACED
CLOSELY
ENOS
BARS.
ANGLE
OOO
RS33E=-wffi
PAN.TYPE
STAIR CONSTRUCTION
D.C.
AIA;Washington.
CharlesA. Szoradi,
METALFABRICATIONS
FixedMetol lqdders
288
GENERAL
HANDRAIL
(IF WALL
NOTES
1. Materials {or ladders and supports include galvanized

steel and aluminum. Galvanized steel ladders are fastened to the wall with galvanized steel lasleners; alumi
num ladders are Iastened with stainless steel fasteners.
ENENSION
AT TOP,
1%' DIAMETER
HANDRAIL
\
2. All Iixed wall ladders must conform to OSHAy'ANSI A14.3

standards. Also consult l@al codes tor design require"
ments.
il-+ l''-'
I
lMrN.
:l
lao'
lll'1'*
lJll
ooz
12'
.-->.
il-"1'-+--
Mq.
91h'
--></
STEEL
ANGLE
SUPPORT
BRACKETS
METAL
CHANNEL
AT SIDES
SMINGER
H@PS,
CAGE
3" X %' BARS
FLOOR
GRATING
FL@R
MOUNNNG
The maximum rise between treads dependson exact ladder heightandangle.
N OTE
Cagesand rest platforms are requiredfor climbing heights
of more than 50 ft.
SHIP'S
REST PLATFORM
NOTE
50'-o'
2' X %' MtN.
BAR
FG
CAGE
VERTICALS
fuRED
E}ONOM
s'-,"
LADDER
CAGE
IA'DAMffiR
GIVAN|zED
THROUGH BOLTS
(RECOMMENDED).
MIN.
X %'
MOUMNG
BRACKT,
FASENED
STFINGER
7 -' MtN.
a'o'MA
METAL
TO
1' X 21h'
STRINGER
MET{
UOOER
(FOR
FASTENRS
ALUMINUM.
USE
RIWTS;
FOR
STEEL.
WELDS)
N OTE
Cagesshouldbe used on laddersat hazardousleations or
on short laddersat high loctions.
*"HrEg:Jb","
""ffi'p
FIXED VERTICAL LADDER

(5O FEET OR LESS)
:,:I::"""""
EruRL AS
RUNG
(N
//(N{
Lts"+!l*-;;"
ROUND
SERRATED
RUNG
CHANNEL
SIDE SUPrcRT
60'o.c.,
STEEL
LADDER
SHIP'S
Mff&
MOUMING
BUCKfl
TREAD
ANGLE
ANGLE
TREAD
TREADS AND RUNGS
SIDE RAIL MOUNTING

DETAILS
BRACKET
.-n
1'
RUNG
METAL
CHANNEL
i|
1
il
'/"--------rRl
llflN.N.l
<{P
r
+--
ll
[_=
I
IAI'
Ft.AED
CAGE AT
BONOM
FIXED VERTICAL
(UP TO 24 FEET'
Richard J.
r=
L\
e/
LADDER
Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
METALFABRICATIONS
SAFETY
CAGE
FLOOR-MOUNTING
BRACKET
DETAIL
FireEscopesond EscopeLodders
i\
DOOR
ACCESS
18
289
MrN
MOUNTING
BRACKETS
ROOF UDDER
LOCATED TO
MEET CONDITIONS
OF BUILDING
HANDLE FOR
UDDER
RETRACTION
AT EACH
ACCESS POINT
.
\
CHECK
LocaL
\ CIDES
ANGLE OF STAIR
NOT MORE THAN 60.
|ru
3 -O
MAX
TYP- FLOOR
LEVEL
l.
CLOSED
]-K
RETRACTABLE
OPEN
POSITION
ESCAPE
LADDER
FIRE ESCAPE
N OTE
POSITION
NOTES
FIRE ESCAPE
1 In general, exterior {ire escapes are not permttted as any

part of the required means of egress for new buildings,
but may be continued as a component in the means of
egress in existing buildings. New fire escapes for existing buildings are permitted only where exterior statrs
cannot be ulilized due to lot lines that limit stair size or
due to sidewalks, alleys, or strets at grade level. Access
by windows is generally not permitted.
2" xz"
2. For other soecilic requirements,

national and local building codes.
COUNTR
BAUNCE STAIR
)\,tr-\<
or other public ways without any obstruction
7 to 12 tr from landingto
gradeat front ot building(12
It minimum at alleysor thoroughfares less than 30 ft
wide).
x3tra"
aT4',O
refer
to
applicable
3. For standards for firo escapes as well as for stairs and

'l
means of egress, consult ANSI 17.1, OSHA, and NFPA
1010 (Life Safety Code).
O.C
4. Since fire escapes are mounted outside of the building

envelope, consideration must be given to exterior lighting provided on the building itself or general street lighting that would illuminate it.
5. Standard fire escapes are typically designed to support a
live load of 100 lb/sq ft: stair treads shall be desagned to
suoport a concenlrated live load of 250 lb at any point.
FLOOR
GRATING
ESCAPE
STEL
BAR
FUT
PLAN - FIRE ESCAPE

'/,
STEEL
CHANNEL
cHEcKERED
STEEL
BOLT (MIN. I
PER BRACKET)
PLATE
ANGLE
STAIR
STEEL CHANNEL
(FASTENED
WITH
STRINGERS
r/2" BoLTS
wELD)
oR coNTrNuous
ELEVATION
- FIRE
LADDER
NOTES
1. Located adiacent to windows or balconies, the retractabie aluminum escaoe ladder is used solely for
emergency exit, rescue, or supplemental escape route.
Also provides access to mechanical equipment or other
secured spaces. Not to be used as any component tn the
means ot egress.
2. Consult manufacturer for mounting details. Refe. to
national and local building codes lor specific requirements concerning access opening types, sill heights,
clearances, and maximum installation heights allowed. In
some instances, a balcony maY be used at anv level to
access the ladder
BRICK
ESCAPE
TYPICAL
STAIR TREADS
RachardJ. Vitullo. AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland

Jomy Safety Ladder Company, Inc.; Boulder. Colorado
METALFABRICATIONS
Grotings
290
0f0f000000
0000000f00
STANOARD DOUBLE-SLOT
W I T H S P A C E R B A R S W E L D E O4 - O . c : .
NOTE
WITH SPACER SARS WELDEO 2.,O.C.
Constructedof flat bearingbarso{ steel or aluminuml-bars,

with spacebars at right angles.Spacebars may be square,
rectangular,or of anothershap.Spacerbars are connected
to bearingbars by pressingthem into preparedslots or by
welding. They have open ends or ends banded with flat

bars about the sam size as welded bearinq bars. Standard
bar spacings ar 1546and 13/16in.
BAR GRATING (WELDED
RECTANGULAR
OR PRESSURE
GRATING
ltlllll||t
LOCKED)
STANDARD SINGLE-SLOT
GRATING
w r T H S P A C E R B A R S R T V E T E O3 ' / : - O R 4 "
USEDFORHAVY TRAFFICAND WHEREWHEELED
EOUIPMENT
IS USED
WITH SPACER BARS RIVETED APPROX. T'O.C.

USEO FOR AVERAGE INSiTALUTION
NOTE
25l,6in. Many bar gratingscannot be used in areasof public

pedestriantraffic (opningsare too big for crutches,canqs,
pogo sticks,women's shoes, etc.). Close mesh grating('/a
in.) is availablein steel and aluminumlor use in pedestrian
traffic areas.
Flat bearing bars are made of steel or aluminum, and continuous bent spacer or reticulate bars are riveted to the
bearing bars. Usually they have open ends or ends that are
banded with flat bars of the same size as bearing bars,
welded across the ends. Normal spacing of bars: %, 1tls, or
RETICULATED
'
l"
ffi
nIrTrl
GRATING
3"
TRIPLE-SLOT GRATING
SLOTS PARALLEL TO FRAME
(RIVETED)
,
l"
6'' PANEL
nIr-Ir.]
\\S\\S
I mr-----_l
-
N
ilil[ililil[ililil
ilil[ililil[[il[il
----lmmr----------.---mmrt--
__J
rilr ilrr
LL.l Lll r
llll lllll
I Lll uJ tJ
WH EELC HAI R/BICYCLE
PUN
SECTION
NOTE
Grating is extruded from aluminum alloy in one piece with
integral l-beam ribs and can have a natural tinish or be anod-
ALUMINUM
ized. Top ot surface may be solid or punched. Standard

oanelwidth is 6 in.
PLANK GRATING
GR.A,TING
PEDESTRIAN GRATING
N OTE
Grates made ol gray cast iron. ductile st
minum
FLANGE BLOCK
(ALUMINUM I-BAR)
N-\ _n
STANDARD
l--',----_^.* w
USUALLY AfrACHED
iron, or 6st
GRATE DESIGNS
TYPELFRA*a
---"
BY WELDING, WHERE SUPPORT AND GRAT ARE CONSTRUCTED AS A UNIT
FIXED OR LOOSE
GRATINGS-TYPICAL
DETAILS
,,
SIZES
OF ANGLES
H I NGED
SUPPORTING
GRATING
G RATI NGS_TYPICAL
DEPEND
ON OEPTH
DETAILS
CharlesF- D. Egben,AIA; Washington,D.C.

VicenteCordero,AIA; Arlington,Virgrn
METALFABRICATIONS
OF GRATING
BARS
TRENCH
GRATINGS-FRAME
DETAIL
alu-
OrnomentollronworkDeloils
produce custom work today; a smaller proportion of their
work is restoration.
GENERAL
Wrought iron is a commercial form of iron with a relativly
sofl and malleable fibrous structure. The term literally
means "tashioned" or "tormed" iron and is widely associated with ironwork details. ASTM A 186 defines wrought
iron as iron with a carbon content between 0.03 and
0.0570, a material prevalent up to the 19th century. lron
with such a low carbon content is scarce today, so most
{abricators use steels containing combinations of iron with
a higher percentage of carbon tor ornamental details. Low
carbon steel or mild steel is the most desirable of these.
NOTES
l. Steel and iron are the metals most freouentlv used for
ornamental structures. Other ooDular metals are aluminum (favored for its light weight and rust resistance), polished bronze, brass, and copper. Blacksmiths primarily
2. Working with iron is a cratt not readily mastered by gen

eralists; low bidders may not be qualifjed to deliver a
high-quality product. Check references for similar types
of jobs performed or jobs at similar costs. Consult rhe
National Ornamental and Miscellaneous Metal Association (NOMMA) and the Artists-Blacksmiths Association
of North America lor more information on references and
lists of blacksmith shops in the United States.
3. NOMMA publishes voluntary guidelines lor joint finishes
in ornamental work. They are Finish #1 (no evidence of a
welded,oint); Finish #2 (completely sanded joint. some
undercutting and pinholes); Finish #3 (parlially dressed
weld with splatter removed); and Finish #4 (good quality,
uniform undressed weld with minimal solatted.
291
SFmy'*.*\1x
wELD-STEEL BAR
sql lfro
N
/
\U
/
,/
TYPICAL SIZES AND WE]GHTS (LB PER FT)

FOR SOLID IRON AND CARBON STEEL BARS
DIAMETER OR
THICKNESS (IN
EXPANSION
ROUNDS
(DIAMETER IN.)
METAL
GRILL\/VORK
INSTALLATION_
DETAILS
FOR MASONRY
OPENINGS
$::::$
Wrb
mm00$$Dn
Ytr$
$=*n***='*'qg-HH=.ft*-W
rcX'W
65*"Y,-*F-{*"6> K=M*'4
m*."#*
BAR ENDS
INTERSECTING
MEMBERS
-WELD
CORNER CONDITIONS
WELD
WELD
EDGE CONDITIONS
RIVETS
(OR BOLTS)
MISCELLANEOUS
CONNECTIONS
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
METAL
ORNAMENTAL
292
PerforotedMetqls
GENERAL
Pe.forated metals were initiallv created to fulfill industrial
needs such as minimizing the weight of a particularcomponent or controlling the passage ot fluids or gasses. As an
architectural component, perforated metals can be used as
control devices or simply as decoration. They can serve as
sound suppression acoustical devices in ceilings, walls, and
grilles; when incorporated into light lixtures. grilles, or ceiling and wall components, they can filter light and obscure
views. Since perlorated metals retain a great deai of their
strength and al$ ventilate well, they are otten employed in
furniture and other designs. Because they can bend and
interrupt wavelengths of many types, perforated metals are
used to contain microwave radiation and the EMI/RFl radiation emitted by electrical devices.
6. Nonstandard end patterns may require special dies.

Unoerforated borders mav cause distonions of the finished sheet. Roller leveling may be used to correct some
of these distortions but may not always work. To calculate the (round) holes per square inch:
Y.-9p9!-{9q
78.54xDxD
METAL SHEET
(SECIry
THICKNESS.
G
G
METAL THICKNESS,
METAL.
WIDfr)
AND WIDfr)
AND
LENGTH,
LENGTH,
LENGTH
OF
SHEET
NOTES
perlorated
l. Metal
is typically
with
hole-punching
machines, which work best on sheets .008 in. to rL in.
rhick. Specialized equipment is available for thicker
metal.
2. The intended use of the perforated metal sheet determines the size, shape, and pattern of the holes punched.
The strength and stiffness required vary according to
use. Since oerforated materials can be used in different
applications involving a wide range of geometries, materials. and loading conditions. design data are given in very
general form.
3. The enormous number of perforating patterns possible
with round holes, squares, slots, and other special perfc
rations make it impractical to list every pattern combination. The numbered perforations listed by the lndustrial
Perforators Association (lPA) are considered standard.
4. For design and tolrances of perforated metals, consult
the lPA.
5. Round holes trom.020 in. to more than 6 in. in diameter
make up the majority of all perforated metal sheets produced. This is because round holes can be produced
with greater efficiency and less expense and are generally stronger than other hole shapes.
SIDE
MffiGIN
'.aLdtoooooooo.
F
u
oooooooooooooa
aooooooooooooo
ooooooooood\o.
.oooooooooopool
ooooooooq".s4
TT
o,,
;b
.H
WIDTH
OF
-ORANON
PERFORANONS
ERFORATI
ERFORI
AND
SE
ARRANGEMEM
ANGEMET
s.lrocffi,dcffi.
OF
ofi
\t / l /1-
sl
\r:==:l
DrREcrroN /
TfON (SEClry
-,t
S
SHAPE
[
(sEctry
(OftER
STaGGERED.
PANERNS)
-
ffi-
MACHINE
MAC
DARK HOLES REMESEM
TOOL ruNCH
ARRANGMEM
THE SHEET
FOR ERFORATING
"-*-*{
N OTE
Spacingn be specifiedas a center-trenter dimension.a
prcntag6ol opn ara,or holesper squareinch.
TYPICAL TERMS FOR SPECIFYING
PERFORATED
METAL
ROUND HOLES
S*/S, STRENGTH
IPA NUMBERS
C H E C K L I S T O F P E R F O R A T I N GC O S T
INFLUENCES
materialmay nol
l.Material type: The least expensave
save mony; a higher strength alloy may allow thickness to be reduced.
2. Materialthickness:Thinnermaterialscan b prforated
easierandfaster.
3. Hole shaoe and oattern:Roundholes are the most eco
nomical;the 60x" staggoredround hole pattern is the
strongest,most versatile,and most common.
4. flole size:Do not go belowa l-to-l ratioof holeto size
to sheet thickness;stay with a 2-to-1 ratio or larger if
possible.
5. Bar size:Do not use barswith less than a l-tel ratio
with sheetthickness.
6. Center distance:This controls the teed rate and thus
the conductionrate. It possible,choose a patternwith
longercenter distance7. Open areas: Extreme open area proportions tend to
increasedistonion;if possible,stay under 70 percent.
B. Margans:Keepside marginsto a minimumto reduce
' distortion.Use standardunfinishedend marginsif pos
sible.
9. Blankareas:Considerthe die patternwhen determining
blankareas;consultthe metalsupplier.
l0.Standardization:
Specifystandardhole patterns,material dimensions,and toleranceswhen possible.Before
specityinga "special," ask the perforatorwhat can be
donewith existingtooling.
11.Accept normal commercial burrs unless otheMise
spcified.
LENGTH
OI R ECTIO N
NorE
*l
2-l
'
This standardIPA option is stronger than straight row pattems but not as strong as a 60x'staggered arrangement.lt
is also not as versatile in providingcompact hole spacing
and high open areasas the 60xo arGngement.
45" STAGGERED
PATTERN
RoUND
cE,*Rs
f !Rt'*t' --<t-+Pl1*'-t-F*---J
SIDE
MARGINS
HoLE
f;l l$;dl
frJ$:3:q4".**.
OPEN
PUNCH
u CENTERS
++
l-t6;cpl-*^-.
---1....oj1-''''"-loooooS
CLOSED
N OTE
PUNCH
A straight line pattern of holes is weaker than a staggered

arrangerent and can stretch th material more. Dark holes
in the drawings above indicto the punch patterns.
STRAIGHT LINE ROUND HOLE

PATTERN
D' X S.69
(d6'46'6)
'\ooaof
@EN
AREA
)a-P-sf
l-_-x.
STAGGERED
,c,
tooool
b-^r-e)+
D' X S.69
OPEN
AREA
STRAIGHT
D
-157.08 D'
S*= yield strengrhof perforatedmaterial

S = yield strengthol unperforatedmaterial(strengrhlor
60" standardstaggeredpattern)
Lengthdirection= parallelto straightrow of holes

Width directim = directionof stagger
45'
STAGGIRED
ROUND
IndustrialPerforatorsAssociation;Milwaukee,Wisconsin
McKey PerforatingCompany;New Berlin,Wisconsin
ORNAMENTAL
METAL
PATTERN
(SPECIAL)
HOLE OPEN AREAS
OPEN
Perforqted ond Sheet Metqls

cFNrr ps
rz-Y::$)
til
au^ra*=
//
-''
il
II
F:----l
-I r H
'I
riir
.-lf_-lr-1T.lr
SQUARE
PERFORATIONS
STAGGERED
|
F_1nf_1nJ---1j
293
a
tLil
-'-':z\
\ nUAU-UAU 2
'l
HE)<AGONAL
HOLES
p@@l
p.-ro/)o/)or-\q
vq
P Jovovo
P o o o o -o o o o o o o q
p-o
oô^q
o
,
/
o
,
/
o
l
r
q
P'-
SQUARE
PERFORATIONS
STRAIGHT
LINES
Tlilil'-_
)r7tVu=ilY
TztYlrYrxvzxT
r///.
\rLz\\i/\!/
_\Lzlrarrz\r/-\
SQUARES
NO rO5. O45
otA..37%
OPEN AREA
NO 200
1t5^
- 64v.
OPEN AREA
OCTAGONAL
CANE
GRECIAN
NOTE
A broadassonmentof nonstandard
hole shaoesand oatterns is available;
consultmetal perforator.AIso available
are indentedholes,collaredholes.and louveredholes.
MISCELLANEOUS NONSTANDARD
PERFORATION PATTERNS
NOTE
Thesethree types of slots are IPA standardtypes. Non
standardsquarendslotsare alsoavailable.
Consultmanu
facturersfor other open areacalculationsfor slots.
SLoT
wtDrH
SQUARE HOLE OPEN AREAS
/.
SIDL
'
No. log,5/e"
DtA.,36%
OPEN AREA
S'X
1M
c'
No 2ot , '/4
OPENING
OPEN
AREA
SLOTS
SIDE
STAGGER
N OTE
SLOT
WDrfr
SIDL
+*-+*.to*
SLOTS
END
STAGGER
/
,/
'
M ISCELLAN
PATTERNS
SQUARE HOLES
AND
No. r 20, ,a"

orA..58%
OPEN AREA
WEIGHTS
OF
SHEET
SLOTS
METALS*
GALVANIZED
STEEL
USS GAUGE REV.
STAINLESS-USS
SIDF
SLOTS
STRAIGHT
LINES
No. 2og, r/s" x I

OPENING,43%
OPEN AREA
EOUS PERFORATION
SLOT
WIDTH
,* l*to*
SLOTS
Square holes, principallyused for grilles and machine

guards,offer optimal visibilityand throughput.Typically
punchedin a straightline, in either straightor staggered
patterns,squareholesmake{or weakerperforatedsheets
thanroundholepatternsandare generallymoreexpensive.
Sharpcornersmake squarehole toolingwear out faster
thanroundholet@ling.
GA.UGES
*r ,r*?oo
lllr,'
/
/
'
GAUGE
USS GAUGE
*Gauges and weights have been computed subject to standard commercial tolerances.
Industrial Perforators Associataon;Milwaukee, Wisconsin

McKey Perforating Company; New Berlin, Wisconsin
METAL
ORNAMENTAL
Coils,qnd Plotes
SteelSheets,
294
GUIDE
FOR
SELECTING
CARBON
STEEL
FOR
PERFORATING
RECOMMENDED
APPLICATIONS
TYPICAL
SIZE
M ECHANICAL
cotLs
DESCRIPTION
PE
HOT-ROLLEO
%
ELONG
CAR BO N
CONTENT
TH
TH
PROPERTIES
APPROXIMATE
R ELATIVE COST
( r o-GA. H.R.
STEEL = IOO)
YIELD,
PSI
) rr.r.
HARD.
N ESS
45,UUU
to
60.000
JU,UUU
28 to 38
55 to /0
to
60,000
to
40.000
mtn
min'
b5,UW
lo
70.000
>sl
;HEETS
A IOwrOSlSneetsleet wrtn mooerale

drawingand lorming qualitiesfor use
when finish is unimportant.Forbest perfo
ratingresultsspecifypickledand oiled for
removalof oxides
I hts oualrtvrs tntendedlor use when torm(SAEorAlSl1008: ing requirementsare too severefor commercialquality.Picklingand oilingto
ASTMA 621)
removeoxides is recommended.In-stock
availabilityis not as greatas commercial
oua!rw-
{SAEor ASI 1008;

ASTM A 569)
Good formabilitv because of low carbon
3lloy(USSCotrTen content in combination with relatively high

Yield and Tensile properties permit these
)r equivalenl;
ASTMA 375}
steels to be used in lighter gauges to
/to
'16ga.
llo
uP to up to
60 in. 1 M i n . 1 6 g a .
up ro
60 in.
u.l u max-
/ro
1 6g a .
7to
up ro up ro
60 in. 144 in. 1 6 g a .
up to
60 in.
O . 1 0m a x
7to
1 6g a .
up ro up Io
60 in. 144 in
ll to
'14
ga.
up to
60 in.
o.l2 max
tto
'16
ga.
up Io
60 in.
N.A.
N.A.
35 tO .5U
pickled
and oiled104
IO
40.000
za to 3u
5b to /u
zz mtn
80 to 90
l0to20
21Oto 225
{Bhn.)
30 to 40
45 to 6U
3E to 40
40 to 50
38 to 40
40 to 50
32
reducc weight in applications in which

strength in important. Readily available.
Hrgh manganese content In combrnatron
(C.3$.50;Mn 1.5G with intermediate carbon greatly enhances

2.00; P .050 max.; S resistance to abrasion; can imorove oart
.055max.;Si .1t
life 2 to 10 times. Moderate formabilitv.
.35)
COLO.ROLLED
(SAEor AlSl 1008:

ASTMA366}
(ASTM A
spcialmilled
(ASTMA 620)
CORROSION-R
up ro
14/in
IO
'il8
120,OO
0
STEELS
Coldrolled steels have rmprovedsurface

finishesand tighter sizetolerancesthan
hor rolledsteels. They are awilable in two
classes:Class 1 is intendedfor exoosed
applications;Class2 is tor unexposeduse.
Threefinishescan be specified:Matte is
the standardfinish. lt is uniformlydull and
suitablefor painting.Commercialbright
tinish is a rlativelybright.intermediate
finish. Lusterfinish is sm@th and brighi
and most suitablefor plating.Becauseperforatingalterssurfaceappearance,
surface
preparationafter perforatingmay b
requiredbefore applicationof the final finish.
Hecommendedtor us when lormrng
requirementsare t@ severetor @mmercial quality.Can be supplied(Class1) free
of fluting or stretcherstrainingwhen
intendedfor use in a reasonablvshon
time. Availableanmill ouantities.
l-or use when the materaalmust be free ot
surfacedisturbanceswithout roller leveling immediatelybeforeuse andessentially
freefrom significant
changesin mechanical propertiesover an extendedperiodof
time.AvailableIn millorderouantities.
ESISTANT
7to
28 ga.
up to
60 in
up to
18ft
1',Ito
28 ga.
up ro
60 in.
0 . 1 0m a x
110
28 ga
up to up to
60 in. 1 8 f t
Il to
29ga
up to
60 in.
u . ] um a x
7lo
28 ga
up to up to
60 in. 1 8 f t
'll
to
28 ga
up to
60 in.
U.IUMAX
to
50.000
IO
to
50,000
to
30,000
to
50.000
zu,wv
to
30.000
( 1 6g a . )
35.000
tzc
(16 ga.)
tz/
( 1 6g a . )
STEELS
(ASTM 525)
steel watha zinc coatingappliedin a continuous hotdip process.Availablein cofr

mercial,drawing,and other qualities.
galmized
bonderizedphosphatefor immediate
paintingwilhout flakingor peling.
(clating (bsignation without spangleswith a roughtexturewell

A 60)
suited to painting.Canwithstandtemperatures to 750" without tlaking.Less ductile
than regulargalvanizedcGting.
(ASIM A 591)
'l4ti
A thin zinc coatinq is applied to
(20sa.)
steel by electroplatingso as not to appre

ciatively affect the weight-thickness relationship. Smmth, without spangles, it is
recommended as an undercoat for painted
finishes. Available in commercial and
steel Coated on
{ASTM 463)
minum combinesthe propeniesof both

metals.Type 1 is providedin two weights.
regularand light, and is availablein commercialanddrawingqualrties.
lf the heaviest Type 2 alumjnizedcoatingis desired,
consultwith a suoglieror the steel manufacturer.
IndustrialPerforators Association: Milwaukee. Wisconsin
rh\
\J/
cotLs
STEELS
ORNAMENTAL
METAL
26 ga
up
60 in.
up ro
1 8f t
lo
26 ga.
up ro
60 in.
to
60,000
IO
45,000
(20 qa.)
99
29s
Hondroilsond Rqils
NOTES
METAL
1. Follow all local code requirements for ramp design, raii

diameter, and rail clearances; also see ASTM, ANSI.
ADA. and OSHA reouirements.
METAL SUBRAIL
2. Verify allowable design stresses of rails, posts, and panels.
METAL
BALUSTER
3. Verify the structural value of fasteners and anchorage to

building structure for both vertical and lateral forces.
METAL
4. ASTM E-985 requirements:

GUAFDRAILS , Protect occupants at or near the outer
edge of a ramp. landing, platform. balcony, or accessible
roo{. Railing systems usually are not provided where the
vertical distance between adjacent levels is 24 in. or less.
Railing members should be arranged to discourage
climbing. Provide 4 in. high toeboards where tools or
other objects could be dislodged. Concentrated load nonconcurrently applied at the top rail shall be 200 lb t in the
horizontal and vertical direction. The test loads are aoolicabte for railings wrlh supports not more than 8 fi apart.
HANDBAiLS - Corridors, ramps, and walkways having a
slope at least 1 in 20 shall have handrails. When a guardrail o{ more than 38 in. height is used, a separate handrail
shall be installed. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of hands. The ends of the handrail shall be
returned to walls or arranged to avoid projecting rail
ends.
TOP
RAIL
STANOARD
STEEL
P1?E
RATLING
STEEL
GLASS PANEL
INSET INTO
POSTS
MAAL
LOWER
POST
STEEL AND
PUSTIC
COMPOSITE
TUBINGS
PANEL
POST
COMPRESSION
RAIL
CUMP
(2 PER SIDE
METAL COVER
PUTE WITH
SET SCREWS
CODE
METAL COVER
PUTE WITH
SET SCREW
METAL SLEEVE
CAST IN PUCE
EM BEDOEO POST
METAL POST AND RAIL
PIPE RAILING
METAL
POST
METAL
COVER
PLATE
EXPANSION
BOLTS
LIGHTED
RAIL
SURFACE MOUNTED
GUSS
POST
PANEL
METAL
AND
STEEL
ANGLES
'WOOD
FLOOR
FLEXIALE
INSERT
FASTENER
RAIL
GUSS
ffs;
FINISH
FINISH
wooD
BLOCKING
STEEL / BRONZE
WOOD
NAILING
BLOCK
MOUNTING
BRACKET
CAST IN
PUCE STEEL
STEEL
"*ar,a
MtN
STEEL
PLATE
CAST IN
PSCg
GYPSUM BOARD
SIOE MOUNTED
ANCHOR
FLUSH MOUNTEO
GLASS RAIL SYSTEM
POST MOUNTING
TOP
33b"/+
BOLT
CONNECTION
PANEL
GLASS
coNNECTtNG
'lz"
)''
RAILS
2 1 t 2 '- 3
METAL COVER
MOUNTING
ARACKET
CAST IN PUCE
r/2 ' MtN. srEEL
PUTE
EXPANSION
BOLTS
NYLON WITH STEEL COR E
SIDE MOUNTED
GUSS
GLASS PANEL
WALL
STAINLESS
STEEL
BRACKETS
PANEL
LIGHT
FIXTURE
OPT
METAL
ALUMINUM
3l/2- MAX.
ENCROACHMENT
INTO REQ'D
STAIR OR
RAMP WIDTH
4-
SPHERE
CANNOT
PASS
=
:
COVER
g
GYP. BOARD
HANDRAIL
42'AT
GUARDRAILS
34" TO 36" AT
MOUNTING
BRACKtr
HANDRAILS
FOR
STAIRS ANO
RAMPS
CAST IN P4CE
STEEL ANCHOR
FINISH
RECESSED
SURFACE MOUNTED
GLASS PANEL
HANORAIL
ACCESSIBLE
FLOOR
LEVEL
WALL-MOUNTED
HANDRAILS/GUARDRAILS
CANNOT
PASS
THROUGH
HANORAIL
RAILING
AT
STAIR
GUARDRAIL
AT
LEVEL
SURFACE
OR RAM P
DIMENSIONS
BichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.

Marvland
ORNAMENTAL
METAL
296
ExponsionJoint Covers:Interior
N OTES
SPRING
LOADED
CLIP ASSEMBLY
1. A large selection of prefabricated assemblies to covef

anteriorexpansion joints is available from various manulacturers to satisfy most joint and finish conditions.
2. Fie-nled barriertype inserts are avajlable and applicable
to mosl assemblies.
3. Expansion joint covers that will respond lo diflerential
rcvement. both laterally and horizontally, should be pre
vided at joints in structures located where seismic action
{earth tremors and quakes) may be expected or where
differential seftlement is anticioated.
EXTRUDEO
METAL COVER
AT WALL OR CEILING
AT SUSPENOED CEILING
USABLE WITH VARIOUS

FLOOR
EUSTOMERIC
(REMOVABLE)
COVERINGS
JOINT COVER
SUSPENOED
ACOUSTICAL
CEILING
FACE OF WALL
EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
VINYL
EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
FINISH
FLOOR
ANCHOR BOLT
ANCHOR BOLT
VINYL GUNER
SEISMIC
FLOOR
FOR JOINTS
UP
JOINT
TO 24
COVER
IN.
AT FLOOR
SEISMIC
FLOOR
JOINT
COVER
FOR JOINTS
UP TO 8 IN.
PREFABRICATED
INTERIOR
AT F L O O R A N O W A L L
AT WALL (CORNER)
EXPANSION
JOINT
COVERS
Paul Bonsalland Roben D. Abernathy:J. N. peaseAss@iates:Charlotte,North Carotina
EXPANSION
CONTROL
CHAPTER
SIX
AND PLASTICS
lntroduction
29A
Wood
Design Load Tables

Wood Treatment
Decking
Sheathing
3OO
355
Wood Trusses
314
Wood and Plastic

Fastenings 317
37a
323
Architectural
Structural Panels
361
Glued-Laminated Construction
Finish Carpentry
Rough Carpentry
352
339
Heavy Timber Construction
341
Woodrnrork
380
373
298
Designingwith Wood
Naturalfire retardantqualitiesand ac
FIREBETARDANCE:
ceptability of treatment vary with species. Flame Sprea|
Classificationis the genrally accepted measurementlo
tire rating of materials.Fire{etardanttreatmentsand build
up of members can be used to improve the fire rating of
wood materaals
\^/OOD AS A CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL
Approximatelynine of every ten buildingsconstructed in
the United States each year are tramed with wood, including most single-familyand multifamily res1dencesand a
large percentageo{ commercial,institutioml,and public
buildings.Wood is {avoredas both a structuralmaterialand
a finish materialfor its economy,architecturalflexibility,and
visualqualities.Many contractorsknow how to buildwith it.
Smallwork crews can handlemost wood membetswithout
special lifting equipment; cutting and fastening can be
accomplishedon site with hand or ponable power tools;
and the skills needed tor w@d construction are easilv
learned.Yt wood is one of the most difficult materialslor
the designerto master,becauseit is virtuallythe only building materialthat is vegetableratherthan mineral.With this
vegetableorigin comes a host of idiosyncrasiesrelatingto
directional properties, strength, stiffness, grain patterns,
shrinkage,distortion,decay. insect damage,and tire resisGnce.
PRESERVATIVE
TREATMENTS:
Certainspeciesused fo
architecturalw@dwork can be treated with preservativE
compounds to extend their life when exposedto the ele
menIs.
LUMBER
Today most wood comes from youngerforests. wilh trees

typicallysmallerthan those haryesteda few decadesago.
Large solid timbers are increasinglyhard to obtain,and the
generalqualityof lumber is declining.As a result architects
and buildersmust dependmore and more on manufactured
wood productssuch as laminatedwood. laminatedveneer
lumber, parallelstrand lumber, and manufacturedwood ljoists and trusses. These products tend to be straighter,
stronger. stiffer. less prone to distortion, and more ece
nomical of trees than conventionalsolid lumber, but they
are not alwys suitablefor displayin a building.
Seen unde| a lowfower magnifier,wood is made up pri

marilyof hollowtubularcellsof cellulosethat run parallelto
the long axisof the tree trunk.Whenthe tree is harvested
both the hollows and the walls of these tubes are full oJ
watery sap, The tree is sawed into rough lumber while in
this saturatedor'green'condition. Finishlumberis sea
soned (dried oI much of its moisture),either by stacking I
in the ooen air for a period of months or, more commonly,
by heatingit in a kiln Jora periodof days. Duringseasoning,
moisture evaporatesfirst from the hollows of the tubes.
and then trom the cellulosewalls of the tubes, causingthe
lumber to shrink. By tho rime the lumber leavesthe kiln, lt
is considerablysmaller. Further shrinkageusually occurs
after the lumber has been incorporatedinto a building,as
the moisture content in the wood comes graduallyto equi
librium with the moisture content of the surroundingair
Wood absorbs moisture during damp weather and gives rt
ofl during dry weather in a nevernding cycle of swelling
and shrinking,a fact that must be taken into accountwhen
detailingw@d componentsof buildingi.
TYPES OF u/OOO CONSTRUCTION

Buildingcldes tegorize wood constructioninto two distinct types--6eavy-timbrand light w@df rame.
Heavy-timberconstruction.consistingof exposedcolumns,
girders, beams, and decking large enough to be slow to
catch {ire and burn, is permitted tor use in relativelylarge
buildingsacrossa bred spectrum of uses. Becauseof its
large member dimnsions and spans, heaw-timber constructim is best suited to buildingswith regular,repetitivg
bays. Heavy-timberbuildingsare engineeredin accordance
with th NationalDasign Specificationtor Wood Construction. publishedby the AmericanWood Council.
Lighl woo+fram constructionis made up of nominal2 in(38 mm) framing members spaced closely together and
normallyconcealedby interiorfinish materialssuch as plaster. qwsum board, or w@d paneling.Light w@d-frame
construction,with its small members and close member
spacings,adapts readilyto even the most intricatespaces
and architecturalforms. However, becausesuch construction is less resistantto fire than heaw-timbersnstruction,
buildingcodes severelylimit the heighls and areasof light
woo+fram buildings.The maximum height generallyper
mitted in residentiallight wood-framebuildingsis three stories, althoughfour stories8re possibleif an approvedsprinkler system is installed.Most light wood-Irameengineering
can be dore lollowing values from tablesin the CABO One
and Two Family Dwelling Code. which has been widely
adoptedby states and municipalities.
WOOD
AS A STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL
On the basis ol performancepr unit weight. typical construction lumbg is at least as strong and stiff as structural
st@|. B@use of its microstructureo{ longitudinalcells,
wood has dafferentstructuralpropertiesin its lwo principal
directions. Parallelto the grain, wood is strong and stiff;
perpendicularto the grain, it is weak and deformable.Fasteners that act in a dirctionFralllto the graincan transmit mnsiderabty more lorce than those that act
perpendicularto ths grain. Th strength of wood varies
with the durationof the load: For short-termloadssuch as
those trom snow. wind, and impact, atlowablestress values are 15 to 1ooy. higher than those allowed for normalterm loads. Under very long term loading,however. wood
has a tendencyto creep, and reducedstress values must
be used.
WOOD
AS A FINISH
MATERIAL
Wood is used as a finish materialin buildingsof every kind.

Limited quantitiesof wood finish may be used even in the
most fire{esistant types of construction.With proper pre
tection from water and sunlight,wood can serye as a durable exteriormalerialfor cladding.trim. and even roling. For
interior finishes, despite recenl concerns regarding the
depletion of rare or oldroMh species, w@ds ot many
types remain commonly availablein solid or veneer form,
exhibitinggreat varietyin hardness,grainfigure,color, suitability for different finishes, and cost. Finish woods are
readily availablein many preformed shapes and are also
easilyshapedand cut in the field. Wood and w@d products
EdwardAllen, AIA; South Natick, Massachusetts
Joseph lano, Architect;Mercer lsland.Washington
Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
INTRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
marktedlumberincludestreesol dozenso'
Commercially
speciesroughlydividedinto sollwoods, which are the ever
green species, and hardwoods, those species that drop
their leaves in the fall. Nearly all lraming lumber comes
from the @mparatively plentiful softwoods. Hardwoods,
with thsir greaterrangeof colorsand grainfigures,are used
primarilyfor interiorfinishes,Ilmring, cabinets,and furni
ture.
Most lumbr is surfacedafter seasoningto reduceit to its

final dimensions and give it smooth faces. Edges are
roundedto make the lumber gasierand saferto handle.
VERNCAL
HEAVY TIMBER
GRAIN
PUIN-SAWN
BOARO
LIGHT \,vOOD.FRAME
CONSTRUCTION
may be finished with transparentor opaque coatings or

serye as a base for appliedplasticlaminates.
SELECTION OF INTERIOR FINISH WOOO
M A T E R IA L S
Followingare the major factorsthat influncelumberselection for finish wood applicationsas specifiedby the AtchitecturalW@dmrk lnstitute:
TYPICAL
SAWING
OF A LARGE LOG
NOMINAL (ROUGH)
Different spcies exhibit

AESTHETICCHARACTERISTICS:
a variety of colors.grains (openor close grain).and ligures
{grainpattems)that are further distinguishedby the swing
method (plainsawn, quarter sawn, rift sam) and finishing
characteristics(receptivityto finish processes,such as fillers. starns,etc-).
AVAILABILITY:The availabilityof padcular species varies
by seasonand popularity.
SIZE LIMITATIONS:Some species produce longer and/or
wider rembers.
The abilityof seHARDNESS.
AND DENSITY:
STRENGTH,
lected lumber to sustain stress; resist indentation,abuse,
and wear; and carry its anticipatedload contributesto its
suitabilityfor partjcularuses.
Swellingand shrinkingdue to
DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY:
relative humidity and moisture content changes varies
accordingto the speciesand producttype.
ADAPTABILITY
FOR EXTERIOR
USE:Cenainspeciesare
more durable when used in exterior applications.Heartmore
resistant
to damagby the elewood of all speciesis
ments than sapwood. The lollowing species are rot
resistant and acceotable tor exterior use: Eastern and
Western red cedar;redwood: mahogany,and teak.
LUMBER
THICKNESS
Designingwith Wood
LUMBER GRADING
Wood is a natural product and thus varies greatly in appear,
ance and structural properties. Consequently, elaborate
systems ot grading have been established to indicate the
quality of each piece of lumber. Within each species of
wood there are two grading systems, one based on structural strength and stiffness, the other on aopearance.
Appearance is graded visually. Structural grading is based
either on visual inspection, the sizes and positions of knots
and other defects, or structural properties as measured by
machines that flex each piece of lumber.
Strength and stiffness values for wood are tabulated else,
where in this chapter of AGS. They vary considerably lrom
one spectes and grade to another. When engineering a
wood structu(e, it is necessary to know what species and
grade wall be specified. lt in doubt, base structural calculations on the weakest species and grade locally available.
JOINING
WOOD
Nailing is the most common method o, ioining light structural irembers. Nails are inexpensive to buy and install and
may be driven by hand or with a pneumatic gun. When
applied in proper size, number, and spacing, they form a
strong, resilient joint. Sheet metal straps, anchors, and
brackets can be nailed to connections where greater resistance to tension or shear is necessary_ Detailed nailinq
requirements for light wood-frame construclron ar;
included in bualding codes. HeaW-timber construction typts
cally relies on bolts and lag screws, together with fabricated metal connecting devices.
ln finish wood construction. nearlv headless finish nails are
used for improved appearance. Screws, concealed or
embedded fasteners, splines, and fitted and glued joints
provrde greater mechanical stiffness and optimal appearance. The Architectural Woodwork Institute has established
standards for tinish ioinery based on appearance and cost.
MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN \^/OOD

Theshrinkage
of woodas it driesis not uniform.Wood
shrinksverylittlealongthelengthol thegrain,somewhat
in
the radial direction of a cylindrical log, and more in the tangential direction of the log, as shown in the accompanying
graph. One consequence ol the difference between the
radial and tangential shrinkage is that radial splits called
checks form during seasoning, especially in lumber ol large
dimension. ln addition, pieces of tumber distort noticeabty

In accordance with their original posjtions in the tree trunk
For pieces of lumber that must stay flat, such as flooring,
outdoor decking, baseboards, casings, and paneling, verti,
cal{rain Iumber. which is sawed so the annual growth rings
are more or less perpendicular to the troad face of the
board, is often specified One particular sawing pattern that
produces vertical-grainlumber is called ouarter,sawina. For
ordinary tramrng, seasoning disto.ltons are of lrttle c;nsequence, so praln-sawn boards are used.
A number of accepted wood detailing practices have been
developed in response to the great moisture movement
that occurs in wood and the distortions that result from the
differing rates of shrinkage along the three axes ol the
grain. In applying wood siding, it is recessary to use nailing
patterns that do not restrain the cross-Orain seasonal
shrinking and swelting of the wood Horizonial bevel srdrna
is nailed so that each board is fastened by one row of naiti
only, creating a sliding joint at each overlapping edge to
allow for movement. Tongue-andgroove siding boardl are
naaled at the tongue edge only, the other edge being
restrained by the tongue of the adjacent board sliding freely
in its groove. Venical board and-batten sidjng is nailed onlv
at the centers of the boards and battens, allowino lor free
expansron and contractton of the wood.
Because wood shrinkage is so much greater in the tangen,
tial direction than in the radial, plain-sawn boards tend to
cup noticeably in a direction opposite to the curyature of
tho annual rings. Plain sawn decking and flooring should be
'bark
laid with the
side' of each board facinq down to
reduce the raising of edges. On outdoor decks, tirs practrce
willalso minimize puddling of water on the boards. Venicalgrain flooring and deck boards sre preferable to plain-sawn
boards, not only because they minimize cupping but
because their tighter grain pattern wears better underfoot.
'Broad interior finish pieces
are frequently given a relieved
back, a hidden groove or grooves that reduce the effective
thickness of the piece and thus the tendency ot the oiece
to cup. Many stock millwork patterns include relieved
backs. Boards may be relieved on site by cutting multiple
gr@ves with a tabl saw. Cupping n also be minimized
by back priming, painting the back surface of each piece a
day or more belore installation. After the oiece has been
installed and the exposed side has been painted or varnished, the back priming causes the back side to absorb
and giv off moisture at about the same rate as the
exposed side, mrntm,zing drstortrons.
DECAY
2
q
o
z
o
z
UU
9H
YO
1t
co
ile
MOISTURE
soFTwooD
EXPANSION
AIR
WOOO
SIDING
SIDI NG
SHAKE
NAILING
TONGUE
VERTICAL
WOOD
SIDING
Wood burns easily, giving otf highly toxic combustion prod

ucts, so it is important to design wooden buildjngs for fire
satety. The first step is to follow the height and area restrictions of the building codes, along with code provisions for
easy egress from wooden buildings. Smoke and heat
alarms are essentials in w@den
residential buildinos.
Heaw-timber buildrngs have a nalural resistance to ire
because their massive timbers are slow to ignite and burn
in comparison to the smaller framing members in light
w@d-frame construction. Light wood-frame buildings have
internal hollow passages that encourage the spreadof fire;
these must be closed olf at each floor by wood blocking or
the floor platform framing. Light wood-frame buildings are
generally finished with interior surfaces of gypsum plaster
or gypsum wallboard. which are highly resistant to tire
t| _ \
BOARO
SLIDING
AND
BATTEN
JOINTS
SIOING
IN \^r'OOD SIDING
JAMB
IN THE
THICKNESS
(RAOIAL)
OUARTER,SAWN
LUMAER
--
-----\-
fr
+
Length: .1 to.2yo shrinkage; thickness:2 to syo shrinkagej

width: 5 to1 07o shrinkage.
SHRINKAGE DUE TO DRYING FOR

QUARTER-SA\,YN LUMBER
BARK SIOE DOWN IS
CORRECT ORIENTATION
SHRINKAGE DISTORTION
SAWN DECKING
OF PLAIN-
ANGENTIAL
RADIAL
DIRECTION
DIRECTION
PUIN.SAWN
I
-REL|EVEO
MOLDTNG
SLIDING
JOINT
DUE TO MOISTURE
INSECTS
FIRE
ANGLED
INTO
END OF BOARO
OF A TYPICAL
WIDTH
NOTE
HORIZONTAL
SHRINKAGE
25% RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
Wood provides food and habitat to various insects and

decay{ausing fungi. For the most part, decay and insect
attack can be avoided by detailing a building in a way that
keeps wood dry at all times. Wood components should be
kept at least 6 in. ('150mm) away from the soil. Details thai
trap and hold moisture, such as connections in exterior
decks and railings, should be avoided unless preseNativetreated wood or decay,resistant species such as redwood.
ceoar. or cypress are used.
\-..
SLIDING
lotNT/
AND
299
CHECKS
BACK
RELIEVED BACK
N OTE
8y reducing the ef{ective thickness of the woodwork
relieved backs reduce the tendency of the w@d to cup.
RELIEVED
BACKS
IN \^/OODWORK
AOARD
SHRINKAGE DTSTORTIONS BY
POSITION IN LOG
Edward Allen, AIA: South Natick, Massachusetts

Joseph lano, Architect; Mercer lsland, Washington
INTRODUCTION
FloorJoists:30 qnd 40 lb LiveLoqd
300
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: Live toad of 30 psl plus dead load ol 10
psl determins the required liber stressvilue,
DEFLECTION: For 30 psl live load. Lirnited to span
in inchesdivided by 360.
FLOOR
JOISTS_3o
LB LIvE LOAD
ALL ROOMSUSED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS AND ATTIC FLOORS

J O r S T( r N . l
SIZE SPACING
2x8
2x 10
0.8
8-6
570
8 - 11
640
9-4
700
v-v
750
lGt
810
6-2
9.2
890
8-0
1020
0.9
320
11 - 4
1360
9-4
1390
9-7
1450
9-9
15 1 0
9 - 11
I 560
4 , 11
| 9-J
15-7
1r00
5.10
150
r 200
1G6
1240
1060
3-6
110
1060
13-10
11 6 0
14-2
1220
4-5
270
4,8
320
l5-0
1360
11 - 6
1210
1-10
270
12-'l
1330
12.4
1390
450
r 3-1
1560
r9-5
1060
19,10
1100
20,3
I t5u
2.10
510
20-a
1200
21-O
1240
17-8
11 6 0
18-0
1220
18-5
1270
18-9
1320
19,1
1360
16-5
1000
14-4
11 5 0
t6-10
t060
t4.8
|210
15-l
1270
15-5
1330
15-9
1390
16-l
1450
16-5
1 9 - 11
750
21-4
860
21-11
910
23-1
1010
23.7
1060
24.8
11 5 0
za- |
11 0 0
17-5
770
18-1
830
18-9
890
19.4
950
21-O
1t10
21-6
11 6 0
21.11
1220
22-5
1270
1200
22.10
1320
15-2
880
15-10
o6n
165
't020
1 6 . 1I
1080
22-6
960
20.6
r060
t7-11
t210
18-4
1270
18-9
1330
l9-2
t390
19-7
1450
1 9 - 11
1510
t.o
8.5
640
8 - 11
720
9-4
800
9-10
880
tJ.o
14.4
570
15 - 1
640
15-9
700
75Q
13 . 0
630
11 . 4
720
13.8
700
14-4
170
1 4 - 11
830
11-ll
13-0
950
18 - 4
640
12-6
880
19.2
700
16-8
700
1 3 . 1 0 14-7
800
720
ex$eme
stress
OJU
1 0 - 11
1270
15.11
950
1 3 . 1I
1080
'l3.0
640
14-6
960
1240
10.6
I 160
9-2
1330
010
0.3
110
15-5
890
13-6
1020
20-8
810
11 . 1 3
770
14.2
910
2-10
000
-3
2-3
200
19-0
101
0
17-3
1110
tu-y
700
14-11
560
R-q
I D-C
RN
9-11
ocl0
7-5
150
1.9
12-O
11 5 0
18-6
960
lu-z
630
16
8-6
11 5 0
1.8
1't.10
11 0 0
10-9
1220
18-0
910
J-t
560
I l-a
10.0
1060
11.7
1060
'1.7
l7-6
860
16
570
15 - 1 0
9.9
1m0
t.J
1.6
17.O
810
11 . 1 0
640
l?
11 . 0
960
t.5
1 0 - 11
1080
11-3
b/u
8m
1G9
910
PSI
1.4
ro-7
1020
10-7
510
24
oou
1.3
Iz-o
950
12
510
l2-3
560
10-8
640
r6.5
5r0
10-5
1.2
12-1
890
6-4
640
800
1.1
13 - 4
810
24
7m
1.0
9-6
950
8-3
1080
13-9
860
8-t0
830
7-9
950
12-10
750
1r - 8
830
10-2
950
2x12
o-7
u-b
170
7-5
880
12-4
700
s60
MOOULUS OF ELASTICITY. E. IN
u.o
7-9
630
6.9
720
t-J
2x6
0.5
8-0
510
12 1 0
8 . 11
1270
0r0
tStu
tz-o
to-o
1560
25-7
1240
23-3
1360
20.3
1560
rn p! is shown below each soan.
DESIGNCRITERIA
S T R E N G T H :L i v e l o a d o f 4 0 p s f p l u s d e a d l m d o f 1 0
psf determins the required fiber stressvalue.
DEFLECTION; For 40 psf live l@d. Limited to span
FLOOR
JOISTS_40
LB LIVE LOAD
ALL ROOMSEXCEPT THOSE USED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS ANO ATTIC FLOORS

MoDULUS oF El.Asrrctry.
JOIST (IN.I
SIZE SPACING
12
-:2xE
I
24
12
2xB
16
7-3
520
6-7
580
5-9
660
9-7
520
8-9
580
7-7
660
16
24
:
2x 12
16
24
0.7
8-2
660
7-5
720
12-6
890
1r - 0
920
9-7
r 050
11 - 4
980
11 . 8
1040
12-O
1090
9-l I
r 120
10.2
11 9 0
10-6
1250
8-6
720
8.10
780
8.0
860
7.0
980
8-4
920
t-s
1050
9-6
890
8-7
980
7-6
1120
11 - 8
780
12-1
830
59U
10-9
660
9-J
650
9-v
720
tu-a
790
8-l
750
8'6
830
8 . 11
900
10-7
850
9-3
980
r 3.0
6.6
830
1.3
1G0
990
9-1
1090
0.9
7-9
790
6-9
900
11-3
720
E. rN 1,000,000Psl
1.2
9-9
940
8-10
1040
7-9
11 9 0
12.10
940
1.0
9-2
830
0.8
1.1
6-Z
13-2
990
13.6
1040
590
13-8
oou
14.4
720
1 4 - 11
780
15-5
830
15-11
890
16-5
940
16 - 1 0
990
11-1
11 - 1 0
650
12-5
720
13.0
790
13-6
850
14 - 0
920
14-6
980
1 4 - 11
1040
15-3
1090
13-4
1250
20-6
990
56U
660
10 - 4
750
10.10
830
1 4 - 11
azv
15-10
590
16-8
660
13.6
580
14.4
650
15.2
Y.Y
11 . 1 0
660
12-7
750
13-3
830
I t-4
900
11 . 1 0
980
12-3
| 050
t2-a
1120
I r-a
18.1
18-9
830
19-4
890
13.0
11 9 0
1 9 -1
940
11-0
920
17-7
980
18-1
1040
l8-7
1090
15-10
| 190
1A-?
780
120
1 5 - 1 0 to-9
oou
790
1 3 - 1 0 14-4
980
900
The reouiredextremefiber str6s in bendinq.

Amrin Forost and PaprAssociation;Washington,D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
14-11
I 050
15-4
1120
is shown below sch span.
I 250
1.7
10-1
11 9 0
11-2
1230
11 - 4
1280
1200
'10-9
11 4 0
9-9
1250
9 - 11
1310
10-2
1360
1G4
14 1 0
8-4
1380
8-6
11140
8-8
1500
8.10
14.2
'|
140
14,5
11 9 0
14-8
1230
12-10
1250
13 - 1
13 1 0
13,4
1360
9-0
16 1 0
't5-0
1280
13-7
1410
11 . 3
1440
1t - 5
1500
r1.8
18-0
11 4 0
l8-5
r 190
18,9
1230
|9-1
| 280
I o-J
l6-9
1310
17-O
1360
17-4
1410
14-7
1500
l4-lI
1550
15-2
1610
zz-a
22.10
1230
20-9
1360
23-3
r 280
1 9 - ' 1t
1250
11 9 0
20-4
1310
1440
17.9
1500
18.1
1550
18.5
1610
t.0
10.3
r 040
9-4
11 5 0
7-'l1
1250
520
I z-J
2x 10
0.6
7-9
590
7-O
650
6-2
750
10-2
1310
2-3
150
0.9
310
7-3
040
5-8
150
?,R
310
10.6
1090
Y.O
3-10
090
200
1.0
380
7-8
090
6.0
200
4-O
380
21-O
1040
z t-o
9-1
150
9-b
6-8
310
1090
200
7-O
380
1250
I c-4
1440
21-11
11 4 0
1.8
| 35U
I ERN
11tl
16 1 0
21.1
141(
FloorJoists:50 lb live Lood

GENERAL
DESIGN INFORMATION
For floor construction where live loading is heavier
than customarily found in residentialoccupancies,
tabulardata are orovided.
The tabulated spans are basd on bending strength
usingthe live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus
a dead load of l0 psl. In calculatingthe required
modulus of elasticity for the tabulatedspan, the live
lcd only was used, since this is in acordance wirh
practicefor dsign of fl@r joisrs.
established
srzes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan

and requiredmodulusof elasticity are ba*d on rciual
srzes.
SPAN
While the effstive span length for an isolatedbeam
is customarilylaken as the distancefrom face to face
DESIGN STRESSES
Unit.designvaluesfor desiSnof wood joistsare givenin
the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Co-nsrruc-
FLOOR
JOISTS_50
or suppons plus one hall lhe required lenqth

of bearinq
aI each end, tt is the practice in designing joists
spaceJ
over.24 in. apart to consider the- spjn'as the
cleai
lot
orslance oetween supDorts.
SIZE.
16
24
r100
9-7
1.437
l 200
10,0
1.637
10-5
1.846
o.924
7-11
r.083
8-4
1.249
8.8
1.423
91
1.605
o-l
oD
6-9
1.005
12.7
1.437
t-o
o.744
0.871
12.1
7-11
r.600
3.3
.63r
13-9
1.846
143
2.063
14,9
2.249
z.3z
I z-a
13.3
2 . 19 1
10.9
1.762
19.5
20-7
3.007
l-o
1800
12.3
3.007
12.1
l0-7
2.614
8-7
9,1
r0-5
1.083
11 . 0
1.249
l't,6
1.423
11,11
24
8.1
o.744
8.6
0.871
8 - 11
1.005
9-4
1.144
9-8
1.291
to-z
1.437
16.10
'r.637
t-b
.846
1A-2
2.063
12.10
r.989
l0-5
1.600
r8,10
2.289
14.0
1.249
14.7
1.423
5-3
.605
2-4
291
1 5 -1 0
1.794
t6-4
r.989
I 6-10
2.191
17.11
2.614
18-l
13.3
r.600
22.11
l3-9
1.762
14.7
2.'t03
5-4
23-A
za- |
z.z6Y
26-6
z.az
1 9 -0
1
1.989
20.6
2.191
r 6,7
21-9
23.O
17.8
2.103
'18-10
29-7
3.007
1.2
25-7
2.614
27-O
l6
1.063
12.7
0.924
l0-3
o.744
t7-9
1.063
15,5
o.924
24
12.6
o.744
1.246
'|
3-4
1.083
10,10
0.871
18.9
1.246
r.083
13.2
0.871
22-1
1.246
12
20-11
1.063
16
18.2
o.924
19-2
r.083
14,9
o.744
r 9-o
|
|
3
24
16
l6
24
1-4
.846
1.249
|7-r0
1.423
18-6
1.605
19.2
1.794
13-10
'r.005
l4-5
1.144
zJ.z
24,2
1.637
20-11
1.423
r5 - 0
1.291
25-2
r.846
21.9
1.605
1.437
20-1
't.249
6-3
.005
2-5
17.O
1.144
'|
2..11
2.113
|
|
17,8
1.291
ta-r
to-2
1.443
|.600
21.0
2.249
26.1
2.063
7-1
3.007
14.O
2.614
4.1
I l-5
2 . 10 3
12-O
1.989
27,11
2.521
24-2
2.191
18,4
1.443
19.0
r.600
l9-7
|.762
20.10
1 40
2.663
2.9s3
14.11
3_254
r5-t0
3.882
r 6.9
13,9
3.374
l4-6
227
1.794
23.s
1.11
0.960
8,4
1.124
14-9
r.373
15-7
r.608
12.10
r.193
r3-6
r.397
14.2
1.612
14 , 1 0
r.836
l0-5
0.960
11 . 0
1.124
l t.6
t.zgj
12-0
1.418
18-10
1.373
19-10
r.608
20.10
t.o55
?1-9
2.113
2.383
16 . 4
1.193
r7.3
1.397
18.1
1.612
r8.r0
t.836
19.7
2.O71
1?-?
I 4.0
1.124
t 4-8
1.297
15-4
1.418
r6 , 0
L666
16,7
1.862
25-4
r.855
26-5
2.113
27.6
2.383
30-7
3.254
21.11
22-11
r.836
23.11
2.O71
25-8
2.561
26.6
2.821
28 1
3.314
29-7
18-8
1.478
19-5
|,ooo
28-7
2.663
24-10
2_314
20-2
1.862
17-2
2.065
29-7
2.953
3.374
r 8-9
2.714
32-5
3.482
20,10
2.065
34,10
216
2.275
22-10
2 . 7t 4
38-2
3.882
24.1
0.960
1 9 . 11
1.193
24
16.2
0.960
17,0
1.124
tz
21.O
28-5
1.608
r.373
24
1.005
r9-7
|.437
r2.10
1.443
22-2
2.063
to-z
I
a-o
I 10?
l6
NOTE: The reouired
10.1
1.443
a. tvJ
0 . 8 7r
1t - 1 0
1.608
r0-3
1.397
24.2
r.608
20-11
1.397
16
1.794
I .OUf,
' rl - 1 0
t . 14 4
20.6
1.637
to-J
11-2
1.373
3xl4
1.144
1600
| 1.7
2.521
10-0
2.191
8.2
1.762
r500
I t.J
9-11
0.924
12
J X tZ
2.289
9-9
1.989
7-4
1. 2 9 1
1400
r0 - 1 0
2.063
9,5
1.794
7-7
1.443
16
24
3x l0
'1300
1000
9-2
't.246
r 't-5
1.063
:
2x l0
3x8
For limit ol Q/300:0.833

For limit of Q/240:0.667
For limitof e/i80: 0.50O
t2
ZxB
3x6
The modulus of elasticiry values listed in the span

tables for joists are those required for the tabulated
spans if deflection under the live load is limited to
t/360. Where other deflrction limits are eceptable,
the tabul"r E valuesmay be adjusted by multiplying
them by the following factors:
EXTREME FISER STRESSIN BENOI
900
SPACING
2xG
2x14
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
LB LIVE LOAD
8,8
1.063
z x tz
l r o n , a v a t l a b l el r o m t h e A m e r j c a n F o r e s t & p a D e r A s s o
Cratron.
NET SIZES OF LUMBER

Joists.
are customarily
sptrified in termsof nominal
J O r S T{ t N . l
301
t.3tJ
r0-9
1.612
8-9
1.297
r6.4
t.ot2
r7-10
1.291
29-10
r.855
1 .t 9 3
24-A
1.397
25-11
0.960
20.0
1.124
21.O
1.291
tJ-5
o{ elar
e l a s t i c i t yE, ,
t.6t2
r1.3
r.836
9-2
1.478
11.1
2.113
2.113
2
' 17. -813 6
22.O
1.478
2.383
lr8
2.O71
9-6
r.666
17,9
2.383
|5 5
2.O71
I z-b
r.ooo
32-5
2.383
28.2
2.O71
2 2 . '1t
| .ooo
12.2
2.314
9-t0
1.862
r8-5
12.7
10.2
2.065
r0-6
11-2
2.714
l-9
z.ooJ
2.953
| 9,9
3.254
20-1l
2.1
16.0
2.314
16.7
2.567
17.1
2.827
r8 . 1
? at1
19.1
I3-0
r.862
23.6
13-5
2.65
13.r0
2.275
14,8
2 . 7t 4
c-o
z,ooJ
24.4
2.953
3.254
20-5
2.314
21-1
2.567
2.827
33-8
za.l
17,8
z.zt5
36.0
Z.YCJ
2.314
23-9
1.862
30-3
2.561
2.065
3.882
zJ-l
28-'l
24.5
19.1
34.2
4.547
40
31,3
2.821
33-r
3.374
34-t1
3.9s2
25-5
2 6 . 11
2.714
28-4
3.r79
,0o0,000psiisshownbe|oweachspan,ifdef|ection,nffi
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington.
D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
FloorJoisls:60 lb LiveLood
302
DESIGN INFORMATION
GENERAL
For tlmr construction where live loading is heavier
than customarilv found in residentialoccupancies,
tabula, data are provided.
:
The tabulated spans are based on bending strength
using the live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus
a dead lcd of 10 psf. In calculatingthe required
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span. the live
load only was used, since this is in rccordance with
establishedpractice for daign of floor ioists.
ol supportsplus one-halfrhe requiredlenglhof bearing

at each end, it is the practicein designingjoistsspaced
not over 24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
distance betreen supports.
SPAN
while the effetive span length for an isolated beam
is customarily taken as the distarce from tace to face
OESIGN STRESSES
Unit dsign valu6 for dcign of wood ioistsare givenin
the National Design Spcification for Wood Construc-
FLOOR
JOISTS_60
ADJUSTMENT
OF MODULUS
OF
ELASTICITY
The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span
tables lor joists are those required for the tabulated
eans if deflrction under the live load is limited to
[/360. Where other dflstion limits are acceptable,
the tabular E valuesmay be adiustedby multiplyinq
For limit of !/300: 0.833
For f imit of e/24O:0.667
For limit of e/180: 0.500
LB LIVE LOAD
EXTREME FIAER STRE55 IN BENDING, Fb {PSII
JOrST {rN.}
SIZE.
OF LUMBER
Joists are customarily spcified in terms ot nominal
sizes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan
and required modulus of elasticity are ba$d on 4lual
sizes.
NET SIZES
tidn, availablelrom the AmericanForest& PaperAssocralon.
SPACING
lxo
12
12
3.353
to
10,5
2.915
8-5
2.345
2x8
12
15-10
3.353
16
2.9t5
2.345
12
2i 10
| /-o
2.9r5
't4.3
2.345
to
24
24-6
3.353
21-3
2.915
2x12
24
17-5
2.345
12
2A-11
3.353
25-1
2.915
2x14
24
20.4
2.345
12
15 , 6
4.329
tJ-9
3x6
3.762
24
20-5
4.329
3x10
17-8
3.762
11 - 1 0
1.136
3x8
24
14-4
3.026
12
26.1
4-329
22-7
to
J. IOZ
l8-4
J.UZO
3x12
12
31-7
4.329
to
3.762
24
3.036
37-4
4.329
32-4
3.762
12
2 8 - 1r
2.691
3x 14
3.026
NOTE; The requiredmodulusof elasticity.E, in
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
DESIGNLOADTABLES
shown beloweachspan.if deflction under the live lcd is limited to Q/360.
FloorJoists:70 lb LiveLoqd
DESIGN INFORMATION
GENERAL
For floor construction where live loading is heavier
than. customarily found in rsidential occupancies,
tabulardata are Drovided.
The tabulated spans are bad on bending strength
usingthe live lGd indicatedin eachtable heiding pius
a dead load of 10 psf. In calculating the required
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span,the live
load only was usd. since this is in trcordance with
establishedpractice for d6ign of floor ioists.
SPAN
While the effctive span length for an isolatedbeam
ascustomarily taken as the distance from face to face
FL9OR JOISTS
J O r S T{ t N . l
SIZE.
12
2x10
to
v
?x12
2x14
19-1
1 .r 3 3
tb
15-9
0.840
12.9
u.o/o
12
12.10
1.248
to
t1,1
1.084
1300
I 4-0
14.7
r.488
15.2
1.674
12.7
1.294
10-3
1.040
|7.9
r.488
13.2
1.459
1400
r 5-9
1.875
r 3.8
1.631
10-8
1.174
't
1.1
1.312
1.678
15.5
1.294
16 - 0
r.459
12-6
1.040
r3.0
20.11
1.488
21-9
't.678
18,2
1.294
8 - 11
.459
4-9
.040
5-4
.174
I.JW
t2-l
1.r35
9.r0
0.914
17-0
1.306
14.9
t. lJ5
12.0
0.914
20.0
1.306
I J.D
o.792
J-O
.462
t-8
270
9-6
1.O22
19-2
r.875
16-7
t.oJ I
tJ.o
1600
| 800
16-10
2.292
'17-11
1.808
4-7
.992
15 - 6
2.376
l,t1
,ouz
1.912
I t-b
1.454
19.10
2.081
7-3
.808
4-0
.454
20-6
2000
18.10
3.201
l6-4
z,t6J
r3-3
2.733
22.11
3.201
7.10
.992
18.10
z,Jto
1 9 , 11
2.783
4-5
.602
15.4
1.912
14-9
1.921
1 5 -4
2 . 16 6
12-3
1.465
100
1.179
12.10
1.669
13,4
1.883
1.312
22-?
1.875
r9-7
1.631
' r 5 -1t
1.312
' 1 5 .r1
2.421
13-10
2.r03
15,8
3.067
J.f,Vl
10.5
1.344
1010
1.514
11 - 3
r.693
| 1,8
1.877
12.O
2.068
12-9
2.467
2.900
l8-1
I 9.7
2 . 16 6
20.4
2.421
21.1
2.684
z3- |
1C_?
| /-5
0.984
td.o
| 500
16-4
2.081
r.135
14-2
0.914
14.2
t.o6b
1.174
16-6
r.454
24-2
2.292
20.11
1.992
17-0
1.602
r 6-6
2.684
17-1
2.958
14.4
2.333
14,10
2.570
zJ.5
2.M1
20-3
1.808
25-1
27.O
3.201
22-3
23-5
z.Jto
z,t6J
18-1
1.512
19-1
t8-1
r9 . 1
16.7
1.462
t.odo
l8-10
t.921
16
14-2
1.084
t4-l I
1.270
15-8
1.465
16-4
1.669
7.O
.883
17-a
2.103
Z.JJJ
21-9
2.958
'r8,11
2.470
I t-o
12-2
1.O22
20-11
1.462
12-9
3-3
.344
l4-4
r.693
14.10
1.877
15.4
2.068
2.461
11-2
2.900
21-11
1.686
r3 , 1 0
|.514
23,10
921
24.9
2.421
25.8
2.684
28-1
3.529
r9.t
r.465
29-1
4 . 13 3
r.084
r8.2
1.270
26-6
2.958
9-l1
.669
2 .1 0 3
22-3
2.333
23.0
2.570
24.4
14-0
0.873
14-9
1.022
25.8
3.592
| 5.O
1.179
o-z
.344
17.6
18-1
1.877
18-7
2.068
23.4
1.244
20-3
1.084
19,9
2.461
24-7
't.462
25.10
20-10
2.900
29-2
2.421
31-2
2.958
27-O
2.570
22-O
2.068
20-3
33-1
'l
34,1
21-4
1.270
30-2
2.684
26,2
2.333
21.3
1.877
28-8
3.067
30-3
3.592
23-4
2.467
24-1
2.9m
0.873
tb
16
24
12
16
24
t 9 - 11
1.248
I T.J
tb
I t.J
r.r79
z. too
20-9
1.883
16.r0
1. 5 1 4
27-O
1.921
28-1
22-s
z5-a
1.465
1.669
24-5
1.883
25-4
0.873
5-2
.490
3-2
.300
17-4
1-O22
18-7
't.179
19.0
1.344
'rt9. -591 4
16 , 0
1.745
16.10
z . ul 5
17-1
2.295
18-3
2.588
20-6
r.693
r8,11
2.891
1 3 . 1I
1.533
14.1
1.757
15.3
2.N2
r5-11
2.257
l0-9
1.054
r1-4
1.234
ll-11
1.425
12-5
|,oz5
12-11
r.831
z t-a
.490
2Va
1.145
2.O15
22-5
2.295
6,10
.300
17-9
1.533
t8-7
1.757
19-5
2.OO2
3.8
.054
14.5
1,234
15-2
1.425
15-10
22-4
2.588
20-3
2.257
r6 " 6
1.831
1.490
24-10
r.745
21.7
28-4
2.588
I o.o
Q.E
4x12
l2m
16.4
1.244
12
'10
14.1
0.984
1100
12
24
4x

For limit of Q/240:0.667
For timit of Q/180:0.500
9-0
0.873
tz
4x8
0.792
16-3
1.133
18.2
0.963
3x 14
DESIGN STRESSES
Unit.designvaluesfo. designof w@d ioistsare givenin
the Narional DesignSpeitication for Wood Cdnstruc.
3x 10
3x 12
8,11
0.676
11-1
0.984
12
24
3x8
12.8
0.963
'|
1.1
0.840
11 - 5
o.792
24
ADJUSTMENT
OF MODULUS
OF
ELASTICITY
The modulus ot elasticity values listed in the span
tables for joists are thos required for the tabulated
spans if deflstion under the live load is limited to
l/360. Where other deflmtion limits are rcceptabte,
the tabular E values may be adjustedby muttiplying
them by the followinq factors:
EXTREME FTBER STRESS IN BENDING, Fb (PSt
1m0
't3-4
1.133
r3.4
0.840
10-10
0.676
NET SIZES OF LUMBER

Joists are customarily spcified in terms of nominal
sizes.but calculationsto determinethe allowablesoan
and requiredmodulus of elasticityare basd on actual
stzes.
tion, avajlablefrom the AmericanForest& paperAsso_

cratton.
70 LB LIVE LOAD
900
SPACING
of supports.plusone-halfthe requiredlengthol bearing

at each end, it is the practicein designin!joistsspacej
not over.24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
distancebetweensupports.
303
16
20.6
1.300
24
16-8
1.054
I.'JJ
17.7
1.?34
r.@o
z. tbb
2.r03
to- o
2.522
3.207
? q?l
3.529
20-1
3.067
I o-J
? q?a
4.217
17-1
2.799
17-7
3.082
J.O/O
1 3 . r1
18-7
3.592
22-7
4.939
r9 . 7
4.306
z.z06
14.4
2.500
15.2
2.922
16.0
25-O
3.207
za tu
3.533
27.5
4.217
28-9
4.939
21-O
2.522
2t-s
2.799
3.082
25.1
4.306
17.1
2.046
29-5
2.891
r7 . 8
2.268
30-5
3.207
30-6
3.533
22-7
1.751
23-7
2.OO2
24-7
25,6
2.522
26,5
2.799
27.4
3.082
28-5
3.676
td-5
19.3
20-1
1.83'l
zv-tv
2.046
z t-o
z. to6
22.2
2.500
23-6
2.922
1.425
|,oza
psi is shownbelow eachspan, deflection under I
24-4
4 . 13 3
2.046
24.2
2.891
I J.5
23,10
3.676
19,3
2.922
33-4
4.217
2.O15
I J-5
18-3
2.500
J t-5
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington,D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
205
3.492
J5-l
3.492
304
FloorJoisfs:80 lb Liveloqd
GENERAL
DESIGN
o l s u p p o r t sp l u so n e ' h a l lt h e r e q u i r e dl e n g t ho f b e a r i n g
INFORMATION
is heavier
Fornoorconstruction
whereriveroadins
than customarily found in residential dcupancies,
tabulardata are provided.
The tabulated spans are bared on bending strength
usingthe live load indicated i"
l]::
"::f-l:-b].1":d_i-!
,:3:i,t:!
a dead load of 10 psl. In calculatin_g
9"_ the live
modulus of elasticity {or the tabulated span,
load only was used, since this is in ecordance with
practicefor designof floor ioists.
established
SPAN
While the effective span length for an isolated beam
is customarilytaken as the distancefrom face to face
FLOOR
JOISTS_80LB
:::Xi:?t
NET SIZES OF LUMBER

Joisrs are customarity speified in rerms o{ nominal
iii.r, ort catcutataons
to determinerh;;1;";i;;;;;
anl iequireOmodulus oJ etarticity ar"Giij';;;.-i;i
;i;;r.
DESIGN
STRESSES
Unit designvaluesfor designof wood joists are givenin
the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Construc-
3x 12
3x 14
r 400
1500
1600
r800
4 - 11
.795
t5-5
r.988
15.1|
2.191
16 - 1 0
2.617
2-5
.395
2-11
13.4
1.730
10-10
1.390
r8.9
r.988
3-9
.903
t.2
533
11-11
t.zJo
24
3-5
).646
8.10
0.758
)-3
).873
9-8
0.995
10 - 1
1.124
u-o
.254
12
14,6
0.926
r.250
1.423
17-5
1.604
8-1
.795
to
12,1
0.803
15.4
1.084
'13-3
I 4-6
t5-I
5-8
16
10,3
0.646
17-1
0.926
to- |
o.941
3-11
.089
10.9
0.758
11 - 3
0.873
11 - 9
0.995
12-3
1.124
r8-0
18.10
1.250
tq-q
2G6
1.604
21.4
zz- |
t./95
1.988
td-o
1.084
.5b I
|,230
1.423
2-9
.254
14 . 1 0
0.803
l6-4
L086
17-1
1-236
17 , 1 0
0.941
12-O
0.646
12-8
0.758
13,4
0.873
13-11
0.995
14,5
1.124
5-0
-254
la-
t.50 |
I o.J
1.730
13-2
1.390
14.7
2000
17.9
J.UOZ
2.273
15-5
z.ooz
11 - 1 0
1.829
12-6
2.143
19.4
2.191
20-6
2.611
r 6-9
1.903
17-9
2.273
13-7
1.533
14.5
1.829
22-9
2.191
21-7
3.062
r8-9
2.662
r 5-5
2.'t43
25.5
3.062
1.730
r5 - 6
1.390
r9-9
1.903
24.2
2.617
20.1
2.273
l6-0
1.533
I 7.0
1.429
2-OO2
18,0
Iz-v
1.195
z-6
?oa
l3-4
1.614
1 3 - 11
r.838
14-6
2.073
15-1
2.317
15-7
2.50Y
16-l
2.831
3.377
l8-0
3.956
10.6
1.038
1-0
11.7
1.402
12.1
1.597
13 - 1
2.013
13-6
2.233
1 3 - 11
2.459
14-9
2.935
J.4Jd
24
8-6
0.835
9-0
0.978
9-5
1. 1 2 8
12-7
1.802
10-3
1.449
10.7
1.620
11 - 0
1.791
1.979
z.Jo
't2
I R.E
16.3
r.399
t7-9
r.838
18-6
1.195
7.O
.614
19-2
2.317
22-11
3.956
r 4-1
4,9
.402
t5-5
t.597
16 , 0
1.802
20-6
2.831
17.9
2.459
21-A
3.377
18-10
2.935
l 9 - 11
3.438
24
3-4
.038
10-10
0.835
r9 . 1 0
2.569
17-3
2.233
11 - 5
0.978
14-0
1.197
14-5
1.979
15 - 4
z.Jo
to-z
z. Ioo
12
8-9
.195
9-9
.399
2-O
.'t28
20-8
1.614
z-!ov
2.831
26-5
3.377
27.11
3.956
7-11
.402
22-11
.z ta
24.2
3.438
18-1
2.361
19-7
1.979
29-5
2.831
31-2
3.377
32-10
20-1
1.797
2.459
20-9
1.979
2.935
22-O
18.5
3.068
r9,0
J.J/Y
ZU.J
4.O34
to
to
.038
13-2
0.835
12
1.195
to
,zta
l.z t5
b.J
9-2
n?a
'|
5-6
0.835
4.4
-426
13.1
0.978
23-3
1.399
20.2
1.215
16 . 4
0.978
t3-l
24
10-2
r.009
12
8-3
.426
1.670
3-1
.451
0-8
.r 8 0
9,3
.670
16
5 -1 0
.243
6.8
.457
to
2-5
.009
12
4x12
300
4-4
.604
11 , 5
1.086
v
4x10
1200
13-9
1.423
1 0 - 11
0.941
4x8
11 0 0
13-2
1.250
10-4
0.803
12
3x 10
1000
12,7
'1.084
tb
3x8
F o r l i m i t o f e / 3 0 0 :0 . 8 3 3
For limit ot Q/180:0.500
EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING, Fb (PSII
ll11
0.926
2x14
oF MoDULUS oF
ELASTICITY
The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span
tables.for joists are those required for the tabulated
spns i{ detlrction under the live load is limited to
Q/36^0,..Whreother de{lation limits are acceptable,
the tabular E values may be adjustedby multiplying
LIVE LOAO
900
SIZE, SPACING
2x12
t i o n ,a v a i l a b l e
f r o m t h e A m e r i c a nF o r e s t& P a p e rA s s o
l"J].r=r"r*r
jirtun"u b",*""n ,uppo^r.
JO|ST ilN.l
2x 10
';.':Jl;?;'::::[::n:i'J#:fi'.'jffi:?
zz-J
1.426
1.243
24
r.009
requ I reo
3-7
.180
23-5
r.670
20-4
1.457
1.r80
| 5-9
elasl
9.10
838
13 - 0
1.446
22-6
2.O73
8-9
.597
9-6
.802
23-4
2.317
20,3
2.013
5-10
.449
r6-5
r.620
Iz-o
1.286
4-7
.128
24-4
1.614
21-2
1.402
-2
128
5-10
.928
3-9
.681
.lbJ
25-5
1.838
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
tJ-o
't.620
2.459
2A-6
2.569
17-2
2.475
14.4
1.915
1 4 . 11
2 . 15 9
15 . 6
2.413
16-1
2.677
2.948
17.7
3.516
|r-8
12.2
12.6
1.957
13-l
2.170
13-6
2.391
14-4
2.795
23-7
3.068
20-6
24-4
3.379
25-'lO
4.O34
?1-2
2.948
17-2
22-5
1.597
17-11
1.286
'r
6.6
26-6
2.073
23-0
't.802
18-8
1.449
1.554
20-2
1.928
21.1
2 . 19 6
21.11
2.415
22.9
2.766
7,6
681
r8.4
L 9 15
19-1
z. ta9
19-1
0
2.413
15 , 6
1.554
|,taz
26-8
2.475
1. 6 8 1
25.7
2.196
22-3
r . 91 5
17.4
r.363
18-1
1.554
18 - 1 0
1.752
24.6
1.928
20-11
2.233
17 - 0
1.797
27-6
2.317
23-10
2.013
9.5
.620
17,10
2.766
ity, E, in 1.000.0O0
1,000,000psi
osi is shown below each
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
to./
2.013
12-O
16,1
1.957
27-A
2.766
tJ-z
r .1 5 9
2.413
19.7
1.957
24-8
2.233
16.8
2.170
26.6
3.068
24.11
2.677
20-3
2.170
def lrction under the live load is limited to Q/360.
29-7
3.379
25-9
2.944
?0-11
2.391
z.Jo I
15-7
12-A
z,too
28-6
3.438
23-2
2.766
4.725
r8.6
4 . 11 9
3.340
27.3
4.725
4 . 11 9
14.2
2.795
3r . 5
4.034
27-3
2.795
19-3
3.340
J3-t
4.725
2A-9
4 . 1l 9
23.5
3.340
Wood Columns
305
U N t T A X T A L S T R E S S E S : S t M p L E S O L T O C O L U M N S _ e / d F R o M1 1 r o 3 0
E
F.
1.800.000
1,700,000
1,600,000
'1,500.000
1500
1400
1300
1200
I 50U
1400
1300
1200
| 500
t400
t300
r200
| 100
t000
900
1400
1300
1200
1100
r000
900
800
700
600
lzw
1100
1,400,0@ 1000
900
800
?m
1100
1000
1,300,000 900
800
700
lrm
1ofi)
900
r,200,000 8m
700
600
500
0
900
800
1,100,0@ 700
600
500
400
700
600
1,000,000 500
400
300
l1+
475
380
244
187
1472
1377
1282
| 186
1468
1374
't279
1184
1087
991
893
13 7 1
1276
11 8 1
1086
989
892
795
696
598
I t/Y
1084
988
.891
794
696
t081
986
890
793
695
1078
983
888
791
694
596
498
399
885
790
693
596
498
399
692
595
497
398
299
12
1464
1 3 71
1271
11 8 2
1460
1368
1274
| 180
I J
451
360
zo6
175
r 166
I t30
445
14:/6
J55
1340
1252
1162
1417
1332
1246
11 5 7
1067
975
1403
1321
1237
11 5 0
1390
1311
1228
1l4/.
1057
264
172
1 4 5 5 1438
IJOJ
1350
1271 1260
1 1 7 7 1168
1082 1076
oa7
982
887
890
I JCO
1343
1267 1254
1 1 7 4 1164
1080 1072
oar
979
889
885
789
b95
693
597
595
tltv
t o 7 7 1068
983
887
791
694
t073
980
885
790
693
1068
976
883
788
692
595
497
398
879
/do
690
594
496
398
688
593
496
398
299
t5
16
1434 1 4 1 3 1388
I 346 1329
r309
1257 1243 1227
14
976
883
748
692
1063
972
880
786
690
057
967
876
783
689
EOa
496
?oq
872
780
662
1323
1238
11 5 1
1063
972
880
/oo
690
594
1 14 4
1057
968
876
783
689
r050
OA?
873
781
687
to42
956
868
778
685
591
495
397
592
495
398
862
773
682
589
493
397
684
qon
494
678
586
492
JVb
299
298
vo/
876
1142
374
294
214
l?t
1358
1284
1207
1127
lo44
Y3d
869
17
357
284
207
127
269
I z5J
1182
11 0 7
1029
946
dol
1 2 6 8 1232
1219 11 9 5 1166
11 3 6 1 1 1 7 1094
1051 t w o
1019
YOJ
952
939
873
855
781
775
687
684
679
aJz
561
590
1127 1r 0 5 1 U/ 9
1043 l o 2 7 1007
957
945
930
869
860
849
778
172
764
685
681
676
1034 1 0 1 5
992
951
936
919
864
853
841
775
758
683
678
o7?
r023 1000
942
925
905
8s8
845
830
770
762
751
680
674
667
Eqe
584
579
493
491
488
396
395
394
atE
850
817
765
754
742
669
581
489
394
671
582
490
395
298
ooJ
577
487
393
297
COLUMNS_Vd
ool
575
486
?o?
653
570
483
391
296
21
t226 1 1 6 7
1 1 7 7 1129
112'l 1083
r060 1029
298
1249
11 9 6
11 3 7
1072
fi92
|150
| 100
t043
1 2 7 2 1217
1215 11 7 0
t t52
1116
1083 1 0 5 5
10 1 0
988
933
916
839
11 8 9
r138
11 3 1 I 0 9 1
1067
r 035
998
923
844
761
JIJ
on6
830
751
ob/
583
I u46
oa?
912
836
755
670
964
898
825
748
665
140
380
I
e/d
20
1277
1218
11 5 5
1086
169
097
I t6
10
320
254
183
108
zJo
1 31 9
I zJ6
o/o
585
491
396
td
tJ
739
)by
t74
185
tJz
727
651
569
442
391
641
563
478
389
579
1 0 11
9t4
891
820
744
662
o?r
873
807
735
656
902
851
791
724
649
568
1
390
771
709
478
389
1126
1096
1057
1009
23
24
r020 938
1 0 1 09 3 7
1098
1073
r 039
994
1050
1034
1007
988
954
930
909
vbc
963
950
925
885
885
873
d65
11 5 3 1078
1 1 1 8 1057
'1074
tuza
1022 984
963 934
897 6 t a
6Za
809
992
987
969
940
900
849
790
907
907
905
889
861
820
IU/Y
I UI U
9JU
1043
998
944
883
815
740
660
575
u5l
987
954
911
858
796
727
651
569
vbd
v td
921
883
837
781
716
u4
doo
802
731
654
893
844
.786
720
647
848
811
to2
703
635
804
778
738
686
624
552
472
386
707
857
817
767
706
637
s60
477
388
741
689
oo5
OZf,
609
553
473
386
54J
467
/oY
9ZJ
o3l
904
872
829
775
7'12
641
846
828
795
751
695
630
556
JOJ
ubu
838
803
757
699
633
796
734
683
622
744
732
/u5
663
608
542
467
383
668
637
591
531
460
380
833
R??
ot/
548
729
729
721
697
657
6(X
677
677
604
635
589
6 8 1 625
680 625
667 624
636 606
590 570
531 5 1 8
460 453
380 376
622 573
605 6Aq
569 545
5 1 8 AA?
444
3 7 6 371
o tu
554
473
386
294
543
467
JOJ
293
q?1
460
380
291
517
452
290
501
442
371
288
26
799
799
799
799
741
741
741
741
689
689
689
689
612
642
642
642
30
600
600
600
600
816
816
816
oto
754
754
754
754
700
700
700
700
6!
6!
65
65
bub
606
606
606
567
567
ab/
567
168
768
710
710
710
710
710
658
658
658
658
658
571
571 533
5 7 1 533
5 7 1 5J5
odo
651
6
6
o
o
o
6
6
ooo
ooo
olt
tod
831
816
787
744
781
781
781
777
757
723
676
787
765
729
680
619
737
727
10'l
660
607
25
864
864
864
857
482
432
365
265
/06
/oo
749
717
720
720
720
714
692
654
602
E2a
otz
672
672
ool
632
587
624
624
623
605
569
576
o36
Eal
53s 500
535 500
5J5
546
Fnl
488
621
621
620
604
568
5Jb
617
ot/
617
617
3/O
3/O
571
47
521
487
435
367
494
494
494
492
469
424
361
488
488
487
466
422
360
453
453
453
444
410
354
438
406
12
'll
31
t4
280
536
576
533 494
533
(?R
601
577 q ? E
577
517
572 535
g 7 522
Ja2
243
533
533
585
528 5 1 6
621 576
obb
ooo
oob
656
o2Y
E?I
547
504
444
371
528
528
518
5
434
366
479
461
420
571
Jt
574
574
574
574
574
574
674
576
zd
536
cJo
523
497
497
497
497
495
45(
45(
45{
45(
45(
44t
421
421
421
419
?oq
346
az3
499
499
499
499
499
496
4U
4U
464
464
4U
428
428
428
428
428
425
399
3
392
392
461
467
467
467
467
467
433
433
433
433
433
400
400
400
400
400
400
384
341
?q7
?47
397
392 397
380 362
338 329
JJ2
357
354
325
FROM 30 TO 50
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
500
500
500
500
500
497
47?
Obtain daign valuc for E and Fc from the National DesignSprcification {or Wood Construction.
Modify Fc for different load duration, if applicable.
CalculateQ/dwhere [ = unsupported length of column (in.) and d = applieble leastactual dimension of column crosssction.
Determinevalueof Fg' from table.
Total designload on column = cross-srctionalarea (sq in.) x Fc' value.
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation:Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
306
Floorond RoofBeoms:20lb LiveLoqd

T A B L E s2 0 p o u r u o s
FLOOR AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN
REQUIREO VALUES FOR FIBER STRESS IN BENDING (') AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E) FOR THE SIZES SHOWN TO SUPPORT SAFELY A LIVE LOAD OF
20 POUNDS PER SOUARE FOOT WITH A DEFLECTION LIMITATIoN OF 1/roo 1 = SPAN lN INCHES'T
'E
PSI FOR
MINIMUM
&'E'IN
MtNTMUM "f" &
tN Pst FoR
BEAMS SPACEO:
BEAMS SPACEOI
NOMINAL
SPAN OF
BEAM
NOMINAL
SIZE OF AEAM
.0'
6',-0"
I
10'
2-3x6
1 - 3x 8
2 - 2x B
1 - 4x 8
3'2x8
2 - 3x B
2 - 2x 1 0
630
130m00
1133000
949000
808000
633000
566000
455000
I 545
1715
1480
985
890
755
910
1682000 1800
1469000 2070
r 225000 1725
t050000 1480
816000 1 1 5 0
735000 1035
604000 880
590000 1060
1963000 2060
1 7 1 4 0 0 0 2370
1429000 1 9 7 0
1225W0 1 6 9 0
952000 1 3 1
5
858000 11 8 5
705m0 1005
688m0 1210
22420W
1958000
1633000
1400000
1088000
980000
805000
786000
1 - 3x 8
2-2xB
1 . 4x 8
J-lx6
2-3x8
1 - 6x 8
?-2x 1O
1 - 3x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
2085
1 14 0
1490
11 6 0
1045
885
1070
1280
915
r 867000 2430
1556000 2025
r 334000 | / J f
1037000 1350
934000 1215
767000 1040
750000 1245
899000 1 4 9 5
642000 1 0 7 0
2179000 2780
1816000 2 J t 5
1557000 1 9 8 5
1210000 1545
1090000 r ?on
895m0 11 8 5
875000 1420
1049000 17 1 0
749000 1220
2489000
2074000
1778000
1382000
1245000
1022000
'1000000
11980m
856000
3-2x8
2-3x8
l-6xB
1 - 3x 1 0
? - 2x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
3 - 2x 1 0
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 6x 1 0
4-2x 1O
1340
1210
r025
1485
1235
1060
825
740
640
620
1296000
| 166000
957000
r 124000
936000
802000
624000
561000
471000
468000
520000
1 5 1 2 m 0 '1790
13610001 6 1 0
1 1 1 7 0 0 01370
1 3 1 2 m 0 1980
1092m0 1650
936m0 1 4 1 5
728000 11 0 0
655000 oon
550000 850
546000 825
607000 11 1 5
172700o
1554000
1276000
1498000
1248000
1069000
832000
748000
628000
624000
693000
1540
1390
1t80
1705
1420
1220
950
850
735
7r0
960
825
1594000 1800
1435000 1620
1179000
1 3 8 1 0 0 01990
11 5 1 0 0 0 1660
986000 1420
767000 11 0 5
69r000 995
580000 855
576000 830
640000 1120
99000
960
1860@0 zu55
1675000 1850
1376m0 r 570
1612000 2210
1343m0 1 8 9 5
115r000 I oz5
895000 I l o J
806m0 1 1 3 5
677000 980
672000 945
7470oO 12AO
'|
641000 100
2125000
1913000
1572000
1841000
1534000
r 314000
1022000
921000
773000
768000
853000
732000
1580
r 7 4 1 0 0 0 1840
1397000 r890
r 197000 t o t S
9 3 1 0 m 1260
'1
839000 130
704000 975
699000 945
5160@ / t 5
932000 r 530
776000 1275
666000 1090
518000 850
2032m0
1630000
1397000
1086000
979000
821000
8r6m0
602000
1087000
905000
777m0
604000
2321000
1862000
15960@
124r000
1118000
938000
932000
688000
1242000
1034000
888000
690000
2 - 2x 8
l-4x8
3-2x8
2 - 3x B
2 - 2x l Q
z-zx tz
3 - 2x B
2-SX6
1 - 6x
1 - 3x
2-2x
l-4 x
3-2x
2 - 3x
1 - 6x
4-2x
2-2x
1 - 4x
8
10
10
l0
10
10
10
10
12
12
z-3x8
2 - 2x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
3 - 2x 1 0
2 - 3x 1 0
to
r430
t 645
1370
11 7 5
915
820
840
17270@
15080m
1256000
1078000
838000
754000
605000
2 - 2x 8
l - 4x I
3-2x8
2-3x8
1 - 6x 8
2 - 2x 1 0
to
1250 1138000
1440 992000
1200 831000
1030 707000
800 554000
720 496000
735 398000
15',I20001730
1320000 1 9 9 0
1099000 I oou
944000 1420
734000 1r 0 5
660000 995
530000 1 0 2 0
t-5 x 6
14'
o t9
9?5000
850000
712000
606000
475000
425000
3410m
r 296000 | 5 1 0
1 1 3 1 0 0 01 14 0
942000 1 4 5 0
809000 1245
629000 970
566000 870
4540m 890
2-3x6
13',
I zJ1
t - ox
4 - 2x
1 - 8x
1 - 3x
tu
10
10
12
1 - 4x 1 2
J-ZX
tZ
tolt
1385
1075
970
835
810
o tc
t3l0
1090
935
730
1570
1410
120f)
1730
1445
1240
YOJ
865
745
720
975
American Forest and Paper Association; Washington, D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
2105
2r55
1845
1435
1290
11 3 0
1080
815
1750
1455
1250
970
BE AM
SIZE
OF
.0'
.0
AEAM
1295
r 490
1245
I 065
830
745
765
z-5xo
t-J x 6
t1'
r070
1030
880
685
8',-0"
I
l7'
18'
2-2x 0
1-4x 0
3-2x 0
z.J x 0
1 - 6x 0
4 - 2x 0
1 - 8x
1 - 3x
2-2 x
'l-4
x
3-2 x
2
2
2
2
l'4 x 0
3-Z X 0
z-3 x 0
t-o x 0
q-z x 0
t-6x 0
t-J x
?-2 x
1 - 4x
3-2 x
2-3 x 2
1 - 6x
3-2 x
19'
z-J x
'l-6
x
4-2 x
2-4 x
1 - 8x
0
0
0
0
t.J x
2-2 x 2
1 - 4x z
J-2
2-5 X
t-b x
20'
3-2 x 0
2.5 X
0
1'6x 0
4-2 x 0
2-4 x 0
'1-8
x 0
2-2 x 2
1 - 4x 2
3-2 x 2
l.J x 2
1 - 6x t
4-2 x 2
21'
2 - 3x
1 - 6x
4-2 x
2 . 4x
1 - 8x
2 - 2x
1 - 4x
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
1825
1565
1215
1095
945
910
690
1480
1235
r060
820
140
17 5 5
1365
1270
1060
1020
780
1660
1380
I t63
920
830
720
1520
1365
11 7 0
11 4 0
975
860
1850
1540
1320
r025
925
805
1685
tctc
i 300
1260
r 080
r'1465
705
11 4 0
1025
970
855
r 670
r 430
1390
11 9 5
1050
1880
1 6 r5
I zJa
z-3x tz
t-oxtz
4-2 x 12
2 - 4x 1 2
4-2 x 0
2-4 x 0
1 - 8x 0
1 ' 4x
J.Z X
22'
x
2-3
't-6
x
4-2 x
2-4 x
5-2 x
J.J
2
2
2
2
2
11 3 0
970
940
805
1525
1310
r 160
1770
'1t327450
1080
1030
885
825
825
8',,0"
1676000 Z I J U 1956000 2435

l'r437000 1 8 2 5 16770002085 1915000
117000 1420 1303000 t o z a r 489000
r 005000 1280 1173000 1460 1340000
844000 11 0 0 985000 1260 I 125000
837000 1065 977000 t z t a 1 1 1 6 0 0 0
619000 805 722000 9 1 0 825000
1 1 1 7 0 0 0 1725 '1086000
1303000 19 7 5 14890@
1 i l s 1241000
931000 1440
799000 1230 932000 1 4 1 0 1065000
621000
960 725000 1095 828000
5590@ 6 0 t
652000 990 745000
1705000 zv45 19900002340
1326000 1590 1 5 4 7 m 0 1 8 15 1767000
1194000 1480 13930001695 1592000
1168000 1 4 1
1001000 I z J J
5 r 334000
995000 11 9 5 1 1 6 r 0 0 01365 1326000
735000 9 1 0 858000 1040 98m00
1327000 1 0 ? 6 1549000 2210 1769000
1106000 t o t 5 I 291000 1 8 4 5 1474000
947000 I J U I 1105000 1580 1262000
737000 1 0 7 5 860000 1230 982000
664000 970 775000 11 0 5 885000
565000 840 659000 960 753000
1560000 1775 18200002025 2079000
1404000 1595 1638000 1825 1 8 7 1 0 0 0
1179000 1 3 6 5 13760001560 1572000
1 1 7 m 0 0 1330 13650001520 15600m
1002000 11 4 0 1169000 1
't300 1336000
864000 i005 1008000 145 1152000
1561000 2 1 5 5 18220002465 2081000
130r000 1800 15180002055 1734000
1| 15000 1540 1301000r'|760 r486000
867000 1200 1012000 370 1156000
780000 1080 910000 1230 1040000
664000 9rto 775@0 1 0 7 0 885000
1820000 t965 2124@O 2245 2426000
16370@ t770 1 9 1 0 m 0 2020 2182000
r 374000 | 6 1 E 1603000 1 7 3 5 1831000
18t 9000
13650ff) 1475 1593000 t 6 5
1170000 t z o S r365000 1445 1560000
1342000
1
280
1007000 I r 2 0 1175000
1517000 t990 1770000 2 2 7 5 2022000
1300000 t 7 1 0 1517000 1950 1733000
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 r 3 3 0 1180000 1520 1348000
9 10000 | 1 9 5 1062000 I J O 5 1213000
775000 | 1 3 0 9M000 I z J a 10030@
759000 995 886000 I t J 5 1012000
1895000 1950 2211m0 2225 2526000
1591000 1 6 7 0 1857000 1 9 0 5 212100o
1580000 1 6 2 5 1844000 1 8 5 5 2106000
r 354000 1390 1580000 I 590 1805000
1166000 1225 1361000 1400 15540@
1756000 2 1 9 5 2049000 2510 2341000
r 505000 1880 1756000z tav 2006000
r 1 7 1 0 0 0 1465 1366000 1 6 7 0 '|561000
1054000 1 3 2 0 1230000 '1295
1505 1405000
11940@
896000 1 1 3 0 1046000
878000 1100 1025000 1255 1170000
752000 9lm 877000' 1 0 7 5 r002000
I 816000 1780 2119000 2035 242100o
1556000 1530 1816000 1745 2074000
1341000 1355 1565@0 1545 r7870@
1730@0 2065 2019@0 2360 2306000
1346000 1605 15 7 1 0 0 0 I a ? r 1794000
1 2r ' r 0 0 0 1445 1 4 1 3 @ 0 1655 1614000
1031000 1260 12030001440 1374000
1010000 1205 1179000 13 7 5 1346000
865000 1 0 3 5 1009000 1 1 8 0 1153000
942000 1 1 0 5 1076000
807000
799000 965 932000 1 1 0 5 1065000
Floorond RoofBeqms:30 lb LiveLood
307
AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN

T A B L E s3 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E Q U I R E oV A L U E S F o R F I B E R s r R E s s l N B E N D T N G( f ) A N o M o D U L U S o F E L A s r r c r r y ( E ) F o R T H E s r z E s s H o w N T o s u p p o R r s A F E L y A L t v E L o A D o F
3 0 P O U N D SP E R S O U A R EF O O T W I T H A D E F L E C T I O NL T M T T A T I O N
O F I / : O O1 = S P A N I N I N C H E S .
urruruuia "1" & "E" tN pst FoR
M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N p s t F o R
BEAMS
SPAN OF
BEAM
SPACED:
-0
BEAMS SPACED:
.o"
NOMINAL
SIZE OF BEAM
SPAN OF
BE AM
2-3x6
1 - 3x 8
1-4x8
3-2x8
2 - 3x 8
2 - 4x 8
2-2 x 1O
1 4 3 0 1462000 1670
1645 1275000 r 9 2 0
ltta
909000 r 370
915
712000 1 0 7 0
420
637000 955
455000 690
590
840
51r000 980
1 - 3x 8
1-4x8
J-ZX6
2-3xB
24 x8
2 - 2x 1 0
t - Jx t u
I Oqn
2320 r979000 2655 2261000
't420 1696000
1212000 r660 1 4 1 4 @ 0 r 895 1615000
11 0 5 942000 1 2 9 0 1099000 1475 1255000
995 849000 I 1 6 0 991000 I J Z J
r I 32000
7 1 0 606000 830 707000 945 808000
1020 680000 ' 1 1 9 0 793000 1360 906000
1220 817000 1425 953000 1625 1089000
1z',
1'4x8
3 - 2x B
2-3x8
2 - 4x 8
'l-6
x8
2 - 2x 1 0
3-2x 10
2-3x 10
1690 1575000
1 3 1 5 1224WO
I 1 8 5 1102000
845
787000
1005
905000
1210
885000
810
590000
125
530000
r3'
l-4x8
3-2x8
,2'3x8
24xB
1-6xB
2-2x 1O
3 - 2x l 0
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
10'
l1'
14'
t5
16',
3-2x8
2-3x8
24 xB
1.6x8
2-2x 1O
3-2x 10
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
1 - 6x 1 0
2-4x 10
1706000
1488000
1061000
831000
743000
531000
596000
1970 1838000
r 5 3 5 1428000
1385 1286m0
985 9 1 8 m 0
ttta
r056000
1 4 1 0 r0$m0
945
688000
845
618000
1985 2@@00 2315 2334000

1545 1556000 r805 1 8 1 6 m 0
1390 1400000 1620 r634m0
qm
1001000 1
1 5 5 1168000
't375
1 180 11 5 1 0 0 0
1343000
1425 1125000 1 6 6 5 1 3 1 3 m 0
950
750000 l 1 t 0 875000
855
675000 1000 788000
1220 1 | 54000 1425 1347m0
'1790
915
705
r 944000
1750000
1250000
1436000
1404000
935000
841000
1204000
I 179000
601000
24 x8
1 - 6x 8
2-2x 10
3-2x 10
2-3x 10
14x10
1 - 6 x1 0
24x10
4-Zx 10
l-8 x l0
2-2x-12
14x12
1320
1570
1895
1260
11 3 5
r620
980
810
945
720
r280
1095
1537000
1767000
i 726000
11 5 1 0 m
1036000
1479000
870000
740000
86,4000
637000
960000
8220@
2-2x 10
3-2x 10
2-3 x 10
l{x10
t-6 x 10
24x10
4-2x 10
1 - 8x 1 0
2-2 x'12
1 - 4x 1 2
3-2 x 12
2155
r435
r 290
t845
ll15
925
1075
815
1455
1250
970
875
2096000
1396000
1257000
1796000
1055000
899000
r047000
774000
r 164000
999000
776000
699000
1610
r 150
1370
1650
1 100
990
'1415
2090
1880
1340
r6m
1925
1285
11 5 5
1650
1070
825
1540
1830
2210
1470
1 1?6
1890
11 4 5
945
t 105
840
1495
1280
1905 1948000
2 1 9 5 1699000
| 505
1212000
122Q
949000
1095
849000
785
606000
1 120
681000
2255 2099000
t r33
1631000
1580 1469000'
11 2 5 1049000
1340 r 206000
1 6 1 5 | 180000
r 080 786000
965 706000
2645
2060
1855
1320
26660@
2074000
1866000
1334000
tara
l 534000
1900 r 500000
I zol
100@00
11 4 0 900000
1625 1538000
2268@0 2385
2042mO 2145
1459000 1535
1676000 t 6 2 5
1638000 2200
1091000 1465
981000 1 3 2 0
r405000 1885
1376000 1220
701000 940
2591000
2333000
1666000
1914000
1871000
12460@
11 2 1 0 0 0
1605000
1572000
80r000
1794000 1760
2062000 2095
2014000 't680
zaza
1343000
1209000 t 5 t 5
1726@0 2 1 6 0
1015000 1305
863000 1080
1008m0 1260
743m0 G N
fi20m0 1705
959000 1460
2049000
2355000
2301000
1534000
1381000
1971000
1160000
986000
1152000
849000
1280000
1096000
17',
3 - 2x 1 0
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 6x 1 0
2 - 4x 1 O
4-2x 10
1 - 8x 1 0
2 - 2x 1 2
1 - 4x 1 2
3-2x 12
2-3x 1?
4-2x 12
2 - 4x 1 2
r8'
2-3 x 10
1 - 6x 1 0
24x10
4-2x 1O
1 - 8x 1 0
2 - 2x 1 2
1 - 4x 1 2
3-2 x 12
2 - 3x 1 2
4-2x 12
2-4 x 12
5-2 x 12
to'
l-6 x 10
2-4 x 1O
4-2 x 10
1 . 8x 1 0
.14x12
3-2 x 12
2-3 x 12
4-2x 12
24x12
5-2 x 12
1 - 6x 1 2
3 - 3x 1 2
20'
l'8 x 10
3-2 x 12
2-3 x 12
4.2 x 12
24x12
5-2 x 12
1 - 6x 1 2
3.3x 12
1 - 8x 1 2
1 - 1 0x 1 2
4-3 x 12
2-3 x 14
21
3-2 x 12
2-3 x 12
4-2x 12
2 - 4x 1 2
5-2 x 12
l-6 x 12
3 - 3x 1 2
1-8x12
'l-10
x 12
4-3 x 12
2-3 x 14
l-6 x 14
22'
4-2 x'12
24x12
5-2 x 12
1 - 6x 1 2
3 - 3x 1 2
1 - 8x 1 2
l - 1 0x 1 2
4-3 x 12
2-3 x 14
1 - 6x 1 4
3-3x 14
2-4 x 14
2 5 1 5 2446000 2875
r 6 7 5 1629000 1 9 1 5
1505 1467000 1720
2 15 5 2096000 2460
r300
000
't080 1231
r049000
I zaa
950
1700
1460
I 130
r020
1222m,0
903000
1358m0
1166000
905000
816000
2794000
1861000
1675000
2394000
12185 14060@
1235 1r 98000
1
4 3 5 1395000
'1085
1032000
1 9 4 0 1552000
I oo5
1332000
1295 r 034000
I to5
932000
NOMI NA L
SIZE OF BEAM
6',-0"
8',-0
t
676000 1890 1956000 z lou 2234000
507000 I 705 r 759000 1945 2009000
1255
265000 1465 1476000 I 675 1686000
1040
077000 r 2 1 5 1257000 t 385 r 435000
tzla
256000 1420 1466m0 1620 1674000
920 927000 't075 't082000 1225 1236000
r 645 396000 1920 1629000 2 1 9 5 1 8 6 1 0 0 0
1 4 ' t 0 r97000 1 6 4 5 1397@0 1880 1596000
1095 93r000 r 280 1086000 1460 1241000
985 839000 11 5 0 979000 t J t 5 1',il8000
820 699000
8r6000 1095
932000
705 599000 820 699000 940
799000
toY5
I 790000 1980 2089000 2260 2386000
1 4 1 5 1501000 1650 1 7 5 2 m 0 1885 2000000
11 7 0 1279@0 1365 1492000 1560 r 705000
1360 1492000 1590 1 7 4 1 0 0 0 ' t 8 r5 1989000
1040 1102000 t 2 1 5 'r286000 1 3 8 5 1469000
1 8 4 0 1659000 2150 1936000 2455 2211000
1580 1 4 2 r 0 0 0 1 8 4 5 1658000 2105 1894000
1230 1106000 I 435 l29tooo 1640 1474000
11 0 5 995000 | 290 l 1 6 t @ 0 1475 1326000
920 829000 1 0 7 5 967000 1225 r 105000
790 711000 920 830000 1 0 5 5 948000
664000 860 775000 980
885000
I 570 1767000 1830 20620n0 2095 2355000
I 300 1504000 t c t S 1755m0 I 735 2005000
| 5ZU
1755000 1775 2048000 2025 2339000
1 4 5 1295000 I J J 5
1 5 11 0 0 0 1525 r 726000
'|1760
1672000 2055 1951000 Z J l J
2229000
1 3 7 0 r 301000 r600 1 5 1 8 0 0 0 1825 r 734000
I 230 1170000 1 4 3 5 1365000 1640 1560000
1 0 2 5 975000 11 9 5 113t,000 I J b 5
1300000
880 836000 r 0 2 5 976000 1 1 1 5 1114000
820 780000 Y 5 5
910000 1095 1040000
1070 995000 1250 1 1 6 1 0 0 01425 1326000
820 771000 955 900@0 1095 1028000
r 280 r 5 11 0 0 0 1495 r763000 1705 20'r4000
l 520 1516000 1775 1769000 2025 2021000
I JO5
1365000 1 5 9 5 1593000 r 820 r 819000
1 0 2 5 1137000 I 195 1327000 '|365 r 516000
9 7 5 975000 1 1 4 0 '1138@0 1300 1300000
9 1 0 910000 1060 1062000 1215 1213000
I zva
1162000 1 5 1 0 1356000 1725 1549000
910
900000 1060 1050000 1 2 1 5 1200000
870
852000 r 0 1 5 994m0 I t o u 1136000
690
672000 805 784000 920 896000
680
682000 t35
796000 905 909000
985
836000 1 1 5 0
976000 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 4 0 0 0
1 6 7 0 1756000 1950 2049000 2225 234r000
1505 1580000 17 5 5 1844000 2005 2 106000
1317000 | 9 0 J
1537000 16 7 5 r 755000
1075 1
129000 I z a a
1 3 1 7 0 0 0 1435 r 505000
1005 '1054000 1 1 1 5 1230000 1340 r405000
1295 1344000 1 5 1 0 1568000 t l z a
1791000
r005 r0410oo I 1 7 5 1215000 1340 1388000
960 986000 1120 1 1 5 1 @ 0 1280 1314000
760 779000 885
9@@0 1 0 15 1038000
750 790000 875
922000 1000 1053000
1085 967000 r 2 6 5 | 128000 1445 r 2890@
950 832000 u 1 0 971000 1265 | 109000
1515000 1605 1768000 1835 2019000
1 1 8 0 1297000 1380 1513000 1575 1729000
1 1 0 0 r 2 11 0 0 0 r 285 1 4 1 3 m 0 1465 16r4000
1440
15460@ 1680 1804000 1 9 2 0 2061000
't
100 1197000 1285 1397m0
1596000
1 0 5 5 1134000 1 2 3 0 1323000 1 4 0 5 1 5 1 1 0 0 0
830
895000 970 1044000 1 1 0 5 r r93000
az5
909000 965 106r000 1 1 0 0 r 212000
11 9 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 01390 1298000 r 585 1482000
1045
956000 1220 1',t't6000 13 9 5 't274000
795
736000 930 859000 '|060
981000
820
751000 Y3t
I 114000 '1095 l00r000
1620
'1460
Amerien Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
308
Floor ond Roof Beoms: 40 lb Live loqd
A N D R O O F B E A M S - o E s r c N T A B L E S4 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E a U t R E D v A L U E s F o R F T B E RS T R E S St N B E N D T N G{ f ) A N D M o D U L U s O F E L A s T I c t T Y { E ) F o R T H E S I z E Ss H O w N T O S U P P o R TS A F E L Y A L l v E L O A D O F
1 = S P A NI N I N C H E S .
4 0 P O U N D SP E RS Q U A R EF O O T W I T H I N A D S F L E C T I O NL I M T T A T I O NO F I / 3 O O
FLOOR
MINtMUM "1" & "E" tN Pst FoR

BEAMS SPACED:
M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N P s t F o R

BEAMS SPACEO:
SPAN OF
BEAM
NOMINAL
SIZE OF BEAM
I.J X 6
2
-2x8
'1-4
xI
10'
t-b x 6
2 - 2x 1 0
1 - 3x l 0
1 - 4x 1 0
810"
t
E
E
zu55 1700000 24W '1984000 '.740 2266000
17 1 0 1417000 1995 1654000 '.280 18890@
1470 12 11 0 0 0 1715 1 4 r 3 0 0 0 960 1614000
929000
8 7 5 697000 1 0 2 0 813000 t o 3
1050 681000 1225 795000 400 908000
1260
819000 1470 956000 680 r 092000
900
585000 1050 683000 200 780000
SPAN OF
BE AM
n
2-4 x
3-3x
l - 8x
3-2 x 2
4-2 x 2
5-2 x
IJX
z.J x
1 ' 3x 1 0
1 - 4x l 0
3 - 2x 1 0
l 886000 2415
1 6 1 6 0 0 0 2070
1 0 5 5 929000 1230
906000 1490
taza
1090000 1780
r090 779000 1270
d5u
605000 990
1-6xB
3-2x8
2 - 2x l Q
1 - 3x 1 0
1 . 4x 1 0
3 - 2x 1 0
ZUX IU
1 - 6x 1 0
24x10
1255
1645
1510
1820
1300
1010
905
785
650
z-zx6
1 . 4x 8
1 - 6 . xI
11',
12'
t3'
14',
1s',
1 - 6x I
2 - 3x B
2 - 4x B
3 - 2x 1 0
2 - 2x 1 0
1 . 3x 1 0
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
2-4 x 1Q
1475
1735
1235
11 8 5
1780
2130
'1070
taza
760
1206000
1631000
1180000
1415000
1010000
786000
706000
594000
505000
1407000 1670
1903000 2 1 9 0
1377000 2010
1651000 2425
5 1 5 r 179000 | / J 5
180
9 17000 1345
055
824000 1205
915
693000 1045
760
589000 d o 3
r 607000
2174000
1573000
18860m
13460m
1048000
941000
792000
6730m
1535000
18660@
1335000
100@00
1500000
1799000
900000
1537000
642000
465
920
760
't25
't720
2025
1440
1380
2075
2485
1250
1780
Rqo
't675
1791000 1965
2178000 2 3 15
1558000 1645
1167000 1580
1750000 23tO
2099000 28/.O
1050000 1425
1794000 Z U J J
749000 1 0 1 5
2046000
24870@
1779000
1333000
2000000
23980C[)
1200000
2049000
8s60@
I 435 1666000
12aE
1246000 t o u a
11 2 1 0 0 0 1440
't770
160s000 2065
880
801000 1 0 2 5
825
749000 960
11 4 5 1 5 7 1 0 0 0 I J J 5
780
691000 9 r 0
1030
936000 1200
1395 1040000 1630
r944000 t 9 t5
1454000 | 830
I 308000 | 645
r873000 I J O U
935000 | | / D
874000 | 1 0 0
1833000 t525
806000 t 0 4 0
1092000 | 375
1214000 1860
22210oO
1661000
1494000
2139000
1068000
9980@
2094000
921000
1248000
1386000
3 - 2x 1 0
2 - 3x l 0
24x10
1575
1420
'1010
945
1225
900
11 8 0
1600
1065
1920
800
960
'r791000 2 1 0 0
1612000 | 890
1 r 5 1 0 0 0 | 345
1075000 | 260
1354000 I OJf,
992000 t200
1343000 I 575
1494000 t 1 3 0
997000 1420
1792000 1560
747000 t u o 5
895000 I 280
2046000
1841000
1314000
1228000
1546000
1133000
r 534000
1706000
11380@
2047000
853000
1022000
J.J X
t.bx
1-8x
4-2 x
IU
tu
10
10
2-3x 12
s-z x tu
Amerin
2514000
2154000
1238000
1208000
1453000
1038000
806000
2 - 4x 8
3-2 x 10
2 - 3x 1 0
1 - 4x 1 0
2-4 x'lO
3 - 3x l 0
1 - 6x 1 0
1 ' 8x l 0
4-2x 10
2 - 2x 1 2
J-Z X tZ
1-3x 12
4-Z x 12
16'
22010f0 2760
1886000 z J o c
1084000 1405
1057000 1700
1272000 2030
909000 14 5 5
706000
2070
2 - 3x
2 - 4x
3.3 x
t - ox
1 - 8x
4 - 2x
2 - 2x
3 - 2x
4 - 2x
a - zx
)-3 x
10
10
l0
tu
10
10
12
12
12
tz
12
1535000
1381000
986000
921000
1160000
850000
1151000
1280000
8s4000
1536000
640000
767000
1840
tb55
tttJ
11 0 0
1430
1050
lJl5
I d03
1240
2240
1120
1795 1 8 6 1 0 0 02095
16 1 0 1676000 1880
1199000 r 350
r075 1
117000
'1406000
16 2 5
1 0 2 0 1031000 11 9 0
1345 r 396000 1570
1820 1551000 2120
1210 1035000 14 1 0
9 1 0 776oOOr060
7 3 0 621000 850
21720oO r395 2481000

1956000 l t 4 5 2234000
1399000 | 540 1598000
1303000 | 435 1489000
1 6 4 1 0 0 0 | 860 1874000
r 203000 | 360 r 374000
1629000 | 790 r 8 6 1 0 0 0
1 8 1 0 0 0 0 t425 2067000
1208000 t 6 l 0 r 380000
905000 t215 1034000
725000 975
828000
1 ) A O I nFAmn
| 460 12 4 l O m
Forest and Paper Association: Washangton, D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
3-3 x
2-4 x
't,6
x
1 - 8x
2
2
0
3-3x 0
't
18'
8x
3-2 x
4-2 x
5-2 x
2-3 x
3-3x
2-4 x
1 - 6x
1 - 8x
3-4 x
2
2
3-3 x 0
t9'
4-2 x
5-2 x
z-5x
3-3x
2-4 x
1 - 6x
l-8 x
3-4x
4-3 x
2-d x
3-2x
4-2x
a-2 x
20'
3-3 x
2-4 x
1 - 6x 2
t-6 x
3-4 x
4-3 x
2-6 x
l - 1 0x
2
2
2
zJx
21
22',
4-2 x
5-2 x
3-3x
2-4 x
l-8 x
3-4 x
4-3 x
2-6 x
1 - 1 0x
2-3 x
1 - 6x
2-4 x
4-2 x
5-2 x
3-3 x
34x
4-3x
2-6 x
r-'r0x
2-3
x
'l'6
2010000 2 3 r 0
1436000 1520
13 4 1 0 0 0 1420
1236000 1340
1241000 1
' l600
931000 1 9 5
745000 9 5 5
1 1 1 9 0 0 01 4 3 5
737000 955
799000 1025
951000 1250
697000 9 1 5
'1705
1460 1705000
13 6 5 1 5 9 1 0 0 0 1595
1470000 1 5 1 5
1300
1540 1475000 1800
|1 50 1105000 1340
920
885000 1 0 7 5
1380 1326000 1 6 r 0
920
875000 1 0 7 5
990
949000 I t f , a
r200 1129000 1400
829000 1025
880
632000 7 7 0
660
770
670
1900
1280
1r35
11 3 5
1220
r620
1085
810
850
740
860
r 230
2
2
1570
2
2
1345
1200
895
2
4
4
4
2
2
4
x
24x 4
3-3 x 4
3.4 x
1825
1300
1215
1150
1370
r 025
820
1230
820
880
1070
185
t azu
1710
1280
1025
1540
1025
1100
1335
980
vJ5
820
9s0
1355
11 9 0
930
8'-0"
t
2345000 2430 2679000
1676000 | / J 5
19
9 11 4 0 m
1565000 1620 1787000
1442000 1535 1647000
1448000 t 6 z a
1654000
1086000 I J O C 1 2 4 ' 1 0 0 0
869000 I U Y 5
993000
1306000 1640 1492000
860000 1095 982000
932000 11 7 5 10650m
1110000 1425 1268000
8 13000 1 0 4 5 929000
1990000 1945 2273000
r857000 r 820 2121000
1 7 1 5 0 0 0 17 3 0 1959000
1721000 2050 1966000
r 289000 1530 1473000
1180000
1033000 I z z c
1547000 1840 r 767000
1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1225 1166000
r 107000 1320 1265000
r317000 1600 1505000
967000 | | / 5 1r05000
737000 880
8420m
7'-O"
610"
NOMINAL
SIZS OF BEAM
1872000 1 7 7 5 2l 84000 zuza

1735000 1 9 9 5 2025000 22AO
1300000 1 4 9 5 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 1705
1040000 1 1 9 5 1 2 1 4 0 0 0 1365
1560000 1795 1820000 2050
1029000 1 1 9 5 1201000 r 365
1 1 1 5 0 0 01280 1301000 1 4 6 5
1326000 1560 r't547000 1780
973000 1 1 4 5 135@0 1305
744000 860
868000 980
780000 900
910000 t u 2 a
1329000 780 1551000 895
2021000 2220 2358000 t530
1516000 1 4 9 5 1 7 6 9 m 0 705
1214000 1325 1 4 1 7 0 0 0 5 1 5
1200000 1325 1400m0 5 1 5
1300000 1425 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 625
1550000 1890 18G000 r160
1326000 445
1136000 I z d a
866000 9 4 5 1 0 11 0 0 0 080
9'10000 990 1062000 t J t
775000 8 6 5 904000
896000 1005 1046000 145
1 1 1 4 0 0 01435 1300000 640
1756000 1 8 3 0 2049000 Ino(
1405000 1 4 6 5 1640000 6 7 5
1389000 t q o 5
1621000 675
15050@ 1570 1756000 795
1315000 1400 1535000 600
1004000 1 0 4 5 1172000 1 9 5
r 054000 1090 1230000 245
896000 955 1046000 095
1039000 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 m 0 265
1290000 1580 1505000 805
1109000 1390 1294000 585
871000 1 0 8 5 1016000 240
1720 2020000 2005

13 7 5 1 6 1 5 0 0 0 1605
tJ/5
1596000 1605
1154000 t t N
1 0 3 0 r 2 r 1 0 0 0 1200
900 r 031000 1 0 5 0
1 0 3 5 1194000 1205
I 485 1484000 1730
I 305 r 275000 1525
r 025 t 001000 11 9 5
995 9 8 1 0 0 0 11 6 0
Aen
AATnnn
2357000
1885000
r862000
1347000
1413000
1203000
1393000
1732000
1488000
r 168000
1145000
778mO
t295
830
830
315
375
200
249s0@
2313000
1733000
1386000
2079000
13720@
1486000
1767000
1297000
9920m
10400m
17 7 1 0 m
2694000
2021000
1618000
1600000
1733000
2066000
1514000
1154000
1213000
1033000
1194000
1485000
2341000
1873000
18s1000
2006000
1753000
13380@
1405000
'I
194000
1385000
1719000
1478000
11610@
2693000
2r 53000
212700o
1538000
1614000
1374000
JdU
1592000
980 1978000
740 1
'|700000
334000
325 1308000
qnq
CeilingJoistond RotterSizes
CEILING JOISTS| o L a l s e F T L t v EL o A o ( G y p s u M w A L L a o A R o c E t L t N G )
No attic storageand roof slopenot steeperthan 3 lN .12.
MAXIMUM
JOIST
stzE
{NOMINAL)
( I N .J
ALLOWAALE
TE'O'"
JOIST
SPACING
(NOMINALJ
r.000.0@
{tN.)
'16
2x4
L
F
24
12
l6
24
BY OEFLECTION
STRESS
10,7
830
u-5
r040
8-t 1
Ir70
r6-8
830
17-8
930
t5-2
910
1030
IJ-J
21-11
1 9 - tI
9r0
1 7- 5
t040
28-0
830
25-5
9t0
t2
to
2x l0
930
9r0
830
16
I t- J
l0-3
r030
24
AND
r.400.0m
' tl - r 0
't030
1,200,000
1040
2xB
CEILING JOISTS-ao
r e l s e F r L r v EL o A o ( c y p s u M w A L L B o A R o c E T L T N G )
Limited attic storagewheredwelopment of future rooms is not possible.
MAXIMUM
SPAN L LTMITED
EXTREME.FIBER
Fb IS
1,6m,@0
r 0-9
r 140
ALLOWAALE
JOIST
slzE
INOMINALI
{il.|.1
11 1 0
| 300
1240
8-1
I 290
8-7
r430
8-l I
I 570
7-6
1640
l4-9
t300
7-10
I 790
15-6
1420
1430
t4-1
I 570
ll-9
1640
| 790
| 130
21-2
1C30
22-4
I 140
23-4
1240
2x4
24
L
F
16
1420
I 040
NOTE: L in let and inch6; E and Fb in poundspe;rq,*
l."L;rlhrrr,"
D E S I G NC R I T E R T A
1. Maximum alfowabte defltrtion = 1124OoI span
length.
2. Live load of l0 tblsq ft ptus dead load of 5 lb/so tt
determinerequiredfiber stres value.
1040
r 5',t40
-10
1
24
't3l0
1310
l6
2x1O
26-0
1420
24
rrv I c:
12
480
22-3
r040
i"
20-2
| 140
t 7- 8
1310
L
F"
8,6
170
l 6 -1 0
r 290
i 4-8
r 480
23-8
I 170
1300
r 7-9
r430
r5-6
1640
24-tO
r300
16-2
I 790
26-0
1420
2l-6
r 290
22-7
t430
| 570
'r9-9
1640
r8-9
r480
COLLAR
WITHIN
UPPER
BEAM
THE
I/
For raJterc,dsign valus in Fo may be greaterthan lhe d6ign valuesfor normal

dura
uon or roaotby the tollowinq amounts:
l5% for 2 months'duration, as (or snow.
25% lor 7 days'duration, as lor constructionloadino.
SPAN
G
RAFTER
ROOF
OVER 5 IN 12'
GABLE
IALOPE
ROOF
UNOER ! IN 12I
LEAN-TO
OR
EHEO
ROOF
SECTION
MOOULUS
L U M B ER
stzEs
(NOMTNAL)
2x3
{ rN . ' )
L56
2x4
2xG
NOTE
2x l0
(Applicable
to this pageand the followingpageson joisl
and raftersizes.)
SPANSLIMITEDBY DEFLECTTON:
The weight ot ptas_
ter itself was igno.edin the assumedloadslor the de_
flection computations, because the initial deflection
from the deadloadoccursbeforeplastersets.The influ_
ence of live loads, rather than dead loads, when the
ratio ol live to dead loads is relativelyhigh, is the principal factor to be considered.Also withloisted floors,
tlooringand bridgingserveto distributemovingor con,
centratedloadsto adjoiningmembers.The omlssionof
the plasterweight in loadassumptionappliesto deflec_
tion computationsonly; the full dead and live load is
consideredwhen computinglor strength.
l 790
L In rer ano Incnes; t and Fb In pounds per square inch as shown above.
SPAN
OF
RAFTER
GABLE
(6LOPE
I 570
l. Maximum allmable dellrction = l /24e ol soan

length.
2. Live lcd of 20 lblsq ft plus dead load of 10 tb/sq fr
ddtermine required fiber stres value.
NOTE
(iAMBREL
1420
SPAN
OF
RAFTER
.
F
to
t2
I 130
&-ill
1480
14 - 1
11 7 0
12,9
r 290
t2
1420
29-9
1240
1040
12-O
11 4 0
1
' t 30160
24
'19-6
24-10
13@
9 -1 0
1420
8 - rr
7-8
11 4 0
6-8
r3 1 0
24-7
r 030
23-a
1t 7 0
IS
't,600.@o
8-5
r040
1300
31-4
1030
28-6
',t40
I
F^
L
F
23-4
930
r300
AND
1,400,000
L
F
14-1
I t70
r E-ti
I 170
29-9
930
27-1
I 030
BY DEFLECTION
STRESS
12-5
r 130
1240
't4-9
SUPPORTS
r,000,000 1,200.m0
I 9,6
| 130
1r 4 0
L BETWEEN
SPAN L LIMITED
XTREME
FIBER
{tN.)
l6-l I
to- |
LENGTHS
JOIST
SPACING
(NOMTNAL)
9 - 10
1420
r 300
r8-8
| 030
309
3t.64
r2.60
21.90
JXb
E = m o d u l u so t e l a s t i c i t y
= extremeliber stressin bending
F
= span lengthbetweensupports
LIV LOAD ASSUMPTTONS:
Uniformtv distribured.
PARTITTONS: Spans shown are comouted for the
gavenlive load plus the dead load and do not provide
tor additional loadssuch as partitions.Whereconcen,
trated loads are imposed the spansshould be rrcomputed to providefor them.
J X
tl
SECTION
MOOULUS
s'?
{tN.'}
az. tJ
3x 14
4x4
/.t5
t/.o5
9X6
30.66
t" 1o
73.83
r-
l-r-r
"lll
tll
J-I
b ANo
d ARE
ACTUAL
DIM EN SIONS
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washangton.
D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
310
Rottersond RoofJoists
STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load
determinesrequiredfiber stres.
RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal

projrction, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalproitrtion.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
in inchesdividedby 240.
LB LIVE LOAD
FLAT OR SLOPEO
RAFTERS_2O
F L A T R O O F O R C A T H E D R A L C E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G
EXTREME
RAFTER
5IZE. SPACING
{rN.)
2xG
9-4
0.35
10-9
0.54
11 - 5
0.64
16
7-4
0.23
b-u
0.19
8-1
0.30
8-8
0.38
9-4
0.46
Y -r u
u.55
0.65
7-7
0.38
8-1
0.45
d-b
14-2
0.54
0.64
12
2x8
=
to
1 1- 2
0.26
9-8
o.23
600
6-1
0.25
I z-J
0.35
10-7
0.30
G
u
11 - 6
0.38
0.46
10-0
0.38
| 2-J
r 5-0
13-0
0.55
10-7
0.45
I u-c
0.53
1 5 -l 0
0.75
13-8
u.o5
0.19
o.25
14-3
o.26
15-8
0.35
1 6 - 11
o.44
0.54
19-2
0.64
0.53
20-2
0.75
12-4
o.23
13-6
0.30
I 4-8
0.38
15-8
0.46
r6-7
0.55
17-6
0.65
10-1
1t-1
0.25
rJ-o
0.3r
0.38
u.J5
20-6
o.44
21-1 1
0.54
16-6
0.30
17 - 9
0.38
19-0
0.46
r 4-3
0.53
24-7
0.75
21-3
0.65
0.r9
1 7- 4
-76
o.26
_;
o.23
2xQ
0.31
13-3
0.44
12-O
u ./ 5
9-4
0.31
8-8
12
2x10
1000
900
8-6
0.26
700
10-0
o.44
800
12
500
15-O
19-0
t6- |
i ?_q
0.45
23-3
0.64
20-2
0.55
FIBER
11 0 0
0.86
1 0 - 11
0.75
13-5
o.25
14-6
0.31
STRENGTH: 15 pst dead load plus 30 pst live load
dete.mines required fiber st.es.
IN BENOING.
1200
13-2
0.98
I t-5
to-/
0.86
0.85
9-4
0.70
17-4
0.98
14-4
0.75
|5-U
0.85
8-11
0.61
Fb {PSI)
1300
1400
1500
13-8
1.11
14-2
1.24
4-8
.37
11 - 1 0
0.96
9-8
0.78
1
8-0
'l.lI
2-9
.19
1600
5-2
.51
3-2
.31
1.07
10-0
0.88
10 - 5
0.97
r8-9
t.24
9-5
.37
20-o
I o-J
6-9
7-4
15-1
0.96
r.07
13-3
0.88
13-8
0.97
n-q
.07
1.51
.J
1700
1.96
13-7
1.44
1 3 - 11
1.56
14-4
1.70
11-1
1.17
I l-5
1.28
11 . 8
t?o
20-8
1.66
t7-10
t.44
21-3
't.81
2 1 -1 0
1.96
r 8-5
1.56
t 8 - 11
l4-7
1.17
I 5-0
1.28
27-1
r.81
23-5
1s-5
1.39
27.10
1.96
0.70
0.98
23-0
1.11
tJ-tl
0.86
1.24
24-9
1.37
25-6
l.5l
26-4
1.66
t8-4
u ./ 5
19-2
0.85
1 9 - 11
0.96
20-8
1.07
21-5
1.19
1.31
22-10
1.44
15-0
15-8
0.70
16-l 1
0.88
17-6
0.97
8-1
.07
1.17
29-1
't.24
30-r
1.37
t-l
25-2
1.07
26-O
1.19
0.88
0.97
2'l-11
1.07
| 500
I 3-0
I.41
1600
17@
13-5
1.56
r3- 10
0.6r
25-9
0.86
22-4
0.75
1A-2
0.61
to-J
zo-t
0.98
zJ-5
0.85
19-0
0.70
0.78
28-0
1.11
24-3
0.96
19-10
0.78
z t-J
.07
5l
16-11
-Jl
1900
to- |
1.81
12-9
0.78
I l-3
I 800
15-8
1.66
11 - 9
0.61
16-6
17-4
15-6
0.53
0.38
0.45
NOTE: The requiredmodulusot elasticity,E. in 1,000,000psi is shownbelow eachspan.
I z-3
0.19
STRESS
t6-t
| _f,o
19-2
1.28
32-O
1.66
J2-t
27-9
't.44
28.6
1.56
2?-A
1.17
1.81
ZJ.J
1.28
r.70
24.1
1.70
r9-8
t.39
33-r0
1.96
29-4
r.70
23-11
1.39

projtrtion, and loads are considered as applied on the
horizontal proiection.
OEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span

in inch6 dividedby 240.
LB LIVE LOAO
FLAT OR SLOPED
RAFTERS_3O
F L A T R O O FO R C A T H E D R A LC E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G
RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
(tN.l
tz
x6
'-16
500
7-6
o.27
b-b
o.24
600
oa
0.36
7-1
0.31
2X6
16
;
=
to
't2
0.55
6-Z
0.48
6-8
FIBER
900
10-o
0.66
1000
10-7
o.77
11 - 1
0.89
6-d
J-Z
0.57
7-1
0.46
0.67
7-6
0.54
11 0 0
9-7
o.77
STRESS
IN BENDING.
1200
1't-7
1.01
10-0
0.88
1.35
t1-11
t.48
8-10
0.90
g-2
1.00
9-6
L10
9-9
1.21
IU-U
1.31
1.43
t.14
l6-6
1.28
17-1
r.41
I 7-8
1.56
t6-z
1.71
1.86
l9-3
2.O2
14-4
1.10
1 4 -1 0
1.22
15-3
L35
15-9
1.48
|2-10
1.10
| 400
I z-o
1.14
'l.28
lu- lu
1.10
tu-5
0.99
7-10
0.63
v2
o.72
0.66
l3-l I
o.77
| 4-U
0.89
15-3
1.01
1r-6
0.57
12-1
0.67
12-A
0.77
13-9
0.99
0.81
0.90
6-O
'I
l-3
o.32
0.27
8-7
o.24
0.36
1l-8
0.45
9-4
0.31
10-l
0.39
't2-6
0.55
1 0 - 10
0.48
7-O
0.19
1-8
o.25
0.32
8-10
0.39
9-4
0.46
9-10
0.54
10 - 4
0.63
13-3
0.88
1 0 -1 0
o.72
15-11
0.55
'13-9
r 6 - 11
0.66
r4-8
0.57
17-10
0.77
15 - 5
0.67
18-8
0.89
19-6
t.0l
20-4
1.14
21-1
1.28
to-z
o.77
16-11
0.88
1 7- 1
0.99
1.10
L00
2 1 -1 0
1.41
18-1r
1.22
0.63
13-9
0.72
14-4
0.81
1 4 - 11
0.90
0.27
10-r1
o.24
8 - 1r
0.19
U.JY
13-9
0.36
't4-'t1
0.45
0.31
12-11
0.39
9-9
0.25
r0-6
0.32
0.39
16-9
U-JO
18-1
0.45
1 9 -4
0.55
14-6
0.31
15,8
0.39
0.48
0.48
I t- J
IJ-J
11-11
0.46
0.54
0.81
t3-t
I t-J
o.77
0.89
1.01
24-A
1.14
17-9
0.57
't4-6
18-9
0.67
19-8
o.17
20-6
0.88
21-5
0.99
16-1
15 - 4
13-8
0.63
0.46
0.54
0.39
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000.000psi is shom below eachspan.
16-9
0.72
17-5
0.81
15 - 4
0.27
I J-J
o.24
10-10
0.19
1l - 1 0
0.25
12-10
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington,
D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
21-8
ZJ-J
r900
1800
t4-2
r.86
t2-4
t.6l
| 300
0.66
G
-
Fb {PSII
o.25
12
2x10
800
7-8
0.39
o-J
J-q
0.r9
700
8-10
0.45
EXTREME
I l-t
I t-o
| 6-J
|,26
22-2
1.10
18-r
0.90
1.71
16-3
1.61
I J.J
t . J
| .50
23-3
1.71
l9-6
1.35
2Q-1
1.48
I 5-5
1.00
l 5 - r1
r .r 0
16-5
1.21
23-11
1.86
20-8
1.61
1 6 - r1
1.31
26-6
't.41
2 1- 5
1.56
28-3
1.71
29-1
1.86
23-O
1.22
zJ-9
24-5
1.48
za-z
1.61
18-9
1.00
19-4
1.10
20-0
20-6
1.31
22-6
t.zl
14-7
2.O2
12-8,
t.l a
to-o
1.75
13-7
1.43
24-6
2.O2
29-10
2.O2
25-10
1.75
1 1- 4
1.43
t.tJ
12-1
1.43
Roftersqnd RoofJoists
STRENGTH; 10 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load
determinc requiredfi&r stress.
).
DEFLECTION: For 20 psf live load. Limited to spSn
in inchesdividedbv 240.
FLAT OR LOW SLOPE
RAFTERS-2o
N O C E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S
RAFTEBS: Spansare measuredalonq the horizontal

projrction, and loadsare consideredai appliedon the
hotizontalproirction'
LB LrvE LoAD
EXTREME
RAFTER
5IZE, SPACING
(rN.)
500
9-2
0.33
600
10-0
0.44
7-11
0.29
8-8
0.38
6-6
o.24
7-1
0.31
12
t2-1
0.33
12
2x6
to
16
/x6
14-4
0.55
| 5-J
0.67
11 - 6
0.38
0.48
8-7
o.24
15-5
0.33
9-4
0_31
10-1
039
0.58
1 0 - 10
0.48
16-1I
0.44
18-3
0.55
19-6
0.67
16
l3-4
0.29
14-8
0.38
1 5 - 1 0 1 6 - 11
0.48
0.58
t 0 - 11
o.24
tz
12
=t o
2x12
700
800
1 0 - 1 0 1 1-7
0.55
0.67
9-5
10-0
0.48
0.58
7-8
8-2
0.39
0.48
10-6
0.29
2x10
13-3
o.44
18-9
0.33
to-J
0.29
13-3
o.24
1 ?-q
0.31
20-6
o.44
12-11
n?o
0.48
0.55
0.67
I 7-9
0.38
r 9-3
0.48
0.58
14-6
0.31
0.39
ll-il
3l I
ZJ-J
'15-8
I o-9
0.48
900
FIBER
STRESS
12-4
0.80
1000
13-0
0.94
r.09
10-8
0.70
1l - 3
0.82
11 - 9
0.94
8-8
0.57
9-2
0.67
9-7
o.77
10-0
0.88
1 7- 1
0.94
17-11
r.09
I 8-9
1.24
to-J
0.80
14-0
0.70
11 - 6
o.57
20-8
0.80
l7-11
0.70
14-8
r 100
IN BENOING,
1200
tJ-l
.24
't4-10
0.82
0.94
o.67
21-10
0.94
18-1
o.82
12-8
o.77
22-10
1.09
19-10
0.94
| 3-O
15 - 5
0.67
o.77
25-2
0.80
26-6
0.94
27-10
1.09
21-9
0.70
23-O
o.82
24-1
0.94
17-9
0.57
18-9
0.67
19-8
o.77
6-3
.o7
13-3
0.88
23-11
1.24
20-8
1.07
1 6 - 11
0.88
to-z
29-1
1.24
25-2
1.07
20-
0.88
1300
4-9
.40
2-10
.21
10-5
0.99
't9-6
t.40
Fb (PSI)
1400
r 500
15-4
1.56
t 5 - 1I
r.73
I J-J
3-9
t.Jc
_5U
10-10
r .r 0
ZU-J
1.56
1600
6-5
.91
.65
22
20-11
| 700
1800
2.09
17 - 5
2.28
4-8
.81
1.97
1-11
48
LO
to-t
22-3
2.O9
1900
17-10
2.47
15-6
tf,-l
2.28
9-r0
.97
6-3
23-7
2.47
20-5
2.14
16-10
't.21
17-6
1.35
18-2
1.50
I B-9
1.65
I 9-4
t.81
13-9
o.99
24-10
1.40
21-6
1.21
17-7
0.99
30-3
1.40
14-4
1.10
2 5 - 10
1.56
l4-10
1.22
| 5-J
1.35
|5-v
1.48
26-A
1.73
27-1
1.9'l
23-11
1.65
2A-5
2.O9
29-3
2.24
30-l
24-7
1.81
20-1
1.48
34-7
2.09
25-4
26-0
2.14
1.21
2't-5
0.99
1.35
l8-3
1.10
3 1- 4
t.Do
t.Jt
22-2
't.10
23-2
1.50
't8-1
1
1.22
32-6
1.73
28-2
1.50
23-0
1.22
IY-O
t_J5
33-6
1.91
29-1
t.o5
23-S
29-11
1.81
24-5
1.48
20-8
r.6l
16-8
1.75
z t-J
1.75
J5-/
2.28
30-10
1.97
25-2
1.61
2.47
31-8
2.14
25-10
1.75
N O T E :T h e r e q u i r e d m o d u l u s oefl a s t i c i t y , E , i n1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p si si s h o w n b e l o w e a c h s p a n .
STRENGTH: l0 psf dead load ptus 30 psf live load
determinB required fiber stress.
DEFLECTION: For 30 ost live load. Limited to soan
in inchm divided by 240.
FLAT OR LOW SLOPE
RAFTERS-3o
N O C E I L I N G L O A O _ S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S

proiection, and loads are considered ai applied on the
horizontalprojection
LB LtvE LoAD
EXTREME
SIZE, SPACING
(lN.)
12
zxo
2x8
700
v-5
0.54
800
10-0
0.66
6-l l
o.28
24
5-7
0.23
12
10-6
1 l-6
0.43
I z-a
I ?_?
0.54
0.66
9-t
0.28
7-5
o.23
9 - 11
0.37
l0-9
o.47
11 - 6
0.57
16
tz
16
_;
o.32
12
16
7-6
0.37
6-2
0.30
8-1
0.30
't4-8
13-4
o.32
0.43
11-7
0.28
0.37
o.23
2x12
600
8-8
0.43
l6
il
2x 10
500
7 - 11
o.32
tz-o
10 - 4
0.30
14-1
0.28
17-9
0.43
r 5-5
0.37
11 - 6
0.23
n?o
16-3
0.32
o.47
8-8
u . at
6-8
0.38
7-1
0.46
6-Z
8-9
0.38
9-4
0.46
900
10
0.78
9-3
0.68
| 200
1300
Fb (PSII
r 400
'12-4
1.21
.36
.52
9-9
0.80
10-2
o.92
r0-8
1.05
1-1
1-6
.32
0.s5
t4-0
0.78
7-11
0.65
8-4
u ./ 5
8-8
0.85
1 4 - 10
0.92
15-6
1.06
0.68
12-10
0.80
9-1',|
0.55
't0-6
0.65
17-11
0.78
13-8
o.47
14-8
0.57
15-6
0.68
16 - 4
0.80
1 1-2
0.38
0.46
0.54
u.oo
12-a
0.55
21-9
0.78
0.57
1 8 -1 0
0.68
't3-4
0.65
o.92
19-11
0.80
J.J
o-J
.21
4-0
.05
.r8
9-l
0.96
l 500
3-9
10-11
1.70
18-2
18-9
1.86
1 9 -4
2.M
| 6-3
l . 6r
6-9
.76
3-8
19-r0
2.22
l7-2
1.92
20-5
2.41
r 7-8
2.O8
14-0
14-5
1.70
25-4
2.22
26-O
2.41
21-4
21-11
r.92
zz-o
11-t1
0.96
t2-5
r.08
21-6
1.36
1.52
12-10
1 r. 9
23-2
1.69
20-0
't.46
24-1
1.06
25-2
1.21
26-2
20-10
0.92
17-0
0.75
?1 _A
't.05
22-8
1.18
1 7- 9
0.85
18-6
0.96
t.Jo
2.41
10-8
1.57
r.69
14-8
o.85
r900
I c-o
10-4
1.44
15-8
14-0
0.75
1800
15 - 1
2.22
1.76
t.Jz
9-4
.32
-ol
I 700
10-0
1.3',|
46
15-2
1.32
r 8-8
1.18
14-8
2.O4
9-9
1 .t 9
4-7
.18
0.92
r 600
4-2
.86
2-4
'|3-l
1.92
t-t I
.JO
20-8
1.21
17-'t1
r.05
I t-o
0.85
9-5
l.o8
6-10
I ',t-0
0.75
r9-10
r.06
t4-6
I c-5
to-J
0.46
0.65
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,@0,000 psi is shownbelow eachspan.
o?a
IN BENDING,
11 - 9
1.06
1 6 - l1
0.66
Io-b
| 100
I 000
1 5 -1 0
o.54
o.47
STRESS
11 - 3
0.92
'r8-11
o.92
20-6
FIBER
t.co
I J-J
1.31
23-11
r.86
20-8
r.61
I z-d
44
2.O4
tJ-f,
2.O8
2.08
5 - 10
.08
16-4
1. 1 9
1 6 - 11
't.3
r
r 7-5
1.44
11-11
1.57
18 - 5
|.70
27-2
28-2
1.69
29-1
1.86
2 9 - 11
2.O4
30-10
2.22
23-6
1.32
24-4
1.46
za-tl
t.ol
1.76
26-8
1.92
19 - 3
r.08
l 9 - r1
|. 1 9
20-6
1.31
1.44
3t - 8
2.41
27-5
2.08
22-5
1.70
t.az
21-9
t.aI
Amerin Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
312
Rottersond RoofJoisls
'15
S T R E N G T H : p s f d e a dl o a d p l u s2 0 p s f l i v el o a dd e '
terminesrequiredfiber stress.
RAFTERS: Spans are measuredalong the horizontal

projection,and loadsare consideredas applied on the
horizontalproiection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s l l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
M E O I U M O R H I G H S L O P E R A F T E R S - 2 o L B L r v EL o A D
H E A V YR o o F c o V E R I N G _ N o
c E I L t N GL O A D - S L o P o
EV E R3 I N 1 2
EXTREME
RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
(tN.l
500
600
o.20
5-lI
o.26
12
2x4
16
4-8
0 . 17
3-r0
0.t4
12
zxo
G
12
2xB
16
A
12
2x 10
-t o
24
4-',I0
0.28
5-'l
0.34
5-5
0.40
10-9
0_40
9-4
11 - 5
0.48
12-O
9-10
0.41
7-7
0.28
14-2
0.40
b- tu
0.40
0.23
0.33
5-6
0.28
0.18
4-6
o.23
r0-0
3-l
9-4
7-4
0 . 17
6-0
0.14
11-12
0.20
9-8
o- |
14-3
0.35
6-3
0.4r
1000
1-a
0.56
6-7
0.49
800
o-J
8-6
0.20
7- 1 1
0.14
700
U.IJ
8-8
0.28
1-1
0.r8
o.23
n?6
0.33
I J.J
10-7
0.23
6-6
0.18
15-8
0.26
1 6 - 11
12-4
0 . 17
0.23
'r4-8
0.28
1 0 -1
o.14
I l-t
0.18
1 1 - 11
o.23
n22
t -J
0.48
STRESS
11 0 0
d-u
0.65
IN BENOING,
1200
8-4
o.74
9-l 1
1.24
8-7
1.08
7-0
0.88
| 5-8
t_24
13-7
1.08
0.93
r4-8
1.03
15-2
'1.14
11 - 1 0
o.12
12-4
0.80
12-9
0.89
9-8
0.59
10-0
0.66
r0-5
0.73
17-4
o.74
18-0
0.83
18-9
0.93
t9-5
r.03
13-2
0.98
10-9
0.80
20-0
1.14
14-4
0.56
15-0
0.64
15-7
0.72
16 - 3
0.80
11 - 9
0.46
12-9
0.59
0.66
8-1
0.34
8-6
0.40
8 - 11
0.46
15-0
0.48
15-10
0.56
0.65
13-8
0.49
10-0
0.28
13-0
0.41
10-7
0.34
18-1
0.40
19-2
0.48
c-t I
tJ-z
t0-t
15-8
0.35
I 6-7
0.41
I 7-6
0.49
0.56
12-3
o.52
22-1
o.74
19-2
0.64
12-9
o.28
13-6
0.34
14-3
0.40
15-O
0.46
15-8
o.52
u-o5
'18-4
23-0
0.83
1 9 - 11
o.72
to-J
0.59
I J-J
23-11
0.93
20-8
0.80
16-11
u.oo
6-l
1700
9-8
1. 1 4
6- 10
0.80
1 0 - 11
0.56
0.40
20-2
0.56
7 - 10
0.80
9-4
1.03
1600
6-7
0.73
10-5
0.49
I z-5
7-6
o.72
6-2
0.59
13-8
0.83
| 500
0.89
o.74
11 - 5
0.64
9-4
o.52
u.J5
8-8
0.83
1400
9-0
0.93
6-5
0.66
0.52
n aR
1300
Fb (PS!)
8-4
0.98
6-11
0.56
5-8
0.46
I t-o
o.28
9-4
o.23
o.20
tJ-o
5-t
900
FIBER
I l-1
0.88
'r800
10-3
1.36
8-r0
1.17
7,3
0.96
13-11
1.1
7
14- 4
1.27
0.96
1l-8
1.04
21-3
1.36
2 1 -1 0
1.47
I 8-5
1.17
18-11
1.27
15-5
1.04
0.98
13-8
o.73
14-2
0.80
14-7
0.88
15-0
0.96
24-9
1.03
25-6
l. t4
26-4
1.24
1.36
0.89
0.98
1.08
| /-o
18-l
0.80
18-7
0.88
0.73
7-5
1.04
16-7
1.41
to-l
16-9
0.89
tJ-a
z t-a
1.47
o-1
1.27
1.36
20-8
1.24
t7-10
r.08
' t 7- 4
1900
1.17
19-2
0.96
27-10
1.47
24-1
1.27
r9-8
1.04
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,@0psi is shown below eachspan
determines required fiber stress.
RAFTERS: Spansare memured along the horizontal

proitrtion, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span

'180.
in inch6 divided by
LB LIVE LOAD
MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS_3O
H E A V Y R O O FC O V E R T N G N O C E T L I N GL O A D _ S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2
EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING
RA FTE R
SIZE, SPACING
{tN.}
1900
1.51
2x4
24
2xG
10 - 4
1.07
19-3
1.51
't6-8
2x8
1.31
24
13-7
1.07
24-6
1.51
2x1O
r6
21-3
t . J
11-4
1.07
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shown below eachspan.
Amerin Forestand PaperAssociation;
Washington,
D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Rqtlersqnd RoofJoists
detetmines required fiber stress.
..
313

projrction, and loads are considered as applied on the
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a r i
in inchesdividedbv 180.
MEDIUM OR HlcH SLOPE RAFTERS-zo
LB LrvE LoAD
LIGHT RooF covERING_NocEILING LoAD_sLoPE oVER 3 IN 12
EXTREME FIBER sTRESs IN BENOING. Fb (PSI)
RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
ilN.)
12
16
2x4
2x6
4-4
o.21
12
9-8
0.29
16
8-4
a
12
--::zx6
500
6-2
0.29
5-4
0.2s
Ib
12-9
0.29
'11-0
16
7o0
6-4
0.42
800
7-9
0.59
6-9
0.51
0.61
5-2
0.34
5-6
0.42
0.49
900
1000
11 0 0
9-r
0.96
8-8
0.83
I 400
10-3
1.31
0.94
8-7
1.06
8-11
1.19
7-Q
0.87
0.97
6-5
0.68
0.49
12-3
0.59
13-0
0.71
13-8
0.83
14-4
0.96
9 - 11
o.42
I 0-7
0.51
11 - 3
0.61
11 - 1 0
0.72
0.83
8-1
0.34
8-8
o.42
9-2
0.50
9-A
0.59
10-2
0.68
0.77
15-0
1.09
13-0
0.94
10-7
o.77
t3- |
17-1
1 8 - ll
0.96
r9-9
r.09
16-4
0.83
17-1
0.94
r3-4
r3-'t1
o.77
25-2
1.09
21-10
0.94
17-10
o.77
I t-5
0.83
0.49
o.71
12-1
0.33
13-l
o.42
l 3 - 11
0.51
14-10
0.61
15-7
0.72
10-8
0.34
I t-5
o.29
9-10
o.27
17-10
0.38
12-1
0.50
21-10
0.7'l
12-9
0.59
23-0
0.83
24-1
0.96
14-1
o.25
15-5
0.33
1 8 - 11
0.61
1 9 - 11
o.72
20-10
0.83
0.49
to-d
o.4?
13-7
n?,
o.42
20-7
0.59
17-10
0.51
o-Y
I z-a
18-0
0.83
0.68
12-7
14-6
15-5
I o-J
17-1
o.27
o.42
0.50
0.59
0.68
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,0@,000psi is shownbelow eachspan.
I l-6
0.21
t.w
9-1I
1.23
5 - 10
0.50
16 - 1
0.59
9-0
o.21
1200
7-6
o.12
6-2
0.59
l3-1 1
0.38
to-J
2x10
5-'t0
0.33
4-9
0.27
10-7
0.38
9-2
0.33
6-10
o.21
0.25
24
600
6-9
0.38
O E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 30 psf live |oad determins required fiber stre$.
1300
l5-7
1.23
I 500
10-8
t.az
1600
't
1-0
r.68
9-6
1.45
1700
1800
1900
11-4
144
I 1-8
2.00
12-O
2.17
10-1
1.73
10-5
r.88
d-J
1.41
8-6
1.53
l8-4
2.00
18-r0
2.17
16-4
1.88
7-6
1.08
i-9
r. 1 9
o-z
16-9
.37
4-0
14-6
17-3
1.68
15-0
1.45
9-10
1.59
8-0
1.30
t7-10
t.84
15-5
1.59
1t - o
0.87
20-6
1.23
7-9
.06
11 - 5
0.97
11 - 1 0
1.08
12-3
1.19
12-7
't.30
21-4
22-1
1.52
r9-l
22-9
t -Jz
1.45
23-6
1.84
20-4
1.59
1 5 - t1
1.73
13-0
t.41
24-2
2.00
20-11
1.73
tqt
15 - 1
0.97
ta-r
t6-1
1.19
l6-7
1.30
17-1
1.41
17-7
1.53
29-1
1.68
25-2
1.45
20-7
1.19
30-0
1.84
30-10
2.00
31-8
2.17
zJ-t
1.59
26.8
1.73
27-5
1.88
21-2
1.30
2 l - 10
1.41
zz-a
1700
1800
t0-0
1.87
1900
10-3
2.03
8-8
1.62
8- 10
1.76
I J-O
1.06
0.87
26-2
1.23
22-8
1.06
18-6
o.87
t-JI
8-5
.19
1.08
27-2
1.37
23-7
1.19
2A-2
1.52
24-5
1.32
19-3
0.97
1 9 - 11
1.08
t.od
't9-9
1 3 -4
1E?
24-10
2.17
21-6
1.88
1.53
RAFTERS: Spansare mecured along the horizontal

proirction, and loads are considered 6 applied on the
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span

in inchesdividedby 180.
MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS-3o
LB LtvE LoAo
L I G H T R O O F C O V E R I N G * N OC E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2
EXTREME
stzE, sPActNc
( tN . l
12
2x4
800
5-9
0.48
6-l
0.57
6-5
0.67
5-0
0.47
E_?
0.55
0.63
10-5
0.55
11-1
0.66
11 - 8
o.77
9-7
0.57
6 - 11
o.32
9-1
0.48
7-5
0.39
7 -1 0
o.47
0.67
8-3
0.55
U.OJ
9-l
o.72
0.36
12-10
0.45
13-9
0.55
14-7
0.66
I 5-5
o.77
r 6-2
0.89
t 6 - 10
1.O2
10-4
0.31
1 1-2
0.39
1t-t'l
0.48
12-8
0.57
14-0
0.77
14-7
0.88
0.99
0.32
9-9
0.39
't0-4
o.47
13 - 4
o.67
l0-11
0.55
1l-5
0.63
11-11
o.72
0.8r
12,10
0.91
0.45
17-1
0.55
18-7
0.66
19-8
o.77
1. 1 5
1.24
t5-z
n 6?
to-2
17-O
o.74
20-7
0.89
1 7 - '0t
0.85
21-6
1.O2
I 4-3
0.43
18-7
0.97
Y-5
.09
20-1
|.22
1 3 - 1I
0.55
14-7
0.63
0.72
15-10
0.81
0.9r
9-9
0.45
7 -10
0.31
q-E
6-5
o.25
1 0 - 11
o.27
9-5
o.24
7-8
0.19
8-5
12
1 3 - 11
0.27
15-2
0.36
to
'12
to
2xIO 24
124
0.26
9-10
n lo
r300
Fb (PSI)
4-8
0.39
4-5
o.32
U.Jb
I J-Z
0.34
l0-9
0.25
0.39
I o-J
1t - 7
o.32
900
IN BENOING.
0.66
5-5
0.39
16
Ti
2x8
5-10
0.19
700
6-3
0.45
STRESS
1000
7-5
o.77
6@
5-9
0.36
5-0
0.31
4-'l
0.25
9-l
6-8
0.55
12
zxo
500
5-3
o.27
4-7
o.24
3-9
0.19
8-3
0.27
7-2
o.24
FIBER
0.63
13-2
0.47
1100
8-6
1.15
8-9
1.28
9-',|
1.42
Y-5
0.89
1200
8-2
1.O2
r.57
9-8
1.72
6-9
o.77
0.88
7-4
0.99
7-l t
1.23
8-2
1.36
8-5
1.49
f,-o
5-9
7-7
1.11
6-3
0.9r
6-5
1.01
b-d
6-10
1.21
I z-J
0.89
10-7
o.77
8-8
o.72
6-0
0.81
12-9
1.02
l3-4
1.15
t1-1
0.88
I t-o
tJ-2
I 400
3-r0
.28
0.99
9-5
0.81
t 7- 7
t.t3
t5-z
I z-a
1500
5-9
.lI
I 6-5
l.l I
14-4
1.42
4-9
I z-a
2-9
1.23
9-9
0.91
82
.28
1600
1 0 -1
't.01
8-r0
.42
.JO
.72
3-2
.49
1.32
r 5-8
1.87
l3-11
I 1-5
r.43
r.62
IU-V
1.21
I l-1
r9-6
r.57
20-1
1.72
20-8
1.87
6-4
.23
6-10
.36
3-4
.01
3-9
.11
t.2l
1 6 -I
2.03
13-7
l0-5
1 . 1I
1 7- 4
t.49
7-3
r.43
r.32
r-11
62
z t-5
2.03
18-4
1.76
r 5-0
1.43
24-1
1.42
24-10
25-7
1.72
20-10
1.35
r 7-0
1.01
2't.49
t-6
22-2
| .oJ
1.78
't.11
18-1
1.?1
r 8-7
r.32
26-4
1.87
2 7- 1
2.O3
zJ-a
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shownbetow eachspan.

AmericanForestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
1.93
19-2
1.43
314
Wood Preservqlives
RELATIVE TREATABILITY
H EA RT\^/OO D
LEAST DI FFIC U LT
TO PENETRATE
prne. prnyon
prne, redwood
DOMESTIC
SPECTES
H EARTWOOD
DIFFICULT
TO PENETRATE
WOOD
TO
PROTECTED
HEARTWOOO
VERY DIFFICULT
TO PENETRATE
OR VERY RESISTAN
mannspruce,grandlir,
lodgepolepine,nobletir,
sitkaspruce,Western
larch,white fir, White
spruce
DECAY RESISTANCE
MODERATELY
glastir (RockyMountain),
Northernwhite cedar,tama,
rack.Western red cedar
/
OF NATURALLY
RESISTANT
SLIGHTLY
BE
METAL
TERMITE
SHIELD
AT
45'ANGLE
FROM
WALL
arocYpress,
Douglas fir (coast). Eastern
white pine, jack pine, loblolly
prne, longleaf pine, ponderosa
pine, red pine, shortleaf pine,
sugar pine, Western hemlock
RELATIVE HEARTWOOD
UNTREATED \/vOODS*
RESISTANT
OF SELECTED
H EA RTWOOO
MODERATELY DIFFICULT
TO PEN ETRATE
RESISTANT
OR NONRESISTANT
.FOUNDATION
WALLTO BE
1A' HIGH
ABOVE SOIL
TO UNTREATEf,
LUMBER
ABOVT c)R USF
ONLY TREATE WOOD WTH N
18" OF SOIL
cypress {old growlh), Cedar, whrte
oak, redwood
fir,Westernlarch,Easternwhite pine
Easternwhite, spruces,true firs
CRIMPED
CORNER
MASONRY
FOUNDATION
* Source: U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory Wood Handbook
GENERAL
Wood may be destroyedby decaylungi; by insectslike car
penter ants and termitesj and by marineborersin saltwater
exposures.Fourconditionsmust exist before these organisms can destroy wood: (1) a lree oxygen supply; (2) a
moasturelevel in the wood above the fiber saturationooint
QOV.I:l3l a temperature
in the rangeof 50 to gOoF;{41the
presenceof a f@d source,in this case,lhe wood.
In most indoor environments,where moisture levels are
geneclly low, w@d will last for a very long time. In certain
indoor environments,however, and in manv exterior environments,wood cannot be kept dry or out of the proximiv
of moisture. Most building codes recognizethis by requiring the use of pressure-treatedwood or naturallyresistant
wood species where building componentscome into contact wrth concrete,masonry,or exposedsoil. This requirement also covers floor joists and crawl space suppon
rembrs within 12 to 18 in. of exposedsoil.
DECAY-RESISTANT
WOOD
When specifyinga wood that will resistdecav.the choiceis
betwen naturallydecay-resistantwood or wood treated
with preservatives.The first requiresuse ot the heanwood
of naturally decay-resistantwoods such as Western red
cedar,bald cypress,redwood,and othersthat containnatural poisons called extractives,which are not oalatableto
decay{ausingorganisms.However,lot all gradesor species ol these woods are suitabletor some structuralsituations. Treatingwood with preseruativesis a process that
impregnates wood with chemicals thtough a pressuretreatment process.Use of nonpressuretreatmentssuch as
spraying,dipping,and brushingis mostly limitedto field
treatment of wood during constructionor remedial treatment of existingwood in place.
PRESSURE-TREATED
\/vOOD
There are two processes commonly used .for pressure
treatingwood. the full cell and modifiedfull ceilDr@esses.
In both, the wood is placed in a large,cylindricaltank and
the preseryativeforced under pressureinto its cells.
In the moclifiedfull-cellprocess the preservativecoats the
walls of the wood cells and is absorbedwhen the Drocess
is finished the wood cell cavities are empty of preservatives- Most over-the{ounter pressure-treatedwood is
treatedwith this process.In the fullrell pr@ess,a vacuum
is introduced at lhe begrnningto force the air out of the
w@d cell cavities,which then remainfilled with Dreservative after treatment. The full{ell process is used in most
creosote and pentachlorophenoltreatingtor wood used in
severeenvironments,
includingapplications
such as ulility
poles,.railroadties, saltwaterpiles, and timber bridges.
Regardlessof which pr@ess is used, the wood is geneially
dried to a 2O7omoisture content prior to treatmentto promote maxrmumpenetrationof the preseruative.
PENETRATION
AND
OF PRESERVATIVES
RETENTION
Penetrationand retentionare the two measuresthat define

the effectiveness of preservation methods. penetration
dependson the speciesol wood and the sizeof the lumber
member being treated. Some speciesthat resist preservatrve penetratron,such as Douglasfir, are incisedwith small
slatsto make treatment more effective. Others, such as
Southernyellow pine, are easily treated without incisions.
While the sapwood of some specjes is readilypenetrated,
the heartwood of most resists penetration(althoughthe
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile.

Maryland
AmericanPlywoodAssoc;atron;
lacoma,Washinqton
WOOD TREATMENT
heartwoodof all speciesnaturallyresists decay).While the

penetrationof preseruativesis hard to determine without
damagangthe wood, retention of the preservativecan be
measurddirectlyby weighingthe wood, stated in terms of
pounds (of the chemical retained) per cubic toot (pcf).
Retenlion standardsare set by the American Wood Preseryers' Assmiation and enforcedthrough chemicalanalysis of treated wood by an independentthird-partyagency
approved by the Amrican Lumber StandardCommittee
{ALSC).A quality mark outlining peninent informationcan
be found on complyingw@d st@k.
PRESERVATIVE
TYPES
Three classesof preseryativesare in use today: creosote,
oilborne (organic),and waterborne{inorganic).
CREOSOTEis a cGl-tar product that is dissolvedin a distilled solutionor petroleumoil. lt is an ffective preseruative
in applicationswith extreme exposureto decay or insect
attack (marineborers in saltwater environments,such as
marinepiles or bridgetimbers).W@d treated with the fulf
cell processis more ffective in these applications,but the
creosotemay bleed into the surroundings,causingcontamination.Most utility poles,freshwaterpiles,and fenceposts
are treated with the empty{ell process, which yields a
clean,nonbleedingsurface.Creosot+treatedproductscannot be painted, but epoxy shellac and coaltar pitch are
acceptablesealants.This type of preservativecan last from
thiny to sixty years. Cleanair standardsprohibit the use of
creosotein many areas.
ORGANICOIL-BORNEPRESERVATIVES
are carried in
organicsolvents such as liquefiedisbutane and are used
to treat most softwoods and hardwoods.These oreserva(penta),coppernaphthen
tives includepentachlorophenol
ate. tributyltinoxide(TBTO).and copper8-quinolinotate.
Pentaextends the seryice life of wood by twenty to forty
years and is used to treat utility poles, fenceposts, and
highwaytimbers. Tinted light to dark brown, penta-treated
wood acceptsadhesivesand finishesreasonablvwell once
the oil mediumhas evaporated.
Polyurethane,
shellac,varnish, and latex enamelare effective as sealants.Pentacan
migrateto the surfaceof w@d. leach into the surroundinq
soil, and contaminate groundwater. Only slowly does it
breakdoM into biodegradablecompounds..
Plywoodand other wood treatedwith copper{uinolinilale
can be used in applicationswhere food is harvested,transported, or stored. The chemicalis dissolvedin liquid Detroleum gas or light hydrocarbonsolvents so the surface is
clean and free of solvent odor. Consultwith the treatment
companyregardingapplicableFDAand USDAacceptances.
INORGANICWATERBORNEPRESERVATTVES
are the
most popularand commonly availabletypes used for treating wood. They include chromatedcopper arsenate(CCA),
ammoniacalcopper arsenale (ACA),and ammoniacalcoppe. zioc arsenate(ACZA).These preseryativesare related
chemically
and havea lot in common.Chromiumholdsthe
other components in the wood and prevents leaching;
ammon,ahelps carry copper, zinc, and arsenicdeeper into
the wood: arsenic guards against attack by termites and
{ungi. Southernyellow pine is usually treated with CCA,
and Douglasfir and other western w@ds with ACA and
ACZA.The variousformulations
of CCAvarv in the amount
of chromium,copper,and arsenicthey contain.The oride
form of CCA,type C, is widely preferredfor most construc,
tion. During the treatment prcess, CCA is water soluble.
but aardrying for a few days renders it insoluble.This is
TERMITE
PROTECTION
DETAILS
becausethe chromium reacts chemicallywith lhe wood

permanentlybondingitseltand the copperand arsenictc
the cell walls, preventingleachingduringits seruiceftfe
CcA-treatdwood can last up to forty years.
Anolher waterbornepreservativis borax,which has promise due to its effectivenessagainstfungi and insectsand its
low-toxicityto psople and animals.However.it leachesout
when the wood gets wetFINISHING
TREATED
OF PRESERVATIVE\/vOOD
Waterborne preseryativesare recommendedwhen clean,
odorless.and paintablewood productsare required.Wood
treated with such preseryativesmay be used indoors rf
sawdustand constructiondebrisare cleanedup. Painting
wood treated with creosoteor oil-borneoentachloroohenol
is not recommended,as it is difficultto use, requiring
extensive care and an aluminum-basedoaint. Paintable
waterbornepentachlorophenol
treatmentsareavailable.
Fo
certain inlerior applicationsin commercial. industriai, or
farm buildings, creosote- or penta-treatedw@d may be
used if exposed surfacesare sealedwith two coats of ure
thaneor epoxypaintor shellac.Guidelines
for precautions
In these cases are outlined in an EPA-aoproved
consumer
informationsheet lor each preseruativetreatmentFASTENERS
CCA,ACA, and ACC are corrosiveto uncoatedmetals, For
abovegroundconstruction,hot-dippedor hot-tumbled gal.
vanrzedsteel and stainlesssteel fastenersare recom
mended.Joist hangersandtraminganchorsshouldalsobe
corrosionresistant.For below-gradeconstruction,such as
treatedwood loundationsystems,types 304 and 316 stain
less steel Type H silicon bronze, ETP copper, and monel
fasteners are required. Adhesives work well with CCAtreated wood. Phenolresorcinol,
resorcinol,and melemineformaldehyde structural adhesives are used in glulam
beams made lrom treated w@d members. On iob sites.
use adhesivesrecommendedfor use with treated'wood.
PRECAUTIONS
HANDLING
FOR
USE
AND
The chemicalformulationsused for preseryativetreatment

of wood are registeredwith the EPA,which has approved
guidelinesfor the use of pressure,treatedwood to ensure
safe handlingand avoidenvtronmental
or other healthha/
ards.Someguidelines
for use andhandlingfollow:
1. Disposeot treatedwood by ordinarytrashcollectionor
burial.Treatedwood shouldnever be burned in open
firesor in stoves,fireplaces,
or residential
boilers.
2. Avoidfrequentinhalation
of sawdustfrom treatedwood
Wheneverpossible,sawing and machiningof treated
wood should be done outdoors.
3. Avoidfrequentor prolongedskin contactwith penta-or
creosote-treatedwood.
4. After handling treated wood products, wash exposed
areasthoroughlybeforeeatingor drinking.
Wood Preservotives
SOUTHERN
PINE
PRESERVATIVE
RETENTIONS
AND
APPLICABLE
RETENTION
WATERBORNE
AWPA.
ASSAY
3t5
STANDARDSI
OF TREATED
PRESERVATIVEST
WOOD-LB/CU
CRESOTE
FT
AND OILBORNE
PRESERVATTVES
P E NTACHLORO.
PHENOL
(PENTA)
wooD
USES
TIMBERS,
AND
PLYWOOD
construcuon:
guide,sign,
and sight
* NR = not re@mmended
I Arerin W@d Preseryers'Association
IAWPA) Standards detail plant operating procedures for pressure
treatrent of wood. These standardsinclude minimum
vacuum. pressure, and penetrataonrequirements and
maxrmumsteamingparameters.AWPA alsodetailsminimum retenttonrequtrements,sampling zones for assay
and maximum redryingtemperatureallowancesfor each
preseryative.commodity,and wood species.For a copy
of the AWPA standardsbooklet, write to the American
Wood Preseryers'Associatim, P.O. Box 286, Woodst@k, MD 2l 163{286. For other wood sgecies.contact
the relevantorganization.
, ACA, ACZA, and CCA are tho most commonlv available
wa,terborne preseryatives. Ammoniacal copper quat
(ACO)is also approvedby AWPA as a waterborne preservativefor Southernpine,Westernhemlck, Hem-frr,
and Douglastir as lumber, timbers. plyw@d, and fenceDOStS.
3 Coppernaphthenateis also approvedby AWPA as

an oilborne preservativelor specilic wood speciesand applica
tronsexcludingsaltwateruse_
a Assay retentions are based on two assav
zones--{ to
0.5 in. and 0 to 2 0 in.
5 Not recommendedwhere cleanlinessand freedom from
odor are necessary.
USE PRECAUTTONS FOR PRESSURE-TREATED

c\
ORGANIC
zc
n99A'..
^_'il993GRoUND
I
r
n-r
- - lN\ilirzir.lT
'KDAT-\
D_,-__*_-=*eoAre
H
INORGAN IC
PRESERVATIVES
ARSENICALS
A!rh,
rnrenorcomponents
are tn groundcontactand subject to decy or insectattack
(alsosee #5 below)
%49
-=-1
"q0.--.
*AECTREAT1NGCO"
E
the treatedwood
ANnOi[,t,
u-sA
A: Trademarkof inspectionagencycertrtiedby the American Lumber StandardCommittee (ALSC):contactthe
SouthernPine Council(SPC)or ALSCfor a list of cenj,
tied inspectionagencies.
B:Applicable American Wmd Preseryers' Associatjon
(AWPA)standard
C: Yearof treatment
D: Presemtive used for treatment
E: Retentionlevel
F: Dry or KDAT{kilndriedafrer treatment),if apolicable
G:Properexposureconditions
H:Treatingcompanyand l@ation
TYPICAL
LUMBER
APP LI CATIO N S
WOODI
PRESERVATIVES
QUALITY
MARK
FOR
ln whh O.eseryalives mav

a component of food or animalfeed, such as structuresor container
for storingsilageor food
trng boards or countertops
prepann9
s, patros,
free from residues
beehrves that may come into contacl
tn whrch treated wood n
come into direct or
indirectcontactwith drinkingwater for publicor animalconsumption

1 Basedon EPA-approved
consurer informationsheets
, Must be paintedwith two c@ts ot recommendedsealer
3 Okayfor incidentalcontactsuch as bridgesor docks
TREATED
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marytand

Southern Pine Council; Kenner. Loursrana
American Plywood Assciation; Tacoma, Washinoton
WOOD TREATMENT
316
TreotedWood
Fire-Retordont
UL
GENERAL
Building constructron materials are testod for four criteria
related to performance during a fire: frre resistance, flame
spread, {uel contributed, and smoke developed. Fire resistance is the material's ability to resist burning whrle retaining its structural integrity- Flame spread measures the rate
at which flames travel along the surface of a material. Fuel
contributed is a measure of how much combustible matter
a material furnishes to a fire. Smoke developed is a measure of the surface burning characteristics of a material.
How lire spreads through w@d structures depends on the
size and arrangement of wood members and the details
that restrict or encourage air movement around them.
Larger cross sections take longer to burn. As wood burns, it
develoos an outer laver of charcoal, which Insulates the
wood beneath and slows butning. This "char" Iayer proceeds through the burning wood at an average rate of 1rl,
in. per hour. Various design strategaes can be used to resist
fire damage to a wood structure and its spread to adjacent
areas. but the most imponant is to protect the wood membersby means of coverings, coatings, or tre?tmentsFI RE.RETARDANT
TREATMENT
Modern lirertardant treatmenl (FRT) of wood conststs of

Dressure treatment with aqueous solulions of various
organic and inorganic chemicals, followed by kiln drying to
'l
reduce moisture content to 9yo or less for lumber under 2
in. thick and 1 57o or less for plywood. All proprietary FRTS
must conform to UL classilications. FRT wood is commonly
used in plywood sheathing, roof trusses, rafters, floor
joists, studs, staging, and shingles and shakes. Fire- retardant chemical combinations include zinc chloride, ammonium sulfates, borax or boric acid, and lesser amounts of
sodium dichromate. Ammonaum phosphates are no longer
used because they cause rapid disintegralion of wood.
Fire retardants work when lire-retardant chemicals react
with the tars and gases normally produced by burning
wood. The resultant carbon char acts as thermal insulation
(greater than on untreated wood), slowing the rate ot burning. Gases releasd from the FRT wood are diluted with
carbon dioxide and water vapor, lessening the chance of
flashover, in which wood gases are ignited by high temperatures and then explode.
FRT STANDARDS
ANO
CLASSIFICATIONS
Interior lire retardants meet Class I ratings, which are
required by code tor venical exit ways and special areas.
Class ll ratings ar required for horizontal exit ways, but this
rating is rarely reached with untreated w@d. FRT lumber
and plywood ar recognized substitutes lor noncombustible materials tor insurance purposes. Many codes accept
FRT wood products lor a variety of applications.
CLASSIFICATION
TREATER'S
NAME
PROPRIETARY
BRAND
NAME
(ALL FRT
IS
PROPRIETARY)
AMERICAN
--
NUMBER
CONTROL
--
-..
INDICATES FLAMF
SPREAD TEST
ACCORDING TO
ASTM E.&
(STANDARD
DURATION OF
TEST rS 1O MrN.)
-.\
W@D
ASS@ANON
STANDARD
MOISTURE
C'2O
FOR
19% M.c.
PLWMD
NATIONAL
REPORT
NUMBER
--
OR
(REOUIRED)
FG
(M C );
CONTENT
IS
LUMBER
C-27 FOR
,/
IS 15% M.C. EVALUATION
CUSSIFICATION
(NOT REOUIRED)
.KILN
DRIED
(SOMETIMES
REOUIRED TEST
RESULTS IF NOT
..-
AMER
TREATMENT"
PRODUCT
IS AIR DRIED)
INDICATES
RESULTS
TBAT
TEST
ARE
25 OR
LESS
(SOME
DATE
OF TREATMENT
THIS)
CODES
REOUIRE
NOTE
as classB
Wood shakesand shinglesare furtherclassified
or C. Ratherthan stamp each piece.each bundle is tagged
with an identilicationmark.
TYPICAL
FIRE-RETARDANT
TREATED
\ivOOD IDENTIFICATION
ting use of untreatedwood in about l0% of the combined

wall and ceiling surlace area. Sizes and species currently
being lreatd (flamespreadindex less than 25) includered
oak and Western red cedar up to 4/4 and yllow poplarup
to 8/4. Colorand finishesare affected by FRTS.
F I N I S H I N GA N D F I N I S H E S
FRTlumberand plywoodcan be lightlysandedfor cosmetic
cleaningaftsr treatment. Paintingand stainingare possible
but not always sumessful, particularlytransparentfinishes.
Test finishesfor compatibilitybefore application.
Treated lumber may be end cut, but ripping and extensive
surfacingwill normallyvoid the UL label.To the extent possible, materialsshould be precut beforo treatment, olherwise a wood tratershould be consulted.Treatedplywood
can b cut in either directionwithout loss of tire orotection.
Intumescentcoatingsare sometimes used to reduceflammability of wood surfacesin both opaqueand transparent
finishes. Under high heat, these coatingsexpand or foam,
creating an insulating etfect that reduces flame spread.
FLAME
SPREAD
INDEX
MARK
Check local codes belore specifying these coatings

becausethey tend to be less durable,softer,and more
hygroscopicthan standardIinishes.
NOTES
1. These standardsapply to FRTwood: ASTM E-84,ASTM
D.2898, ASTM D-3201, ASTM E-108, AWPA C-20,
AWPA C-27, and ULI Building Materials Directory {cur
rent edition).For more information,contact the American
Wood Preservers'Ass@iation(AWPA).AmericanWood
Preservers' lnstitute, USDA Forest Service. Southern
Forest ProductsAssociation,Western W@d Preseryers
lnstitute,and AmericanForestand PaperAssociation.
2. FRTwood has increasedweight and decreasedstrength;
consult a structural enginer and the wood treater for
actualdesign valuestor structuralapplications.
3. FRTwood faslenersmust be hotdipped, zinc{oated galvanized stainlesssteel, silicon bronze, or copper; other
materialsdeteriorateupon contactwith FRTchemicals.
4. The smokeieveloped indexfor the productslistedin the
flame spread index remained below 450, the limiting
valueused in most buildingcodes.
FLAME
SPREAD
INDEX
OF
FACTORY-FIN
ISH ED PRODUCTS
Both the flame spread index and smoke-developed index

give numerical scales for a material's fire classification. The
flame spread index is the primary test for lire performance.
according to ASTM E4, which mandates a flame spread
rating of 25 or less. In the Model Buiiding Codes. flame
spread ratings are classilied as 0-25 (Class I or A), 26-75
(Class ll or B). and 76-200 (Class lll or C).
index of 450 or less is permitted for
A smokedeveloped
FRT wood. The UL FR-S listing applies only to treated products with a UL-723 {ASTM E41 flame and smoke classification not exceeding 25 in a 3Gmin. test. The classitication
applies to the species tested and does not prtain to the
structures in which the materials are installed.
Fire retardants come in interior and exterior types. Interior
fire retardants are used on wood trusses and studs: exterior
retardants protect exterior lumber, siding, r@f shakes and
shingles. and scaffold planking. The latter type oflers durable, nonleachable. long-term fire protection in outdoor or
moist (relative humidity oI 959o or greater) conditions.
Some codes count Class C or Class B FRT shingles and
shakes as noncombustible materials. Fo. w@d exposed to
the weather, specity exteriortype
retardants that retain
their protective properlies under the standard rain test.
lnterior Type A wood is appropriate for interior and weatherprotected applications with less than 95% relative humidity.
ln rare instances, when relative humidity is less than 75%,
Type I can be specified. Interior Type A is used when a
wood with low hygroscopicity {the rate at Mich the chemical draws moisture from the air) is required.
FRT INTERIOR
WOOD\n/ORK
Instead of solid lumber, it is often desrrable to build membrs ot treated cores clad with untreated veneersl/2s in.
thick or less. Most codes discount this narrow finishing in
determining the flame spread index of the wood, permit-
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland
WOOD TREATMENT
' Unlessindicated,
thicknessof materialis 1 in. nominal.
, Sources:APA-American Plywood Association;CRACaliforniaRedwoodAssociation;Cwc-Canadian Wood
Council; FPL-USDA Forest Products Laboratory;
HPMA-Hardwood Plwood Manufacturers Associa-
tion; NBs-National
Bureau o{ Standards; UL-Unde.
wr,ters Laboratories.
3 Average of I 8 tests was 154 with three values over 200.
o Hardwood
Plywood
Association tesl
Manufacturers
records
Wood Adhesives
/
.'B.S'
APPLIED
FRAMING
317
SINGLE
RIBBON
ON TNTERMEDTATE
MEMBERS
?J6" OIAMETER
RIBBON
WIDTH,
RECOMMENDED.
ADHESIVE
GUN
-ADHESIW
COVERAGE
DETERMINED
BY NOTCH
SZE
NOTCHED
ADHESIVE
TROWEL
CTO SPREAD
OVER
I.ARGE
AREAS)
ADHESIVE
APPLICATIONS
ADHESIVES
NOT E
Adhesive is applied to one surface only.
RECOMMENDED
ADHESIVE
BEAD PATTERNs
SUMMARY
CLASS
TYPICAL
USES
lnteflor use and
with melamineor other resins
resrn
phenol-resorcinol
resins
underdamp conditions;moderateto low rosistanceto temperatures

above120"F;white or tan color
nrgn suengln unoer Dotnwet and dry con(
ture and damp conditions:dark red in color
Hrgh Strength under both wet and dry co
veryresrstantto mors.
ture and damp conditions: dark red color
hrghstrengthIn dry conditions;low rsistanceto moisture

elevatedtemperatures;ioints tend to yield under continuedstressj white
or Yellowcolor
acerate
emulsrons
interiorparticleboard;tlush doors;furnitu.ecore
stock
aonesrve
and llakeboard
adhesive
s 3no assembly joints to withstand severe seryice conditrons
lamrnates.archatectural
woodworking
to polwrnyl acetateresrnemul.
acetateresin emulsions
tural woodworking
an elastomer base In organrc Sol-
Initral ioint strength develops immediately upon pressing, increases slowly

over a period of weeks; dry strength generally lower than thos ot conven-
rativelaminatesto substrates.Usefulfor lowtionalw@dworking glues;water resistahe and resistanceto severecon- strengthmetal and some plastic bonding.
ditionsvariable:color varies
(elastomeric
(jap trllrng: develops strength slowly over several weeks: water rests'tance Lumberand plywood to joists and studs;gypsum
constructionadhesives) elastomerbase,usuallyin organicsolvents and resistance lor severe conditions vary: color varies
boa.d;stvrene and urethanefoams
syft
thetic resins {hot melts}
adhesrves: mrnimal onetration; moislure resistant; white to tan color
polymers,usuallyIn two pans,

manencein wood joints not adequatelyestablished;
Used In combrnatron wrth other resrns lor bondrng

metals, plastics, and materials other than wood:
fabrication of cold-molded wood panels
lamrnalng
(casein and hide)
'Most typesusedin the U.S.are alkaline{atalyzed.

The
gereralstatements
referto thistype.
Data: Adapted from Table 1OGG-12,kchitetural W@dwo* OualityStandards(6th ed.. version 1.1. 1994)
GENERAL
CONSTRUCTION
ADH ESIVES
Adhesives haw been used for bonding wood for centuries,

but until the 1930s they ${ere limited to only a few naturally
derived substancos-those based on animal or vegetable
proteins, gums, or resins. Steppd{p
materials research
effons during World W8r ll spurred the development of
synthetic adhesives for bonding metals, concrete, glass,
rubber, plastics. and wood.
intended application.this base is made of natural rubber

(isoprene)or synthetic rubbers srch as neopren, buM,
polyurethane, polysulfide, nitrile. styrene-butadiene,or
buladiensacrylonitrile.Additivesincludetackifiers,flow and
extrusionmodi{iers.curingagents.antioxidants,and fillers.
Together.the base and th additivesare dispersed(or dissolved)in a liquid,typicallyan organicsolventor water.
Construction adhesives are defined as elastomer-based

extrudable mastics. which reans thal the main adhBsive
component is elastic and will continue to maintain some of
ils flexibility indefinitely. Mastics are a type of adhesive
with high viscosity, or resistance to flow. A construction
adhesive is a substance capable of holding materials
together by surface attachment.
Many of these synthetic adhesives are used to manufacture products such as ph/w@d, oriente+strand
board
(OSB), and laminated timbers. They can also be used during
construction to attach plywood subfloors to floor loists,
adhere ceramac tiles to fl@rs or walls. attach drywall. and
the like. In addition to their structural use, adhesives also
can be used to eliminate squeaks in floors and tor some
mechanical fastening.
Cu(ently, most adhesivesuse organicsolvnts,but waterbasedadhesivesare gainingin popularitybecausethey do

not emit harmful vapors,are easy to clean up, and can be
discardedas regulartrash.Duringthe specificationprocess,
disposalof the containersfrom organicsolvents must be
considered.
Many jurisdictions
are enactingcleanair statutesin whichorganicsolventsaretargetedas airpollutants.
ln addition,organic solvents can have adverse aflects on
the workers who apply them as well 6 tuture building
occuoants.One drawbackto most water$ased adhesives
is that they tend only to resist water, while the solventbasedadhesivesare waterproof.
Adhesives used for building have been formulated to tolerate many of the often adverse conditions that exist at mosl
Job sites, such as extreme temperatures and temperature
tluctuations. They are excellent for filling gaps. and thus
work on both smooth and rough surfaces. Because they
form bond lines up to'/. in. thick, they can bridge gaps
between illfitting pieces. The degree of adhesion depends
on the surtace conditions of the materials; ice, dirt, grease,
or other contaminants will all have a negative ellect.
Adhesives are composed of a base component, dispersion

medium, and various additives that impart specific propel
ties. The elasloreric base of a construction-tvoe adhesive
accounts for 30 to 507o of its weight. Depending on its
Many of the characteristics of modern adhesives are

described an the table. Note that most adhere to wood, but
performance depends on careful consideration of physical
and chemical compalibility of glue and wood, processing
requirements. mechanical properties, and durability under
des,gn conditions.
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA;Oak LeatStudio:Crownsville.

Marvland
WOOD AND PLASTIC

FASTENINGS
318
GENERAL
Nqils
NOTES
1. Nails are made of many materials for diverse uses When

selecting nails, follow the recommendation of the manufacturer of the material to be fastened, as well as buildIng codes when applicable.
2. Select nails so as to avoid galvanrc action between the
nail and the nailed material.
ROUGH
CONSTRUCTION
NAME
SHAPE
COMMON
or@
ANNULAR
3. Select nail head size according to the strength and area

of the material to be held.
4. In wood framing the correct size and number of nails
must be used at any given point to withstand stress. Pre
cedures for lculating nailed conoections can be lound
in National Design Specifications for Wood Construction
(Washington: National Forest Products Association
{American Forest and Paper Associationl).
5. Base nail selection on the type(s) of wood or other materials to be assembled, joined, or connected.
6. Nails with serrated or helically threaded shanks have
increased holding power. Such nails are ditficult, if not
jmpossible, to remove without destroying the surroundIng matenat.
7- Where nails are exposed to moisture or weather, for
example, in exterior stucco lath, use nonferrous (alumi,
num or zinc{oated} nails.
L Choose nails for automatic nailing equipment specificallv
tor the equipment used. See ANSI "Safety Requirements lor Power Actuated Faslening Systems" and
OSHA regulations.
HELICAL
ot@
C O M M O NC U TS T R I K E
n
u --
MATERIAL
FINISH
Steel or
alumrnum
Smooth
Steel,hardened
steel, copper,
brass,bronze,
siliconbronze,
nickelsilver,
aluminum,monel,
or stainlesssteel
Bright,
hardened
Steel or iron
Bright or zinc{oated
Steel
Bright or zinc{oated
Aluminum
Bright
DOUBLE-HEADED
SOUARE
D
0 fronif_TTTTm.0]TToonaTIir
Steel
Smooth.bright,
zrnc{oateo
Aluminum
Bright or hard
R O U N DW I R E
ANNULAR
ROOFING
NAM
SIDING
& SHINGLE
(BARBED)
ROOFING
ROOFING
NONLEAKING
ROOFING
SHINGLN
E AIL
CUTSLATING
(NONFERROUS)
GUTTERSPIKE
(ROUND)
GUTTERSPIKE
(ANNULAR)
SHAPE
or|-
MATERIAL
copper,or
aluminum
c rF:.
o ltr*
Steel or
aluminum
FINISH
Smooth.
bright, zjnc- or
cementroated
Steel
o$I
ft-r-
Steel or cut iron
fl:
Copper.munu
metal, or zrnc
o[ o
/^\
]l
v/
\l
Plain or zincroated
Steel
Bright or zanc{oated
Copper
Bright
FINISH WORK
NAM E
WALLBOARD
F I N EN A I L
MATERIAL
Steel or
alumanum
O|l--.
FINISH
blued, or cement
coated
Bright
Steel
COMMON
NAIL SIZES
LATH
LATH
CASINGOR BRAD
Or--.
@
Elued or
cement{oated
Steel or
alumlnum
INISHING
Steel
Smooth, bright, blued,

or cement{oated
Bright or
cement{oated
Smooth
MISCELLANEOUS
NAM E
CEMENT
SHAPE
M A T E R IA L
(f
thnn
t
\_-/
CEMENT
(FLUTED
HELICAL)
Hardened
OFFSET
(LATH)
HOOKED
{LATH)
TAPLE
Charles F. D. Egbert, AIA; Architect; Washington, D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
FINISH
Smooth, bright, or
oil-quenched
Steel
Bright,btued,or
zinc{oated
319
StructurqlWood Fqsteners
WOOD
STUD
METAL HOLDSTPAP
DOWN
L-a'-
1A"
- 24'
2X PRESSURE
TREATED WOOD
SILL PLATE -\,
NOTE: For tying unnotched 2x rafters to top wall plates; for

uDlitt and lateral load resislance.
RAFTEFT
TWO.SIDED
TIE
NOTCHED
dation wall
NOTE: Provides tension for wood-to-wood or wood-tomasonryconnectionsfor wood trusses and joists.
TRUSS ANCHORS
METAL
UG
'--;;';;^;-'
BOLTq
OR ]HROUGH
d.;:;:
BASE-\
*- "t i^ *\
BOLT
CONNEfrION
(onoNAL
STRAP
HOLD.DOWN/UPLIFT
\/
rcST
(aPPROX.)
TOP
PUTES
il\g
,o=,)fen;;s-v*/
NOTE:Ties one or two top platesto notchedrafterstor tension cord snnections.

RAFTER TIES
ONE-SIDED
AND
NOTE:Providestloor-tefl@r tension connection;for nailed

or bolted connections.
FLOOR TIE ANCHOR
NOTCHED
RA-ER
W@D
E}ASE
COLUMN
COLUMN
CAPS AND BASES
STUD OR POST
UG BOLT
OR
THROUGH
BOLT
TOP
|uTES
WASHER
(offroNAL)
IN-LINE SruD
NOTE: Ties notched rafter to stud on same plane as rafter
for tension load connection.
TIE
RAFTER-TO-STUD
E}ASE
POSTCAP/BASE:For variedpost cap or base connectaons.

COLUMN BASE:Attachesw@d post to concrete embedment to resist high uplift lGds.
SILL
fuE
ROO
HRADED
THROUGH FLG
SRUflRE
OR
ANCHOR BOLT
INTO FOUNMTION
METAI
HOLD.DO\m
OR UFLIff
tcds o"**"
NorE:rransfers
tension
o"illl?T,roo
TOP
FI,ANGE
FACE-MOUNT
NOTE: Joist connector (in wide variety of sizes).
JOIST
HANGERS
poststo foundation.
METAL
METI
SII
ANCHOR-
stud to bottompratefor tensionroad
ANCHOR
HOLD-DOWN/IJPLIFT
-WOOD
ALTERNATE
INSTALUTION
OF ANCHOR
STUD
@NCREE
OR CMU
FOUNDATION
IuE
-
TREA
(APPROX.)
:ffg{?
1'/1'
6"
Y*
]<<7'
Hr
- 16'
NOTE:Anchors sill olate to concrete or CMU foundation

wall and/orstuds.
SILL PLATE ANCHORS/SIDE
INSTALI.-ATION
\-*-|,*,,
f'l|
|.fl
o"...,."
f:ll'-.-*,.S
- ' i 6-: .|'
ff .l1 il .i
STRAP
-1-
\\
1 ; l ' , . ', , . '
AND
ALTERNATE
INSTAI.LANON
OF ANCHOR -
L-STRAPS:
For
varied
vertical
to
e.9.,
horizontal
TIES
NOTE:Anchors sill Olateto concrete

wail.
21h'
1/2'-21h.
11/4'
'#'-*r( '";_1',l1[[
{-F*
Itrd
*e
:'
coNcRETE
OR CMU
FOUNDATION
\N
Z.CLIP
^__.
^lil1."..,..
L-STRAP
STRAP: For tying varied tension load connections,

joists at ridge, wall-tcfloor connections, etc.
T-
NCHOR
11h'
2X PRESSUREREAED
wooD
sr[
PUTE
n\Y
f.:tlb
l . . li
^__
-_tJ I
METAL
SII
PGTE
BACK.UP
CLIP
FRAMING
ANCHOFT
two wav
FRAMING ANCHOR: For varied wood-tewood
connections; optional bendable extensions allow threeway
connections.
BACK-UP CLIP: To provide back{p support for gypsum
board in lieu of wood framing; can save wood material.
METAL
ANGLE
ROOF
CLIP
TRTJSS
Z-CLIP Secures 2x blockrng between joists and/or trusses.
CMU foundation
METAL ANGLE: Provides varied wood-tqw@d

concrete anchorage.
or wood-tq
SILL PT-.ATE ANCHORS/CENTERLINE

INSTALT.ATION
ROOF TRUSS CLIP: Provids alignment control belween

roof truss and nonbearing walls; slot permits loadinduced
truss movemenr-
ANCHORS
VARIOUS
CLIPS
AND
ANCHORS
NOTES
1. For utmosl rigidity, strength, and service, each type of
lastener requires ioint designs adapted to wood strength
along and across the grain and to dimensional changes
that mav @cur with variations in moisture content.
2. For lorces such as wind uplift and lateral loads (wind and
eanhquake), the toundation, flootrtqfloor, and roof connections are the main areas of concern, although, in varying degrees, all connections taken together will resist
these forcas. ln some joints, the fastener or connector is

the only resistor to the applied load.
3. Most fasteners used lo ioin wood framing or to attach
retal connectors to traming are made of steel, with a
hotdipped galvanized coating the most typical linish
used. Stainless steel, or finishes such as a corrosionresistant primer or a copolymer coating. can also be
used. In the oresence of moisture, metals used for nails
and other fasteners may corrode when in contact with

material treated with cenain preseruatives. Fasteners
galvanized steel. copper, silicon
made of hotdipped
bronze, and 304 and 316 stainless steel have performed
well in wood treated with ammonaacal cooper arsenate
(ACA) and chromated coppr arsenate (CCA), the most
common preseryatives lor wood. Of course, provision
should always be made to avoid galvanic action between
dissimilar metals.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland
FASTENINGS
WOOD AND PLASTIC
320
Shieldsond Anchors
MACHINE BOLT ANCHORS AND SHIELDS (IN.)
s rrzre-
t" -
f
tl
TO INSERT
i scREw-
---f
AD
ltl
m-l-I
kh-r
g1
H-l_,
NHI
dJ'l
N=l
gr7 xl
-l#
ntt
l-Nt
|
I
SELF-DRILLING
SION
ANCHOR
(SNAP.OFF
TYPE)
ffi
lr-rL-
rrr'SINGLE
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
(cAULKtNGI
so
t4i,-
o.o
|
I
1/d
DIA. OF BOLT
EXPAN-
NOTE
S IN G L E
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
(NoNcAULKING
M U LTI PLE
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
IPLAIN STYLE)
F
J
MULTIPLE
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
(THREADEO STYLEI
l. Refer to manufactu.ers for size varia

tions within the limits shown, and tor
different types of bolts.
DOUBLE
ACTING
SHIELD
2. The anchor i5 made of caE hardened

steel and drawn carburazing steel_
HOLLOW WALL ANCHORS
E=T_T
tll
Bfl
llEHl,l
2t/a
31/z
'Use of three
units in th*
4 1 /a
diameiersis rmommended.
NOTE
l. Extensronsrse lor dep sning.
3. Many are threaded for use wtth the head of the rcrew
outsade, sme with the head inside and $me types re
quire setting tools to install.
4. In light construction plastic expansion shields are
used freauentlv.
2. Expansion$ietds and anchorsstrown are represtative of many typ6, eme ot which mav b
usd in singleo. mulriple units.
SHIELDS FOR LAG BOLTS AND WOOD SCREWS

0N.)
3
o
!
U
t
(J
o
o
J
o
u
N.
o
u
c
o
o
o
o
o
3
-t16
B
J
SHORT
164
3/a -11
/z
,z5u
.190
16
,zo6
18
.294
20
24
.320
Jtz
N
o
o
U
z
FJl
tEtI
E|
F|
-w-.
t
o
E
r"?,5
ie
OR
U
q
o
| - 1 1 /z
13/a
STUO
ANCFIOR
MIN,
HOLE
DEPTH
o
31/a
1 3/ e
lx/a
-31 /a
MIN.
HOLE
DEPTH
o
ikt"?"t"
L
13/a
MIN.
HOLE
DEPTH
D
HEAD
STYLE
t/z-11/s
Acorn
nut
|-l1lz
1t/z
JZL
1-11/z
5/a
13/a
13/a
1 3 /a
21/z
13/a
.ozt
.50( 23/a -7
11/z
1 1 /a
3t/z
r.00
25
1 s/a
1 ) l s- 3
33/a-7
23/e
21/a-6
41/a -81/t
2t/e
2t/z-8
21/.6
21le
.624 31/z -8t /:

.875
3t /z
1r/a
211a-5
lt/z
3/e
.500
750
o
z
LONG
3/a-11/z
l4
Z-\
LEAD SHIELO
FOR LAG
BOLT OR
wooD scREw
r38
.z to
o
c
o
o
z
il
tl
o
u
o
l0
t2
N
a
J
LAG BOLT EXPANSION

SHIELO
F1 I
l-E
"ltlI
f,Fl 'l
uM
g ,tt +I
tr'
UEI
/FHI
I|
l"-/
ONE PIECE ANCHORS (IN.)
tj-f
i'!-+
)lE
11ES\
II
\EEI/
1 \/ z
lt /a -1O
3 1 /a
b-tu
33/a
4 1 /z
9-
5t/z
23/a -51 /a
21!1 -4
Hex
nut
1 1/ e
21/a -51 /z
Sleve anchorsavailablein acorn nut, hex nut, flat head,round head, phillips
round head,and tie wire headstvles.
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
32r
Screwsond Bolts
M A C H I N EE S
SC
CRREEW
W ANO
3
5 TOVE
(lNS.l
SCREW ANO BOLT LENGTHS {INS.I
:,;
=,
u
:j
IJ
Y1 a1
oo
>o
FLAT
HEAD
FILLISTER
Ya)/e
40 N.C.
/e-lfz
Ye-1Yz
36
Ve-1Vt
C.
t/,a-3
%o-3
v,-3
y4-3
6-
%-6
FLAT
H EAD
HEXAGON
H EAO
Ye-6
3/a-3
y4-6
%-8
| -o
Vz-23/,
Vz-3Vz
'A-33/,
Yz-8
v,-8
l-10
%-3
3h-3
,/t-4
1/,-3Yz
3h-4
3/,-3Y,
3h-4
xh-4,h
l-4
1-4y,
7A
1-4
t-5
,/e
2-6
3h-12
|-20
l-20
1Ve-4Vz
| -30
|-30
1-20
| 72- tO
1'/z-4'/z
|-30
r -20
11/z-16
1Vz-30
13/,-5
ROUNO
(r(|)\
\
/\-\
,N\
L e n g t h i n t e r v a l s = % i n . LengthinteF
increments
up to 6 in., % vals = % in.
in. increments
from 6% in Inctemenlsup
to l2 in., I in. increments t o 8 i n . , 1 i n .
'l
increments
over 2 in.
ov
YU
r\
-t\<z\
@))
__Jt+]ir,tIKllI
w\l7
-m
,vY
\,/
Selt-lockingnuts havea pin
that acts as a rachet, sliding down the thread as the
bolt is tightened,to prevenl
l@sening lfom shock and
vibration.
V7
TOOTH
LOCK
( INTERNAL
)
\-/
FIBERGLASS
couNrERsu
SUNK
.lR.ln
l19
lr\
ln\
l{()tt{()l
+\7 r\\7
( EXTERNAL
_l-+
+_-9_+
ilE88bl FJ5.Ri'#ts
The bolt's clamping force

causes protrusrons on the
washer to llalten partially,
closing the gap belween the
washe. and the bolt head.
Measurement of the gap indicates whether the bolt has
been tightened adequately.
/\
rd)
+ E) -,ttI
Fiberglass nuts and bolts

are noncorrosive and nonBolts
conductive.
ate
available in 3/sin.. '/2 in., s/s
3/.
in.,
in., and 1 in. slandard diameters.
NUTS
AND BOLTS
Highiension.stainlesssteel
helicalinsertsare held in
place by spring-likepressure, and they are used to
salvagedamagedth.eads.
They also eliminatethread
failuredue to stressconditrons.
HELICAL
INSERTS
it u. +
NOTES
Interle.encebody bollsaredriven into reamedor drilledholes

lo createa joint in lull bearing.
+-+r:
+--+
l-
-=
-a
R []
+Y/
Ir_iJJ
EgiisB
|t
|t
tl
t l llltl
/ l
33,!f'
+----9Jq1-
+5
I
tt
+-f,
tl
t4
ll
,lt iIl l
l. Eent bolts are specialty items made
to order.
2 . D = b o l t d i a m e t e r ;C = i n s i d e o p e n .
ing width; T = thread length; L =
inside length of bolt; A = inside
deprh.
=>
=:
l-1a
,ln n ,I
|t
ll
l=rl
l\\
ffil
\^/ASHER
++
+ets
\/
,:?:f".,
HEX
TRUSS
(^\ n\ I+= fi=

\w \v/ l+- l+i:i
WASHERS
FILLISTER
,/-\
@rc))r
ffiA
CASTELLATE
FLAT
2- to
1Yz-30
'/2-)
HEAO
| -12
3A-24
Lengthintervals= % in. increments

up to 1 in., % in.
incrementstrom 1t/t io. to 4 in., \/, in. incrementslrom 4t/z in
Incremenls
to 6 in.
v, v7
Lengthintervals= %Gin. increments
up to % in.. % in. increments
from % io. to 1% in., % in. incrementshon l'/z in. to 3 in.. % in.
incrementsfrom 3% in. to 6 in.
NOTE:N.C. = Cou.sethread
LAG BOLT
Vz-8
2-5
416-J
CARRIAGE
SOLT
%-3
v,
3/'a-2
MACHINE
BO LT
H EAO
fz-3'/z
3/,-4
Vz
FILLISTER
Vz-2'/.
'/16
Va-3/,
'/a-1
'/r6-O
'/1
%
t/r
Va-1Yz
'/6-
OVEN
HE A O
Var/e
10
12
OVAL
HEAD
HEAD
YrYa
6
'/32
BUTTON
HEAO
V,
ROUNO
HEAD
'/er/a
-/16
BOLTS
CAP SCREWS
U.
U
6
U
titl
tttl
if-
E8SB"
F % , + _#: _ + %-
+-+e_
ltt-:ttt-
I r 'l=
| | fri
ltattu
| ;'l =
I t1-t-l
n ,l I n,l I R
tt
|tr
ll
tl
)
:':::1?:
Il
a \--l
aEND
|t
ll]=Nl
8PHe".
tl
sPEcraL
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
322
Rivefs,Screws,ond MiscelloneousFosteners
WITH
r^)
STUB
ENOS
/A
FIR
\"/
aa
.250
t/z
ttl
375
4 '/z
625
.750
6"
9"
12"
1 1/tz
1 '/t
1 2t/tz
12"
12
OIAreTRS
ffR
f'
2-4
1,
'/"
,2
ryALA4E,
NOT
4WAYS
164
1.875
.500
2-4
2 t/t
1 . 2 5 0 2.000
WING
6"
9"
12"
't.00
875
,/t
t/,
r38
r.438
EOUIV
,/e
.500
INCHES)
5/t
DECIMAL
t/,
DI AMETER
( IN
TOGGLE
( tN INeHES)
TURNEIUCKLES
OECI. EQUIV
/A
tu
I
V\/
\u/
tl
'(/
1 1/e
.500
2'/z
2.000
1,"
r90
1.875
500
2-6
2.000
RIVITEO
TUMBLE
13
2.750
2.875
l.txx)
688
2'/z -
,6/5
2.250
2.150 2.150
.688
415
.875
2.750
.625
2.750
.688
3-6
500
3-6
2.000
2.250
3-6
500
3-6
STOCKEO
t,
.250
-6
3-6
.500
4.625
1.250
J_D
3-6
rrn-, -dh:,t F1fi> 6fr1 6D

f?,
.41.{h
fillt?
-+H
j
qlil'ttdY
ilfi
-lFW
tllFLillliU
6
Ttr'EAC)EO
PULL
TS
FoR
UgE
IN A JoINT
MANOREL
THAT
ORIVE
Is ACCEGSIBLE
FRoM
oNLY
H?
LJ
wrrH
STEELi
IN
@
[J
PAry
soLTo,TUBULAR aNo GpLrr sHNKs
sTAINLESS
CHTMICALLY
FIN
OIAMETER
OF
oF 6TEEL, BRAss, copr'ER,
I/e..
7/16'' ANo
To
/-1r\
IP tr \N\\\'N",
r_, ffu*
\l_|
ffiT
Self-drilling,astenefs: used to attach metal to metal,

wood, and concrete.Consult manufaclurerfor sizesand
drillingcapabiiities.
POTNT
Sheet metal gimlet point: hardened, self-tapping.

Used in 28 gauge to 6 guge sheet metal; aluminum, plaslic, slate, etc. Usual head tvoes.
sLorrEo
vU
6HET
METAL
BLUNT
tl
POINT
Sheet metal bluot point: hardened, selttapping.

Used in 28 to 1 8 gauge sheet metal. Made in sizes
4 ro 14 ln usual head tvoes.
F.1
"x
v
rA\
\/
rTr
w
LJ
FREARSON
=
9.-
THruM
BeuaRe HE .
.,LorrEo
EBI*=t
Set Screws: headless with socket or slotled toD; made in

s i z e s4 h . t o r 2 i o . , a n d I n l e n g l h s 1 / I n . t o 5 i n . S q u a r e
headsizesr. In. tO 1 in., and lengthsrr h. to 5 rn.
SET
METALGIMLET
SCREWS
CUTTING.
CUTTING
6LOT
Thread cuttiog, cutting slot: hardened. Used in

m e t a l s u p t o r . i n . t h i c k i n s i z e s4 i n . t o 5 r o i n . i n
usual head tvoes.
SHEET METALA
THREADING
SCRE\^/S
TimolhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C
WOOD AND PLASTIC

FASTENINGS
ov{HeAo
LENGTHS
/^\
Etssss\rus-e
EXPANOTO
SIoE
\7
TJ
ETANOARO
RIVETS AVAILABLE
ALWINUM,MONEL
METAL AND
OF 3/16" TO 4lN.
oNE
DRIVE
TYPES
r-\smsw
Western
or PlqtformFroming
HIP
RAFTER
323
RAFTER
HEAOER
HIP
ROOF+
SHEATHING
JACK
TAIL
RAFTER
RAFTER
OOUBLE
VALLEY
TRIMMER
RAFTER
NAILER
RIOGE
OORMER
HEAOER
DORMER
RAFTER
FASCIA
OOUALE
HEAOER
wooo
STTEL
CAP
TWO
PLATE
2X4'S
oR
STUO
BRACING
HEAOER
SHORT
PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING
2)<4
JOIST
SOLE
PLATE
HEAOER
OOUBLE
JOIST
PLATE
TWO
2 X 4'S
LEDGER
CARRIAGE
HEAOER
DOUBLE
OOUBLE
HEADER
YWOOD
SUBFLOORING
2X4
SILL
PLATE
JOIST
FIRESTOP
SILL
STEEL
HEAOER
STEEL
rcOO
t/2"
tANCHOR
BOLT
BEAM
OR
BRACING
a'-o" MAx- o.c. oR

MIN. TWO PTR SILL
FOUNDATION
CONC
RETE
OR
MASONRY
AT
YWOOD
SHEATHING
FRAME,
BRACES
CORNER
MAY
OTHER
SHEATHING
AE
NON-STRUCTURAL
PLATFORM
FRAMING
NOTES
STUO
WALL
SOLE
PLATE
HEAOER
WESTERN OR PLATFORM FRAMING
BRACING EXTERIOR WALLS
Eefore any of the superstructure is erected, the first lloor

subflooring is put down making a platform on which the
walls and panhions can be assembled and tilted into place.
The process is rpeated lor each story of the building. This
traming system is used trequently .
Because floor lraming and wall frames do not interlock.

adequale sheathing must acl as bracing and provide the
necessary late.al resistance. Where required lor additional
stiffness or bracing, 1 x 4's may be let into outer face of
studs at 45o angle secu.ed at top, bottom, and lo studs.
FIRESTOPPING
BRIOGING FOR FLOOR JOISTS

May be omitted when tlooring is oailed adequately to joisl;
however, where nominal depth-to-thickness tatio ol ioists
exceeds 6, bridging would be installed at 8 lt.0 in. ioter
vals. Building codes may allow omission of btidging under
certain conditions,
JOIST
TOP
PLATE
All concealed spaces in framing, with the exception of

areas around llues and chimneys, are to be lined with 2
in, blocking arranged to prevenl drafts between spaces.
PLATE
SOLE
SUBFLOORING
HEAOER
EXTERIOR WALL FRAMING

FLOOR
JOIST
SILL
PLATE
r,!" o
aNcHoR
FOUNOATION
BoLT
WALL
One story buildings: 2 x 4's, 16 in. or 24 in. o.c.;

2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c.
Two and three stories: 2 x 4's, l6 in. o.c.;
2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c.
Steel bridging is available.Some typesdo not.equire nails.
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
324
TreotedWood Foundotions
2X
FIELD
APPLIED
TOP
PLATE
TOP
PLATE
PRESSURE-TREATED
PRESSURE-REATED
PLWOOD
COVER PDE
POLYETHYLENE
WAER
DreRTER
INSUGNON
VArcR
BARRIER
WALLBOARD
MID.WALL
BL@KING
SOD
AND
TOPSOIL
AT
=_-
PRESSURE.TREATED
AT SHEATHING
PLWOOD
PLWOOD
LOW.POROSIry
MATERIAL
BACKFILL
(12' MIN. DEPTH)
POLYETHYLENE
JOINTS
.--
RYWO|C)D
JOIM FILLED
WITH SEAUNT
/-
TREATED
STUD WALL
TREATED
.---._
TREATED
RESSURE-TREATED
PL.fr@A
SHATHING
FILLER
CRAWL
TREATED
rcLYETHYLENE
rcLYETHYLENE
MOISTURE
1. Geotextilematerialmay be used under aod arounddrainage layersand backfillit soil conditionswarrant.

2. Stud size and spacingvary with materialgrade and backBASEMENT
STUD
PLWOOD
- MrN. 4' SO|L

COWR
TO
PREVENT
EROSION
OR
MECHANICAL
DISTURBANCE
PUTE)
filldepth.ln general,42in. back{illrequircs2x4at12in.

'16
o.c.,il in. requires2 x 6 at
in.o.c.,and84 in.,equires
2 x 6 at 12 in. o.c.
WALL
TREATED
E}ARRIER
GRANUUR
DRAINAGE UYER,
5' MIN. DEPTH
(ACTS AS GRANUUR
FOOTING UNDER FOC)NNG
LINE
SPACE WALL
CONCRETE
PGTE
-BELOW
FROST
HIGH-rcROSIW
BACKFILL
MAERIAL
PRESSURE.REATED
FOOTING PUTE
TYPICAL
FOOTING
GRAVEL OR
CRUSHID
STONE FOOTING
STRIP
-
COMPRESSIBLE
GRADE
PRESSURT.TREAEO
tuTE
BOfrOM
',. TRATED
FINISH
GRADE
!4' PER
SLOPE
F@T
MIN. 6'
POLYffHYLENE
VArcR
BARRIER
,-.----
GYPSUM
JOIST
SEAGNT
2X PRESSURE-TREATED
STUD WALL
AAN
WITH
FLOOR
PLWOOD
SHEATHING
FBSHING
2X
GRAVEL
OR
CRUSHED
STONE
F@TING
- ,.,-.---BELOW
FROST
LINE
MINIMUM SOIL COVER ON SHALLOW

FOOTINGS
l,vALL
2X W@D
BUILT.UP
PERIMETER BEAM
GLUED AND BOLTED
BLGTNG
TEN
FOR
SCHEDULE)
AT 24'
NAILING
OR
4A.
(SEE
'
FASEN
STUDS TO
TOP IuTE
BEAM
FLMR
FRAMING
TREATED
PUTE
(2) 1b' DtA.

CARRIAGE
AOLTS
AT
6' O.C.
TOP
PERIMETER
KNEE WALL
TREATED
BONOM
PUTE
FASEN
STUDS TO TOP
PUTE
BEAM WTH JOIST
HANGER
BUILT.UP
TOP
BEAM AT STAIRS
For less than 48 in. backfill,use standardlraming methods

'lod
and fasten staiMell headerto too olate with three
toenaals.
STAIR
OPENING
AT
PERIMETER
N OTES
The constructionof treated w@d foundationsis similar to

the constructionof standardwood light-framewalls except
for two tactors:(1)the wood used is pressuretrebted with
wood preseruatives,and {2) the extra loading and stress
requirementscaused by below{rade conditions must be
accommodatedin the designand detailingof the tasteners,
connections,blocking.wall corners,and the like.
1 . Characteristics of a treated wood foundation svstem:
As with standardmasonryor concreteloundationsystems,

treated wood foundationsrequire a good drainagesystem
anorder to ruintain dry basementsand crawl spaces.However. the drainagesystem typicaliyused with treated wood
foundationsis different trom that used with masonry or
concrete systems. The components of a drainagsystem
suitablefor use with a treatedwood loundationare
2.Trcated wood foundations are not appropriate for all

sites. Selection of the proper foundation system for a
project depends on site conditions, including soil types.
drainage conditions. ground water, and other facto.s.
Wet sites In low areas, especially areas with coarsegrained soil, should be avoided i{ a full basement is
desired, although a crawl space-type foundation can be
used in these cases. Consult a soils engineer to determine the viability of any loundation system.
3. Lumber and plywood used in treated wood toundations
must be grade-stamped for foundation use and are typically pressure trated with chromated copper arsenate.
Treated wood oroducts used in {oundation @nst.uction
are required to contatn more preseryative than treated
w@d used in applications such as fencing and decking.
Codes generally call for hot-dipped galvanizd fasteners
above grade and stainless steel lasteners below grad.
a. All framing is standard 2x construction.

b. Can be erected in any weather and when sit access
for concrete or masonry is a Droblem.
c. Deep wall cavities allow use ot high R-value insulation
without loss of interior space.
d. Wiring and finishing are easily achieved.
RichardJ, Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte.

Maryland
AmericanForest& PaperAssociation;
Washington,
DC
ROUGHCARPENTRY
WALL
WITH
EXTERIOR
WALL
INTRODUCTION
1. A highly porous backfill material. which directs water

down to a granulardrainagelayer.
2. A porousgranulardrainagelayer under the entire founda,
tion and flmr system to collect and dischargewater.
3. Positivedischargeof water by means of a sump system
designedfor th soil type. This drainagesystem, devel
oped tor trated w@d foundations,takes the place of
the typicalporousbacktillover a perimeterdraintile.
BASEMENT
KNEE
WALI-
4. Avoid skin contact and prolonged or frequent inhalation

of sawdust when handling or rcrking with any pressure
treated wood product.
5. Consult applicable building codes and the American For,
est & Paper Association's "Permanent Wood Foundation
Syste|]FDesign,
Fabrication, Installation Manual" for
requarements and design guidelines. In the early stages
of a project. consult with the building code ofticials for
the area or jurisdiction to assess their lamiliarity with and
willingness to approve this type of system.
6. The vertical and horizontal edge-todge ioints ot all plywood panels used in these systems should be sealed
with a suitable sealant. Consult the American Plywood
Association Source List "Caulks and Adhesives for Petr
manent W@d Foundation System, Form H405" for a list
oi high-perf ormance caulking compounds.
7. Correct materials and details of construction are very
amportant tor treated wood foundations. lf the contractor
to be used for the installation is unfamiliar with this foundation system, the design should include the use of prefabricated foundation panels. Most problems with
treated wood foundations can be traced to imorooer
installation bv inex@rienced workers8. Since this tyF ot toundation system depends especially
on the first floor deck to absorb and distribute any backfill
loads, backfilling cannot occur until the first floor deck is
complete.
TreotedWoodFoundolions 325
, PRISSURE-TREATED
11 /.' GAP BTMEEN
TREATED W6D
RESSURE
FOUNDATION SIDE WALL
PRESSURE.TREATED
FOUNDATION
WALL
STUD
PRESSURE-TRATED
FLOOR
JOISTS
UNDER
BEARING
PRESSURE.TREATED
WALL
FOUNDATION
SBEATHING
BEARING
PRESSURE
TREATED
PLATE
BONOM
PRESSURE
MEATED
FOOTING
SPACED
SHEATHING
PLWOOD
AND
STUDS)
PRESSURE.TREATED
HEADER
CONTINUOUS
WITH
JOISTS
BUfrING
HEAOER
AND END NAILED
WALL
ALIGN
rcISTS
STUDS
FL@R
FLMR
PLW@D
-'.--- PRESSURE TREATED W@D

FOUNDATION END WALL
WITH
BEARING
PRESSURE
TRAED
wooD
SLEEERS
WALL
FOR
BACKFILL
HEIGHTS
5' O'
NAIL
OR LESS,
JOISTS
TO
STUDS:
5 "
OR MORE.
THE
IS
JOIST
AND
DOUBLED
NAILED
TO
STUDS
STUD
SEALANT
CAULKED
INT
=-
SHEATHING
\'a'GAe
BEruEEN
ENDS OF SLEEPERS
OR FOONNG PUTES
AND WALL PUTE
NOTES
tendto forcethe wall
1. At an outsidecorner,soilpressures
sectionstogether,makingreinforcementunnecessary.
2. Threestudsshouldbe usedat the cornerto supponinterior finishes.
OUTSIDE CORNER
AND
FLOOR
GRANUUR
DRANAGE
JOISTS BUfrED
END TO END
TIGHTLY
WITH SOLID BLKING
JOIST TWISTING
FINED TO PREVEM
JOISTS
UYER
DETAILS
PRtrSSURL
REATED
FOOTING
PG]E
FLOOR JOISTS
PRESSURE.TREATED
NOTES
l.Joists to be butted end to end over pressure-treated

wmo slpers.
WOOD
FLOOR
SLEEPER
2. Floor stiffness will be increased by blocking between

every ioast above each sleeper.
SYSTEM
PRESSURE-REATED
FLMR
4WOOD
SHAfrING
PRESSURE.RAED
BL@KING
BLK|M-
PRESSURE.MAED
IN LINE
BLMKING
WTH STUDS
MESSURE.TREAED
FOUNDANON
WALL SruOS
BOfiOM
3' NATLS
aT i2'O.c.
DETAIL
aT 6' O.C
tuwooD
BEARING
SHATHING
SruD
UPS
AND
IS
TO
NAILED
FACE
SruD
PRESSURE
RAED
MUALED
.,OISTS
|uTE-
PRESSURE-RATED
FOONNG
fu@R
JOISTS
DOUBLE BEARING
|uTE
WTLTOP
SUSPENDED
FLMR
JOIST
(oR
BLOCKTNG
AT END
WALL
IN LINE WM
WU
BARING
PUTE
BOfrOM
PRESSURE.TRAED
WTL
STUDS
FOOTING fuE
r/vOOD FLOOR
PLruOOD
SUBFL@R
NAILED
SECURELY TO BLOCKING
(AND
NAfLS
WITH
JOISTS)
MlN. ----+__/.
FOUR
GEATED
2"
ASSEMBLY
NALS
SruDS)
PRESSURE
TREATED
GALVANZED
RIM
JOIST
FIELDAPPLIED
TOP
3I''
aT
6'
Mil{
FRAMING
PUTE
JOINS FLOOR
JOIST TO TOP P4TE
FOR
DEEF
PUE
NAILS
O.C.
RESSURETOP UE
NAILS JOIN
T@ fuE
TO TOP'
PUTE
SAUNT
AT
2X STUD -
GALVANED
MESSURE.
TREATED
BOfrOM
tuE-
NAIL
8' ANCHOR
PRIOR
DRIWN
TO ASTING
FLOOR
SLAB
CONCRE
SGB
>
AT
SEAUNT
BOARO JOINT,
BEFORE ASSEMBLY
NOTES
1. At inside corners,soil pressurestend to lorce the wall

panels apan. making additionalstructuralreinlorcment
nece5sary.
2. Detail no. 1 orovides the reouired additionalreinforcement with a treated plywood splice plate and additional
nailingbelow grade.
INSIDE
BARRIER
TE
FOOTING PUTE
DETAIL
COMINUOUS
AT
SFqNT
MIOPOIM
OF
frP
BONDS,
CORNER
DETAILS
N OTES
'1.
Fasteners and connector plates transfer soil pressure
thrust from wall sheathing and studs to fl@r system;
type and amount of {asteners and connectors depend on
height of backfill,
2. Wind uplift anchor straps and anchor naals spaced as
required bv code.
WALL ANCHORAGE
DETAIL
F@TING
OUTSIDE
DETAIL
PUTE-
CORNER
PROTECTION
NOTE
All wood members within
bottom treated.
l8 in. of the ground should be
Richard J. Vitullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

American Forest & Paper Association; Washington, D.C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
326
TreotedWood Foundotions
/
BEAM
POCKT
GYPSUM
(ON ONE
TREATED
CRIPPLE
STUDS
WOOD 2X HEADER
WOOD
BOARD
SIDE. MIN.)
AS
STUDS.
FIELD.APPLIED
TOP PUTE
.
BUILT-UP
-. -
TREATED
TOP
PI AAF
wooD
a lo"wrr
F
-
BAM
SYSTEM
PLWOOD
SHEATHING,
BOTH
SIOES
2X STUD
BEARING
BUILT-UP
wmD
COLUMN
BL@KING
(omroNAL)
-/
MIO-WALL
BL@KING
PLYWOOD
JOINT
wooD
rcLY.
ffiYLENE
VArcR
BARRIER
@LUMN
FOOTING
END WALL
wooD
FOOTING
STEEL
ANCHOR
BOLT.
AS
NECESSARY
TREATED
rcUBLE
2X
BOTTOM
PGTES
PUTE
MAIN BEAMS AND COLUMNS

AP
PUTE
TOP
PUTE
FRAMING
REATED
FOOTING
GRANUUR
DRAINAGE
UYER
CLIPS
BOTH
SIDES
FOR2X6'
LIMEL
USE
SIX
3' NALS
ACH
END:
FOR2X8'
LINTEL
USE
EIGff
3' NALS
ACH
END
LIl.ftL
MEMBTRS
BEARING
WALL
AT CONCRETE
SLAB
BONOM
CONCRETE
SLAB\\
TREAED
SPACER
rcLYMYLENE
VArcR
BARRIER
$;z'-ggt*==
\
GRAWL
FILL -
DRAINAGE
INTERIOR
SHEAR
WALL
TRAED
SII
PUTE
FULL.
LENGTH
RilED
BONOM
IuTE
METAL JOIST
HANGERS OR
FRNING
CLIPS
RATED
GIPRE
STUDS
SruDS
cnaruuran
sPLtcE (MrN.
1'X a'X 32',)
DETATL
W@D
JOIST
FLOOR
WOOD
aT 24'
E]LMKNG
O.C. Md.
THREE
3%'
NAILS.
MIN.
BLOCK
IMO
TOP
|uTE
NOTES
1. For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and it width of opening
is 4 ft 0 in. ro 5 ft 6 in., use double siil Dlatesand double
tull-lengthwall studs.
2- For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and if width ot opening
is 6 ft 0 in. to I ft 0 in., use triple sill platesand triple fula
length wll studs3. For backfillheightsof 48 in- or less, nailingand fastening
can conformto the appropriatebuildingcode.
4. For backfill heights greater than 4 ft 6 in. or openings
wider than 9 ft 0 in., contactengineerfor design.
WINDOW
FRAMING
WOOD
PUTES
ruo
BEARING
SHEAR
|uE
BARING
TOP
fuE
BEARING
WALL
SruDS
INTERIOR BEARING
JOIST SUPPORT
PAR,ALLEL
JOIST
OETAIL
'
w@D
BLOCKING
BEruEEN
EACH
FL@R
JOIST
STEEL
FRAMING
ANCHOR.
SHEAR
PERPENDICULAR
SPLICE
(2X4X24.MtN.)
BARING
(::s
fuTE
FOOTING
DETATL
TREAED
SHUTHING
MID-HEIGHT
ALOCKING
/BaRNG
PLW@D
fuTE
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP fuTE

2X TRAED
TOP fuTE
2X STUD
@NSTRUCTION
2X CRIPPLE
STUDS (2 MtN.)
BONOM
PUTE
FOOTING PUTE
-2X4JOIST
SUPrcRT
SECURELY
NAILED TO
ACH
SIDE OF
BEARING WALL
SPANNING
BEAM
, --8HF[
-
BACKF|LL
.
,
ffiNOED
SPANNING
BEAM
WALL
BARING
W&L
TOP |uTE
Y'
SUPPOffi
FRAME
MAOE
f OF 2X MEMBERS
\mH
PUTE
BEARTNG
J-, BOnOM
ON MNOEO
FOONNG
FRAME
, fuTE;
SHAHED
(^tOT SHOWN)
rN PLW@D
STEPPED
ONE
PUTE
fuTE
oF GRAWL
BACkFII
-LtNe
-'a
NAILS
PUTE
F@NNG
BONOM
WALL
1 6d TOE
ryPICAL
2X SruO
CONSMUCNON
BONOM
TOP
FLruOOD
SHEAftING
BOG
SIDES
WALL_FLOOR
BEARING WIL
CAP PUTE
PLWMD
TOP PUTE
TOP PUTE
PER
GYPSUM
BOARD
FINISH
(omroNAL)
WAI
DETAIL
REATED
SHAfrING
2X FIELD-APPLIED
2X TRATEO
UYER
NOTE
Interior shear wall malerial does not need to be treated
with wood preservatives.
TED
RIMMER
3' NAILS
aT 12. O.C.
A]
2X WC)OD
SruDS
COLUMN
WOOD
INTERIOR
SHEAR
>
BEARING
PAD
(G
CONCRETE)
FOOTING
fuTE
DETAIL
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

American Forest & Paper Ass@iation: Washrngton, D C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
.JOIST
END.NAILING
JOIST
TOENAILING
CAP
INTERIOR BEARING WALL-FLOOR

JOIST SUPPORT (ALTERNATIVES)
JOTST
I)ETAIL
SHEAR WALL ANCHORAGE

SHEAR \/VALLS AS RACKING
RESISTANCE
Foundation
wallsmaybe subjectto rackingloads,which
occur parallel to a wall and can cause shearing forces along
the plane of the wall. Racking loads are caused by soil pres:
sure and other lateral forces such as earthquake and wind.
Walls. connections. and tasteners must be desioned to
resist these torces. Generally, soil pressure comes i-ntoplay
for backfill greater than 24 in. in height: check anticipated
wind and earthquake forces to determine how best to
accommodate them.
Check long shear walls or those with a length-tewidth ratjo
greater than 2:1 for diaphragm detlection, particularly if the
structure is built on a slope. The unequal heights of the
backfill on a slope apply unequal loads to the end walls or
walls parallel to the tloor joist system. These walls. having
received these loads by the diaphragm action of the floor
system, then act as shear walls. Internal shear walls,
accommodated
within interior partitions, also may be
neded.
PUE
I he strength of a draphragm or shear wall depends on care

ful nailing ol the plywrcd to the structural members. ply
wood ioints should be staggered to increase stiffness.
FromingDetoilsfor Openings
TOP
gZ7
PLATE
USE
SINGLE
HEAOER
ALONG
SIDE
WOOO
JOIST
FOR
FULL
=FRAMING
LAMINATED
wooo
OOU BLE
H EADER
2-2"X4"ON
EDGE EXCEPT
FOR OPENINGS
ovER
3'- O";
usE
2- 2" X 6"
JolsT
0
0
NOTE,
OOUBLE
TRII
ADEQUATE
BI
LARGER
THA
TOP
PLATE
-o
r
o
L AM I NATED
-:
o
DOOR
BOLTS
DOUBLE
AT
2'-O"
AT
EACH
STEEL
PLATE
FLITCH
O.C
END
OPENING
\^/INDO\^/
OPENING
NOTES
1. Steel lintels a.e selected lrom steel beam design tables on lhe basis of floor, wall, and roof openings.
2. Wood lintels over openings in bearing walls may be
engtneered as beams_
3. Composate beams, such as glued laminated beams,
also are approprrate in some applications. plywood
box beams are used lor garage doors. Steei llrrch
plates can add strength without adding extra width
to a composrte beam.
4. Check wirh local codes and staodards lor fire resis,
tance reeuirements.
LINTELS
FOR
\MIOE
OPENTNGS
TRIMMER
SMALL
rcUB
FLUSH
INTERIOR
OF
TOP
OPENING
HEADER
WITH
FACE
PLATE
OOU BLE
HEADER \
rcUBLE
HEAOER
(SECONO
HEAOER
SHOWN
CUT AWAY)
DOUBLE
\
\
TRIMMER
l*'."FA1oH'H,". -/
oF
JOIST
OOUBLE
TRIMMER
( SECOND
JOIST
TRIMMER
SHOWN
CUT
AWAY)
16 d aT
6"
STAGGERED
O-C
-
LARGE
ecate,
/?
HANGER
DOUBLE
TAIL
TOP
HEAOER
gST
STAIR
OPENING
AT
EXTERIOR
\^/ALL
JosephA. Wilkes,FAIA Wilkesand Fautknerj

Washington.
D.C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
328
FromingDetqilsfor Stoirs
SUBFLOORI
BEAM
OOUELE
(OOUALE
N G
TRIMMERI
TRTMMER
FINISHED
TREAO
HEAOER
DOUBLE
HEADER
JOIST
( DOUELE
BEAM
TRIMMER
}
CANTILEVEREO
LANDING
OOUALE
HEAOER
CONTINUOUS
KICKPLATE
DOUBLE
HEAOER
DOUBLE
JOIST
HANGER
FLOOR
CONTINUOUS
JOIST
STAIR
LEOGER
OETAILS
PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING
CARRIAGE
LBasEvENr
NOTES
I,
WALL
:
CARRIAGE
IS
FoR RrcrDrry. rr rs Nor
ORAWING
2
ABOVE
FOR
THE
FIRS|T
FLOG
BqrLT
gTatR.
THE
MENT
sratRs
aRE
STA.IR
FRAMING
TECOMMENDEO
sHowN
SAKE
OF
lru r-sE
FLAT
STEEL
PLATE
FLUSH
WTH
JOIST
ANO
ANCHOREO
TO
BLOCKING
ELOW
CLARTTY
STAIR
SHC'WS
A SHOPsEcoND
aNo
eadE--'
caRpENTEn-eurut.
DETAIL
TimothyB McDonald;Washington.D.C.
rA
v/
\
\
CENTER
ROUGHCARPENTRY
KICK
PLATE
ANCHORS
AT
END
OF
SOLID
RAIL
FromingDefqilsfor Roofs
HEAOER
RAFTER
OMMON
RIDGE BOARD
BEAM
COLLAR
OOUELE
RAFTER
TIE BEAMS
(SERVE AS
DOUBLE
CEILING
PLATE
GABLE
ROOF
JOISTS
GAMBREL
ROOF
HIP
ROOF
RAFTER
OOUBLE
MANSARO
SHED
ROOF
ROOF
FLAT
VALLEY
RIOGE
RAFTER
COMMON
ROOF
RAFTER
BOARD
RAFTER
COLLAR
OOUALE
GABLE
ROOF
BOARD
\^r'ITH OVERHANO
OOUBLE
HIP GABLE
ROOF
INTERSECTING
HEAOER
DOUBLE
RAFTER
ROOF
CEiLING
FIST
TRIMMER
RAFTER
RAFTER
OOUELE
VALLEY
RAFTER
SOLE
OOUBLE
HTAOEF
JACK
PLATE
SIOE STUD
DORMER
PLATE
HEADEF
SMALL
SHEO
DORMER
E|AY \^/INDO\^/
Timothy B. McDonald:Washington,D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
329
FromingDetoilsfor Rqttersond posts
330
HIP
RAFTER
T\
FIRST
RAFTER
OF PAIR NAILEO
WITH
TWO
NAIS
(IO d FOR
T' RIDGE
16d FoR
2"R|OGE)
JACK
RAFTER
FOUR
RAF
EACH
RAFTER
AFFOROS
MORE
RESIS_
TANCE
TER
JOIST
ATTIC
FLOOF
THREE
16 d
TOENAiLEO
OR
TWO
COLLAR
8d
NAILEO
EACH
AT
stoE
JACK
RAFTERS
NOTE:
d:
ROOF
PEAI<
AEVELEO
NOTCHED
PENNY
BEVELTO
TWO
t6d
TOENAILS
EACH
SIOE
RAFTERS
BACKOVER PLATE
RAFTER
NOTCHED
RAFTER \
PARTITION
PLATE
oNE
16 d
TOENAILID
TWO r6d
TOENAILEO
EACH SIOE
NOTCHEO
TAL
EACH
STRAP
PROVIDES
ADDITIONAL
SECURITY
AGAINST
UPLIFT- REFER
TO LOC)AL CODES
FOUR E d
RAFTERA
REeTIN
AND CEILINO !,OISTS

ON WALL PLATEE
FILLER
TWO
16 d
TOENAILEO
EACH
SIDE
AND
ONE
AT FRONT
ON
SIDE
16d 4"oc
aNo
OVER EACH
JOTST
NOTCHEO
OR BEVELEO
RESTING
ON PLATE
BRACINO OF ROOF
ARE AT RTANGLES
BLOCK
TWO-gd
TWO
16 d
16 d
IX4
oR
T\ ,!) NAIL-S
SUFFICIENT
MIN.
rr- wtoE
Rrsfr
16 GAUGE
STEEL
STRAP
BRACE
AT
45.
OR
PLYWOOD
PANELS
WILL
ALSO
SUFFICE
t6d
STAGGEREO
12 0.c.
r6d 12" o.c.

TO
SPACER
STUD
PLYW@D
S@FL@R
JOISTE
rN EACH
IF FULL
BEARING
r6d 12" o.c.

STAGGERED
ro d ToENAILEO
IOd
COFINER
POC'T
TOENAILED
SAME NAtUrc
ASSTUD
E
TOP
PLATE
JosephA. Wilkes. FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washingron,D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
ANO
BRACING
PARTITION
CONNECTION
TO
WALL
JOIST
STORY
ON
ffiE
OVE
RIBBON
PREFAB SKYLIGHT
UNIT FITS TO CURB
FLASHING
REQUIRED
SOLE
STUOA
TO HAVE
rc FILLER BLOq
RAFTERE
TO ..,OISTS
RAFTERE
THREE
rc
FILLER
ALOCK
FLOOR
CURB
FOR SKYLIGHT
t6d
FromingDefoilsfor Joistsond Sills

THREAD
ROD
WELDED
TO BEAM
2-8d
JOIST
331
IN EACH
PREDRILLED
AS EXTERIOR
SNE
SILL
TO
EQIJALIZE
SHRINKAG
LAPPEO
OVER
wooo
stLL
\^/OOD
JOI6T6
ON
ON
SUPPOR-TED
FLANGE
LOIdER
6TEEL
ON
\A/OOO
ON
BLOCKING
ANoLES
STEEL
G'IRC'ERS
TWO
to d
3-20 d
NEAR
EACH
JOIST/
JOIET
NOTCHEO
OVER
LEOGTR
STRIP
NOTCHING
OVER BEARING
NOT
RECOMMTNI)ED
\^/OOD
JOIETS
OVERLAPPING
JOIETE
NOTCHEO
OVER
oIROER
AEARING
ONLY
ON
LEOGER,
NOT
ON
TOP
OF
GIRDER
JOIST
IN
JOIST
HAN<'ER
IRON
ALSO
CALED
STIRRUP
qBRIOLE
IM
SUPPORTED
ON
WOOO
NOTCHEO
JOISTS
OVER GIROER
BEARING ONLY ON
NOT ON TOP
LEDGER.
OF GIRDER
GIROERS
2 - 16d
EACH
ruO
IOd EACH
ENO
d
dE
SIOE.
OTHERS
STAGGER
16"APART
TOENA|I-S
END
IO d TGNAIL
TO
rcST
EACH
SIOE
T\^/O
PIECE
GIRDER
GIRDER
JOINTS
ONLY
SUPPORTS
AT
STAGGER
JOINTS
THREE
PIECE
GIRDER
FOR FOUR PIECE GIRER
NAILS
STEeL
. ADO
SOME
TEETH.
NArLs
ERIDGING
HAVE
BUILT.
NEEDS
NO
t" x
IN
3'CROSS
AR|DG|NG
NOT
LOWER
ENOS
UNTIL
SUBFLOORING
tS
LAYEO
NAILEO
BRIOGINo
SOLIO
6EO
FOR
UNDER
PARTITIONS
HEAVY
LqOING
FOR
STAGGER
rcARDS
NAILING
EASE
OF
ANCrcR
3X6.4X6
S|LL
HALVEO AT CGNERS
GROUT
t/a"
t/2"
OIROER
SHRI NKAGE
SELECT
JOIST.GRDER
APPROXIMATE
SAME
SILL
DTAIL
USED
OETAIL
SHRINKAGE
),.
THAT
HAS
''A"
AS
THE
5ffi
ilb )N $&
4X6
DOUBLE SILL
ALONG
NAILS
STAGGERED
SILL
24'' ON CENTER
OU - AL.
METAL
CLIP
FRAMING
PLATFORM
FRAMING
TOENAIL
TO SILL
NOT
REOUIREO
IF OIAGONAL
SHEATHING
USEO
TY-OOWN
OEVICES
ANCHOR
TYPTS
ANCHOR
TRIP.
ZINC
L-
OF
SILL
BOLTS
GRIP
COATED
STEEL
JosephA, Wilkes, FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washington.D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
332
soue
FromingDetqilsfor Wollsond Ftoors

-..---i
PLATE
-STUO
---
-J
i=T'
-=f-
II
I BRIOGNG
II
I
I
PARTITIC,NS
BEARING
PERPENOIC)ULAR
INTERTOR
TO
JOI6T
PARTITIONS
PARALLEL
TO
--1
zt+
BLOCKING
aT t6'. oc.
PARTITION
PARTITIONE
ABOVE
NI<) PARTITIG)N
PERPENOICULAR
NONBEARINO
JOISTS
EALLOON
ANO
BRACEO
PARTITION
BEARTNG
_-PARTITIONS
l<n
NO
2r2i
INTERIOR
TO
BELOI'
JG)I,TS
NO
PARTITION
PARTITI<)NE
ABOVE
PARALLEL
NO
PARTITION
Tc|
JOI6TS
BETweEN
.
JOTSTS
t
E'ELO\'
PARTITIONg
\--
BLOCKING
5-2 r 4't
PLYWOOD
PLANS
OF
SHEATHNG
OUTEIOE
2 x .+ WALL
WALL
FINISH
CORNERS
PLANS
OF
INTEREECTING
PARTITIONE
FRAMINo
DOUBLE
J.OIST
t-,=,
,t'
"'1
Y*':>-,--:3iZ-,4
2 x Ct CORNER WALL rAaVnO
HEADER
20
d NAIL
TYPES
OF
CUTS
IN
BLOCKING,
SEE
NOTE
HEAOER
FOUNOATION
20
- '
'
i
!
,
NOTE:
lF SPACE
ABOVE
IS
TO
BE
HEATED.
INSULATE
BETWEEN
JOTSTS
aNo
PRovrDE
cuTs
IN
BLOCKING
AS
SHOWN
PERPENOICULAR
CERAMIC
TILE
FLOOR
John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA Washington D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
FLOOR
TO
JOI6T
CANTILEVERE
d NA|L
*aNY
ExTENstoN
GREATER
THAN 2'-O" MUST BE
ENGINEEREO
PARALLEL
TO
JOIsTE
FromingDeloils
2 X 6
2X
CRIPPLE
STUD
TRIMMER
2X3W@O .
BLGKING
STUD
KING SruD
NOTE
STUD
Providesmaximum nailingsur{aceon interiorand exterior

wails.
KING SruD
WALL-HEADER
2X6 BEARING
DETAIL
K'NG STUD
CRIPPLE
\ivALL_HEADER
2X4 BEARING
DETAIL
ruO
2X TOP |:uTES
STUD
GIPPLE
2X TOP fuTES
MO
SruD
2X HEADER
Z HADER
|uTE
FOR
IMERIOR
RrM/FrNrSH
NAIUNG g
MIMMER
2X BUILT-UP
2X BEARING
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
NOTCHED
RAKE
STUDS
(ALIGNED
STUDS
BELOW
CEILING
JOIST
END
T
,
I
RIMMER
SruD
STUD
HEADEF
TOP PLATE FRAMING

RAFER
2X
DOUBLE
HEADER WTH
%. SPACE ON
INTERIOR
WOOD
BLOCKING
FOR
AOOMONAL
NAILING
SURFACE
(omoNAL)
ruO
AT
DOUBLE 2X
HEAOER WITH
'4. PLruOOD
BETreN
FOR
SPACE
INSULATION
TRIMMER
OWR4P
WALLS
CRIPPLE
STUDS
CONTINUE
COMMON
WALL
STUD
SPACING
HEADERS
W@D
PUTES
2X TOP
L@KING
CORNER
TOGETHER
NO2X4
TOP
PGTES
ruo2xeroP|,uTES---
KING SruD
DETAIL
vt/ALL_HEADER
2X BEARING
MO2X4TOPPUTES
UNreRRUffiD
THROUGH OPENING
CRIPPLE
2X TOP PUTES
DETAIL
RAKE WALL
FRAMING
DETAIL_PLATFORM
RAKE WALL
FRAMING
DETAIL-BALLOON
CONTINUE
@MMON
WALL STUD
SPAONG
2X CRIPPLE
NOTCHED
STUD
FOR
BEADER
INSUUTON
%. MIN. CDX
PLWOOD
ANO
GLUED
TO
NAILED
ONE
OR
BOTH
SIDES
FMMING
OF
INTERIOR
SIDE
-__>
HEADER
oF
FASTENERS.
STAGGERED
2X
HEADER
'/2.
2X HEADER
NOTE
TRIMMER SruD
KING SruD
2X BEARING
ruO
Interior plywood
gypsum brd.
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
2X TOP PSES
CRIPPLE
CONTINUE
coMMoN
fac must be sm@th
for finishing with
2X4 BEARING WALL-OPEN

BOX
PLYVVOOD_HEADER
DETAIL
MO2X4TOPluTES
STUDS
ruo
2 x 10
HADERS
WN
12. tuW@D
./
STUD
SPACING
MO
FUT
HEADERS
PROVIDE
2X
f
I
2X4
SABBED
TO BOfrOM
NAILTNG
SURFACE
trOR
FRAME
ANO TRIM
TRIMMER STUD
KING SruD
TRIMMER
NOTE
STUD
This detail eliminates cripple studs above opening.
KING STUO
2X PARTITION
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
2X BEARING
WALL-HEADER
DETAIL
GREEK RETURN
Maryland
BichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
ROUGHCARPENTRY
333
334
FromingDetoils
UPPER
FLMR
WALL
STUDS
ALIGNED
ERTIALLY
WITH
FL@R
JOISTS
AND
LOWER
FL@R
STUDS
AELOW
MID-HEIGHT
BL@KING
STIFFNESS
FOR
1 X BAND
JOIST
METAL
BACK.UP
CLIPS
FOR
GYPSUM
BOARD
2X SINGLE
TOP PUTE
\-
o"o
COMMON
STUDS IN
SILL
"too
BLOCKING
FOR
WNDOWS
CONTINUOUS
SOLE PGTE
AELOW
.41
ll
L-.]-l-'-\
.,/l\
SECoNDARY
INTERSECTING
WALL
| ;;'"
INTERSECTING
WALI-S
\^/ITH
GYPSUM
E]OARO
CT-|PS
STRAP
ROOF
//-
SHEATHING
NAILING
!eEEEi,"."
_
)
IF WND LOADS
ryCESSI
] ^-"^
UPLIFT
2X4's;AT
2'{' O.C.
OR2X6'5AT
-'.<
\-*am.*
RIDGE
'
,.' \,-V
RIDGE
BAM/BOARD
]
I
I
FMETAL
CEILING
JOIST
STUDS
ND
JOISTS
EIGNED
SINGLE
TOP
fuTE
COMMON
SruDS IN
OPEN-BOX
HUDER:
1/2' AC
ruw@D
GLUED AND
UP SfuICE TOP
IuTE
TO RESIST
TENSION AND
'COMPRESSION
OruNAL
EXTERIOR
PLWOOD
mB)
ROOF
CONTINUOUS
NAILED ON
INERIOR
AELOW
END
SruD
SECONDARY
OF
WINrcW
OPENING
ALIGNS WtrH 24' siruD
SPACING
SECONDARY
INERSEMNG
MIMMER
INTERSECTING
E}LOCKING
\NALL.S
DIAPHRAGM
METAL
HOLD.DOWN
CONNECTOR
'
t
7
z.
WIDE
OPENING
(MAY BE
TRIM JOIST
1X W@D
MATERTAL
W|TH tN-LtNE
FRAMTNG;
MAY BE ELIMINAFD
IF BLOCKING
IS USED)
z
FL@R
RIM
RIM
ANCHOR SRf
NAILED
IO PRESSURE.NEATED
SILL PUTE
SILL
PLATE
AND
RtM
JOTST
NOTES
1. Some framing details rely on technaques that reduce the
amount of lumber in wood construction. Amonq these
are In-line framing detarls and corner details witi metal
f.aming clips for gypsum board. These tyoes of details
were developed to conserye wood resources. reduce
matenal cost and iob site waste, and enhance energy
etficiency by reducing thermal bridging across wall syi'tems and ancreasinginsulation cavities. When wmd levels are to be reduced, a structural engineer should first
be consulted.
CORNER
BLOCKING
INSULATED
WALL
DETAIL
DETAILS
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland
ROUGHCARPENTRY
2. Gypsum board installed at inside corners with metal clios

or wood backers does not get fastened to either. The
sheet resting against the backer or clips is installed first
so the second sheet {which is nailed to the stud) will lock
the first sheet in place. The "floating joint,' that results is
recommended to reduce cracks in the corner.
REDUCED WOOD
FRAMING
FLOOR.TO
METAL
TIE
FLOOR
JOIST
SILL PUTE
MAY BE
ELIMINATED
IF
FOUNDATON
IS LEWL
AND
AURATE
REDUCED
DETAII-.S
JOIST
THREADED
ROD
FROM
TOP
TO BONOM
HOLD
DOWNS
JOIST
NAIL ANCHOR
STRAPS
DIRECLY
TO
EACH
FLOOR
JOIST
WALL
CORNER
WITH
METAL
GYPSUM
E}OARD
CLIPS
WOOD MEMBER
FOR HOLD.DOWN
cnryo 2x oR 4X.
NAILING
AS
REOUIRED
TO
RESIST
SHEAR
OR INTERNAL
STUD
\NITH
WITH
PERIMETER
DETAILS
TIES
EIETWEEN
NAL JOISTS (OR BLOCKING)

TO TOP PUTES
TO AVOID
UTERAL
DISPLACEMENT
FLOORS
NOTE
It is essential to provide a continuous path of resistance
trom r@t to foundation in order to drssipate both lateral and
uplift forces. Conneclions along this load path will guarantee unrnterrupted resistance. Seismic and wind torces are
transferred from the r@f diaphragm to shear walls and
through the walls into the ground at the foundation. Shear
walls resist horizontal forces in the roof and floor diaphragms and so must be connected to them. lt is imoonant
to apply wall sheathing to the full walt herght nartrng rt to
the top plate, blocking, or rim loist and also to the mud sill
or bottom plate. Shear wall heighvwidth
ratios are an
rmportant consideration; consult a structural eneineer for
their design. The details illustrated show several c-onnectron
paths; for each specific design, a structural engineer familiar with seismic and wind resistant construction should be
consulted. Many of the requirements for high wind situations apply to seismic loading as well, except in shear wall
desrgn.
Ties between floors: Wood members (sluds) must be sized
tor the load{arrying capacity at the critical net section.
WIND AND SEISMIC CONNECTOR

FRAMING
Eoves,Overhongs,ond Foundotions
SHINGLES
,z AAFFLE
'
FUSHING
./
BUILDING
VENTED
AIRSPACE
AND
OF FASCIA
ROOFING
AND
AT RAKE
WITHOUT OVERHANG
\
SHEATHING
RAtrERS
SHEATHING
BLOCKING
OR
DRILLED
AND
NOTCHEO
WITH
COVERED
LINE
PAPER\
335
ROOFING
BAFFLE
FUSHING
RAtrER
FUSHING
RETARDER
INSUUTION
wooD
TRIM
BLOCKING
VENTED
AIRSPACE
END RAfrER
(SUPPORTED BY
BEAMS, OUTRIGGERS
CONTINUOUS
VENTED
AIRSPACE
VENT
NAILER,
NOTCHED
OR
DRTLLED
OR BRACKilS)
SHEATHING
SIOING
stDtNG,-\i\
INSUUTION
BUILDING
SHEATHING
I N T E R I O RF I N S H
PAPER
BLOCKING
SHED
WALL
ROOF / PEAK
INTERSECTION
RAKE OVERHANG
VENTEO EAVE
AND
RIOGE BOARD ' NOTCHED OR

DRILLED FOR CROSS
VENTIUTION
m".|.v-v-l
CEILING
ROOFING
BUILT'UP
WITH GRAVEL TOPPING
WOOD SHAKES
VENTED
ROOF
VENTED SOFFIT
EXPOSED RAFTERS
EOGE
EAVE AND OVERHANG
SECTIONS
N OTE
MflAL
SHIELO
(OPTIONAL)
Concrete unit masonry walls vary widely. Check local codes.

RIM JOIST
FRONT VIEW
OF BLOCKING
SHOWING NOTCHED
(OR DRILLED) VENT
FINISH
FLOOR
SUBFLOOR
SILL
BUILDING
PAPER
BLOCKING
OR RIM JOIS
PRESSURE
TREATED SILL
JOIST
VENTED
AIRSPACE
ANCHOR
SILL
RIGID INSULATION
TO FOOTING
SEAL
ANCHOR
BOLT
IN CONCRETE
FILLEO VOID
BOLT
CONCRETE
MASONRY
CONCRETE
SKIM COAT
SET
UNIT
FURRING
TREATED)
RffARDER
DAMPPROOFING
RIGID
INSUUTION
DAMPPROOFING
STEPPED DETAIUCRAWL
FOUNOATION
WALL
SPACE
TYPICAL
OETAIIJFINISHED
BASEMENT
BRICK VENEERryENTED CRAWL SPACE

OR UNFINISHED BASEMENT (UNHEATEO)
SECTIONS
Ted Cameron, AIA; The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington
ROUGHCARPENTRY
336
HistoricEqvesond Overhongs
An e_avets lhe iower edge ol a slopl
#|;-;a]ie"i.,,:'-";i?f$:
fifl Its::ril#t,tl*t"fu
1:nh
=*;?:
:#rilili::.i:Jfii::ii
"::t
DRILLED VENT
HOLES IN EAVE
WITH INSERT
the water away from the wall (and I
protect the wall below from precipitation

Ov
ROOF
SLOPE
BUILDING
PAPER
ON SHEATHING
METAL
wooo
tf,io*lno
"if,",
SOLDEREO
METAL OR
MEMBRANE
FUSHING
TO
FORM VALLEY
WATERPROOFING
> 3: I2.
< 3: I2,
SHINGLES
ROLL OR MEMARAN
ROOFING
FUSHING
FASCtA
wooo LooKouT
CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT
WOOD TRIM
METAL DOWNSPOUT
EXPOSED
RAFTER
END
WOOD SHINGLES
OR SHAKES
ON BUILDING
PAPERSHEATHING
REVERSE
SLOPE
OVENrrIrug
WOOD SHAKES
OR SHINGLES
oN BUILDING PAPER SHEATHING
RAFTER
RAtrER
FUSHING
CEILING
JOIST
M ETAL
FLASHING
SOLDERED
COPPER.LINED
OOWNSPOUT
wooD
GUNER BOX
WOOD TRIM
WOOO FASCIA
CONTiNUOUS
SCREEN VENT
wooo
TRIM
WOOD SIDING
BUILOING
PAPER
ON SHEATHING
EAVE AT \/VOOD SIDING
WOOD LOOKOUT
(SEE DETAIL
AT RIGHT}
CONTINUOUS
SCREEN VENT
WOOD SIDING
BUILDING PAPER
ON SHEATHING
EAVE WITH
BUILT-IN
GUTTER
CORNICE
SUPPORT
RANER
WOOD SHAKES, SUTE
OR SHINGLES ON
BUILDING
SHEATHING
WOOD STRUT
SILL PUTE WITH

ANCHOR BOLTS Sff
IN CONCRffE-FILLED
VOID
WOOO
BLOCKING
AT 16'
FUSHING
a
LoNG WOOO
BLOCKING AT
WOOD
SIOING
ON
CONTINUOUS
SCREEN VENT
EAVE AT BRICK VENEER
Richa.d J. Vituilo. AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.

Marytand
ROUGHCARPENIRY
PROJECTED
EAVE \^r'ITH SHALLOW
SLOPE
MANSARD
ROOF
DETAIL
HolfTimber
BUILDING
ON
wooD
WEEP HOLES
(2 PER INFILL
PANEL)
TRIM
DOUBLE
END RANER
wooD
TIMBER
SHELF
PAPER
ROOF
SUTE
METAL
FUSHING
337
wooD
TIMBER
ANGLE
BRICK
SEAUNT
GABLE
EDGE DETAIL
CUSTOM WOOD
WINOOW FRAME
MflAL
WINOOW
VERTICAL
TIMBER
wooD
BRACKET
wooo
FASCIA
METAL
CASEMENT
TIMBER
wNoow
GENERAL
ln the 16th and 17th centurieshalf timber structureswsre
built with strong timbsr foundations,supports.and studs.
The spaes between the framework were filled in wilh
either stone. brick, plaster. or boarding laid horizontally.
Today the primary struclure is wood stud or masonry
backup, and the half timber construction is attached as
veneer. Half timber is an inhrentlyleakytype of wll @nstruction in which the timbers are subject to premature
oecav.
METAL
FLASHING
MffAL
FUSHING
WEEP
HOLE
wooD
TIMBER
BUILDING
PAPER ON
SHEATHING
NOTE
Shown are some of many brick intill paneldesigntypes.
ELEVATION - BRICK AND TIMBER
DETAIL
CUSTOM
wooo stLL
wooo
TIMBE
BUILOING
PAPER
ON SHEATHING
ANGLE
BRICK
WINDOV\/SILL
CANTILEVE
DETAIL
FLOOR
JOIST
wooo
STUCCO
UTH
ARACKfl
wooD
TIMBER
ROUGH.FACED
FALSE TIMBER
AUILDING
PAPER ON
SHEATHING
FALSE TIMBER
DETAIL
TIMBER SHELF DETAIL

SUTE
STUCCO
BRACKET
BRICK
N OTE
To preserye historical character of hall-timber construction
a ridge vent is recommended for attic venting.
ELEVATION
- STUCCO
AND TIMBER
ROOF
BUILDING
PAPER ON SHEATHING
wooo
BRACKET
FASTENEO
TO WOOD
STUD -
srucco
-/
BRICK
VENEER ---
OVERHANG
DETAIL
OOUBLE.ENO
BARGEBOARD
DETAIL
RichardJ. Vtullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland
ROUGHCARPENTRY
338
PollodionWindowond Doorwoy
FLASHING
WOOD
HALF
CIRCLE
TRIM
FAN
BLOCKING
ENTABUTURE
HALF.CIRCLE
OR WINDOW
FAN
BUILDING
PAPER
ON SHEATHING
\
FUSHING
ALTERNATE
ELEVATION
CIRCLE WINDOW
- HALF-
F
I
I
I
=
o
o
z
t
F
I!
ENTABLATURE
SECTION
TRANSOM
WINDOW
v\/INDOW
ELEVATION - PALLAOIAN
AND DOORWAY
WTNDOW
Richard J. Vituilo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
ROUGHCARPENTRY
PLAN
SIDELIGHT AND ENTRANCE

PLAN
DOOR
VERTICAL
SECTION
SlructurolBuildingPonels
RIGID FOAM
INSUUTION,
2X STUD
- ----
8'-O"
-PLW@D
OR
ORIEMEDSMAND
(OSB)
BOARD
MAX.,
FIELD'ORILLED
HOLE
IN
PUTE
RP
-*:--
339
=-*ratuRAL
STRUCTURAL
EUILDING
PANEL.
4 0'xa-o"
BUTLDTNG
PANEL
swtTcH
WIRE
CHASE--R@F RAFERS
(oR RmF
MUSSES)
FACTORY
ffiOVIDED
ELECTRICAL
CHASE
OU[ET
WIRE
CHASE.
BASEBOARO
WRE
CHASE
APUIED
OVER
WALL
FINISH
2X SruDS
NOTE
Consult local codes for all electrical installations
ROOF FRAMING WITH RAFTERS AND

TRUSSES
STRUCruRAL
BUILDING
RIreE
-
PANEL
/
BEAM
INTERMEDIATE
MAY BE
BEAM
NEEDED
PANEL
BELOW
REINFORCED
FOR
RIreE
BAM
LOAD
PLWMD
OR
OSB
SfuINES
TYPICAL
PANELS
WIRE CHASE
SPECIAL
NONSTRUCTUUL
HEADER
SEOION
MAY
FOR
NEEDEO
CERTAIN
UNSUPPORTED
SPANS
(NOT
FOR
APPLIED
LOADS)
LOCATIONS
IN
BE
2X TOP
SPLINE
2X
NAILERS.
MA
fuE
ZBONOM
ROOF FRAMING
vt/ITH RIDGE BEAM
PNEL-TO-PNEL
FASENERS
TYPICAL
\,vINDO\iv
DETAILS
2X TOP |uTE
SGEW
24'O-C-
2X
wooD
SPLINE
N OTE
Studs and splines are screwed (and usually glued) to panels
from both sides. Consult mnufacturer's
specifitions.
Joints are typically sealed with expanding foam.
TYPICAL INTERMEDIATE
SPLINE DETAILS
PANEL
aT
6'
2X BONOM
O.C.
TYPICAL
CORNER
DETAIL
GENERAL
Structuralbuildingpanelsare factoryssembledcomposite
panelsreadyfor installationas a completestructuraland/or
insulatingwall section.The materialof each componentof
the panel system is very importantwhen selectinga panel
manulacturer. Components include the skin, foam core,
adhesive,and optionalexterior or intoriortinish. The application for which the panelis intendeddeterminesthe mta
rials used. Consultmanutacturerstor sosifitions.
Sizesvary from 4 by I ft panlsweighingabout 100 lb to I
by 28 ft panelsthat must be installedusinga crane.
PANEL
TYPES
There are two main types of structural building paneF

stresgskin panelsand loam core panls:
STRESS-SKIN
PANELSare manufacturedby gluingand nailing plywood skins to both sides of a wood frare, resulting
in a unit that performslike an l5eam. Stress-skinpanelsare
not necessarilyinsulated.
STRUCTURALFOAM CORE PANELSfall into two groups:
sndwich panelsand unfacedpanels.Sandwichpanelsare
rigid-foam panels faced with two structural{rade skins,
usually made of oriented-strandboard (OSB)or plyw@d.
Dependingon the applicationand the manufacturer,these
loam core panelsmay or may not includeframingmembers
within the core. Unfacedstructuralfoam core panels l@k
like panels oI stick-framingwith rigid toam between the
members insteadof tiberglassbatt insulation.Interiorand
exteriortinishesare appliedto these parels in the tield.
The skins of structuralbuildingpanels(like l6eam fhnges)
resist tension and compression,while the w@d frame or
core (like an l$eam web) resists shearand preventsbucklingof the skins.
BUILDING
STRUflRA
PANEL
PANEL-TO.
SfuINE NAL
.FASENERS
All structuralfoam core oanelsare insulatedwith a core of

expandedpolystyrene(EPS),extruded polystyrene,or urethane fm, Irom 31/,to 11]L in. thick. Urethanepanelsare
either glw]aminated like polystyreneor toamed in place
(either in the factory or in the field). Urethane has an Rvalueof 6 or 7 per inch versus R-5for extrudedpolystyrene
and R4 for EPSfoam. Urethaneis about twice as strong in
compressionas polystyrenand has a Frm rating of less
than one, which technicallyqualifies it as a vapor barrier.
EPS has a pem rating ol from 1 to 3 and may require a
vaporbarier. EPS.howev6r,is inert, nontoxic(if ingested),
and resilint;it d@sn't teed micrmrganismsand is gnerally cheaperthan urethane.Consultmanufacturerson CFC
and formaldehydemntent in the foam core and skin mate
rial as it variesamong manulacturers.Regardingflammability of both f@m core types, consult with the manufacturer
aboutthe individualproduct.
TYPICAL REINFORCED
DETAIL
|uE
DOOR OPENING
CHARACTERISTICS
Using structuralbuildingpanels generallyenhancesthe
speed of constructionbecausethe panelsreplacethree dif
ferent steps in standardconstruction:traming, sheathing.
and insulation.Panelsystems offer superiorenergy performancecomparedto a stick-framehouse of similarcost and
standardof construction.This is largelybeuse the rigid
insulationhas higher R-values,there are {ewer seams to
seal. and conductivheal is not lost through air infiltration
around the framing. Structural building pamls also offer
g@d resistanceto laterallGds.
Panelscan be susceptibleto infostationby insectssuch as
carpenterants and temites, lvhich at thrdugh wood and
tunnel through the foam core material.reducinginsulation
value and even compromisingstructural integrity. Use of
termite shields,foam mres treated with insect repellent,
and other strategiesshouldbe considered.
NOTES
APPLICATIONS
In abovegrade applications,the most common materials
Ior exteriorfacingsare plywood OSB or finish materialslike
TJ11 plywood. tongue-and{roove pine, and other wood
siding material. For below{rade situations, pressuretreated plywood skins and splines are used. Generally,
structuralbuildingpanelsshould not be used for plumbing
walls, as the spacesneeded{or plumbingruns would compromisethe insulationand structuralintegrityof the panel.
For roof aoolicationsit is best to use a vented structural
foam panel, either integralor fiel+installed. Many asphaltshingle manufacturerswill not warrant lheir product v\hen
it is installedon unventedpanelsbecauseof overheating,
which acceleratesdeterioration.
1. Sincestructuralbuildingpanelsare a relativelynew building system. code officialsshould be consultedearly and

often to preventany misunderstandingsor delaysin the
code approvalprocess.Also. check with manufacturers
to determinewhether their product has receivedcomplts
with BOCA,lcBo, SBcCl,or HUD.
anceaporoval
2. The seams are the part of a structuralbuildingpanel system most orone to infiltrationand weakness and most
likely to show the results ot expansionand contraction.
Tight spline connectionswith sealant at all edges-top,
bottom, and sides{an greatly increase thermal efficiencv.
RichardJ. Vituilo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland
PANELS
STRUCTURAL
340
StructurqlBuildingponels
SCREW
FASTENERS.
SEE
MANUFACTURER'S
SPECIFICATIONS
FASTENER
SEE
MANUFACTURER
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR
SPACING
SCREW
trASTENERS.
MANUFACTURER'S
ROOF
(OR
TRUSS)
STRUCTURAL
BUILDlNG
PANEL
RIDGE
---_1
wooD
tNtEnron rtrursr
FACTORY
OR
FIELD
APPLIED
ROOF EAVE DETAIL

CEILING
WITH
AT 6' O.C
PANEL
PIATE
PANEL
/
soFFrr
MATERTaL--
ROOF EAVE DETATL WITH

CEILING
1&
NAILS
THROUGH
BONOM
PUTE
INTO
PUTE
AS REOUIRED
& NAILS
aT 6. O.C.
EACH SIDE
THROUGH
PANEL INTO
FASCIA
BOARDS
FINISH
8d NAILS
THROUGH
INTO TOP
VENT
VENT
SLOTS
CUT
INTO
ROOF
PANELS
AND
TOP
SHEATHING
Fc)R
STRUCTIJRAL
SUILDING
PANEL
(FOR
CEILINGS)
!-
SEE
SPECIFICATIONS
ad NA|LS Al 6' O.C

EACH
SIDE
THROUGH
PANEL
tNTo
EreE
SPLINE
_
STRUCTURAL
SLOPED
BUTLDING
PANEL AT RIDGE CONNECTION

-
PANEL
1fu NAILS THROUGH

BONOM
PUTE
AND
SUBFLOOR IMO TOP
FUE
OF PANEL BELOW
SILL
8d NAILS
AT 6' O.C.
EACH
SIDE GROUGH
PANEL
IMO
PUTE
SCREW
FASTENTRS.
MANUFACTURER'S
SPECIFICATIONS-_
SEE
SUBFLOOR,
ENENDED
TO
OUTSIDE OF
WALL PANEL
UPPER
FLOOR
JOIST
Ad NAILS AT
6'O.C. ACH
SIDE GROUGH
PANEL IMO
PUTE, WP,
JOIST HANGER
WIH NAIUBLE
TOP FUNGE
CONTINUOUS
.-
SPACER
BOARD
WHERE
REQUIRED
FOR
STANDARD
A'-O'
GYPS;UM
BOARD
APPLICATION
FLMR
PANEL
DETAIL AT ROOF
JOIST
STRUCruRAL
BUILDING
PANEL
(FOR
ROOF)
PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR

CONNECTION \MITH FLOOR JOIST
BETWEEN
STRUCTURAL
BU|LD|NG
=.-WALL
FIN|SH
TINTERIOR
UPPER
PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR

CONNECTION
\^/ITH FLOC)R Jc)IST
ADJACENT
PANEL
SFUCTURAL
4
INTERIOR
j-
exrenroc
AUILDING
WALL
PANEL
r
F\-!
|
FINISH
FINISH
FLOOR
OVER
SUBFLOOR
4'.'MA..
GABLE
PANEL
INSUUTION
FLOOR
IST
RIM
JOIST
RIM
FL@R
JOIST
JOIST
8d NAILS
aT 6" O.C
EACH
END
TBRoUGH
PANEL
INTO TOP
I
]
i
srorNe
WP
END OVERHANG
DETAIL
AT ROOF
STRUCTURAL
EUILDING
PANEL
1fu NAILS
REQUIRED
AS
BY
Ad NAILS
aT 6'OC.
EACH
SIDE
THROUGH
PANEL
INTO
BOTOM
PLATE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED
SILL fuTI
WIH
ANCHOR
BOLTS
AT
a '
o.c.
MAX.
TREATED
TERM[E
Richard J. Vitutlo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville, Marvland
STRUCTURAL
PANELS
2X
W|TH
PLATE
CONCRETE
-.'--
P4ltEL AT StLL CONNECTTON

FLOOR JOIST ADJACENT
SILL
SHIELD
Check perm rating of foam core insulationto determine

whetheradditionalvapor barrieris required.Consultlocal
codes.
P^ryEL AT StLL WITH FLOOR JOrST
BELOW CONNECTION
CODE
PANEL
4"
GRAVEL
AT SILL ON SLAB-ON-GRADE
Plonkond BeqmConsfruclion
34r
S I M P L E F R A M T N G :T h i s i i l u s t r a r o ns h o w st h e
"positive" or downward bending that occurs
in
conventionallramingwith simplespans.
CANTILEVERED FRAMTNG:This iilustration

shows_
the combintionof ,,positive.'(downward)
and "negative" (upward) bending that mcuri
with beams spliced at quarterpoint producino
supported beam and cantilevered beam. The two
typs of bending counterbatance ercn ottrerl
which_ produces more uniform strsses and ure;
material.more efficiently. In-line joists simplify
Plywood subfloorino-
MOMENT SPLICE:CompressionstressrstakenIn bearIng on the wood througha steelcompresionplate.Tensron ts taken across.thesplice by meansof iteel straps
and sheerptates,Sideplatesand strapsare usd to hoid
sidesand tops of membersin position. Shearis taken
by shearplatesin end grain. Bolts and shearplatesare
usd asdesignand constructionconsiderations
reauire.
SIMPLE
aNo
caI.IT]IEVERED-RA;]FE
GROOVEO
PLANK
MOLOEO
SPLINE
JOINT TYPES
CEILINGS
OEAIGN
TAELE
REQ-UIRED
VALUES
IN EXPOSED
FOR
20. 30, oR 40 Le/se
FOR
PLANK
NOMINAL
FIBE
2 IN. PLANK
gTRESS
IN
BENOING
FT wrTHrN a oeauidiioii
TYPE
(t)
LlJ,ior
ANO
ro suPPoRT saFELY a LrvE Loao oF
roN %?"Yrtt"."".oi556.=5!"'I:A:l
TYPE
TYPE
n?a
SPAN
(FT)
LIVE
LOAO
(PSF )
40
30
4O
20
30
4O
ffi
ffi
)#+
Ft{l =
U:
JJ
L
U
THREE
t
IPSI)
E
(PSI}
2/24o
2/3oo
t /360
360
360
360
576,000
720,@O
864,0m
t/24o
t/300
t/36o
480
480
rt80
l/z4o
f /3oo
.t / 360
6m
{PSI)
E
(PSI)
t
(PSI)
TYPE
COMBINATION
SPAN
E
PS I)
{PSII
SINGLE
(PSI)
ffi
(PSI)
(PSI)
360
360
239,000
299,000
3s9.000
288
288
288
30s,000
381,000
457,000
360
360
360
408,000
509,000
611,000
360
360
360
M2,O@
5s3,000
664.000
864,000
1,080,000
1,296,000
480
480
480
359,000
448,0m
538.0@
384
384
384
457,000
571,000
685,@0
480
480
480
611,000
764,000
917.0@
480
480
480
664,0@
829,0@
995,000
6@
6@
1,152,ffi
1,440,m0
r,728,W
6m
60Q
6m
478,0@
598,0m
717,O@
,180
480
480
609.000
762,@0
914,m0
6m
600
6m
815,000
1,019,0@
1,223,On
6m
600
6oo
885,000
r,106,000
1,327,000
//24o
t/too
t/360
490
rt90
490
915,000
1,r43,000
t,372,W
490
490
490
380,O00
475.0m
570.0m
392
392
392
484.@O
605,000
726,m0
490
490
490
047.000
809,0@
971.000
490
490
490
878,000
1,054,000
//24o
l/ 3oo
,f/ 360
653
653
6s3
1,372,W
1,71s.0@
2,058.0@
653
653
570,000
712,On
854,000
522
522
a2z
726,@0
907,000
1,088.000
653
653
653
971,000
1,213,0@
1,456.000
653
653
653
1,05i1,000
1,317,000
1,581,0@
l/240
| /3oo
f/ 360
817
417
817
1,829,0@
1,187,0@
2,744,W
817
817
817
759,0m
949,000
1,139.000
653
968,0o0
1,209,000
r,45r,000
817
817
817
1,294,O@
1,618.0m
1,941,000
417
417
817
't.405,000
1,756,000
2,107.0@
t/24O
.l/3oo
l/36c'
640
640
040
1.365,000
1,707,O@
2,048,m0
640
640
640
567,000
708.0@
850,0@
512
512
722,@0
903,000
1.083,000
640
640
&0
966,0@
t.208,000
1,rt49,000
640
6,40
640
1,049,000
r,311,000
r,573,0@
2/24o
t/ 3oo
t/36o
853
2,O48,W
2,560,0m
3,O72,W
85:l
853
853
850,0@
1,063,000
1,275,000
1,083,@0
1.345,000
1.625.000
853
o$
853
853
1,573,0@
1,966,000
2,359,000
f/24o
,/aoo
t/360
1,m7
1,067
1.m7
2,731,0@
3,413,0@
4,096.0@
'1,067
t,m7
r,067
1,449,0m
1,811,000
2,174,W
8s3
853
l, I 34,000
1,417,O@
1,700,0@
1,67
I,067
1.067
1,932,0@
?,145,000
2,898.0@
1,067
1.067
1,067
2,097,W
2,621,000
3,146.m0
JOU
ON
653
ocJ
clz
682
062
682
853
69J
853
1,t44.000
t,805,000
2,i66,000
qt?
)oz,ooo
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
Plonkqnd Beqm Froming
342
SPACE
E'EAM
AND
C;OLUMN
CONNECTION
WITH
BEAM
HANGER
SPACEO
BEAM
AT FC)UNDATION
SPACEO
BEAM BEARING
INTERIOR
COLUMN
ON
CONCEALEO
CONNECTTON
SPACED
BEAM BEARING
EXTERIOR
\^/ALL
AT
CORNER
CONNECTION
4Xe'PLYWOOO
SHEATHING
METAL
STRAP
(OPTIONAL
FOR
CONCEALEO
CONNECTION)
2X4
16"O.C
INSULA
so,-ro *ie
RAFTERS
NOTCHED
RIOGE
INTO
BE
ROOF
OECKING
BUILT. UP
INSULATEO
PANEL
2XB
RAFTER
4X4
RooF
POST
BEAM AT coLUMN
aNontocE
2 X rO'S
RAFTER
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
ANO PLATE
OETAIL
SPACED
COLUMN
ROOF
BEAM
AT EXTERIOR
TimberFromeConstruclion
343
COLLAR
TIE
ALIGNS
WTH
PURLIN
/-/---RooF
OUEEN
PRINC1PAL
CONNECTS
POST
CONNECTING
GIRTr
RAITR
TO PUE
COMMON
RA-ER
---\
PLATE
POST
GIRT
/
PRINCIPAL
PRINCIPAL
A.ND COMMON
RAFTER
(ON
\^/ITH
PURLINS
POST
PTATE)
OPEN
MORTISE
AND TENON
JOINT
COLUR
TIE
i.'...--COMMON
BENT
RAffER
GIRT
COLLAR
FLMR
IST
KNEE
BRACE
rcSTS
TIE
NEED
UNDER
ffiINCIPAL
rcST
WALL ruRLIN
SUMMER
BEAM
COMMON
FTAFTER
(ON
PT-ATE)
RIreEPOLE
RINCIPAL
RAffiR
CONNECTS TO
PRINOPAL POST
TIME]ER
...-2xesrLL
-\
TIMBER FRAME
FL@R
ryPE
(PREFERRED
FG
UPPER
FLOOR
DESS)
PRINCIPAL
BENT
GIRT
COMMON
PURLIN
SILL
RATER
JOINS
DIRECTLY
TO TOP
OF
POST
DTaGoNAL srRUT
2 X 12 SjLL CfO SUPrcRT
WALL SYSTEM)
POST
AS
BENT
615T
FOR
MASONRY FOUNDATTON WALL (MUST

BE DETAILED FOR HEAW POINT
LOADS FROM POSTS)
POCKS
FL(:m
JOIST
STANDARD 2X CONSMUCTION
FLOOR ryPE EREFER4}LE
FOR FIRST FLOOR DECK) --./
1A- DAMEER
CONCRETE
TYPICAL
TIMBER
FRAME
ANCHOR
FOUNDATION
(SHOMr'ING TWO ROOF AND FLOOR
BOLT
AT
6'O'O.C.
WALL
PRINCIPAL
TYPES)
TIMBER FRAME ROOF TYPES
One ot the reasons tirter frare @nstruction faded from

popularatyaround 1900.after enturies of dominance,was
the cost of its labor-intensive
buildingrethods. Duringthe
past twenty years, tecttniqueshave ben developedthat
oftset this drawback: the frame n be Drefabrited in
shops with heavy tools, and structural,insulatedwall panels can be used to build the walls. Connectiondetails in
true timber frame constructionare still r@ted in th ancient
wood-pegged,mortiseand-tenonjoint. More modernwood
connectorsof steel Gn be used. dependingon budgetand
aesthetacs,but many would say the resulting structure
would not be a true timberframe.
Typically,posts in timbeFframedbuildingsare spacedin a
grid, 8 to 16 ft apan. These relativelylarge posts suppon
beams, girts, connectors.plates, and principal rafters. In
turn, those members support rafters, purlins, summer
beams. and ioists, which are soaced at 2 to 6 tt centers.
The relativelylargetimbersmaketimber frame construction
inherentlylire resistant,qualifyingas ClasslV construction
under most buildingcodes.
The walls and r@l in a timber frame, freed of the task of
supportinggreat loads,can be made oI materialsthat need
to function only as a rain screen and cunain walls. These
materials are attachedto the outside of the lar@r. struc-
ROOF
tural members,enclosingthe spacewhile exposingthe timbers to the interior and protecting the frame from
deterioration.
Nonstructuralfoam-core panels with an exterior layer of
wood sheathing,a foam core, and an interiordrywallfinish
layer are extremely energy efficient and costffective for
6e in wall and root constructionin a timber frame. Sometimes it is preferableto use slructural loam{ore panels,
with oriented-strandboard {OSB)or plywood sheathingon
bo(h sides. as they bette. resist warping and lateralforces
and provide a better nailing surface for attaching interior
lrim. binets, anwork, etc. Thesestructuralpanelsare typicallyinstalledoutsidea layerof gypsum boardthat is backscrewed to the inner OSB skin.
ANATOMY
OF A
TIMBER
FRAME
BUILDING
In the design process. the general layout of timbers is
delerminedfirst, basedon the rough programand layouto{
spaces. Once the wood species has been selected,each
timberis sizedindividually.
Next,the connection
details,or
andfinishesaredesigned.
ioinery,andthe embellishments
A typical timber frame can be divided into four maior systems: walls, fl@rs, roof, and bents. Walls, in the terminology of timber framing.are planarcompositionsof timbers
parallelto the .idge. Bents run perpendicular
to the walls
and are often the primary preassembledsections of the
building.Usually.bents includthe principalstructuralposts
ot the frame and the major supportingra{ters.The space
between two bents is calleda bay and is generallybetween
10 and 16 ft wide. lf the roof structureis not includedin the
bent system, a large timber plate is set at the top of the
bent or wall for the roof framingto rest on.
BENT
WALL
CONNECTING
GIRT
PRINCIPAL
MA
GENERAL
Timber frame buildingsare characterizedby large.exposed
timber structuralmembers.The distinctionbetween timber
framing and other types ot heaw timber construction is
somewhat subjective.but in a true timber frame. the posts,
beams, and bracesare @nnectedto one anotherwith eleganl, largely all-woodioints based on very old traditions.
Soundtimber frare constructionrequireshigh standardsof
design,engineering,and workmaNhip. lt can be compared
to the craftsmanshipof binetmaking, ratherthan to conventionalwood frame @nstruction.
ilP.
LryP.
KNEE
BRACE
BENT METAL STRAP TO SECURE

NME]ER SILL
RAFTER
AND
rcST
PTJRLIN
SYSTEMS
More than any other factor. the arrangementof timbers in

the roof determineswhether the walls or the bents will be
the principalstructuralunit. Framesare often definedby the
type of r@f they suppon, since the roof is usuallythe most
difficultaspectof the frame to design,detail.and erect. The
choiceof roof system most appropriateto a particularbuild,
ing dependson the shapeand pitch of the roof, the loading.
w@d species,availabletimbr length, floor plan, and per
sonalaestheticpref6rnces.
NOTES
'1.
W@d shrinks@nsiderablyacrossthe grainbut very little
along the grain, and all dimensions based on sections
through plates and sills must accOuntfor this shrinkage.
Bents that connect principalrafters directly to the posts
and are not interruptedby plates will have negligibledjlferentialmovment btwen r@l and wall joints.
2, Timbersystems that rely on full.]engthplates,sills, ridgepoles, or tie beams tend to require timbers of consider,
able length, which are scarce. Therefore, these lonq
lengthsmust be assembledfrom shortermemberstreJ
together with scarf ioints. Since most sawmills cannot
obtaintimbers longerthan 30 ft, it is imponant to consult
with a structuralengineerand localsawmill to determine
the most practicaldimensionstor the timbers before the
designis completed.
3. Dependingon budgetor aestheticpriorities,hybridsystems can be devised, such as timber trame walls with
conventionalrool framingor convenlionalstud walls with
a timber frame roof. Consult a structuralenqineerabout
the design,detailing.
and Integration
of thes; systems
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland

Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PEj Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead. New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
TimberFromeConstruction
344
\\
,/
Trf
UPPEP
AEAM
BEAM
SUPPORTING
'\LUIRAL
AXIS SHII I5 BLLOW
CENTERLINE
BECAUSE
OF WOOD
REMOVAL
1.
CENTERLTNE
oF
BEAM
WOOD
'
HIGH
LOW
..-
KNEE
POST
SPLINE
SPL]NE
BRACE
CONNECTING
BENT
GIRT
POST
OR
TO
FOUR,WAY
SPLINE
JOINT
HARDWOOD
SPLINE
FLUSts
TO BONOM
OF BEAM
ro*t'a--o.oTENON
-
JOINT
FULLY HOUSED
TUSK ENON
FULLY
KNEE
HoUSED
soFFtr
rENoN
BEAM
_/
BRACE
TUSK
AND
SOFFIT
TENON
JOINTS
SINGLE
N OTE
PRINCIPAL
POST
TENON
LOCKS
MORTISE
AT
CORNERS
OF SILL
NOTE
For basic structural rigidity within a timber frame, the knee
brace is a critical component. lt is typilly used between
the upper ends of vertical posts and horizontal beams, but
may also be used at the base of a oost or to brace an
Inclined member, such as a rafter. Rigrdrty in a frame can be
achievd by using a few welltlaced long braces or several
shorter braces. Braces typically should not be shorter than
half the length of the beam-to$eam span of the post.
DOVETAIL
MORTISE
KNEE BRACE
TIMBER
DOWTAIL
TENON
JOINT
SPLINE JOINTS
PRINCIPAL
RAffiR
IENON
IMc)
TIE
MORTISE
AND
TENON
,_
RAFTER
JOINT
DOVETAIL
N OTE
UP
DOVETAIL
MORTISE
FURED
OR JOWLED
rcST Tc> PROVIDE
GRATER
BEARING
SURFACE FOR BAM
NOT E
MORTISE.AND-TENON
HOUSED
MVETAIL
1" SHOULDER TO
INCREASE BENING
AREA
k"".\"
OPEN
WE
BAM
SILL
IN
SPLINE
Using through-splines made of hardwood leaves all the

pegs loaded parallel to the grain, with plenty'of available
end{rain distance, and avoids loaded edges in the posts
Spline edges often are left prominent to achieve a decora,
tive effect.
=-
DOVETAIL
MC)RTISE
rcST
WOOD
TAPERED
PEGS. WP
JOINTS
WEDGES
NGHTEN
JOINT
TO REDUCE
EFFECTS
OF
SHRINKAGE,
PREVENTTNG
WITHORAWAL
1
A tying joint is a combinationof joints used to connectseveral members.The intersectionof a principalpost, a plate,a
tre beam,and a rafter is known as a tying joint.
TYING JOINT
The basic mortise-and-tenon joint can be very effective in

resrsting both tension and compression forces. To increase
tensrle strength, increase the depth and thickness of the
tenon and use additional pegs il the width and length of the
tenon allow_
BASIC MORTISE-AND.TENON
JOTNT
ELEVATION
NOTE
Scarfjoints are lapjoints used to splicetwo or more shorter

timbers into one long timber.Althoughthere are many variations,scarfjoints are used primarilyfor plates and sills that
demandlongcontinuoustimber.
LAP JOINTS
SCARF
JOINT
WOOD JOINERY
NOTE
A beveled shoulder or housed ioint is used to connect all
load-bearing beams, such as bent and connecting girts and
summer beams, to posts. Angled valations can be used
when principal rafters join to posts or for diagonal braces.
The depth of the shoulder depends on loaaing, torsion.
other joinery In the area, and wood species
SHOULDERED
JOINTS
MORTISE-AND.TENON
Most timber lraming joints are variations on the mortise

and tenon. in which a tongue on one timber is received by a
slot in the other and locked with rounded pegs driven
through holes drilled through both parts of the ioint. The
simplest verston of this jotnt is useo in compression situations or for situations with minimal loadinq. Knee braces
and collar ties generally use an angled varrat-ion
Spline joints are similar to a mortrse and tenon, exceot that
a third member, called a spltne or "tree tenon" (usually
hardwood), is introduced to connect btween monised tifr
bers and to serye as the tie. Spline joints are an effective
way to achieve minimum end and edge distances without
being dependent on the size and capacity of the receiving
oost or beam.

Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber, Ph.D., pE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
Lap joints, such as simple overlaps or dovetails, constitute

the other broad category of joints used in timber frames.
Scarfs, used to splice timbers along their length, are va.ia
tions of the lao ioint.
Joints are chosen on the basis of the tasks they are to fulfill, including locking the frame together, bearing weight,
and translerring forces and building loads from one timber
to another.
Compound joinery, such as where two timber valley rafters
meet at a purlin, is one ol the difficult aspects of timber
framing. The complex geometry and the precision required
demand master-level craft smanshio.
-
PLW@D
SHEATHING
2X4W@DSLEEPERS
AT 24" O.C. FASTENED
TO DECK
TAPED
SEAM
RIGID INSUUTION
VAPOR
BARRER
BRACE
OFFSET
ON
BY AMOUNT
EOUAL
THICKNESS
OF
FRAMEO
WALL
PLUS
INTERIOR
FINISH
POST
TO
TIMBER
POST
FIBERGLASS
INSULATION
BARRIER
O/ArcR
OMINED
FOR
CGRIW)
2 X 4 PERIMETER
1'4' RtGrD
FOAM
tuwooD
SUBFLOOR -
BOX
TONGUE.AND-GR@VE
(aLso
wooD
DECK
FTNTSH)
cErLlNG
RMF
4LO.
FJRLINS
O.C.
AT
\^/OOD SLEEPERS AND TONGUE-AND.

GROOVE CEILING ON ROOF PURLINS
F
PLWOOD
FoUNDATIoN
ANCHOR
a'o'
o.c.
SHEATHING
RIGID FOAM
INSUUTION
WITH
1 JA' MIN, AIR
AE}OVE
SPACE
o.c.
BOLT
MAX.
@NNECTNG
VAPOR
RAKE BOARD
AND TRIM
L
2 X
N OTE
FOUNDATIoN
WALL
2XASILL
12 SILL
FOAM CORE
FOAM
CORE
PANEL-\
PANEL
TIMBER
ROfED
RECEIVE
TIMBER
SILL =-
IN\
WALL
SYSTEM
TONGUE
AND.
GROOVE
wooD
SILL
TO
STRAF
I
FLOOR
BMN
SPIKES
AT 4' INTERV&S
INTO IMBERS
//pLwOOD
, SHaTHTNG
24' O.C
%wooD
SUBFLOOR
_-}
2X a
SILL
2X1
SILL-
GIRT
SfuNES
NEEED
TO
JOIN PNELS
NOT
FAIING
ON ruRLINS.
AP4Y
AT TOP FACE
FASCIA
BOARD.
FASEN
TO
NAILER
INSUUTION
BOX BAM
@NSRUCTION
ADHESre
TIMBER
GIRDER
2XASILL
2 X
EXTERIOR
TIMBER
IST
SILL
waLL
BOLT AT A'{"
O.C. MA
vt/OOD STUD SYSTEM
DRWALL
AND
VArcR
BARRIER
(oMmED
FOR CLARIT.4
APfuIED
TO OUTSIDE
OF FRAME
BEFORE NAILERS
2 X 4 NAILERS
24' O.C.
FASTENED
PLWC)OD
SUBFLOOR
.a
12
gouNoaroN
ANCHOR
TIMBER SILL AND JOIST SYSTEM
TIMBER POST
3' RtGtO
FOAM
AIR SPACE
BEruEEN
FOAM
AND
PLruOOD
SHEATHING
CORE
PANEL
rcST
2XAWOODCAP
UOUND
rcST
TO RENT
UTERAL
MOWMENT
ANCHOR
aT a!o,
BOLT
o.c.
MA.
PLWOOD
SHEATHING
3'
x 3 SPACER
2 X 12 S|LL
\ -FouruoaroN
warr
ANCHOR
AT A''
BOLT
OC
GIRT
HORIZONTAL
r.to.
2XASILL
-BOXBEAM
\
\\>-1
rcNSTRUCTURAL
FOAM
(CEILING
CGE
PANEL
FINISH
ANAGED
AT
UNOERSIOE)
HOLDDOWN
STRAP
FASTENED
TO rcST
2 LAYERS
OF
1 ' RIGID FOAM
(omroNAL)
2XA
SILL .
ruE}ER
FON
NMBER
JOIST
R@F
ruRLINS
aT 4'-'
O.C.
CONNECTNG
PANEL
SPLINE
(HIDDEN)
aT 8 -O'
o.c. Mg
INFILL WOOO STUD SYSTEM
E}ARRIER
ON ROOF PURLINS
NONSTRUCTURAL
FOAM CORE
PANELS ON ROOF PURLINS
ANCHOR
WALL
AT
TIMAER POST --DRWALL

AND
VArcR
BARRIER
(oMrnED
FOR
CURIT/)
APPUED
TO OUTSIDE OF
FRAME BEFORE
GYPSUM
BOARD
CELING
FINISH,
APFLIED
HRST.
AfrAGED
TO NALERS
vl/OOD NAILERS
2X4
SPLINE
(HiDOEN)
PLWOOO
SUBFLMR\
Structural ioam core panels (with w@d sheathing on both

sides ol the foam core) may b needed at areas that may
have excess stress or loading with interior tinish attached
to the frame before the panels are attached.
2X4SruDS
2X4W@D
NALER
SPLINE
This system reducesthe exposureof the timber frame by

paniallyconcealingthe frame in the wall system. It allows
air infiltration
due to shrinkage
and movementand requires
an exteriorrigid toam insulationlayerto minimizethe potentialfor air movementandcondensation.
NATLERS
ROOF
PURLINS
aT 4'O'
POST
BEAM
2XESILL
L
GIRT
TIMBER
PLW@D
SHEATHING
.,
2 X 4 STUDS
16' TO 24', O.C
TIMBER
345
NAILER
WALL
rcST
MA.
SYSTEM
LIGHMEIGHT
WOOD
TRUSSES
AT
2'{'
O.C.
DRWALL
AND
VAPOR
BARRIER
(OMreD
FOR
C4RIT\4
APPLIED
TO OUTSIDE
OF
FIBERGCSS
INSUUTION
STANDARD
2X LUMBER
PLWOOD
NMBER
FOR
rcST
BAND
METAL
S.ruP
SILL
SUBFLOOR
NOTCHED
JOIST
HOLD-MW
AT ACH
rcST
2 X 10 BLOCKING
ON THREE SIDES.
TIGHT TO rcST
--
2 \
PLWMD
AAND
PLWOOD
2XASILL
JOIST,
ts
N OTE
FoUNDATION
ANCHOR
a''o.c.
BASE
waLL
EOLTS
MM.
HEAD
DE
ER
RSS .
EXTERIOR LIGHTWEIGHT
TRUSS SYSTEM
I/VOOD
JOIST
2\a
UNMATED
UPPER SILL
CONCREE
FOUNDATION
AT
This system allows a great deal ot insulationto be packed

into the nonstructuralwall cavity between trusses. The
foundationwall mav be offset to the outside of the truss
system {with pilastersadded on the inside to suppon timber postsl to avoidthe apparanceof excessoverhang.
R O (OJ F F R A M
MIIN
NG
G
12
2 X 10S
aT 1 6' O.C
2 X 12 PRESSURE
TREATED SILL,
ENENDEO
TO
ENERIOR
TO RECEIW
WALL
@NSTRUCTION
STICK FRAME SILL AND FLOOR DECK
RichardJ. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsville.Marvland

TeddBensonand Ben Brungraber,
Ph.D.,PE: BensonWoodworkingCo.,Inc.;Alstead,New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
346
SPACE
FOR WtRtNG
AEruEEN
NAILERS
TONGUE
ANO GROOVE
WOOD
FLOORING
.,
EMBELLISHMENTS
AT
STOP
FROM
DISTANCE
ALL JOINTS
\--
--
gNo
couNoeo
TREATMENT
WITH
CHAMFER
T
H
R
O
U
G
S
'
AT
MORTISE
WITH
ENENDED
ENON
PENDANT END
EMBELLISHMENT
--
TIMBER
/
/'4'
2X4NAILER
aT 24" O.C -1/2, X 3"
NAILER
'/a' RUBBERIZED
SOUND.
DEADENING MAT --
TIMBER POST OR RAFTER AT FOAM

CORE PANEL WIRE CHASE DETAIL
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE
END AND EDGE EMBELLISHMENTS

TONGUE-ANDGR@VE
FLOORING
GLUED
AND
BLIND
NAILED
GYPSUM
BOARD
POST
BATHROOM
WIDTH
CHASI
AND
DIRECTION
RESTRICTED
BY
IMRSECTING
TIMBERS
\
SUBFLOOR
NOTCH
DEEP
IN POST
TO
CUT
FL@RING
ACCEM
FROM
GAPS
CIO HIDE
FLOOR
SHRINKAGE)
TIMBER
POST
TONGUE-AND-GROOW
FINISH
FLMRING
TIMBER
JOIST
5X
TIMEER
SILL-.---
2XA
SILL -
--CONSTRUCTION
ADHESIVE
\
- FL@R
N OTE
Maintain % in. gap between
exoansion and contraction-
JOIST
CHASE
DRWALL
CEILING
il.
"
.!5x7tsr
flooring edge and wall for
S T . A . ND A R D T O N G U E - A N D . G
FLOOR
\2
x 12
SILL
ANCHOR
BOLT
AT A'{'OC.
MA
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE

BETWEEN TIMBER JOISTS
ROOVE
AREA,
TIMBER.SILL
ADD IIC''THICK SHEET

METAL PROTECTOR
OWR WIRE CHASE
DETAIL
WIRE CHASE
----
POST
2Xa
BATHRMM
SUBFLOOR
SMALLER
JOISTS.
AOSER
GYPSUM
BOARO
FINISH
SPACE
BEruEEN
2X4'S
FOR
POST
TENON
ANO
WIRING
4"\
AEAM
/
COVER ruO"PIECE
BASEBOARD
ALMKING
SOLID
TO SUPPORT
POST
2\A
SILL
2X'S
FORM
CHASE
AND
SUPPORT
DRWALL
.\
SOUND-RESISTANT
FLOOR DETAIL
2 X
12 SILL
CONCRETE
WALL
CONffiETE
SGB
ON
onwaLL
GRADE
cerLrruG
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH

DROPPED CEILING DETAIL
BOX BEAM
PUNX
CEILING
AT NORMAL
FURRING
SILL v\/IRE CHASE
STRIPS
HEIGHT
WRE
IN WALL
CHASE
ETENDS
SUBFLMR
DETAIL
WAINSCOT
FROM UNDER-fuOOR
SERVCE CHASE OR
TIMBER.SILL CHASE -
,rtMt
BASEBOARD.
WOOD
CAR
FURRING
STRIPS\
Y!
ORWALL
-_
-.
\
--
GYPSUM
SPACERS
BOARD
CEILING
JOIST
FL@RING
DAM
,zn'auegenzro
SOUND.
DTADENING
MAT (OffTONAL)
.!
DROPPED TONGUE
ANDROOVE
CEILING PGNKS
coNsnucTtoN
ADHESIW
WITH
2X'S SUPPORT
SUBFLOOR
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH

DROPPED FLOOR DETAIL

Tedd Eenson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
PANEL
E}ASE:E}OARD
CHASE
\^/AINSCOT
SURFACE-MOUNTED
FOAM CORE PANEL
CHASE
\ffIRE CHASES AT
PoleConstruction
NOTES
RIGIO INSULATION
TONGUE ANO
GROOVE
DECKING
1. Poleembedmentdepth dependson sdl, slopeand seismtc zone.

2. Cross-bracing
betweeil polesmay be requiredto ieiisi
lateralloads il shallow embedment.T.eat all exposed
surfaceswith app.ovedp.essurelreatment.
3. Pole nolching tor major beams can help align besms
and walls that otherwisewould be out of ptu;b due to
pole warp. Notchingimprovesbearingof majorbeams
but weakenspples.
4. R6fs, walls andtloors shold be insutatedto suit lftal
climatic conditioos.Wall and sotfit insulationshould
meetcontinuouslyat the ioint. penetrafionof insulation
shouldbe minimal.
5. Varioussidingtypes can be used.
6. Dapping.is a U.S. carpentryterm lor clning wood to
receivetimbr connectors.
\\\
STANOINGi
SEAM
METAL
ROOF
OAPPED POLE
CONNECTIONS
tffi
lffi-\":fl
lffi'1
-x\^-+
t7 \r:::
tE/==--=l
ir---J
EEIN
ol[-J
rl|-'-l
KNEE
KNEE
ERACINO
CONCRITE
BACKFILL
ffIsfl8%g+',s""
ffi
HURRICNE
cLrPS
wooo
J/
|
I
|
GRAVEL
DECK
JOIST
CONCRgTE
FOOTING
SPACEO
BEAMS
DAPPED
CONNECTION
,TNOTE'
LUMBER
MORE
THAN
2"
THICK
CAN
ALSO
BE USEO
FOR
DIAGONAL
ARACING
TREATEO
wooo
POLE
'"iz-r?,/,)
IEOMETRIC
SPIKEO GRIO WITH.
CURVEO FACE
\
To accEPT
PoLE
TAMPEO
TAMPEO
FILL
TREATEO
wooo
POLE
2',-O"
OF
POLE
HOUSE
TAMPEO
FILL
H/
I
l/
I
-z
TREATO
wooo
POLE
GALANIZEO
METAL
STRAP
MIN.
-^r-aw
CONCRETE
FOOTING
3?i-J1?'S.?'"
POLE
CONCRTE
FOOTING
LAG
BOLTS
FOR USE IN TEMPERATE

( FROST
CLIMATES
LINE
NO DEEPER THAN
2'.O'}
REINFORCEO
CONC;RETE
COLLAR
CONCRETE
FOOTING
CONCRET
FOOTING
CONCRETE
FOOIING
\^/ITH EFIKEO
ANCHORAGI
CONC:RETE
FOOTTNO
STR
P ANCHOR
WITH
CONSTRUCTION
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
347
Log Construcfionqnd Defoils
348
GENERAL
RAFTERS
Residential log buildings have become a significant pan of

the home construction industry. The log house industry
comprises two main segments: manufactured. or milled
houses built ffom kits and custom'built log houses House.
built from kits use logs that have been machined or milled
to a uniform shape in a variety ol profiles. Although kit-built
houses can be put together quickly and with few construc
tion skills, the finished product tends to look artilicial. Custom-built log houses are produced from hand-peeled, handnotched logs in their natural prolile. These houses more
closely resemble a traditional log structure. Kits for handhewn houses are also avaalable, but their reconstruction on
site is often complicated because ot longer log lengths and
the heavier weight ot the logs. A hydraulic crane is usually
required. Many building otticials require a structural engineer's approval to accompany the plans, whether the log
house company generates these plans or an architect hired
by the owner.
ROOFING
rrX4ORrX6)
PURLINS. SET
INTO NOTCHED
NOTES
PUNK
FLOORTNG
WALL
1- Hewing logs square removes most of the sapwood,

which reduces the weight of the log and its susceptibility
to insect damage and rot- The flat surfaces of square
logs are also easy to work with.
2. Damage {rom rot (fungal decay} can be prevedted or controlled in several ways: remove sapwood, which is high
in cellulose and lignum on which fungi teed; reduce the
log's moisture content to 207o or less by air or kiln dying;
or provide proper air circulation under tloors and around
foundations. Generous root overhangs and properly
maintained gutters help keep water oft the sides ol the
building.
LOGS
FLOOR
3. Insect damage from termites. beetles, and carpenter

ants can be prevented by properly seasoning the wood
(kiln or air drying) and by providing continuous vapor barriers under ground floors. Also, good air circulation can
help prevent intestations.
FLOOR JOISTS
PUCED
IN
MORTISE CUT
IN SILL LOG ANO
FLOOR GIRDER
4. Exposed interior logs must be coordinated carefully with

placement of plumbing, electrical wiring, and mechanical
eouioment.
STONE AND
CONCRflE
FOUNOATION
5. Good drainage around the building is important, since log

buildings are susceptible to rot.
6. Manufacturers
of prefabricated log structures offer
milled log details to reduce air leakage and improve
weatherability of the wall. Such details include tongueandroove joints, dovetailing use of steep splines. and
butyl gaskets.
FOUNDATION
SILL
LOGS
7. Spaces between individual logs (chink area) are filled

with chinking, which can vary trom less than an inch to
three or more inches in width.
CHECKS IN UPPER
SURFACE OF LOG
(AT EXTERIOR ONLY)
R E O U I R ES E A L I N G
AGAINST WATER
PENETRATION
MORTAR
CHINKING
WALL
SEAUNT WITH
BACKER ROD
GAPS
CAUSED
BY LOG
SHRINKAGE
SHOULDER
OF
UTERAL
GROOVE
MUST FIT
SNUGLY
ALONG ITS
ENTIRE
LENGTH
SELF.DRAINING
CHECKS IN
LOWER SURFACE
OF LOG NEED
NO SEAUNT
PRESERVATIVE
SOLUTION OF
WATER REPELLENT
AND MILDEWCIDE
TO LOG SURFACE
UTERAL GROOVE
SCRIBED AND COPEO
TO FIT LOWER LOG
v\/OOD PRESERVATION-DETAIL
RECOMMENDEO
(I'SYNTHETIC''
SCRIBED OR CHINKLESS
oR wooo
@
ix\
CHINKING
MATERIAL
URETHANE
FOAM (APPLtED
FROM INSIDE)
RECOMMENOED
CHINKING
(WOOO
K@'
M
(@
2-5|DEO SAWN OR
HEWN. STACKED
WITH CHINKING
TYPICAL
LOG
Arthur Thiede: Log Homes Connecr: Hailey, ldaho
(A'
\v
ROUNO
WITH
LOG
CHINKING
CHINKING)
DETAILS
LOG JOINERY
@
H,
CHINKING)
SYNTHETIC
SCRIBED
WOOD STRIPS
OR POLES AS
CHINKING
MATERIAL
(NAIL TO
FASTEN)
LOGS
CHINKING
HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
WALL
PROFILES
ROUND LOG,
CHINKLESS
OR SCRIBED
2-S|DED LOG,
STACKED FUT
2-StOED SAWN
LOG, STACKED
FUT WITH
SPACERS AND
CH INKING
LogConstructionond Detoils
g4g
PLYWOOO
SPLINE
CORNER
POST
SADOLE NOTCHES
FULL DOVETAIL
HALF DOVETAIL
V.NOTCHES
POSTEO
TYPICAL CORNERS
CORNER
LOG POST
JACK POINTS
r/4" srEEL
PUTE
REMOVABLE
2X OR WOOD
LJOIST RAtrER
JACK
CONCRETE
FOOTING
ADJUSTABLE
PLUMB LOG ENDS
BASE USING SHIMS
GALVANIZED
STEEL POST
BASE (FIXED
AflER
ALL
AOJUSTMENT
IS TAKEN UP)
LOG POST
PURLIN ROOF CONSTRUCTION
USING CANTILEVEREO RAFTERS
TO SUPPORT OVERHANG AT EAVES
ADJUSTING
BRACKET
ADJUSTING
NUTS
THREAOED
ROO
CONCRETE
FOOTING
ADJUSTABLE
POST BASE
IN CRAWL SPACE APPLTCATION
MITIGATION
OF SETTLING-DETAILS
STAGGERED LOG ENDS
SECTION_LOG
RAFTER CONSTRUCTION
F
l-
U
c
F
BEAVER
CUT LOG ENDS

SECTION_LOG
PURLIN
ROOF
CONSTRUCTION
R O O F S T R U C T U RE - D E T A I L S
ARCHEO LOG ENDS
SETTLING
The rcol system on a log house should be caretully

thoughtout. Since many log houses are built rn areas oi
high snow load'ng, Iog root systems are more complex
tnan those In conventionally framed structures. Although
log roof members are desirable from an aesthetrc stan-dpoint, engineered values for logs are difticult to obtain
because the logs are not graded. tt rs theretore necessary
to burld-a structural roof of engrneered materials over the
rog root, resuttrng in, essentially, lwo structural rools. The
engrneered r@f can be buried in the insulation or cold root
space, but doing this adds considerablv to the cost of the
structure. Log or timber framed trusses can be used to sur
pon purlins (and produce a dramatic visual effect), but this
rs also an expensive alternative_
9
I
I
f
a
E
Shrinkage varies according to the moisture content ol the

logs and the humidily level at the building site.
WALL SETTLING
CONSTRUCTION
ROOFS
LOG END PROFILES
F
I
IN LOG
DETAILS
Log movement and senling caused by shrankagecan be a

significantproblemin log construction.The problemcan be
mitigatedthroughcarefuldetailing.
Shrinkageproblemsare more prevalentin custombuitt
houses.which use full roundlogs,than in manulactured
or
milled log structuresbecausethe latter use kilndried loos.
Althoughcustomlog companieskeep shrinkaget9 a mm,.
mum by using dead standingtrees, the moisiure content
usuallyis stillhigherthanin kilniried logs.
Arthur Thiedej Log Homes Connecr;Hailey,ldaho
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
350
TimberBridges
GEOTEXTILE
FABRIC
TRAtrtrIC
,
RAIL
STEEL
ANACHED
RETAINER
- WEARTNG
rcST
TO
SURFACtr
?',*I @7,
POST
ANGLE
FOR
ASPHAL]
(ASpHALI.
ryp
TIMBER CURB
STEEL DOWEL CONNECTORS
-.,
*
s.a'-
t4
WIDTH
NA,IL-t--AMIN,ATED
TO 2,1 FT)
r o"-l-
GLUED-LAMINATED
DEck
(coNsrRUC]fD
OF 2<
MATERIAL ryP)
LONGITUDINAL
SHORT
PANEL
TO PROVIDE
DRAINAGE
OPENING
UNDER
CURE
CONTINUOUS
(SPANS
DECK
(OPTIONAL)
aq^" oeqa
\ \ \\\
SR!i'"JJ*=,'5H''
"*
FiflEsffi::l
,
PANEL
MrN l
TOI
16"I
BAM
-,,' *i\--\
go'-
TRANSVERSE
BRACING
25''
(LUMBER
O.C. MA.
BLOCKS
ALSO
USED)
lNTf QMb DIA I ts BtrN I
(IF NECESSAF
I)
BEAM
NOTE
ss'-){
STEEL
BEARING
SHOE
ON
Clear spans for glued taminated longitudinal beams are

from 20 to 100 ft. For sawn lumber beams, ctear sDans can
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL
fry
\- o"rtrr*t
SUBSRUCTURE
to 25-ft. Wood specresuseJ are generally

9e msde-.u.p
DouglasfirJarchor Southernprne.
BEAM BRIDGE
--TRAFFIC
Tffi
LONGITUDINAL
RAIL
WARING
ATACHED
SURFACE
TO
(ASPHALT,
ryP
\{5614f
CURB
.-
STEEL
\IH
DECK
NMBER
RflAINER
GEOENILE
FOR
DECK DETAILS
_ * - -"rr=-.*
.- . ^ .
POST
(SPAN
BEARING
- STEEL
PRESTRESSING
ROD
L
CONTINUOUS STEEL
CHANNEL
STEEL PRESTRESSING
ROT
UP
o'.*. *"
RESRESSING
TO
24
ROD,
ASPHALT
FABRIC
4A'
LONGITUDINAL
DECK
GLUED.UMINATED
BOX
.TTFFLNER BEAM
(Nol REoUIRED FoR
STRESS.UMINATED
DECK) --
UP
TO
70
63
FT)
BEAM
F'r}
/
,/
T-SECTION
NOTE
CONCRETE
ABUTMENT
Clear spans for gluedlaminated decks are approxrmately 35 fl
Typrc AL Lo NG rru D I NAL D Ec K su pe nEinucr-UEE

INTRODUCTION
Although wood was pfobably the frrst malefial used to con.
struct a bridge, in the 20th centUry concrete and steel have
became lhe maior bridge constructron mateflals. Wood is
slrll wrdely used for shon- and med,um-span bridges The
strength. light weight, and energy absorpiion propenies
ot
tmber make it a desirable material for bridge construction.
Timber can carry short-term overloads r,iithout adverse
effects. Large wood members are tire resistive, imperyious
lo.contrnuous freezing and thawtng, and resist the harmful
necb ot de-icing agents.
In modern applications, the life of timber bridges
is
exlendd to torty years or longer through the use of
ireser_
vatrve-treated wood, which requires little or no
mainte_
nance.
I he spcifications and standards lor
the
preservaltve treatment of wood maintained
by the Ameri_
can Wood Preseryers Association (AWPA) aie tne most
widely used and comp.ehensive documents covering
treatment procedures for sawn lumber, glued_laminated-trmber
tgruram,,piltng. and poles used tor trmber bridoes.
CHARACTERISTICS
All timber bridges consist of two bastc comoonents_the

superstructure and the subskucture lhe superslructu.e
is
the framework of the bridge span and includes
lhe deck,
I!91 sV91em,main supponing members, raihngs,
and other
rncrdental components. The five basic types oi superstruc_
ture are beam, deck {slab),truss, arch. and suspension.
The
suostructu.e ts the ponron of the bridge that ttansmits
roaos trom the superstructure to the supporting roct
or soil.
rmoer substructutes include abutments and bents. Abut_
me,nts support the two bridge ends, while bents provide
Inlermedrate suppor( f or multiple_spancrossrngs
TIMBER
(SPAN
'I re.-<e.
3+FE=Sf-'fi
il['BB".3u',"S^RT,--,--'
STRUCTURAL
SECTION
\w@D
erued
| |
i_l
NP
FT)
SUPERSTRUCTURES
rhetonsitude
is
!9ry9nU.DlNllBEAM(rnbridsedesisn.
measured rn the
direction of traffic flow). The simp-lesland
most common timber bridge superstructure,the longitudi_

nal.beam type consists ol a deck system supponej by a
series of timber beams between two or more suppons.
Beamsare constructedfrom logs, sawn lumber,gtued-tam_
Inatedtimber(glulam),
or lamrnated
veneertumber(LVL).
LONG,TUDINAL
DECK:Longitudinat
deck or stab suoerstructuresare constructed ol glulam, nail_laminated
sawn
lumber,or stress-laminatedlumber decks ptacedlonqitudi_
nally btwen supports. with rhe wrde dimensronjf the
lamrnationveniel. In this type of superstructure,the deck
rscesrgnedto resist all appliedloadsand deflectionwithout
aodnpnat supponing members or beams. Nonetheless,
transverse distributor beams are usually attached to the
undersideof the deck to help distributethe load.Maximum
crearspansare approximately35 ft.
TRUSS:Trussesare structuralframesconsistino
of straioht
members connectedto form a senes ol triangles.Trusjes
canspandistancesof up lo 250 ft In bridgeapplications,
a
ryprcar
trusssuperstructure
consistsot two maintrusses.a
floorsystem,and bracing.Thrstype rs ctassrtied
as a deck
truss(rnwhich the deck is at or abovelhe levelof the top
chord)or a through truss (in which the deck is nearthe boi_
tom cttordj.When the herghtof a throught,uss is insuffi_
crenttoJoverheadbracing,rt is calleda half_through
or pony
rruss tmDer trussesare constructedin many geometric
configurations,but two of the most popular
Uo*_
stnng truss and parallelchord truss.
"i"-ttu
ARCH: Arches lsed in clear span timber bridge construc_
tron have glued-laminatedtimbers {or the main members.
This type of superstructure,calleda glulamdeck arch.prob.
ably bst shows the versatilityof gluiamIn bridgeconstruc_
uon. Ine gtutamarchesare manufactured
in segmental,
crrcular,or parabolicshapes.Two basicarch typesare usd:
lhe twchinge arch(forshortspansof gOft or less)and the
three+tinge
arch(forlong spansot betweengOand2OOft).
rne roaowaytor deck arch bridges is supportedby glulam
Richard J- Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Srudio; Crownsviile.

Maryland
Michael A. Ritter, pE, Structural Engineer; for"it pioo"cil
l"o, USDA; Madrson, Wisconsin
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
(SPAN
LJP TO
N OTE
T-section may be preferable over box section for long spans
because of ease of inspection and maintenance.
ry-prc4L STRESS-LAM I NATED Tt M BER

SUPERSTRUCTURES
post bents connected to the arches with steel gusset
plales. Use ot thrs design is most practical when coiside,
able height is required and whn foundations can be con
structed to resist horizontal nd reactions. lt is oartlcularlv
suitable for deep crossings because long clear spans resuti
rn suDstanltatsubstruclure @st savings.
SUSPENSION: Iimbe. suspension bridges consist of a tim
ber deck structure suspended from flexible steel cables or
charns supported by timber towers. This suDerstructure
typ-e_is capablo ol spanning clear distances oi more than
5uU tt and rs normally used only when span requirements
make other bridge types impractical or when it is not feasible to use intermediate bents.
TIMBER
SUBSTRUCTURES
ABUTMENIS. Abutments support the bridge ends and con_

larn roadway embankmenl material. The simplest timber
abutment is a sawn_lumber or glulam spread tooting placed
drrectlv on the surface of the embankment rf foundation
materia,s permit. Another type is the post abutment, In
wnrch lhe superstructure is supponed on sawn lumber ol
gruram posts connected to a spread footing. pile abutments
may be used tt soils cannot hold footings.
BENTS: Bents are intermediate suppons between abut
menls used lor muttiple.span bridges. They are made f.om
Lmoer prtes or sawn lumber trames, depending on hetgbt
requirements and soil conditions.
GENERAL
DESIGN
CRITERIA
For design criteria and specifications tor timber bridges.

reter to the current edition of the American Association of
State Highway and Transponation Officials (MSHTO) Stan_
dard Specrfrcations, tor Highway B.idges and ,,Trmbe,
brlogeS Uesrgn, Construction, Inspection, and Maintenance, U.S Department of Agriculture, August 1992.
TimberBridges
BEAM
WTDTH
.-
LONGITUOINAL
GLUED,LAMINATEO
DECK
GMINATED
LONGITUDINAL
BEAM
6 X 6
STAYS
BEHIND
EACH
PILE
35l
ON GLUED
.BEAM
3 / '2 PRT SSUPE

MUTID
TIMBER
BACKWALL
AAUruENT
PUNKING,
FASTENED
TO PTLES
WITH MO
ffi
NAILS
ACH
-
STEEL
SIDE
,uTE
STEEL
BASE
'-
12" X 12. TTMBER

PILE ABUTMENT
CAP
ANCHOR
BOLT
4'
ABUTMEM
GE
14'
74'X
30'LONG
GALVANIZED
STEEL
DRIfl
PIN
W|NG
STEEL
PTATI
BEARING
SHOE
TYPICAL BEARING SHOE DETATLS

TIMBER
RAILING
BOLTED
6X6TIMBERR)ST
TO
12 X 12 NMBER CURB
BOLED
TO DEq
TIMBER
ASPHALT
UG
LL' ./
wtNG waLL /
POST
RETAINER
FOR
TYPICAL
PILE ABUTMENT
DETAIL
SCRry
--.-' ASPHIT
-P
I
L
1a'aBow
GRADE OR
WATER LEEL
MIN.
ry.. X 30' GALVANZED

STEEL DRIFT PINS. WP
BRIDGE EDGE CONDITION

MP<
rrcST
|Iv
12'
3'
ltl
:lll
"lll
1
a
ztr\/
( _^^^.^,^.,
7T' DIAMETER
TYPICAL
PILE BENT
OF
FLTruRE
F9.APYI-Y ir6ir6w7v
RESURFACE
MULTIRAII../VEHICLE
TIMBER
PILES
5Hh',.rG*']-qr
I Jl
=l JI
rlJTl
I
MACHINE
1 2'
SWAY
BOLTS.
BRAC)ING
WP
DETAIL
1 %' MlN.
(coMPACTED)
ASPHALT
SURFACE
ilL
-!TOP
DIAMflER
.t-n
LONGruDINAL
UMINATED
TIMBER
|uNKING
GLUED.
OECK
BACK
ABUTMENT
PILE
STAY
ASPHALT
NMBER
AS;PHALT
WALL
AT
TIMEiEFI
SURFACE
J4' DIA. SLOTED

DOME,
OR HEX.HEAD
(PUTE
BOLT
146. TO 14. URGER
HOLE
THAN
BOLT
DtA.. WP.)
STEEL
|uTE
CAP
c:AP
]$ll-
GLUEDUMINAruD
NEOPRENE
BUSHING
(offroNAL)
-
TTMBER PrLE
AT ABUTMENT
STEEL
ANGLTS
BOLTS
?)
STEEL
ANGLE
ATTACHMENT
AT
HEAD)
TIMBER
SELF.LOCKING
CUT WHER
STEEL
%. THICK STEEL
PCTE
NOTCHED
IMO DECK
WEARING
SURFACE ON
GEOTEXNLE _
TIMBER
EENT
AflACHMENT
WIH
THROUGH
(DOME.
OR HEX-
ASPHALT
PAVEMENT
ON
GEOTENILE
FABRIC
DECK
GALVANZED
DOME-HEAD
BOLTS fuCED
THROUGH
DECK AND ABUTMEM
AP
PIG
STEEL
E}OLT
ATTACHMENT
2' TO 3'
(coMPAffEO)
WEARING
ON GEOTENILE
PI.ATE
BOLTED
ffi
2i/wYr",'{,'2
CAST
DECK
uG
ON
&G'gSdhvaNzED
STEEL
PI.ATE.
ATTACHMENT
TYPICAL
NUT
CONNECTION
TAG
WEARING
ALUMINUM
BRACKET
1
\
SCREW
SURFACES
GG
BOLT,
ryP
>
GALVANIZED
STEEL
ANGLE
BRACKET
\
c)AP
GLUED-LAMINATED
GALVANIZO
STEEL
C.CLIP
DECK
74' DIA. ANCHOR

BOLT
(IN SPANSION
SLEEW
OR GROUTED)
7.'THICK
NEORENE
PAD
STEEL
BEAM
NOTE
.- GLUEO-UMINATED
LONGITUDINAL
OR
LUMBER
BEAM
Deck bracketsincludesmall teeth that firmly grip rhe deck

andbeam.
TYPICAL
RAIL SYSTEMS
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL
ATTACHMENT
DETAILS
DECK
TYPICAL GLUED.LAMINATED
ATTACHMENT
DETAILS
DECK
Richard J. Mtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvtand

Michael A. Ritter. PE, Structural Engineer; Forest products Lab, USDA; Madison, Wisconsin
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
352
Tongueond Groove Wood Decking
LAMINATED
DECK-ALLOWABLE
UNIFORMLY
DOUGLAS
DISTRIBUTED TOTAL ROOF LOADS (LB/SQ FT: LIVE AND DEAD LOADS)
FIR,/LARCH
PONDEROSA
E = 1 , 8 0 0 , 0 0p
0s i
F " = 2 . 5 8 5p s i
F " = 1 6 5p s i
PINE
PONDEROSA
E = 1, 15 0 , 0 0 0p s i
F " = 1 , 4 8 5p s i
F , = 1 5 0p s i
PINE FACE
INLAND
0si
E = 1,200,00p
F . = 1 , 7 2 0p s i
F , = 1 3 0p s i
SIMPLE
RED CEDAR
FACE
0s i
E = 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0p
F b= 1 , 4 8 5p s i
F "= 1 3 0p s i
ANOOM
ENGTH
ONTINUOUS
SPAN
w40
(psf)
l4
x 8 nominal
ttl
110
v'o-_}.
4l
s,4
oR 7Vs-
x 8 nominal
rlrs,r__!r
"Kl
Kfl
-vm/7zzm
-f
5,k" oaz,h"
67
NOTE
must be dividedby I .15. Loadsin table are limited by deflection;Fo= extremefiber stress in bending;F, = horizontalshear.E = modulusof elasticityin millionsof psi.
TOENAIL ADJACENT
BOARDS AT 3O,, O-C
SPIKE ADJACENT
BOARDS
THROUGH
ORILLED
HOLES
2 NAILS PER BOARD

AT SUPPORTS
\\
SINGLE TONGUE AND GROOVE
SOLID DECKING
CONTINUOUS
RANDOM
MACHINE-SHAPED
DECKING TYPES
LAMINATED
DavidS. Collins,FAIA;AmericanForest& paperAssociation;

Cincinnati,
Ohio
WOOD DECKING
DECKING
WOOD
SPAN
WITH
LENG
DECKING JOINT PATTERNS
Wood Decks
PIPE RAIL
GALVANIZED
wELDED
WIRE
FENCING
STAPLED
AT
TOP. BONOM,
AND POSTS
:,ttI.tt"'fl[
POST AND
B.^M--,v?//, , /
6X6WOOD
CAP CUT A5
SHOWN
W i'r.',
COATED
STAINLESS
STEEL WIRE
WITH EYE
HOOKS AND
TURNBUCKLES.
REINFORCE
CORNER
POSTS
WITH STEEL
PUTES
TRIM OVER
STAPLE
AT
TOP. BONOM.
AND POST
353
Wr,,T
t"l
BOLTS
ACTURED
CAP
sLoPED
,/4roP
FoRDRATNAGE
<.,-K)
<
t\/ |.J
;:
I\,,1
ru;t{ffi ru
ll ll'l
l"r
POST AND BEAM CONNECTIONS
SLOPEO TO
SHED WATER
VENTIUTE
ruO THROUGH
BOLTS AT POST
RAILINGS
SLOPE TOP OF TOP
OF WOOD SPACER
--\
/-OECKING
MffAL
HANGER
.,_JOlSr
RELATIVE
OF WOOD
COMPARISON
OF VARIOUS
QUALITIES
USED IN DECK CONSTRUCTION
BLOCKING
......-........"_\
BOLTEO TO
BUILOING WALL
SPACER: SOLIO WOOO
BLOCK OR EXTERIOR
GRAOE PLWOOO
-AUILDINGWALL
CONNECTIONS
AT BUILDING
WALL
PREDRILL
NAIG
3/r6" sPAcER
-OECK
AT ENOS
BOAROS LAIO WITH

.BARK"
SIDE UP, IF FST
GRAIN MATERIAL
(V,G. METAL PREFERRED)
s-l,TAi
r/." THlcK
TEMPERED
HARDBOARD
NOTE
'/a spacing not recommended
high heels are anticipated.
N OTES
AT4 -O'O.C.
1. Includes West Coast and eastern hemlocks.
OECK BOARDS
UIO ON EOGE
NAIL STAGGEREO
AT SPACER
2. Includes western and northeastern pines-
4. Use pressure preseryative treated material only. All materials below deck surfaces should be pressure treated.
3. Categories refer to semitransparent oil base stain-
tor walking surfaces where
DECKING APPLICATIONS
The BumgardnerArchitects;Seattle,Washington
WOODDECKING
354
Wood Decks
STAINLESS
STEEL WITH
TURNBUCKLES 4'O
BANDRAILS
ARE REOUIRED FOR SLOPES
GREATER.
CHECK
LOCAL CODES
TOERAiL
WITHIN 4" OF THE
RAMP TO KEEP CASTER
WHEELS
AND WALKERS
FROM SLIPPING OVER
THE EDGE
DIA
l:20
BEAMS CONNECTED
HANDRAIL
TO
INSTALL
PLANKS
HAND TIGHT TO
EACH OTHER
POSTS
3 JOISTS
rHAN I
JOIST
HANGERS
AEAMS
CONNECTED
TO POSTS
GRAVEL
BUCK.
ALL WOOD SHOULD BE

PRESSURE TREATED
CONCRETE
SILL AND
PERMEAALE
PUSTIC
CONCRETE SLOPED TO
GRAVEL'/2:1'O"
2X12 CUa aO
WEOGE SHAPE
r---:cnavEu
BUCK, WATER,PERMEABLE
PUSTIC
FOOTING
ACCESSIBLE
WALKWAY
ACCESSIBLE
RAMP
\/VALKWAYS AND RAMPS

DECK
EOGE -_\
OECK
SHOP FABRICATEO
LOW DECK EDGES

TREAD
DECKING
ANER
/SPACING
Z
SHRINKAGE
SHOULD
r/2'
LEss rHAN
DECKING
JOIST
CARRIAGE
GRADE
OR PAVING
SURFACE
M ETAL
HANGER
ANCHOR
BOLT
PRESSURE
TREATED
ON CONCRETE
SUB OR APRON
STRINGER BOLTED TO
CARRIAGE WITH SPACERS
BflEEN
STEP PUTFORM
STAIR
CARRIAGE
WITH
CLEAT BOLTED TO
CARRIAGE WITH
SPACER BETWEEN
CARRIAGE WITH CLEATS
STRINGER
PRESSURE
TREATED
SPACER
CONCRffE
FOUNDATION
SPACING A[ER
SHRINKAGE SHOULD BE
LESS rHAN r/2-
STEPS AND STAIRS
//STEEL
GALVANIZED STEEL
OR PRESSURE
TREATED POST
POST
ltil;;;
!LfF,'"'*".'*
gvl
itFEt:_:
coNcRETE
J\FINISH
GRADE
I
\l
SILL
SEALgR
\
\-
\ l /
PREcasr torcnsrr
TREATED POST
pLTNTH/
,--
DRTLLED HoLE
FILLED WITH
CONCRETE
--l
POUREO
TREATEO
FOOTING/
POST
FASTENERS
Us hotdipped
and staining.
FILLED
TAMPED
5OIL, GRAVEL.
OR 5: I MIX OF
SOIL AND
CEMENT
CONCRETE
FOOTING
(GRAVEL OR
CRUSHEO
ROCK MAY BE
SUBSTITUTED)
NOT RECOMMENOED
FOR MOIST CLIMATE
2. To reduce board splitting by nailing: blunt nail points; pre,

drill F/a of nail diameterlj stagger naiting; place nails no
closer to edge than one-half of board thickness_
3. Avoid end grarn nailing and toenatltng if possrble.
4. Use flat washers under heads of lag screws nd bolts,
and under nuts.
5. Hot-dipped galvanizedcasing nails or stainless steel deck
scres are best deckrng fasteners.
6. Plated ring shank or spiral groove shank nails are suatable
for arid climates.
WOODDECKING
OR PAVING
SURFACE
BOLT
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
GRAVEL
BALUST ON
PUSTIC MEMBRANE
PROVIDE
FOR
DRAINAGE
OF
AREA BELOW
OECK
LO\,v
PROTECTION
1. All wood members should be protected from weather by

pressure treatment or field application of preseryatives,
slarns, or parnts.
2. All wood in direct contact with soil and concrete must be
pressure treated.
3. Bottoms of posts on piers should be 6 in above grade.
4. Sterilize or cover soil with membrane to keeo olant
groMh away from wood mmbers so as to minimize
morsture exchange.
5. Treat all ends, cuts, holes, etc. with pfeservative before
placement.
6. Decking and flat trim boards,2 x 6 and wider, should be
kerfed on the underside with % in. deep saw cuts at 1 in.
o.c. to prevent cupping.
7. Avoid horizontal exposure of end grain or provide ade,
quate protection by flashing or sealing. Avoid or minimize
joint situations where moisture may be trapped by using
spacers and/or flashing, caulking, sealant. or plastic roof,
ing cement.
The Bumgardner Archfects; Seattle, Washington

Mark J. Mazz, AIA; CEA, Inc.; Hyattsvile, Marytand
SILL
FOOTING
POURED OR PRECAST
FOOTING/TREATED
POST
MOISTURE
galvanized fasteners to avoid corrosion
SILL
SEALER
PRESSURE
GRADE
HOLE
POSTS AND FOOTINGS

'1.
BE
DECK
EDGES
CONSTRUCTION
l WOOD SELECTION: Usual requirements are good decay
resistance, nonsplintering, lair stiffness, strength, hardness, and warp resistance. Selection varies according to
local climate and structure.
2. BRACING: On large decks, or decks where post heights
exceed 5 ft, lateral stabilrtyshould be achieved with horizontal bracing (metal or wood diagonal ties on top or bottom of ioists, or diagonal application of decking) in
combination w,th vertical bracing (rigid bolted or
gusseted connections at tops of posts, knee bracing, or
cross brac,ng between posts), and/or connection to a
braced building wall. Lateral stability should be checked
by a structural engineer.
plywood DesignDoto
EXPOSURE DURABILITY
cussrFrcaTroN
GRADE OF VENEER
ON FACE PANEL
MILL
A-B.G-t
SPAN
E r T - A P A O O OP S l - 8 : l
GROUP NUMBER
PRODUCT
STANDARD
GOVERNING
MANUFACTURE
THICKNESS
MILL
NUMBE
APARATED SHEATHING
The span ralings in the trademarkson ApA{ated Sturd-lFl@r and Siding panels appear as a single numbr. ApArated Sturdl-Floor panels are designedspecififiy tor siG
gle-floor (combined subfloor underlayment)apptitions
under carpet and pad and are manufacturedwjth soan ratings of | 6, 20, 24, 32, and 48 in. The span ratingsfor ApArated Stur+l-Floorpanels,like those for APA{ated Sheathing. are based on applition of the panel with the long
dimensionor strengthaxisacrossthree or mors supports.
1132|NCH
3416
STD@$ACING
EXPOSURE
1
-000__
NERQrc7
SIDING
=GRADE
MP.IS
APA{ated Sidingis availablewith span ratingsot 16 and 24

in. Span-ratedpanelsand lap sidingmay be applieddirect to
studs or over nonstructuralwall sheathing(Slurdl-Wallcor
struction).or over nailablepanel or lumber sheathing(double wall construction).Panelsand lap siding with a span
ratingof 16 in. may be applieddirect to studs spaced16 in.
o.c. Panelsand lap sidingbearinga span ratingof 24 in. may
be applieddirect to studs 24 in. o.c. All rated sidingpanels
roy be appliedhorizontallydirect to studs 16 or 24 in. o.c..
providedhorizontaljoints are blocked.When u$d orer nailable structural sheathing,the span rating of rate.dsiding
panels refers to the maximum recommendedsoacino of
venicalrows ot nailsratherthanto studspacing.
APA-
FACE
RATEDS|DING
---30&i8-S,\,
itffi E; "j:::_____E
ec- ffiJF9"
SZEO FOR SPACING
FHA
REcocNrTroN -000__
rel$
EXTERIOR
\FU{Mg
_-ryj8rc_
APA TRADEMARKS
GRADE
DESIGNATIONS
Structuralpanel gradesare gnerallyidentified in terms of

the veneer grade used on th fa and back of the oanel
(e.9., A-8, B-C, etc.) or ted by a nam suggesting the
panel's intendedend use (e.9,.APA{ated Sheathing,APArated Sturd-l-Floor.
etc.).
GROUP
NUMBER
APA-trademarked panels may be produced in four exDosure

durabiljty classifications-Exterior, Exposure 1, Exoosure 2.
and Interior. Note: All-veneer ApA-rated Sheathing, Expe
sure 1, commonly called "CDX" in the trade, is freouentlv
mistaken as an Exterior panel and erroneously used In appti_
cations for whrch it does not possess the required resis"CDX"
tance to weather.
should only be used for
appiitions
as outlined under Exposure I below. For
sheathing grade Panels that will be expored permanently to
the weather, specify APA-rated Sheathing Exterior (a-C
Exterior under Product Standard PSI lor manufacturing).
EXTERIOR PANELS have a futty waterpr@f bond and are
designed for applications subject to permanent exposure to
the weather or to moisture.
EXPOSURE 1 PANELS have a fulty waterproof bond and are
designed for applications where long construction time may
delay permanent protection, is provtded, or where hrgh
morsture condtttons may be encountered in serytce Expo
sure 1 panels are made wilh the same adhesives used in
Exterior panels. However, because other comDosjtional {actors may affect bond perjormance, onlv Exterior Danels
should be used for permanent exposure to the wealher.
EXPOSURE 2 PANELS (identified as Inrerior type with inter_
mediate glue under PS1) are intended for orotected con,
struction applications where only moderate delavs in
providing prolection from morstur may be expected
INTERIOR PANELS that lack further glueline information in
their trademarks are manufactured with interior olue and
are intended for interior applications only.
SANDED, UNSANDED, AND

TOUCH-SANDED PANELS
Panels with B{rade or btter veneer laces are sanded
smooth in manufacture to fulfill the requirements of their
intended applications (binets, shelving, furniture, buillins, etc.). APA-rated Sheathing panels are unsanded since a
smooth surface is not required lor their inlended use. Other
panels-Underlayment,
APA
rated Sturd-l-Floor,
C-D
Plugged, and C-C Plugged+equire
only touch.sanding for
''sizing"
to make the panel thickness more unrform.
Unsanded and touch-sanded panels, and panels with Bgrade or better veneer on one side only, usually carry the
APA trademark on the panel back. Panels with both sides of
Brade or better veneer, or with sDecial overlaid surfaces
(such as Medium Density Overtay), carry the APA trademark on the Danel edoe.
Plyw@d can be manufactured from more than 70 species of wood. These species are divided, on the basis of bending strength
and stiffness, inlo five groups under U.S. Prdduct Slandard PS 13. Strongest species are in Group 1, tht next stiongest"in
Group 2..and so on. The group number that appears in the trademark on some APA trademarked' panels-primarily
;nded
grades-is based on the species of face and back veneers. Where face and back veneers are not from the
sme species group,
the higher group number is used, except lor sanded and decorative panels 3/s in. thick or less. These are identified by face siecies
because they^ ar chosen primarily for appearance-ild used in applications where structural integrity is not critical. Sanded panels
greater than % in. are identified by face species if.C or D grade backs are at least r/Rin. and are no.more than one
specres group
number larger. Some species are used widely in pl)ry@d manufacture, others rarely. Check lrcal availability before jpecifyin"g if
i
particular soecies is desired.
VENEER GRADES
Veneergradesdefine veneerappearancein terms oI natural unrepairedgrowth characteristicsand the number and
size of repairsallowableduring manufacture.The highest
qualatyveneergradesare N and A. The minimum grade of
veneer permitted in Exteriorplywood is C{rade. Drade
veneer is used only for backs and inrer plies of panels
intended lor interior use or applicationsprotected from
exposureto permanentor srere misture.
N- Sm@th surface -natural finish" vemer. Select, all
heartw@dor all sapw@d.Freeof open detects.Allows
not more than 6 Epairs, wood only, per 4 x 8 panel,
made parallelto gcin and wll mtched for grain and
cobr.
A- Smth. paintable.Not mre than 18 neatly made repairs,b@t. sled, or rdter typ, parallelto grainpermitted. May be used for naturalfinish in less demanding
applitions. Syntheticrepairsprmittd_
&- Solid surface. Shims, cirdlar repair plugs, and tight
knots to I in. acrossgrainprmitted.Some minol splits
and syntheticrepairspermitted.
C- PLUGGED-lmp.ovedCgrade veneerwith splits timited ror/Bin.width, knotholesand borerholes limited to '/
r x 1/zin. Admits some broken grain.Syntheticrepairs
permitted.
C- Tight knotsto 1'l, in. Kmtholes to 1 in. acrossgrainand
some to 1rl2in. if total width of knots and knotholesis
within specifiedlimits. Syntheticor w@d repairs.Discoloration and sanding defects that do not impair
strength permitted_Limired splits allowed. Stitching
rermitted.
D- Knotsand knotholesto 2'l, in. width acrossgrainand r/2
in. largerwithin specifiql limits. Limited splits ailowed.
Stitchingpermitted.Limitedto interiorand Exposure1
paners_
EXPOSURE DURABILITY
The span ratingin APA-ratedSheathingtrademarksappears

as two numbersseparatedby a slash,such as32116,4g/14.
etc. {An exceptionis APA-ratedSheathingintendedfor use
on walls only. The trademarksfor these contain a sinqle
numbersrmrlarto the spanratrngfor ApA+atedSiding.)
The
lefl-handnumber denotes the maximum recommended
spacingof supportswhen the panelis used for roof sheathing with the long dimension or strength axis of the panel
acrossthre or more supports.The right-handnumber indicates the maximum recommended spacing of suppons
when the panel is used for subflooringwith rhe longdimensronor streftgthaxis of the panelacrossthree or more suo.
ports. A panel marked32116, for example,mav be used tor
roof deckingover supports32 in. o.c. or for subfl@ringover
supportsl6 in. o.c.
TONGUE
ANO
ASSURANCE AGENCY
APA'S PERFORMANCE
RATED PANEL STANDARD /
RATINGS
APA{ated Sheathing, ApA rated Sturd-lFloor, and ApA_

ratedSidingcarrynumbersin their trademarks
calledsoan
ratings.These denote the maximum recommendedcenter
to{enter spacing in inches of supports for the panels in
constructionapplications.Exceptfor APA-ratedSidingpanels,the spanratingin the trademarkappljeswhen the long
panel dimension is across supports, unless the strenEi
axis is otheMise rdentrfied.The span rating in the traae
markof ratedSidingpanelsapplieswhen instailed
venically.
NUMBER
355
CLASSIFICATION
GROUP
B6ch,Amerien
Birch,
Sweet
Yellow
DouglasFir No. la
Kapur
Keruing
Larch,Western
Maple,Sugar
rrne,
Caribbean
Ocote
Pine,Southern
Loblolly
Longleaf
Shonleaf
Slash
GROUP 2
Leoar,
Port
Oxford
Cvoress
Diruglas
FirNo.2a
Fit,
Balsam
California
Red
Grand
Noble
Pacific Silver
White
Lauan,
Almon
Bagtikan
Mayapis
Red
Tangile
White
HemtGk,
Western
Maple, Black
Menokulam Mera-nli.
RedD
Mersawa
Pine,
Pond
Red
Virginia
Western
White
Spruce,
Black
Red
Sitka
Sweetgum
Tamarack
Yellow-Poplar
GROUP 3
Birch,Paper
Cedar.Alaska
Fir,Subalpine
Hemlock,
Eastern
Maple.
Bigleaf
Pine,
Jack
Lodgepole
Ponderosa
Redwood
Spruce,
Engelmann
White
GROUP
ASpen,
Bigtooth
Ouaking
Cativo
Cedar,
Incense
Western Red
Cottonw@d,
Eastern
Black
(Western
Poplar)
Pine,
Eastern
Whit
Sugar
ROUP 5
Poplar,
Balsam
N OTES
a- Douglas Fir from trees grown in the states of Washing
lon, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming
and the Canadian provinces of Albena and British Columbia shall be classed as Douglas Fir No. 1. Douglas Fir
from tres grown in the states of Nevada. Utah, Colq
rado, Arizona, and New Mexico shall be classed as Dou

glasFirNo.2.
b. Red Meranti shall be limited to species having a specific
gravity of 0.4'l or more based on green volume and oven
dry weight.
Bl@dg@d, Sharp,BusterArchitectsand Planners;Des Moines, lowa

Amerian PlywoodAss@iation;Tacoma,Washington
SHEATHING
356
Plywood PonelTypes
APA-RATED
SIDING
PAN
ELS
For exterior siding. fencing, etc. Can be manufactured as

conventional veaeered plywood, as a composrte, or as a4
overlaid orrented strand board siding Borh panel and lap
srding available Special surface treatment such as V
gr@ve, shallow channel groove, deep groove (such as APA
Texture 1-11), kerled groove, brushed, rough-sawn, and
texturembossed IMDO). Span Rating (stud spacing lor
siding qGlified for APA Sturd-l-Wall applicationsl and face
grade classification (for veneer-faced siding) indicated in
trademark Exoosure Durabilitv Classilication: Exterior. Common thicknesses:,tlsz, "le,,slsz,1/u ls/zz 5le.
3O3-PLYWOOD
GRADES
SIDING
APA A-C
APA B-B PLYFORM
For use where appearance

of onlyone side is importantrn
exteriorapplications,
e.9., soffits,fences,structuraluses,
boxcarand truck linings,farm buildings,
tanks,trays,commercialrefrigerators.
etc. ExposureDurability
Classification
Exterior.Commonthicknesses:
Concrete form grades with high reuse factor. Sanded both

sides and mill-oiled unless otherwise sDecified. Soecial
restnctrîs on specres. Class I panels are slrltest, st'ongesl, and most commonly ava,lable Also available ln HDO
tor very smooth concrete finish. in Structurai I (all plies Im
ited to Group 1 species), and with special overlays. Exposure
Durabilitv
Classification:
Exterior.
Common
thicknesses: Bl 32,5h, n I 32,3| a.
APA A.D
For use where appearanceof only one side is importantin
interiorapplications,
e.9.,paneling,built-ins,
shelving,partitions, etc. ExposureDurabilityClassifications:
Interior,
Exposure1. Commonthicknesses.,Io,31e,,
/2,5/e.slo.c,
APA B-B
Utilitypanelswith two solidsides.Exposure
Durability
Classilications: Interior. Exposure 1, Exterior.Common thicknesses:r/a.3/s,'I z, sla,3Io.16,
FACE
SYNTHETIC
PATCHES
APA B.C
Utilitypanelfor farm seryiceandwork buildinqs,
boxcarand
trucklinings,containers,
tanks,agricultural
equipment,as a
basefor exteriorcoatingsand other exterioruses. Exposure
DurabilityClassification:Exterior.Commonthicknesses:1/..
APA B-D
Utility panelfor backing,sides of builtins, industryshelving,
slip sheets,separatorboards.bins,and other interioror prc
tected applitions. ExposureDurabilityClassifitions:Interior. Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:,la,3/a,th, sla,31a.6,
APA UNDERLAYMENT
For applicationover structural subfloor. Providessmooth
surfacefor applicationof carpet and pad and has high concentratedand impact load resistance.Touch-sanded.Exposure Durability Classilications: Interior, Exposure 1.
'lz, .sln, sla,23l*.31o.
,'lsz
Commn thicknesses:31e,
NOTES
1. Limitations on grad characteristics are based on 4 x I ft
panel size. Limits on other sizes vary in proponion. All
panels except 303-NR allow restricted minor repairs such
as shims. These and such other tace aomarance characterastics as knots, knotholes, spiits, etc.. are limited by
both size and numbr in accordance with panel grades,
303 OC being most restrictive and 303-30 being least.
Multiple repairs are permitted only on 303-18 and 303-30
panels. Patch size is restricted on all panel grades. For
additional inforrution,
including finishing recommenda
tions, see APA Product Guide:303
Plywood Siding,
E300.
APA C-C PLUGGED

For use as underlaymentover structuralsubfloor,refrigeraled or controlledatmosphereslorage rooms, pallet bins,
tanks, truck tlmrs, linings and other exterior applications.
Touch-sanded.ExposureDurabilitvClassitication:Exterior.
r,
Commonthicknesses:3la,,lz)sln, 'le, 231
sz;3lo, lsz
2. Check lrcal availabilitv.

3. "Clear"
4. "Overlaid" (e.9., Medium Density Overlay sidingI
5. "Natural Rustic"
Use where appearanceof both sides is imoortantfor interior applicalions

suchas builtins,cabrnets,turnrture.oarlr.
tions; and exteftorapplicationssuch as fences, signs.
boats. shippingcontainers,tanks, ducts. etc. Smoothiur
faces suitablefor painting.ExposureDurabilityClassifications:Interior,Exposure1, xterior.Commonthicknesses:
'/o, 3/",'lr. 5ls,3lo.6r
APA A.B
Foruse whereappearance
of one side is lessimoortantbut
where two solidsurfacesare necessaryExposureDurability
Classitications:Interior, Exposure 1, Exierior. Common
./o,3| I 5/a,.1
thicknesses:
e,' z,
o.t6'
APA PERFORMANCE-RATED
PANELS.',,,
APA.RATED
SHEATHING
Specially designed for subflooring and wali and rool sheath

ing. Also good for broad range of other construction and
industrial applications. Can be manufactured as a conventional veneered pllryood, as a composite. or as a nonvepanel.
neered
For special engineered
applications,
veneered panels conforming to PS1 may be required. Exposure Durability Classitications: Exterior, Exposure 1, Exposure 2. Common thicknesses: 5l.a,3la,1/,a, 1lz,5la,3l* 15/o
APA STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING
I AND
II RATED
Unsanded all-veneer PSl plywood grades for use where

strength is of maximum imponance; for box beams, gusset
plates, stressed-skin panels, containers. pallet bins. Structural lis more commonly available. Exposure Durability
Classifications: Exterior, Exposure 1. Common thicknesses:
t]
tt6,
3t
ta,
1|
t2,
1At
t32,
t9t
,1L
at
231
rat
t3),
STURD-I-FLOOR
APA OECORATIVE
For combination subfloor-underlayment on 32- and 48,inch

spans and for heavy timber roof construclion. Manufactured only as conventional veneered pivwood. Available
squaredged or tongue-and-g.ooved. Exposure Durability
Classifications: Exposure 1. Thickness: 1'ls.
Rough-sam, brushed, grooved. or other faces. For paneling, inlerior accent walls, built-ins. counter facing, exhibit
displays. Can also be made by some manufacturers in Exterior for siding, gable ends, fences, etc. Use recommendations tor exterior panels vary with the particular product:
check with manufacturer. Exposure Durability Classifjcations: Interior, Exposure 1. Exterior. Common thicknesses:
5l,a,3la,'h,'le.
NOTES
RATEO
APA HIGH.DENSITY
PANELs
OVERLAY
(HDO)
Has a hard semi{paque

resin-fiber ovrlay both sides.
Abrasion-rsistant. For concrete forms, cabinets, counter,
tops, signs. tanks. Also available with skid-resistant screeft
grid surface. Exposure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior.
Common thicknesses: 3/a, \| z, 5| e, 3/ o.
APA MEDIUM.DENSITY
OVERLAY
(MDO}
Smooth, opaque. resin-fiber overlay one or both sides.

ldeal base for paint. indoors and outdoors. Available as a
303 Siding. Exposure Durability Ctassification: Exterior.
Common thicknesses: 11
lzz, 31a,.lz,5la,31, 1.lsz,,slsz,23/tz
APA MARINE
ldeal lor boat hulls. Made only wath Dougtas fir or western
larch. Special solid-iointed core construction. Subiect to
special limitations on core gaps and tace repairs. Also available with HDO or MDO taces. Exposure Durabiljty Classification: Exterior. Common thicknesse s: . lo.3l",'/2. 5/e,3lo.
SHEATHING
Hardboard lace on both sides. Faces tempered, untem

pered, smooth, or screened. For countertops, shelving,
cabinet doors, flooring, etc. Exposure Durability Classifica
tions: lnterior, Exposure 1, Exterior. Common thicknesses
Specially designed as combination subfl@r-underlavment.

Provdes smooth surface for application of carpet and pad
and possesses high concentrated and load impact resistance. Can be manutactured as a nonveneered panel. Avaif
able squaredged
or tongue,and{rooved.
Exposure
'1,
Durability Classifications: Exterior, Exposure
Exposure 2.
u/",.r/rr,.,
Common thicknesses.." /
o.
"r,
APA.RATED STURD.I.FLOOR
4A OC (2-4-l \
APA SPECIALTY
BloodgoodSharp.BusterArchitectsand planners;Des Moines,lowa

American PlywoodAsseiation; Tacoma,Washinqton
APA PLYRON
APA-RATED
I-I I
APA SANDED
AND TOUCH.
SANDED
PANELSii,
II
For open soffits, builtins. ble reels.walkwavs,separator

boards,and other interior or protectedapplications.Not a
substitutetor underlayrent or APA{ated Stur+l-Flooras it
lacks puncture resistance. Exposure Durability Classifications: lnterior,Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:%, 1/r,r%2,
5/e,23la,3lo.
Special 3o3-Siding panel with groovesl/a in. deep,3/. in.

wide, spaced 4 or 8 in. o.c. Other spacings may be avail;ble
on special order. Edges shiplapped. Available unsanded.
textured, and other surfaces. Exposure Classitication: Exte
rior. Thicknesses: r%? and % only.
I ANO
APA C-D PLUGGED
6. "Synthetic Rustic"
APA TEXTURE
CLASS
FOR SANOED
PANELS
AND
PERFORMANCE-
1. Specify performance-rated panels by thickness and span

.ating. Span ratings are based on panel strength and stilfness. Since these properties are a function of panel composition and configuration as well as thickness, the same
span rating may appear on panels ot different thickness.
Conversely, panels of the same thickness may be
marled with diiferent span ratings.
2. All plies in Structural I panels are limited to Group 1 species. St.uctural ll panels are seldom available.
3. Exterior sanded panels. C-C Plugged, C-D Plugged, and
Underlayment grades can also be manufactured in Structural | {all plies limited to Group 1 species).
4. Some manufacturers also produce panels with premium
Ngrade veneer on one or both faces. Available onlv bv
specral order.
5. Can also be manufactured in Structural | (all olies limited
to Group 1 sDecres)
6. Also available in "lsz, ,5/zz,,slsz,23lsz
in. thicknesses_
PlywoodUses
EXTERIOR TYPE PANELS
APPEARANCE'
GRADEI
INTERIOR
THICKNESS
COMMON
USES
(IN.)
TYPE
PANELS
APPEARANCE?
GRADEl
357
VENEER
THICKNESS
(IN.)
bothsidesare visible.
Smoothface; suitablefor
paanting
side asless importantbul
two solid surfacesare
neeoeo
Utrlrtypanel;alsousedas
base for exteriorcoatings
on walls and roofs
wood has a hard,semie
paqueresinfiber overlayon
both faces.Abrasionresistant.Use fo. concrete
lorms, cabinets;suitable
tor permanentexterior
exposurewithout further
finishing
PANELS.INT
sides;temperedsmooth
or screenedfor counters
ano ooots
tural subfloor. Provides
smooth surface for application of carpet and pad.
Touch-sanded. Also available with axterior glue
ing tile backing,cable

reels,walkways,separator boards.Not a substitute for
UNDERLAYMENT
OT
STURDI-FLOOR
as it
lackstheirindentation
resistance.Touchsanded.Also made with
extenorglue
such as V{roove, channel

grmve, striated,brushed.
rougn sawn
Specaal 303 panel having
grooves 1/4 in. deep. 3E in.
wide, spaced4 or 8 in. o.c.i

other spacingoptional.
Edgesshiplapped.Available unsanded,textured.
and medium{ensity overlay
PERFoRMANcE
RATED,,5
TH IC KN ESS
GRADE
C.C PLUGGEDETT
exteriorglue for sheathing and subflooring.Specify Exposure1 treated

wood foundations
tural subfloor.Provides
smooth surfacefor application of carpet and pad.
Touch-sanded.
high reuse factor.Sanded

both sides and milhiled
unlessotheMise specified. Specialrestrictionson
species.Also availablein
HDO tor very sm@th mncrete finish.
PERFORMANCE
GRADE
RATED,
COMMON
THICKNESS
USES
gradeswhere plywood
strengthpropeniesare of
maximumimportance.
Made only with exterior
glue for beams,gusset
plates,and stressed-skin
paners
EXP1 and2
and underlaymentunder
carpetand pad. Specify
Exposure1 where moisture is present.Available
in tongue and gr@ve
underlaymenton 32 and
48 in. spansand for heavy
timber roofs-Touchsandedor tully $nded
NOTES_EXTERIOR
AND INTERIOR PANELS
1Available in Grcup 1,2,3, 4, or 5 unless otheruise noted.
2 Standard 4 x 8 oanel sizesi other sizs available.
EXT
SHEATHING
EXT.
SHEATHING
EXP1
underlaymenl undercarpel
and pad where severe
moisture conditions exist
(e.9., balcony decks).
Touch-sanded and tongue
and groove.
3 Also available in Structural l.

1 Maximum recommended support spacing for roofs and floors is indicated in sheathing and
single layer floor trademarks. Wall span ratings are included in rated siding panels
5 xposure 2 allowed but not typically produced3 Special improved grade for structural panels.
7 Special construction to resist indentation from concentrated loads.
3 Interior type panels with exterior glue are indentified as Exposure L
e Also available as nonveneer or composite panels.
David S. Collins,FAIA:American Forest & PaoerAssociation;Cincinnati,Ohio
SHEATHING
Woll qnd RoofSheothing
358
WOOO
t6
FRAMING
0.c
rlz" ntcl
DENS|TY FIBERBoARD
INSTALLED
VERTICALLY
SHEATHING
(SPACE
AT CORNERS
FOR BRACING
NAILS 6,, O C . 3,' O C. AT EDGES)
HORIZONTAL
ALOCKING
STRAP
SPACE STUDS
l6'o.c. FoR
CORNER BRACING
SPACE
ENDS
r/2 SHEET oF PLYwooo

AS STARTER SHEET
SPACE NAILS I2''
'
VERTICALLY
IN
PLYWOOD
FIELD
WALL
SHEATHING
FIBERBOARD
UP
FIBERBOARD
SHEATHING
INSTALLEO
HORIZONTALLY
TYP. (SPACE
NAIE a" O.C..
4 0.c. AT
(HORIZONTAL)
Lff
IN I X 4 OR STEEL
CORNER
BRACING.
IF
LONG DIMENSION
JOINTS
LEAVE I/a,. GAP AT EDGES AND ENDS UNLESS

O T H E R W I S ER E C O M M E N D E DB Y M A N U F A C T U R E R
DOUBLE TOP PUTE
v,GROOVE
JOINT
RATED SHEATHING
WITH
INSTALLED
ACROSS
VERTICAL
STAGGER
STUDS:
STUDS
24''
O.C,
MAX
HORIZONTAL BLOCKING
SPACE
FRAMING
WALL
O.C
SHEATH I NG
SPACE NATLS 12" O.C.,

6" O.C AT ENDS
PANEL
RATED SHEATHING USED AS CORNER

BRACING: INSTALL WITH LONG
DIMENSION PARALLEL TO STUOS
SIDING MATERIAL
PAPER
OVER BUILOING
STRUCTURAL
NAILS
O.C
INSTALL
PANEL
SHEATHING
WITH
LONG DIMENSION
ACROSS
SUPPORTS
STAGGER
VERTICAL
JOINTS
CLIPS
TONGUE,AND.GROOVED
EDGES, OR BLOCKING
UNDERNEATH
IF REOUIREO
ROOFING
GYPSUM
SHEATHING
INSTALLED
HORIZONTALLY
(SPACE NAILS
a"o c.)
NOTE
GYPSUM SHEATHING INSTALLED

VERTICALLY FOR CORNER BRACING
(SPACE NAILS I 2" O.C. AND USE ADHESTVE)
FELT
ROOF FRAMING
24" O.C.
SHINGLES
OR
SHAKES
ON ROOFING
FOIOW
ROOFING
MANUFACTURER'S
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR ROOFING
FELTS
RATED SHEATHING
LEAVE r/6" GAP AT
ENDS AND EDGES
UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENDEO BY
MANUFACTURER
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE

I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
EXPOSURE TO WEATHER OR
USE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS
Nail sidingthrough gypsum board to studs; refer to manu

facturer'srecommandationsfor specific installationinstruc!ons.
Cover roof sheathing as soon as possible with roofing telt for xtra protection from moisture before rmfing is applied.
GYPSUM BOARD
STRUCTURAL
ROOF SHEATHING
SHEATHING
MATERIALS
SHEATHING
NOTE
CHA,RACTERISTI
STRUCTURAL
Nailable base
Yes
Vaporbarrier
No
No
lf asphalt-tr6ated
Yes
lnsulation R value
( 12 in. thickness)
1.2
o.7
2.6
Varieswith manufacturer
Corner bracing provided
ves
Yes (see manuOnly highdensity

facturer'srecommendataons)
4x8,4x9,4x10
2 x8,4 x8,
4x10,4x12,
4x 14
rel sizes (ft, except

sticin in.)
Panelthickness{in.)
Other remarks
INSUUTION CAN BE EXTENDED

BELOW FROST LINE FOR
RIGID
INSULATION
David S.
Collins,FAIA;Ameracan
Forest& PaperAssociation:
Cincinnati,
Ohio
SHEATHTNG
/^
t( )t
Y/
SHEATHING
7;i' "'!;
SHEATHING
GYPSUM
No
"'
FIBERBOARD
Only highdensity
4x8,4x9,
4x10,4x12
t' v'2 5le23

tsz3/o
Plywoodgradescommonlyused
for roof and wall sheathinghave
span ratingsof 12l0, 1610,2OlO,
2410,24/16,32116,40120,and
4824; exposuredurabilityclassificationsare Exposure1 and
Exterior.For unsupported
edges,reter to manulacturer's
recommenoalrons.
PLASTIC
No
NO
16 x 96, 24 x 48,
224 x96, 48 x96,
48x108
r/, to 6 (for roof)
Fire-rated panels are available in

r/, and 5/6in.
thicknesses.
Also called insulation board. Can

be treated or
impregnatedwith
asphalt. Available in regular
and high{ensity
panels.
Considered
an
eftective vaporbarrier. so walls must
be well vented.
Some products
emit toxic fumes
when burned;refer
to manufacturer's
specifications.
PlywoodSubflooringon Wood Froming

CARPET
AND PAD
BLOCKING
WITH
SOUARE
EDGE PANELS
APA RATED
STURD].FLOOR
16.20,24,32
OR 4a O.C.-
3S9
UNDERLAYMENT
NAILING SCHEOULE
U^se3d ring shank nails lor undertaymenr up to ,/, in. thickness,4d forr%, in. and thicker. Use
16 gauge slaples, except thal 18 gauge may be used with 'L in. thick underlayment. Crown
wrdth should b % in. for 16 gauge staptes, 3/16in. for 18 gauge. Length should be sutficient to
penetrate subllooring at least % in or extend completely through. Space fasteners at
3 in.
along panel edges and 6 in. each way in the panel interior, excepi for i,/3, rn. or thacker under_
layment applaedwith ring shank nails. In this case, use 6 in. spacing alongedges and g in. spac_
rng each way in the panel interior. Unless subfloor and joists are of thoroughly seasoned
material and have remained dry during construction, countersink nail heads below surface of
r/3, in. lf
the underlayment iust prior lo laying linish floars to avoid nail popping.
- Space joints
thin resilient flooring is to be applied, fill and thoroughly sand joints.
WOOO FLOORING
OR LIGHMEIGHT
END
LEAVEr/s" sPActNG
AT ALL EDGE ANO ENO
JOINTS
CONCRETE
TONGUE AND GROOVE EDGES

(OR PROVIDE 2.' LUMBER
BLOCKING BryEEN
SUPPORTS)
JOINTS (UNLESS
OTHERWISE
SPECIFIEO
BY MANUFACTURER)
APA RATED STURD-I-FLOOR

ILED
I N T E R ME D I A T E
LAVE r/s" sPAcE

AT ALL PANEL END
AND EDGE JOiNTS
(UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENOO BY
PANEL MANUFACTURER)
APA PANEL SUBFLOORING'

PANEL
(tN.)
NOTES
1. For conditionsnot listed,see APA literature.
2. Use only APA SpecificationAFG{I adhesives,propedy applied. Use only solvent based
glues on nonveneeredpanelswith sealedsurfacesand edges.
3. 8d common nails may be substitutedif ring or screw-shanknailsare not available.
4. lOd common nailsmay be substitutedwith 1 r/sin. panelsif supponsare well seasoned.
5. Spacenails6 in. for 48 in. spansand 12 in. for 32 in. spans.
TILE, CARPET,
SHEET GOODS,
OR OTHER
NONSTRUCTURAL
FLOORING
THICKNESS
NOTES
1. Appliesto APA rated sheathinggradesonty.
2. The spansassure plywmd continuousover two or more spanswith long dimensionacross
suppons.
3. In sore nonrelidentialbuildings.specialconditionsmay requireconstructionin excess o{
minimum given.
4. May be 24 in.ll3L in. wood strip flooringis instatledat right anglesto joists.
5. Spansar limited to the wlues shown becauseol the possibleeffect of concentratedloads.
SUBFLOORING NAILING SCHEOULE
F o t 7 l $ i n .p a n e l , u s e 6 d c o m m o n n a i l s a t 6 i n . o . c . a t p a n e l e d g| e2 si n, . o . c . a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
supports-Forr%, to % in. panels,use8d commonnailsat 6 in.o.c.at paneledges,j 2 in o.c.at
intermediatesupports.For 1r/Band 1rl. in. panelsup to 48 in. span,use I 0d common nails6 in.
o.c.at paneledgesand6 in. o.c.at intermediate
supports.
APA PLYWOOD
UNOERUYMENT
SANDED FACE
STAGGER
END JOINTS
CARPff
AND PAD
PRovlDEt/32SPACE BETWEEN
UNDERUYMENT
BUN JOINTS
SITE APPLIED GLUE

BOTH JOIST AND
TONGUE AND
GROOVE JOINT
APA RATED SHEATHING

OR BOARD SUBFL@RING
(STAGGER OPTIONAL
UNOER CARPfl ONLY)
PLY\^/OOD
NO BLOCKING REOUIRED
IF UNOERUYMENT JOINTS
ARE OFFSET FROM
SUBFLOOR JOINTS
UNDERLAYMENT
PLYWOOD GRADES
SPECIES GROUP
AND
MIN. PLYWOOD
THICKNESS (IN
APA RATEO
STURD-FFLOOR
16.20.24_ 32.
oR 4a' o
LEAVE r/a" sPAcE AT
ALL ENOS ANO EOGE
JOINTS (UNLESS
OTHERWISE RECOMMENOEO
BY PANEL MANUFACTURER
TONGUE
AND GROOVE
EOGES (OR PROVIDE
2"
LUMBER
BLOCKING
BryEEN
SUPPORTS)
2" JOTST
INT-APA (with interior or exterior glue), ot
wide. Face grain must b

perpendicular to boards
NOTE S
1. For tile, carpeting, sheet goods, or other nonstructural flooring (consult Tile Council of America for recommendations regarding ceramic tilel.
2. Where floors may be subject to unusual moisture conditions, use panels with exterior glue
(Exposure 1) or UNDERLAYMENT C{ Plugged EXT'APA. C-D Plugged is not an adequate
substitute for underlayment grade, since it does not ensure equivalent dent resistance.
3. Recommended grades have a solid surface backed with a spcial inner ply construction that
resists punch-through and dents from concentrated loads.
GLUED FLOOR SYSTEM

'1.
For complete information on glued floors, including joist span tables (based on building code
criteria and lumber sizes), application sequence. and a list of recommended adhesives, contact the American Plywood Ass@iation.
2, Place APA STURD-I-FLOOR T&G across the joists with end joints staggered. Leave '/s in.
space at all end and edge ioints.
3. Although tongue and groove is used more often, square edge may be used if 2 x 4 blocking
is placed under panel edge joints between joists.
4. Based on live l@d of 40 pst, total load ot 50 psf, deflection limited to 1660 at 40 psf.
5. Glue to ioists and at tongue and groove joints. lf square edge panels are used, block panel
edges and glue betreen panels and between panels and blocking.
GLUEO
FLOOR
NAILING
SCHEOULE
Panels should be secured with power driven tasteners or nailed per APA STURD-I-FLOOR
table, above.
Bloodgood, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners; Des Moines, lowa

American Plyw@d Ass@iation; Tacoma, Washington
SHEATHING
PlywoodSheothingfor Roofsqnd Soffils
360
APA RATEO
SHEATHING
PROTECT EDGES
OF EXPOSURE 1
AND 2 SHEATHING
AGAINST
EXPOSURE
SHIM AT EACH
RAffER
FOR
FLUSH JOINI
AT CHANGE
OF
PANEL
THICKNESS
LEAVE I/s'' SPACE AT ALL

PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS
(UNLESS OTHERWISE
R E C O M M E N D E DB Y
MANUFACTURER)
APA RATED
SHEATHING
TO
WEATHER
ROOFING
DIRECTION OF
FACE
SHINGLES
OR
(FOLLOW
SHAKES
MANUFACTURER'S
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR ROOFING
FELT)
GRAIN
OIRECTION OF
LONG OIMENSION
CONTINUOUS
SCREENED VENT
OR EOUALLY SPACEO
LOUVERED VENTS
ANY APPROPRIATE
EXTERIOR OR
EXPOSURE PANEL
GRADE OF ADEOUATE
SPAN RATING TO
CARRY OESIGN
ROOF LOADS
ANY APPROPRIATE
GRADE
OF EXTERIOR
APA
PLYWOOD
FOR SOFFIT
OPEN
CLOSED SOFFIT
SOFFIT
EXTERIOR
COMBINED
OPEN
SOFFITS/
CEILING
DECKING
PANEL DESCRI PTIONS,

MINIMUM
RECOMMENOATIONS
r%2" APA sandedand MDO

A,PAsandedand MDO
APA 303 siding
APA snded and MDO
MAXIMUM
EXTERIOR
SOFFITS
CLOSED
APA RATED
SHEATHING
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE
I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
EXPOSURE TO WEATHER. OR USE
EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS
EXTERIOR
PLY\^/OOD
SOFFIT
APA RATED
SHEATHING
PANEL EDGES
SHOULO HAVE
BLOCKED EDGES, PANEL
CLIPS- OR TONGUE
ANO GROOVED EDGES
NOMINAL
PLYWOOD
THICKN ESS
1 , ' t , 34,
1,2,3,4
BUILT.UP
ROOFING
t, z,3
1,2,3,4
1.2.3.4
EXTERIOR OR
EXPOSURE PANELS
AT OPEN SOFFITl
,l
r%r" APA snded and MDO

'?%r" APA 303 siding
'3132" APA rnded and MDO
PLYWOOD
GABLE.ROOF
'1
NOTE
1, 2 , 3 ,4
1. 2 . 3 .4
Plywoodis assumdto be continuousacross two or more

spanswith face grainacrosssupports.
LEAVE r/e" sPAcE AT ALL

PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS
(UNLESS
OTHERWISE
RECOMMENOED
BY
NAILING SCHEDULE
NOTES
1. Plvwod is assumed to be continuous across two or
more spanswith face grainacrosssupports.
2. For spansof 32 or 48 in. in open soffit construction,provide adequate blocking, tongue and gr@ve edges, or
other supportsuch as panel clips. Mjnimum loads are at
least 30 psf live load. plus 10 psf dead load.
MANUFACTURER)
For closed soffits, use nonstainingbox or casing nails,6d

lot t1/32in. and r5l., in. panels and 8d for 1%, in. panels.
Spacenails6 in. at panel edges and 12 in. along intermediate supportsfor spansless than 48 in.; 6 in. al all supports
for 48 in. soans.
FLAT LOW-PITCHED
ROOF
APA PANEL ROOF SHEATHING

MAXIMUM
SPAN
(IN.)
NAIL SPACING
PANEL SPAN
RATING
SELF.ORILLING
SELF-TAPPING
INTERMEOIATE
DECK
scRss
BAR JOIST
FUNGE
BAR JOIS
STAPLING
WEB
SPACES
(IN}
INTERMEOIATE
DECK
COMMON
NAILS
2X4WOOO
NAILER (MAY BE
INSTALLED ACROSS
JOISTS)
BAR JOIST FUNGE

BAR JOIST WEB
CARRIAGE BOLT
OR UG SCREW
CONNECTIONS
JOIST
TO
OPEN
WEB
STEEL
Bloodg@d, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners: Des Moines. lowa

American Plywood Assoctation; Tacoma, Washrngton
SHEATHING
NAILING SCHEDULE
NOTES
Use 6d commonsm@th, ring shank,or spiralthreadnails

for plywoodl/2in. thickor thinnerand 8d for plywoodto 1
in. thick.Use8d ringshankor spiralthreador 10dcommon
smoothfor 24-l and 1 '/s in. panels.Spacenails6 an.at
paneledges and 12 in. at intermediatesupports,except for
48 in or longerspanswhre nailsshouldbe spaced6 in at
ail suppo.ts.
1. fuplicable to APA rated panel sheathing.

2. All panels will support at least 30 psf live load plus 10 pst
dead load at maximum soan. Unitorm load deflection
limit is 11180 span under live load plus dead load. or 1/
240 under live load only.
3. Special conditions may require construction in excess of
the given minimums.
4. Panel is assumed to be continuous across two or more
spans with long dimension across suppons.
SplitRingWood Trusses
SPLICE PUTE
--=-\
GENERAL
The first wood trusses were developd for bridge design.
with the kingpost truss the earliest form. lt uses a primirv
engineering principle: a triangle will hold its shaoe under a
load untir rts srde members or its ioints are crushed.
SPLII
RING
CONNECTORS
WITH
3/a '
DtA
BoLTS
ROOF
36r
PURLIN
VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS

EXTENOEO TO SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS
(OR JOISTJ
CENTERPOST
WOOD BLOCKING
SPLIT
RING
KINGPOST
Next came lhe queenposttruss, in which the peak of rhe

krngpostwas replacedby a horizontalcrosspieceto allow a
rongerDase.
SPLICE PUTE
VERTICAL WEB
MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS(OR
JOISTS)
WOOD BLOCKING
WOOO
PURLIN
SPLIT RING
CONNECTORS
3/4- DtA- BoLTs
QUEENPOST
Furtheramplificationspermitted greater flexibilityto overcome different spanningchallengesand to integratevarious combinationsof inclined wood braces. wood arches.
steel tension rods-etc.
WITH
-
NOTES
SPLICE PUTE
j in.per 40 ft spanwilt
1.A built-incamberof approximately
be introducedin the top and bottom chordsduring fabrication.
2. When lumber is not adequatelyseasoned,the trusses
should be inspectedperiodicallyand adjusted.if necessary,until moistureequilibriumis reached.
3. These truss designs are meant only as a guide. To
develop specitic designs, including bracingand anchorage.consult a structuralengineer.
PIYCHED HOWE
WOOD
BLOCKING
6;;
WOOD PURLIN
PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS
SPECIAL GROOVE
CUT IN BOTH WOOD
MEMBERS
OR
CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/4' Dta.
BOLTS
S P L I T R I N G C' O
, NNECTOR
2't2'
ANO 4
TNSTDE OtA
BELGIAN
SPLICE
PLATE
SPLIT RING CONNECTOR
WOOO
PURLIN
3/4- otATHREADED
PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
EXTENOED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS OR JOISTS
SPLICE
wooo TRUss
MEMBER
/- NUr
anotr.r.
qt
(
SPECIAL CUT,OUT
(DAP} FOR SHEAR
PUTE
SHEAR PLATE
2tl2' aND 4 "
tNstoE
otA. /
SUSPENDED
ROD
(OPTIONAL)
PLATE
FINK
Pitched trusses are very economical for spans up to 70 ft

(with an average spacing of 15 ft), since the rember sizes
are small, the joint details relatively simple, and the trusses
easily fabricated.
All pitched trusses require either knee braces to columns or
some other provision for lateral restraint against wind or
other forces,
PITCHED TRUSSES
SPLICE PUTE
A typical span (l) / depth (d) ratio for the Pratt, Howe, or Belgian truss is 4 to 6, which gives a relatively norrul slope of
4:12 lo 6:12. Fink trusses are prelerred where the slope is
steep (over 7:12). Scissors trusses and other typs of
raised lower chord pitched roof trusses are used for spcial
conditions where clearance or appearance requirs an
arched bottom chord. Consult with structural enoineer to
check deflection.
STEEL GUSSff
PUTE
SHEAR PLATE
AOLT
N OTE
Shear plate connctors are commonly used to connect
wood lruss members to steel gusset plates but may be
used to connect wood to wood.
CONNECTORS
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland
WOODTRUSSES
362
wooD
PURLINS
WOOD
PLAIE
SPLICE
3lo" Drn. tnnseoeo

SUSPENSION
sreeL
ROD

EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
SPLIT
RING
CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/.' otA. BoLTS
NOTE
A greatercenterdepthminimizesde{lection
andthrusl on walls.
WOOD (OR STEEL)
KNEE BRACE
MAY CONNECI
WITH SPLIT RINGS
AT TOP ANO/OR
BOTTOM
CHORD
sctssoRs
PITCHED TRUSSES
u-f7T-T-'-l// | \l_,-^->
?ltl
iEo.i
SPLIT
CONNECTORS
ffi
NOTE
Kneebracesare useful whr6 buildingsupportsdependon
truss lor stability.
DETAIL-KNEE
RING
WOOO
SPLICE
PUTE
WOOD
PURLINS

EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS
(OR JOISTS)
wtrH 3/." DtA. BoLTS
BRACE
METAL FRAMING
ANCHOR
(WHERE POSSIBLE
EXTEND TRUSS
WEB MEMBR TO
MAKE CONNCTION)
SEGMENTAL
BOWSTRING
VERTICAL WEB MEMEERS

EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
TRUSS
TOP
CHORD
MEMBERS
wooD
JOIST (OR
PURLINS)
Top chord lateral bracing is achieved by fastening roof

sheathingto joistsor purlins,which are securely fastened
to the truss.
DETAIL-BRACE
TO TRUSS
OF JOIST AND PURLIN

SPLIT RING CONNECTORS
3/." DrA. BoLTs
wtrH
WOOD TRUSS
SEGMENTAL
BOWSTRING
wooD Jorsrs
UMINATED
CHORD
UMINATED
TOP
OR SOLID
WEB VEMBERS
ffi
SHEAR PUTES
wlrH 3/a" Dta. BoLTS
AT TRUSS ENDS
NOTE
All members in same plane use
metal gusset plates for web to
chordconnections.
ONLY
VERTICAL
SWAY BRACING
OF STEEL
RODS
oR wooo
rN
END SECTIONS
MlN. i ONE lN
MID.SPAN
FOR
LONG SPANS
CONTINUOUS UTERAL
BRACING RUNS FULL LENGTH
OF BUILDING FASTENED TO AONOM
CHORD OR WEB MEMBERS NEAR CHORD
DETAIL--.-LATERAL
S\MAY BRACING
AND
VERTICAL
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
Rachard
J. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudiojCrownsville,
Marvland
WOODTRUSSES
STEEL
BOWSTRING
Bowstring trusses are theoretically the most efficient and

economical of all wood truss types for larger spans, panicularly over 80 ft. although spans up to 250 tt are obtainable.
Conneclions are simple and designed to give minimum
stresses to the web members. A typical span (1)/depth {d)
ratio for bowstring trusses is 6 to 8.
BO\/vSTRING
TRUSSES
SPLICE
PLATE
Connections and knee brace requirements are samalar to

that of pitched trusses, since lateral load forces have a sim
ilar etfect on them. The bottom chord members may also
be glue laminated to eliminate splices.
363
WOOO TRUSS
WOOD SPLICE PUTE
r*"""
SPLIT^RING
CONNECTORS
wrTH 14" DtA AOLTS\
PURLINS
STEEL
THROUGH
BOLT
UG

EXTEND TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BOLT
ANGLE
TOP CHORD MAY BE

SLOPED
SLIGHTLY
TO
ACCOMMOOATE
DRATNAGE
REOUIREMENTS
BARING
TOP
PUTE
PUTE
BUILT-UP
POST OF
2X
.DETAIL-STEEL
WOOD PLATE
ANGLE
BRACE TO
FUT
PRATT
BEARING
PLATE
wooo
TRUSS
wooD
STRAPS
SPLIT^RING
CONNECTORS
WITH 9L" OIA. BOLTS
..-
WOOO PURLINS
SPLIT RING
CONNECTORS
wtTH 3/4" otA.
BOLTS
TOP CHORO
MAY BE
SLOPED
SLIGHTLY
TO
ACCOMMODATE
DRAINAGE
REOUIREMENTS
WEA MEMAERS
EXTEND TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BUILT-UP
POST TO
MATCH
TRUSS
WIDTH
NOTE
End grain baring of posts provides suppon for the truss-
DETAIL-\^|OOD
COLUMN
STRAP
AT r^r'OOD
FLAT HOWE
WOOD SPLICE PLATE

SPLIT^RING
CONNECTORS
wtTH r/4" DtA. BOLTS
\
ROOF
SHEATHING
ROOF
JOISTS
TOP CHORD MAY BE

SLOPEO SLIGHTLY TO
ACCOMMODATE ORAINAG
REOUIREMENTS
This detailfor uss with light wnical and horizontall@ds.
DETATL--srEeu
FRlmrNc
ANc HoR
o o'o,
,o. o
wooD
TRUSS
THROUGH
AOLT
ANCHOR
BOLT
MORTAR
WARREN
CMU
WOOD BLOCKING
BffiEEN
WEB MEMAERS
N OTE
Flat trusses are generallyless economicalthan oitched or

bowstring trusses, since connections are usuallv more
complicated and higher side walls are required. But
becauseof their geometry.flat trus$s allow th smallest
rof area versuspitchedor bowstring trussesfor the same
span. As in pitched trusses. the maximum soan for flat
trussesis about 70 ft.
With scissor trusses, use slotted holes in steel to allow for

thrust.
A typil span (1)/depth{d) ratio for all types of flat trusses

rs generallyI to 10.
DETAIL_BEARING
FLAT TRUSSES
(GROUT
BEARING
PUTE
ON MASONRY
WALL
Combinationsof flat truss types are sometimesuseful. For

Instance,
a t.ussmay be builthavingone-haltprattandone_
half Howe design.Warren t.usses mav have ends ol erther
Pran or Howe designsincorporated,dependrngon the typ
ot support.In general,Warren trusses are used for shoner
spans.
Flat trussesdo not requireknee bracessincethe uorer and
lower chordstake the placeof a laterargrace.
TECOProducts;Collier,West Viroinia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville. Marutand
WOODTRUSSES
364
Wood Trusses,
Joists,ond TrussedRqfters
GENERAL
Monoplaner trussesare usually made up lrom 2 x 4
or 2 x 6 lumber. Spacing.normally 24 in. o.c., varies
lor spmial uses, esprcially in agriculture.Camber is
designed for dead load only. Bottom chord furring
generallyis not required for drywall ceiling.Joints in
plywood floor or roof should be staggered.Many
trusses are approved by model codes, such as BOCA,
I C B O .F H A , a n d S B C .
cAMBER = L(FT)
(USUAL)
60
FLOOR
REeIOENTIAL
TYPE
TRUAED
STEEL
PLATE
CONNECTED
JOIET
DUCT SIZES
DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE

OF DUCTWORK
to
20"
DEPTH
12"
Ease of running electrical and mechanicalservicm

through framing is a major advantageof trussedjoists.
Most manufacturec provide a large rectangularopen
panelat midspan;this void will generallyaccommodatea trunk line.
SHAPE
4x9
7x 13
12"
o x tz
r0"
Sizes given here are approximations.Becauseweb

sizeand anglesvary with different brands,the designer
is utioned to verify individual sizescarefully. Note
that shapeE is the duct that will tit in a flat trusswith
double chords too and bottom.
WOOO TRUSSED
BRACING
Adequatebracingof trussesis vital. Sufficientsupport
at right anglesto plane of tru$ must be providedto
hold each trus member in its designatedposition.
Consider bracing during design, fabrication, and
erstion. In addition, provide permanent bracing/
anchorageas an integral part of the building.Strongbacks are often used,
8x14
14"
8"
n
9"
6"
13"
t0"
17"
14"
18"
RAFTERS SPANS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN
3z;1'RYrcoo
wEB,
rrerwerer
2X3
LAMINA'EO FLANGE
RESIDENTIAL LIVE LOAOS

FLOORS
55 PsF 6)
(DOUBLE
cHoRDS)
ROOFS
40 PsF (A
55 PsFad
55 PsF
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING IC TO CI
13-
12"
23-6
24-11
14"
26-4
15"
2t-7
28-7
30-6
32-4
34-0
OEPTH
tz
16"
18"
20"
22"
24"
28'
35-8
16"
24"
16"
21-O
7-1
24-O
22-O
22-11
2 3 -1 0
24-9
7-11
8-8
20- 1
30-3
32-11
26-4
27-11
26-9
22-8
23-11
30-10
25-O
34-8
JO-
4 1- 6
JZ
44-3
36"
47-O
24"
16',
21-4
18-2
23-3
24-5
t 9 -1 0
25-O
26-9
28-0
zo-q
28-1
21-4
22-9
23-11
30-11
33-6
35-7
3 7 -1 0
35-5
37-8
28-7
30-4
40- 1
JZ-5
48"
COMMERCIAL
FLOORS
80 PsF aD)
LIVE
24"
16"
3 1 -1 0
35- 1
12"
12"
19-0 ,
14"
21-4
16"
23-6
25-A
20"
24"
16".
32"'
16"
17-3
19-4
2l-5
?3-4
24-10
27-S
27-8
31-6
27-7
za- |
Jd-u
47- 1
24"
1 5 -1
12"
17 - 3
i6-6
19-4
1 7 -1 0
19-0
t6"
38-1
43-l0
49-2
52-9
56-3
60-0
JO-
53-3
12"
16"
16-0
14-7
l2-4
14-9
r8-0
16-4
13-6
21-5
t7-7
t9-5
15-11
l9- 10
17-11
14-6
23-4
21-O
t7-o
I 8-0
23-4
1 9 -t 0
25-11
20-3
22-4
19-11
29-1
JO-
28-5
J+-O
30- 1
25-1
34-6
31-4
27-4
23-2
32-0
42-9
JO-
42-9
38-10
32-3
?o_e
Top chord live load

Top chord dead load
Bonom chord dead load
40 psf
10 psf
5 psf
20 psf
10 psf
l0 psf
Total load
@ 55 psf
@ 40 psf
NOTES
1. Spans are clear. inside to inside, for bottom chord
bearing.Valuesshom would vary very slightly for
a truss with top chord loading.
2. Spansshould not exceed 24 x depth ol truss.
3. Ocigned deflection limit under total load is Q/240
for roofs, 11360 for residential flors. and l/480
for commercialfloon
4, Bmf soansincludea +15%short term stress.
Michael Bengis,AIA Hopatcong,New Jersey
WOODTRUSSES
WEBS
24"
n
tl
!
TO
LONG
CHOROE,20
40',-AO'
GAUCE
6TEEL
19-2
22-2
ANO
45-7
t3- t
24-6
40'- 60'
l5-8
25-2
}igi"fJis#-
39-t1
42-9
120 PsF
24"
t-----t i-----t i----
27-10
30-7
33-1
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING {C TO C)

DEPTH
nl
illl iii-"**ii-\
HI
LOADS
100 PsF (A
T"x
t 8 -1
18-5
za- |
zJ-a
35 psf
'10psf
10 psf
60 psf
10 psf
10 psf
80 psf
10 psf
10 psf
100 psf
10psf
10 psf
@ 55 psf
@ 80 psf
@100psf
@120psf
5. Asterisk{'l indietes that tru$ has double chords,

top and bottom.
6. Spansshown are for only one type of lumber; in
this case-#2 Southern pine, with an fo value of
1550. Charts are availablefor other grads and
sprcies. Lumber and gmdes may be mixed in the
sme tru$, but chord size must be identical. Repetitive member bmding stressis u$d in this chart.
TYPES
OF
FABRICATED
TRU66EA
Wood JoistConnections
ruYWOOO
BEARING
ON
PLYWOOO
BOTTOM
BEARING
OPEN
STUO
EIARING
\^/EEI TRUSS
G:HORO
ON
ETUO
\^/EB
WALL
(WOOO
LEOGER
CHORDS
SOTTOM
AND
(STEEL
WEB
CHORO
BEAM
FLANGES)
TOP
CHORO
BEARINGMASONRY
WALL
WALL
TRUSS
ON
TOP
STUD
CHC)RO
WALL
BEARING
o'N
TOP
CHC)RO
BEARING
\^/OOO CHORD)
CONTINUOUS
NAILER
FOR
LATERAL
SUPPORT
BOTTOM
BEARING
CHORO
ON
6TUO
TOP
CHORO
BEARING
MAiC)NRY
WALL
\^/ALL
WEEI TRUSS
(WOOO
CHOROS
AND
ON
WEEI. METAL
CANTILEVEREO
FLOOR TRUSS
PLATE
BOTTOM
BEARING
CHORO
CONNECTORSI
TimothyB. McDonald;Washington,
D.C
WOODTRUSSES
365
WoodTruss
Construction
366
MIN
SLOPE
1 75
WP
12
PLWOOD
SHEATHING
K|NG
rcST
CryP
MAX
SPAN
APPROX
37'
ROOF
ryP,
R@F
--FUSS
XX
MODIFIED
CryP. MA.
FINK
OUEEN
SPAN.
MA.
CryP.
POST
47
APPROX.)
SPAN
27
APPROX.)
TOP AND
BOfrOM
CHORD
SPAN - 37'APPROX.)
FINK CryP. Mu.
ruBLE
STRONGBACK
mlfu
SPAN - 4A APPROX.)
W CryP. MA.
AMILEER
CNYP. Mg.
SPAN
20'
APMOX
PROTECTIVE
FUSHING
CLERESTORY
TryP,
Mg
SPAN
37'
APROX.)
TNWRTEDCryP.Md. SPAN:37 APROX.)

NOTES
'1.
The averagespacingfor light trusses {trussedrafterslis
2 ft o.c. but variesup to 4 ft. The averagecombineddead
and live loads is 45 lb per sq ft. Spans are usually
between 20 and 32 ft but can be as much as 50 ft.
2. Earlyin the design pr@ess, consult an engineeror truss
supplierfq prengineeredtruss designsto establishthe
most economil and efticient truss proponions. The
supplirmay providefinal truss engineeringdesign.
3. Perrunent and temporary rection bracing must be
installed as specified to prvent failure oI properly
designedtrGses.
4. Sore locales requirean engineer's stamp when prefab
trussesare used. Check localcodes.
5. Member forces in a truss rise rapidlyas the lower chord
is raisedabovethe horizontal.
PITCHED
CHORD
FRAMING
TRUSSES
|uTE
T@TH
ruNCHED
THROUGH PSTE
PARTICU4R
LENGTH, SHAPE, AND ruIST:
AFECT
WITHDRAWAL STRENGTH CT@TH
UERAL
RESISTANCE) -__-_
GAUGE
NET AREA
OF
SFUOURAL
STEEL
LEff
rN tuTF
aflfR
PUNCHFD
\
\-
C'ONNECTOR
RFSSED BY
"rSUBqq
&'s8ilER
FXPEe",,\f.
\,0,2
BoTH srDES oF TRUSS /
TYPICAL
METAL
PLATE CONNECTOR
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,

Maryland
WOOD TRUSSES
l--.-CONNECTOR
PUTE
HAS
ALL
ARE FORMED:
EETH
RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF
THIS UNruNCHED
STEEL
IS USED TO RANSFER
FORCES IN RUSS
JOIM:
fuTE
FOUNDA
TRUSS
TYPICAL PITCHED CHORD
ROOF TRUSS
Wood TrussConslruction
RECTANGULAR
{AT MIDSPAN.
OPENING
TYP.)
..
DUCT A -.DUCT B -.
SCISSORS
BONOM
CHORO
STRONG
BACK.
IF REOUIRED
TYPICAL
PARALLEL
CHORD
FLOOR AND
\UTERAL
BRACE. IF
REOUIRED
roT=\
'ryP.
MAX
SPAN
CETLTNCCryp
YA9LLiD
367
MA.
45'-O"
APPROX
_ 42.o-
SpaN
EEARING
CAMILEVER
ROOF TRUSS
MONO-PrCH
Cryp. Mu
- 23.
spaN
AppRox.)
DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE OF DUCTWORK
DUAL
PITCH
CryP
ME
-32''
SPAN
SPAN
NOTE:The relativeease of runningelectricaland mechani_

cal componentsthough lraming is a major advantageof a
truss roof system. Sizesgiven here are approximatelveritv
PARALLEL
CHORO TRUSS_SPANS
APPROX)
42'{"
individualsizescarefully.Duct sizesare basedon maximum

panlsizesallowableby prior arrangement.
FOR PRELIMINARY
SCISSORED
APPROX.)
DESIGN
WARREN
'NYP
MA-
SPAN
42''
T R U S S E D R A F T E R SS p A C t N G ( C T O C ) ( t N . ) - R e S t O E t t r r n r _ I O A O S
ROOFS
B.40
PSF
c. 55 PSF
c.55
PSF"
BOWSTRTNG CryP. MS
SPAN - S..
appRox.)
PITCHED TRUSSES
tl
_,V
CHORDEEB
ORIENTANON
tx
H
CHORDryEB
ORIEMATION
PARALLEL
TRUSSES
GENERAL
TRUSSED
RAFTERS
SPACING
(C TO C)(IN.)_COMMERCIAL
Metal plate{onnected
wood trusses have been used in
building construction since 1953, when the metal connector plate was invented. These proprietary metal plates are
available in a range of styles and tooth orientations. The
metat ptates are punched with barbs that grab onto the
wood truss, thus reducing the hand nailing reauired to fabri_
cate a structure. Plate size tor a given truss is based on a
combination of the tooth withdrawal strength of the plate,
the tensile and shear strength of the steel, and the nei sectional area of the lumber.
FLOOR LOADS
F. t20
PSF
This system is primarily used tor roofs with either oitched

or parallel chord trusses. lt is o6asionally employed for
fl@rs with parallel chord trusses. lndividual trusses a.e cut
lrcm2 x 4 in. ot 2 x 6 in. lumbr and can be soaced 24 in. or
48 in. o.c. For typtcal residential construction, 24 in. o.c. is
used. Exceptionally long spans are possible with metal
plateronnected trusses, allowing the large, unencumbered
Interior spaces often requjred in commercial. agricultural,
and other nonresidential building types.
B (PSF)
Top chord dead l@d
10
10
Bottom chord dead load

' indites
a doublHhorded
Camber is designed for dead load onlv:

Camber fin.) = LenSth ift)/60
E ( PSF)
truss. top and bottom.
N OTES
1. Spans are clear, inside to inside. for bottom chord bear_
ing. Values shoM woutd vary only stightly for a truss
wrth top chord lGding.
2. Designed deflection limit under total load is lf24j lol
r@ts, ,F60 for residential floors. and //4gO for commer_
cial floors.
3. Spansshouldnot exceed24 in. x depth of truss.

4. Roofspansincludea +15% short-termstress.
5. Spans shown are for only one type of lumber; in this
case--+2 Southernpine. with an fb value of I 550. Charts
are availablefor other grades and species. Lumber and
gradesmay be mixed in the same truss, but chord size
must be identical.Repetitivemember bending stress is
usedin this chan.
BRACING
Providiog adequate bracing for trusses is essential, both
during installation and in the overall roof desiqn. Truss
members must be held in place with suppons ih"t -eet
them at right angles. Truss chords and web members are
placed in a venical, plumb position and maintain that position, resisting applied design loads, throughout the liie of
the structure_ Permanent bracing and anchorage are
expecled to be an integral pan of construction, and strongbacks are often used for this DUroose.
Movement by crane can damage trusses. Crane sp.eader
bars are used to avoid this "out{f-plane" buckling. Special
strllenrng may be applied lo trusses during erection.
WOOD TRUSSES
Wood FloorTrussDetoils
368
CODE
APPROVED
ANCHOR
AT
TRUSS
EACH
\
WOOD
2X6.MIN
STRONGBACK
RESTRAINTD
AT
EACH
END
(SECURE
WITH
THREE
1@
NAILS
AT IACH
.VERTICAL)
.---\
BFAM
WOOD
TRUSS
CUT BELOW
BTAM, IF
REOUIRED
GTERAL
BRACING
(REAUIRED)
N OTE
2 X 4 VERTICAL BLOCKING.
1Od
SECURE WTH ruO
NAI S A] ]OP AND BOflOM
Locate strongbacks at maximum 10 ft o.c. at free-span

trusses.
TOP CHORD
SUPPORT
DETAIL AT
TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT

EXTERIOR BEARING WALL
WOOD ARACING,
(2X4UTDFCT).
FASENED
TO TRUSS ENDS
SOLID
TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT

INTERIOR BEARING WALL
EXTERIOR WALL
BEARING DETAIL
DIAGONAL
BRACING AT BEARING
END
WOOD GIRDER
TRIMMER
DOOR
OPENING
AND
KING
STUOS
BEARING
BEARING
2X LEreER
CONTINUOUS
TO
SUPPORT
FOUNOATION
SOLID
WOOD
BL@KING
UNDER
TRIMMERS
ABOVE
BOTTOM CHORD
BEARING WALL
SUPPORT
AT
J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile Marvland
WOODTRUSSES
LEDGER
DETAIL
BLOCKING DETAIL AT INTERIOR

BEARING WALL
Wood RoofTrussDetoils
JACK TRUSS
GABLE
ROOF OVERHANG
DETAIL
JZ1
SYSTEM
J/z-4 K K A z ( A,z
4- #=::-:
"?=6
JACK TRUSS
COMMON
COMPONENTS
-z?
.4
bA
WOOD
(HOWE
TRUSS)
END.BEARING
ROOF TRUSS WITH
METAL CONNECTORS
TRUSS
HIP
OVERHAre
-..--
JACK
ryP
STEP.DOWN
TRUSS
STEP.DOWN
COMPONENTS
SYSTEM
WEDGE
CAMLEWR
OWRHNG
AMILEWR
OWRHANG
-,.
ffi_\_+
R*f*o*t
LEWL
RruN
OVERHANG
--_|==-
+-
DETAILS
EEARING
BELOW
6MMON
W@D TRUSS
(HOWE TRUSS)
ROOF
369
INTERSECTION
WITH
VALLEY
WALL
FILL
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsviile,Marytand
WOODTRUSSES
-4/
Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
370
BEARING
BL@KING
NAILED
TOP
PGTE
BELOW
WTH
Ad NAILS
AT
6'OC..
ryP.
1 1/2" flP
TO
WOOD
ts@IST
BLOCKING
NAILED
TO TOP
PLATE
WITts
AT 6' O.C
8d NAILS
WALL
ilP.---
reB
STIFFENERS,
ryP. EACH SIDE
WHERE
REOUIRED. J
LAMINATEDVENEER
LUMBER
(OR
FLANGE
wooD)
soLrD
PLW@D
WEB
OSB
WOOD
LJOTST.
PLWOOD
OR OSB
CLOSURE
OR
--
TYPICAL rivooD
ffiB
SNFFENER
I-JOIST
IF
SIDE,
NTCESSARY
DO NOT BEWL-CUT
JOIST BEYONO
INSIDE FACE
2'-O'MU.
EEARING
MANUFACTURER'S
DETAILS)
W@D
tsJOIST AS
RIM JOIST. NAILED
TO TOP PUTE
AELOW WTH Ad
NAILS AT 6' O.C.. TYP
NOTE
Joist must b9 designed to carry the load-bearing wall.
TYPICAL
BEVEL-CUT
NAIL TO
JOIST
WEB
,,/
WEB
STIFFENER
TACH
SIDE, IF
NECESSARY.
JOIST
LEAVE 1/16' ' V'6" GAP, SEE

MANUFAftRER'S
RECOMMENDATTONS
LOAO-BEARING
CANTILEVER
DETAIL
2X SOLTD
WOOO
NAILED
TO SIDE
OF WOOD
BACKER
2X SL|O
WOOD
RIM
BOARD
BEARING
SOLID
WOOD
BACKER
WOOD
tsJOIST
WAL
MUST BE OF SUFFICIEM
WIDTH TO PROVDE THE REOUIRED
BARING
SURFACE FOR THE JOIST
WOOD
I-JOIST
AS RIM JOIST
ABOW
BEARING WTL
fuT BARING
AL@KS
r/o'ABOE
wmD
TJOIST
(SEE MANUFAfrRER'S
RECOMMENDATIONS)
7+'tuW@D
OR
OSB RIM E}OARD
SOLID WOOD
BARING
BL@KS.
MtN_
z4
&CH
SIDE
TIGHT
-.--Fr
WEB
SNFFENER
wooD
tsJOlST-
FILLER
PANEL.
IF NTCESSARY
E]EARING
E}ELOW
WEB
WALL
STIFFENER
rr' 6'
LEAVE
*.
GAP.
SEE
MANUFACruRER'S
RECoMMENDAT|oNS
EIEARING
ABOVE
/
.,
\
BEARING
1/eX
CANTILEER
LENGTH
3il.,t.r.*
| -/
LENGTH
.1'
WALL
DETAILS
A wood l-joist is made of a web with top and bottom

flanges. lt is similar in shape and profile 10 the steel lbeam,
but while the steel component is forged from a single ingot,
the w@d member is a composition. Plywood or oriented
strand board (OSBI is used lor the web of the w@d l-ioist.
and either solid lumber or laminatedveneer lumber for the
flangs. Many manufacturers produce wood l-joists under
different trade names, and each differs in its dimensions, as
well as span and deflection, loading. and performance characteristics. Consult manufacturers for dtails and oerformance cflteria.
PANELS
FOR
A MIN- OF
4''
AT EACH
END
ND
AT
LEAST
4'O'
FOR
EWRY
25'O'
OF
BARING
WALL
LENGTH
w@D
!JOIST
BEARING
BELOW
GENERAL
Compared to solid lumber, w@d

advantages and disadvantages:
).
CANTILEWR
LENGTH.
NO
CONCEN'
TRATED
(E.G,.
LOADS
BEARING
waLLS)
tN TH|S
AREA
E}EARING
BLOCKS
BEARING
WALL
NON-LOAD.EIEAFIING
CANTILEVER
DETAIL
DROPPED
BEARING
,/
ABOW
2 GYERS
7.'RW@D
OR OSB
.-e.'
WALL
PLWOOD
-wooD
OF
END
JOIM
MUST
BE
AT WOOD
FJOST
L@ION
l-joists have both relative
ADVANTAGES
1 . Easier to handle and lighter weight, with about 50yo tess
w@d material per ioist than an equivalent solid wood
memDer.
2. Makes efficient use of a nalural resource-the lioist can
be made from second and third growth timber stands,
with no need for old growth trees-
reB
STIFFENERS
EACH SIDE
WHEN
REOUIRED
W@D
LJOIST
CANTILEER
LENGTH,
NO
CONCENTRATED
(E.G.,
LOADS
BEARING
WALLS)
IN THIS AREA
AEARING
BELOW
STANDARD
2X
RIM
JOIST
N OTE
ax caNrtrevrn
LENGTH
BEARING WALL
3. Available in lengths up to 60 ft, priced per linear foot.

4. Greatest strength when loaded parallel to plane of web.
5. A high degree of unitormity, with no crowns, checks, or
loose knots_
Check building code for appropriate detail in areas of high

lateral load.
NON-LOAD-BEARING
DETAIL
STUD
CANTILEVER
6. Plumbing and HVAC can easily be run through web structure (based on the manufacturer's guidelines).
DISADVANTAGES
7. Starts with dry materials, so there is much less shrinkage

than with solid lumber.
8. W@d lioists n generally be set at wider onrenter
spacang. thus reducing installation time.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
WOODTRUSSES
OR
osB cLosuRE
PANEL
-.- WOOD tsJOIST
. BLOCKING
BEARING
WALL
DETAILS
1. Material costs are generally more (per linear foot) than

for solid lumber (for standa.d residential floor ioist dimensaonsand spans)2. Contractors are less {amiliar with wood l-joists and can
creale problems by cutting holes into webs and weakening the member.
\ 'BEARING
WALL
CANTILEVER
DETA,ILS
3. Less lateral stitfness than solid lumber.

4. Can be shifted by winds during construction due to light
weight.
5. Some adhesives used in laminated-veneer
may pose indoor air{uality problems.
components
Wood l-JoistConsfructionDetoils
wooD
r-otsT
DOUBLE
METAL tST
BACKER
BLMK
INSTALLED
TIGHT
TO
BONOM
OF TOP
FUNGF
SOLID
aLocK
HEAW
wooD
\l
WOOD
(usEo
LOAD
FILLER
wlTH
ON
L-rorsT)
AEARING
ABOVE
371
WALL
(STACKED
BLGK
WEB
STIFFENER
BACKER
BLMK
INSTALLED
IGHT
TO
TOP OF
BOfrOM
FUNGE
(EACH
WEB
STIFFENER
SIDEi MAY BE REQUIRED
FOR
JOIST
STABILIW
HANGER
COMPATIBILry,
OR JOIST
REACTION)
N OTE
NOTE
Connectim between iorsts must provide adequate load

translerbetween members
Connction between joists must provide adequat load

transterbetweenmembers
wooD
t-JolsT coNNECT|ON
I-JOIST HEADER
WOOD I.JOIST CONNECTION

TO WOOD
I-JOIST HEADER (HEAVY LOAD)
WOOD
L.'OIST
rcUBLEHADER
TO WOOD
BEARING
WALL
ABOVE
AND
BELO\/V
SOLID
wooD
FILLER
BLCK
a
o
o
J
)
x
U
F
METAL
RAMING
ANCHOR
AT
EACH
SIOE
w@D
STAIR
(xRAGE
wooD
N OTE
Connectron between joists must
transter between members.
provrde adequate
load
STAIR CARRIAGE CONNECTION

DETAIL
BLKNG
-rorsTs \
JOIST HANGER SHU

BE LOCATED ABOW
NEUR{
dIS OF
(SEE
BAM
MANUFACruRER'S
sEcrFrcaToNS)
W@D
BAM
NEUTR&
AIS OF
EEAM
AryEEN
Thicker wood plate over beam may be required; check

hanger manufacturer's top flange nailing iequirements.
WOOD I-JOIST SUPPORTED

BEAM (OR WALL)
BL(::SING
HORIZC)NTAL
AT TOP OF
LATERAL
v\/ALL
LOAD BLOCKING
CUT SOLID
BLKS
%6" HIGHER
THAN
JOIST
HEIGHT
FOR
W@D SDING
IN LINE \ffi
STUDS-
AT END
W@D
rcST
BARING
SOLID
BL@K
AI
rcSTS
FROM
ABOE
TO
BEARING
BELOW
w@D
fJorsT
wooo
tsJOIST
NAILED TO
TOP PUTE
WITH Ad
ffiB
STIFFENER (EACH
SIDE: MAY BE REOUTRED
FOR JOIST STABILR,
HAreER
COMPATIBILW.
oR JO|ST REACTTON)
JOTST HANGER
DETAIL
NAILS
6'O.C
AT
-
SILL
TYPICAL WOOD BLOCKING

EXTERIOR \^/ALL
AT
COLUMN
LOAO TRANSFER
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
WOODTRUSSES
Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
372
WOOD
WOOD
ABOVE
WOOD
I'JOIST
IJOIST
ALOCKING
I JOISTS
BU]T
RIDGE
BEAV
VENTILATION
HOLE
CW
BLOCKING
VENTILATION
HOLE
CUT
BLOCKING
IN
WEB
BACKER
BLOCK
BEHIND
OUTRIGGER
T\
//
IN
WEB
74'PLW@D
GUSSET
EACH
SIDE
NAILING
PER
MANUFACTURER'S
REOUIREMENTS
(OR DOUBLE)
__-srNGLE
2X OUTRTGGER
:(
VENTIUTION
HOLE CUT IN
BLOCKING
WEB
WOOD
I.JOIST
RANER
.;
WEA
STIFFENER
EACH
SIDE
WHEPE
REOUIRED
OOUBLE
WMD
2X WOOD
BLOCKING
FOR
SOFFIT
SUPPORT.
NAILED
TO
WOOD
IJOIST
WEB
PUTE;
-
N OTE
RIDGE
NOTE
BEAM
Uplift connections may be required
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIOGE BEAM

DETAIL
WOOD I-JOIsT RAFTER AT OVERHANG

wooD
t-JolsT
RAilER,
STEEL SRAP
MAY BE
REOUIRED WHERE
SLOPE EXCEEDS 7 12
/.
,--
//
-w@o
LJOISTS
BUN
AT
RIDGE
WOOD I-JOIST
RAflER,
WP. -\
RIDGE
BEAM
METAL CROSS
ERACING AS
REOUIRED
BEVELED
WEB
STIFFENER
EACH
SIDE,
WHERE
REAUIRED
z ' o " \ >i.

MAX ,
\^/OOD I.JOIST
OUTRIGGER
w@D
IJOIST
RAffER.
RAFTER WITH
/'
.-
NAIL OUTRIGGER
wmD r-JorsT
BLrcKING
CONTINUOUS
PGTE
SLOPED
METAL
JOIST
HANGER
VENTIUTION
HOLE Cfr IN
BLMKING
WEB
=".o-r,*L-l
2 X 4 L@KOUT
NAILED TO
W@D
AEWLED
WEB
STIFFENER
ilCH
SIDE
WHERE
REOUIRED-
END
1X8
FASCIA
I.JOIST
NAIL
I/VOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM

DETAIL
.-
NAIL
SHEATHING
TO2X6
SUAFASCIA
>i<
INTO LOOKOUT
NOTE
MA
(OR
SINGLE
rcUBLE)
2X
OfRIGGER
2X CRIPPLE
(WTH
BLK
WEB
SNFFENER
AT OTHER
SIDE
wooD
tsJotsT)
oF
Uplift connectionsmay be required
Uplilt connectionsmay be required.
WOOD
r/YOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT OUTRIGGER
I-JOIST RAFTER AT'OVERHANG
W@D
FJOIST
BLGKING
VENTIUNON
HOLE
CUT IN
BL@KING
WEB
WOOD
IJOIST
NOTCH
OUTRIGGER
AROUND
WOOD LJOIST
FCNGT
RA-ER,
WP.-.\
BEVELED
WOOD PLATE
FOR SLOPES
wooD
!/2:1 2
THAN
(FOR
31/2'
BEARING
LENGTH)i
FOR
SLOPES
GREATER
THAN
4:12. ADOITIONAL
CONNECTORS
MAY BE
' J
REOUIRED
NorEs
I.JOIST
4..o" oR
1/3
:_
cBii:ilxl _,_- \
\y
1. Upl'tt conneclions may be required
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM

DETAIL
TO
WE'.e.la.tlNgfB
2X FLY
RA|:TR
2X
2. Special sloped seat-bearingmetal connectors can be

used in lieu of beveled w@d plate in some slopedapplications.see manulacturer'srecommendations.
OWRIGGER
(UDDER
WOOD
FLY RAFTER
I.JOIST
RAFTER AT OVERHANG
TRUSS)
END WALL
DETAIL
WOOD tsJOIST
BLKING,
EACH SIDE w@D
tsJOIST
WOOD tsJOST BLrcKING

WNTI4TION
HOLE CUT IN
BLOCKING WEB _BEWLED
WEB
STIFFENERS
EACH SIDE
WEB
STIFFENER
EACH
SiDE
WHEN
REOUIRED
METAL
MOUMED
JOIST
HANGER
BOfr
JC)IST
MANUFAOURER'S
REOUIREMEMS)
w@D
LJOIST
RAtrER,
WEBS
\nrDGE
NorE
eEav
Uplift connections may be required.
LAPPED VI/OOD I-JOIST RAFTER

RIDGE BEAM
AT
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville.

Maryland
WOOD TRUSSES
1 : ><
\*-o
BOnOM
FLANGE
MUST
BEAR
FULLY
ON
TOP
PLATE
NOTE
WOOD
DETAIL
I-JOIST
SKYLIGHT
'-ro'.t
HEADER
FRAMING
N OTE
TYPICAL BIRD'S MOUTH I.JOIST CUT

DETAIL
Check code and manufacturer's requiremenls lor all ventilation hole sizes cut in blocking web.
Glued-LominotedConslruction
STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED
TIMBER
The.term"structuial
gluedlminatedtrmber,refersto an
engrneered, stressJated producl made Of WOOd laminatrons bonded with adhesives. wrth lhe grarn approximatelv
pa.allel lenglhwrse Laminaled preces cin be end_iorned
t6
torm any tength. or glued edge_to.edg to make wider
pre@s, Or ol bent preces curved durrng glutng
STANDARD
STRAIGHT
DOUBLE TAPERED*CURVEO
/SAWN
t-l
tl
SI NGLE TAPEREO_STRAIGHT
I
DEPTHS
Dimensional lumber sudaced to i 4 in. (38 mm) is used to

lamrnate straight members and members that have a curyature within_the bending radius limitations for the spe;ie;.
Boards surfaced to % in. (j9 mm) are recommended for
laminating curved members when bending radius is too
shon to prmit the use of dimension lumbe;. provided that
the bending radius limitations lor lhe species are obseryed.
Other lamination thicknesses may be used to ."ei
reoutrements_
"peit"i
STANDARD
373
SAWN OR
TAPERED -
OR
DOUBLE TAPERED_PITCHEO
OOUBLE TAPERED_STRAIGHT
MAXIMUM PRACTICAL DIAMETERS
RADIAL ARCH
TRIANGULATED
2OO N
650 FT
PITCHEO
THREE-CENTEREO
/A\
WIDTHS
//
\\
/\
GOTH
--^t
+
CAMBER
Camberis curyature(circularor parabolic)made into struc_
turcl glued laminaled beams opposite the anticipated
dellectron movement. The recommendedminimum camber is one and one-halftimes deadloaddeflection.After ini_
tial dead load detlectionand additionatplastic deformation
(c@p) has taken place, this usually will produce a near
lvel floor or rmf beam under dead load conditions.Additioml camber or stope may insure adequate drainageof
r@f bams. On long-spanroof beams and floor bearirsof
multistory buildings,addjtionalcamber may be needed to
counter the optical illusionof the beam sagging.
FIRE SAFETY
The self-insulatingqualitiesof heaw timber cause a slow
burning. Good structuraldetails, eliminationof concealed
spaces, and use of verticallire stops contributeto its fire
performance.HeaW timber retains its strength under fire
longerthan unprotectedmelals.
Buildingcodesgeneralty
classifygluedtaminatedtimberas
heavytimbrconstruction
if cenainminimumdimensional
requirementsare met. Codes also allow for calculationot
onehour fire ratingsfor exposedgluedlaminatedtjmbers.
See Councilof AmericanEuildingOffrcialsNationalEvalua.
tion ServiceCommrtteeReponNo. NER-250.
It is not re@mmended that firtretardant treatrents be
applid to glued laminatedtimber as thev do not substantially increasethe fire resistanceof heaw timber conslruction. In @nsidringfire{etardanttreatments.the reduction
ot strength related to type and penetrationof treatrent,
lho mmpatibility ot treatmentand adhesive,the use of spe
cial gluing preeddres, the difficultyof apptication,and ihe
efttrt on wd
color and fabricationpr@edures must be
investigated.
.AAco
LlLrl
rrrll
IC
;ifi+&<'
* 3, 5, 8t/,, and | 0'/2 in.for

southernpin
r|l
'l
rrtll
A-SINGLE CANTILEVER
LSUSPENOEO
HOUBLE
CANTILEVER
TSINGLE
END SUSPENDED
CANTILEVERED AND
CONTINUOUS SPAN
Cantilever beam systems may be composed of any ol the
various types and combinations ol beams shown above.
Canlilever systems generally permit longer spans or larger
loads pr size member than do simple span systems.
For economy, the negative bending moment at the support
ot a cantilevered beam should be equat in magnitude to the
posrtrve moment_
LAMINATEO DOME
STRUCTURAL
NOTES
GLUED
PARABOLIC
LAMINATED
TIMBER
1. Beam nams describe top and bottom surfaces of the

beam. Sloped or pitched surfaes should be used on the
tension side of the beam.
2. The three hinged arches and frames shown above oro_
duceiorizontal reactions rquiring honzontal ties or mod_
rtred loundations.
3. The triangulated and the radial arch are the two basic
types of stuctural glued laminated wood dome svstems
available. Both systems require a tenston ring at the
dome sping hne to conven axial thrusts to venrcal loads.
CONNECTION
END CONNECTIONS
Eeam end connections shoutd be designed to carry both

anduced horizontal and vertil lGds. Bolts or fastenings at
the end of the beam should be lated toward the boitom
of the bam so that the effed ot shrinkage between lhe
bottom of the beam and the tastening is mimimized. Bolts
or connectors lGted near or above the beam.s neutral axis
should not be used on large glued laminated beams or girders srnce the concentration of the tension perpendicular to
grain due to restralnt of shrinkage. and shear stresses actrng at tasteners localed in these beam areas tend lo cause
splitting of the member.
SUSPENDEO
Consideration must be given to the perimeter bond

beam design since wind torces will produce loads in this
member. The length of main members ol the radil arch
system, whjch must span a distance greater than hall the
dome diameter, limit the maximum practical dome diam,
eter. The tar smaller members of the triangulated dome
result in the greater diameters. The triangulated system
can be designed for five or more segments with an equal
number of peripheral supports at each segment.
4. More complicated shapes may be fabricated. Contact the
American Institute oI Timber Construction (AITC) and the
American Plywood Association (ApA.
DESIGN
The design of connections for glued laminated timbers is

srmrlar to the design of connections for sawn lumber. Since
glued laminated timbers often are much larger than sawn
lmber and the loads transferred also are larger, the effect
of increased size should be taken into accouni in the design
of connections. In addition to being designed for streng'ih
to transter toads, connections also should be designed to
avoid splining of the member and to accommodate swell
ing and shrinking of the w@d.
BEAM
SHAPES
ON SHAPES
LOADS
In cases where it is not possible for lhe suspending system

to be carried on top of the beam, it is g@d practice toplace
the fastener above the neutral axis. particularly when other
than light loading is involved or when a number of loads are
to be suspended lrom the member. For heaw loads. a saddle detail placing loads directly on top ot the beam is .ecommenoed.
Very light loads may be suspended near the bottom of a
glued laminated timber. The distance above the beam bor
tom must exceed the specified edge distance of the fas_
Iener used_
PURLIN
TO BEAM
CONNECTIONS
Th preferred purlin to beam connection method is to transfer the end reacton by bearing pe.pendicular to grain in a
saddle lype conneclion extendrng over the beam top.
When the end reactio oi the beam or purlin is relatjvelv
small, the hanger can be fastened to the fae of the girdei.
The bolts or connectors in the main rrying beam or-girder
should be placed above the neutral axis of the membe; and
In the supponed member should be place rear the bottom
to avoid potential splitting.
SPLICE
At beam
important
the beam
to reduce
ment.
CONNECTIONS
splice connections occurring over columns, it is
to allow for movement in the upper portions oI
due to end rotation. Slotted connections will helo
the problem by allowing for some beam moave_
CONCEALED
ANO PARTIALLY
PURLIN HANGERS
CONCEALEO
Panially concealed purlin hangers are used for normal

loads. Concealed hangers are appropriate fo. retatively light
roads, as weil as connections where the support plate at
the base is notched into the beam, should be desiqned as
notched beam reactions.
It rs recommended that the suppon for the purtn be close
to the bottom of the member to utilize the maximum effeclrve area for shear. End fastentngs should not include rows
ot bolts or other fasteners perpendicular to the grain. Glued
lamrnated ttmbe.s, although relatrvely dry at the time of
manutacture, may shrink when the members reach eouilibrium moisture content in place. lhis mav cause tension per
pendicular to the grain and result in splitting.
Roger W' Kipp. AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
374
Glued-LqminotedConstrucfion
ALLOWABLE
LOADING
UNIT
STRESS
RANGES
EXTREME
FIBER IN 1
BENDING'
FOR
STRUCTURAL
TENSION
PARALLEL
TO GRAIN
GLUED
TIMBERI-NORMAL
LAMINATED
COM PRESSION
PARALLEL
TO GRAIN
DURATION
COMPRESSION
PERPENDICULAR
TO GRAIN
HORIZONTAL
SHEAR
OF
MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
NOTES
1. Multiply dry{ondition{f-use stress rangesby the above
factorsfor correspondingwet{onditionsofrse value.
2. Values given are for members loaded perpendicularto
wide faces ot laminations, For ranges of allowable

stressesfor members loadedprimarilyas axialmembers
or loaded parallelto the wide {ace of laminations,see
LAMINATED
FLOOR,
ROOF BEAM, AND PURLIN
DESIGN
CHART
TYPICAL
SINGLE.SPAN.
SIMPLY
SUPPORTED.
GLUED
LAMINATED
TOTAL
SPAN
(FT)
12
SPAC I NG
( FT)
30 PSF
CARRYING
BEAMS
CAPACITY
40 PSF
(MEMBER
SIZES
45 PSF
3 1 l s x - 7l l z
31lex7ih
311"x7112
3r/"x9
3'/ax9
31lex7 1lz
31lox71l,
3i/sxg
3rl"x9
8
t2
t4
31/sx9
3 llax 10 1/,
311"x12
3 ' l sx 1 2
31/"x1O11,
3tlax12
31lsx13tl,
3r/sx 13r/,
31/ex101l2
31lax12
3tl"x13'lz
3rlsx 15
3tlsx 12
3 tl"x 13 1lt
3r/8x15
3]/sx16]L
3 1l"x 13 tl,
3 1/6x 16 '/,
311"x10112
31lsx12
31lsx12
3'/sx'13'/,
3 llsx 12
3 1/"x13 tl,
311"x16112
3rlsx18
31|sx131/2
3r/.x15
311"x16112
5'/sx15
3)lsx131l1
3'/sx'15
3r/Bx'18
51/"x16r/,
3'/sx15
3t6x16'/,
5tl"x161lz
S t l s x1 61 1 2
3r/sx15
3'/sx18
911"x16112
brlsx.tB
3 i l B x1 6 1 1 2
5'/8x15
5 r l sx 1 8
g1/rx19'/2
5'/sx18
5'/sx18
3rlsx16r/,
5'/sx16'/,
5]/sx18
g1/"x19'/,
3r/sx18
51/sx18
5'/sx19r/,
51/sx21
3r/sx18
'18
5 J/sx
5 \/ax21
51{sx2211,
J',/sxlu
5r/sx18
5 tlsx 19 112
51lsx21
5 'lsx 22 tl|
5 1lax24
5'lsx16'J2
51/"x1911,
51/sx21
5tlsx221l,
5 ]/s x 24
5 1lsx27
5'lsxl8
511"x19112
511sx2211,
511ax2511,
'18
5 r/sx
51lsx21
51lsx24
5 1/"x27
51lsx24
5 1 1 "x 2 8 1 1 2
g3lox28t/,
5'/8x30
63/ax30
5tlax27
631tx 281l2
63lox31 11,
g3lox34 1/,
63lax28tlz
63la\31 112
63/.x36
83/ax3411,
63lax28tlz
63/ax3411,
8 3 / . x3 3
831ax3711,
!r/"x 18
5 r/e x 16 r/2
tt
3tlsxl6tl2
3r/sx18
10
12
16
20
12
to
5 11"x27
5'/"x30
20
24
12
16
20
24
5t/sx21
5'lsx30
63lax2811,
63lax31t/,
5r/sx30
63/ax 28\ l,
b'lsx2E'12
63/ax28 11,
63lax31 112
63/ox 341/,
3'l"x9
3,/ex9
3'/sx9
5 1lBx25 tl2
63/ox30
5'/s x 30
6{ox30
63/ax34 1/2
83[ x 33
FLOO R
BEAMS
50 PSF
50 PSF
3'laxl'lz
31ls\7 \1,
3'lax71l2
3r/sxg
8
12
16
20
IN IN.)
(PSI}-ROOF
tt
8
10
12
20
LOAD
current American Instilute of Timber ConstructionPubli

cationAITC 117-Design (Table2).
3. Valuesshownare for the tensionzonesof the member
31lsx7tl2
3'lex9
3,/ex9
31lsx191l2
31/ax7.lz
3'l"x9
3rlsx10r/,
J1/"x1O1/2
3r/sx9
31/6x1o1lz
3'lsx111l2
31/"x12
3116x12
311sx131/,
3l/sx 15
3r/sx 15
3 t l ex 1 3 1 1 2
!11"x12
3 l l s\ 1 3 t 1 2
3rlx15
3 r/sx 16 r/,
3'lsx15
5'/sx131/2
5 r/sx 16r/2
grl"x18
311"x'l31lz
3 ' / s x1 5
3r/sx15
3 l l a x1 6 1 1 ,
3 1 l ax 1 6 1 1 2
5r/6x15
5'lBx 16 112
3 ' 7 " x1 6 r / z
5 ' / 6 x1 6 r / ,
5 ' / s x f8
5'lax21
5 1 l s x1 6 1 1 2
5 r / 8 x1 8
5 r/" x 19 r/,
51lsx21
5rlsx18
5 tlsx21
g rl"x25 112
5 1 1 " x 2 8t 1 2
311"x1611,
511"x1611,
5'lrx19\12
5\lox21
5 t/sx 16'/,
5 '/s x 19 r/,
51|sx22112
51{sx2511,
5rAx19r/,
511"x2211,
5 1lBx 25 112
5'lsx30
6JlAx25,l,
63lax28tl,
6%x33
6%x 36
6%x 30
63/ax36
8%x 36
8%x39
3 1 1 " x 1 61 1 2
5rlsx15
g 1 l "x 1 6 1 1 2
5r/"x 18
5 1/"x 1611,
'18
5 '/s x
5ilsx21
'
l
e
5
x 22 11,
5 '/s i 19 %
5 tlsx21
5tlex24
51|sx251/,
5 1lsx21
5 ) l s x2 4
5'/e x 27
6 3 / o x2 7
e1"' 28 V,
63/ox311/z
6%x33
6 3 l a x 3 71 1 ,
63/0x33
63/ox37 \1,
Sfox 36
8 3 /a x 4 0 |l ,
NOTES
l.Total
load carying
weight capacity includes beam
weight. Floor beams are designed for uniform loads of
40 ps{ liv load and l0 psf dead toad.
2. Allowabli stresses: Fb = 2,400 psi (modified volume fac'165
psi, E = 1.800,000 psr.
tor). F" =
APPEARANCE
GRADES
Structural glued laminated timber is oroduced in three

appearance grades that do not modity desrgn st.esses, fabflcatron controls, grades of lumber used. or other provisions
of the applicable standards. A textured (rough sawn) surface may be called for instead of the surfacing described. ln
all grades, laminations will possess the natural growth char,
acteristics of the lumber grade.
INDUSTRIAL
APPEARANCE
GRADE
Void filling on lamination edgs is not required. The wide

face of laminations exposed to view will be lree of loose
knots and open knotholes. Edge joints on the wide face will
not be filled. Members will be surfaced on two sides onlv.
an occasional miss being permitted.
3. Deflection limits: roof = 1/rm,floor = r/3@

4. Values are for preliminary design purposes only. For
complete information see the American Instituto of Tifr
ber Construction
Timbe( Consttrction Manuat.
ARCHITECTURAL
APPEARANCE
GRAOE
On exposed surfaces, knotholes and other voids wider than

% in. (19 mm) will be dressed with clear w@d inserts or a
w@d-tone colored filler. Inserts will be selected for similarity of the grain and color to the adiacent wood. The wide
face ol laminations exposed to view will be free of loose
knots and open knotholesj all voids greater than '/16in. {2
mm) wide in edge joints on thrs face will be filled. Exposed
faces must be surface smooth. Misses are not permitted.
The corners on the wide face of laminations exposed to
view will be eased. The current practice for eased edges is
tor a radius between ]/s tn. (3 mm) and r/, in. {13 mm).
PREMIUM
APPEARANCE
GRADE
Similar to architectural grade except that all knotholes and

other voids on exposed surfaces will be replaced with
wood Inserts or a wood-tone colored filler. Remaininq knots
will be hmrted in size to 2oyo of lhe net face width of the
lamination, with no more than two maximum size knots
@curring in a 6 ft (1.8 m) length.
Roger W. Kipp, AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects. lnc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora
GLUED-LAMINATED
CONSTRUCTION
5. AITC tables extend to members up to 40 leet in span.

Amerin PlywoodAssociation(APA)tablesextend up to
48 feet in span. The design of members of far greater
span is possibleusing good engineeringpractice.
FINISHES
Gluedlaminatedtimber finishesincludesealers.stains.and
paints.
End sealers retard moisturetransmissionand minimize
checkingand normallyare appliedto the ends of all mem
bers.
Two types of sealersprotect againstsoiling, control grain
raising,mrnrmizechecking,and seryeas a motstureretdt
dant.Penetrating
sealersprovidelimiledprotectionand are
usedwhen the finallinishrequiresstainingor a naturalfrn
ish. Primerand sealercoats providemaximumprotection
by sealingthe surfaceof the w@d but should not be sDeci
fied for a naturalor stainedfinalfrnish.Wood coloris modi.
fied by any sealer application;theretore, wood sealers
followed by staining will look different from stajned,
untreatedwood.
Glued-LominqtedConstruction:Connections
375
BENT STEEL PUTE

TO CARRY SUSPENOED
LOADS BOLTED TO
BEAM ABOVE
N OTE
Very light loads may be placed near bottom of beam; however, the heavier the load the higher on the beam th suspensaon points should be located.
SUSPENDED LOAD-BENT
ATTACHED TO SIDE
PLATE
GLUED
UMINATED
BEAM
wooo
COLUMN
N OTE
This detail is recommended
SUSPENDED
LOAD
for use with heavy loads.

-SAODLE
RAFTER TO COLUMN
CONOITION
BEAM CANTILEVER
SIDE PUTE
WELDED TO STEEL
RAFTER TO BEARING
N OTE
WALL
An abrupt notch in the end of a w@d member reduces the

effective shear strength of the member and mav permit a
more rapid migration ot moisture in the lower portion of the
member causing potential splitting. The shear strength of
the end of the member is reduced and the exposed end
grqr.n may also result in splitting bcause of drying. At
rnclrned beams, the taper cut should be loaded in bearing.
STEEL COMPRESSION
BOX
CONNECTION
DESIGN
The design of connectionstor glued laminatedtimber and
sawn timber is similar. Gl@d laminatedlimbers and their
loads, however, often are much larger than sawn lumber,
so the effect of increasedsizeshouldbe takeninto account
in the design.
Used to add strengthto transfer loads,connectionsshould
be designdto avoid splitting and to accomrcdate swelling and shrinking.
GLUED
The detail above is just one ot a large variety of special con,

nectrons and connection assemblies possible using struc,
tural glued laminated timber. lt is c.itical that connections
be designed carefully in accordance with good engineering
practice.
SPECIAL CONNECTION
GLUED LAMINATED
COLUMNS
LAMINATED
COLUMNS
Structural glued laminated timber columns otler higher
allowablestresses,controlledappearance,and the abilityto
fabricatevariablesections.For simple rectangularcolumns.
the slendernessratio (the ratio of the unsupportedlength
between points of lateral support to the least column
dimension) may not exceed 50. The least dimension for
tapered columns is the sum of the smallerdimensionand
one-third the diflerence between the smaller and qreater
dimensions Spacedcolumnsconsrstof two or morJmembers with longitudinalaxes parallel.separatedat the ends
and at the midpoint by blocking,and joined at the ends by
shearfastenings.The membersact togetherto ca.ry the
total column load; becauseof the end fixity developed.a
greater slendernessratio than allowed for elid columns is
permitted.
Roger W. Kipp, AIA: Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis. Minnesora
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
376
Connections
Glued-lominoiedConstruction:
,e" MtN.
CLEARANCE
LAMINATE:O
BEAM
CLIP
BOTH
ANGLE,
SIOES
TO PROVIOE
LATERAL
SUPPORT i OO
NOT
FASTEN
TO BEAM
ANCHOR
BEAM
HANER
FIXEE)
ARCH
BEAM
ANCHORAOE
ANCHOR
TRUE
HINGE
FOR
ARCHES
ANCHORAGE
BEAM
ANCHOR
ARCH
PEAK
wooD
wooo
COLUMN
COLUMN
wooo
COLUMN
GALVANIZEO
CARRIAGE
BOLTS
WELOED
STEEL
AASEPLATE
ANCHOR
E'OLTS
CONNECTION
EIOLTS
CEMENT
WASH
BEARING
PLATE
CONCRETE
BASE
GALVANIZEO
oR
ztNc
coATto
STEEL
ANCHOR
\^/ET
POBT
CONCRETE
ANCHORAGE
BABE
TO
\|VOOD
STEEL
COUUMN
ANCHORED
BASEPLATE
This detail is rcommendedfor herw duty us where

moisture protection is d$ired. Anchor is *t and
leveledin ret concrete after scredino.
TimorhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
WITH
U-ETRAP
COLUMN
ANCHORAGE
TO
CONCRETE
BABE
This derail is rmmmended for indurtrial buil4
ings 8nd warehds to r6i't both horizontal
tq6
rnd uplifL Moisture bsricr is |'mfr
mended. lt may b usd with shear plat6
Glued-LominoledConstruction:Connections
SUPPORTED
BEAM
AEARING
PLATE
TOP
SURFACS
FLUSH
WITH
V
",,i
.);>
t\
\i
CONCEALEO
PURLIN
HANGER
NAILS
OR
LAGE}OL]-S
seavroffi
aeavffi
TOP
F*
BEAM
EPLICINO
CLIP
ANGLE
LATERAL
SUPPORT;
DO
NOT
FASTEN
BATS
THROreH
BEAM
U-PLATE
BEAM
TO
COLUMN
CONNECTION
BEAM
TO
SLOTTED
.rOP
IN
WILL
BUT
METAL
BEAM
COLUMN
6EAT6
CAP
\^/ITH
BEAM
COLUMN
CONNECTTON
BEAM
SPLICINO
HOLES
PLATES
RESIST
MOMENT
NOT
EPLIT
SEAM.
CONNECTION
MOMENT
GPLICING
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington.D.C.
GLUED-LAMINATEDCONSTRUCTION
378
WoodSiding
SIDING
LAP
BEVEL
VERTICAL
SIOING
BUILOING
PAPER
SH
STRIP*
STARTER
AEVEL
CONTINUOUS
TERMITE
(OPTIONAL
APPLY
SEALANT
OURING
INSTALLATION
EXCESS
REMOVE
APPLY
SEALANT
OURING
INSTALLATION.
REMOVE
EXCESS
NG
SHEATHI
EOARDS
BAROS
CORNER
PAPER
BUILOING
QUAL
USUALLY
SHIELO
)
CORNER
VERTICAL
SIOING
OR
BOARO
i,OINT
BOARO
CORNER
JOINT
OIAGONAL
SHEATHING
SHTATHI
A SIMILAR
NOTE:
OETAIL
WOULD
WITH
SQUARE
CUTS
JOINTS
APPLY TO VERTICAL
IN BEVEL LAP SIOING
APPLY SEALANT
OURTNG
INSTALLATION.
REMOVE
EXCESS
BUILOING
PAPIR
BUILDING
CORNER
JOINT
BOARO
JOINT
PAER
APPLY
SEALANT
OURING
INSTALLAT!ON.
REMOVE
EXCESS
CORNER
JOINT
EOARO
SIOING
PAPER OVER
BUILOING
FLASHING
SHEATHING
VERTICAL
SIOING
BUILOING
FLASHING
PAPER
JOISTS
F@OR
OVER
ING
SH EATH
'BLOCKING
OPTIONAL
BOARO
SIOING
VERTICAL
SIDING
HORIZONTAL
CORNER
VERTICAL
FOR
NAILING
ANY
SIOING
I NO
SHEATH
NG
BEVEL
JOINT.
APPLY
SEALANT
OURING
INSTALLATION.
REMOVE
EXCESS
AT JOINT
SOLIO
BLOCKING
STUOS
EXTRA
MOPER
ENO
WHEN
USING
HORIZONTAL
PROVIOE HORIZON T&

ROWS
OF SOL|O
AT 24"
BLOCKING
FOR ALL
O.C
VERTICAL
OR
NEARLY VERTICAL
EIOARO SIO I NG
APPLICATIONS
PAPER
BUILOING
SUTT
ING
JOISTS
FLOOR
BEVEL
PAPER
EUILOING
SH EATH
ING
EATH
OR
SIOING
HORIZONTAL
DIAGONAL
EXTENOEO
LTLINE
CORROSIVE
NON-CORROStVt
METAL FLASHING
BELTLINE
NON. CORROSIVE
METAL
FLASHING
ORI P
JOI NT
BELTLINE
FLOOR
JOISTS
BUILOING
UNDER
PAPER
FLASHING
SH
JOINT
BELTLINI
I.'
BUILDING
PAPER
OVERLAP
USI
WHEN
NAIL
BLOW
wooo
CAUTION
TIP
NAIL
CLEARS
OF
UNOERCOURSE
ORIVING
HEAVY
HOME.
MAY
SPLIT
lrl2" MlN.
PgNETRATIONTYP.
ouE To
NONSUPPOffi
IN
CAVITY
FACE
( HORIZ.
E|EVEL
SHEATHI
PAPER
FACE
NAIL
OF
TIP
NAIL
CLEAF?S
OF
UNOERCOURSE
NAILEO
TIP
CLEARS
UNOERCOURSE
NAILEO
RABBETEO
SHEATH
NG
STUO OR
Bt.OCKING
EUILOING
PAPER
BUILOING
( HC)RIZ.I
BEVEL
ING
BLOCKING
24" O.C.
AT
NAILEO
FACE
rzz" SPACE
NAIL
ANO
AT
PAPER
BUILOING
FACE NAILEO
r/."
EXPANSION
CLEARANCE
BOAROS
I" OR
wtotR.
ruo
NA|LS
PER BEARING
TON<}UE
OR HORIZ,
ING
BLOCKING
24- O. C.
PAPER
( VERT.
6HIFLAP
SHEATH
NAIL
BOAROS 6'OR
LES.
ONE NAIL
PER BEARING
FACE
NG
NAILIO
PLAIN
BLINO
r/6" ExPANSroN
CLTARANCE
FACE
OROOVE
I VERT. OR HORIZ.I
Gerald D. Graham; CTA Architects Enginee.s; Billings, Montana
FINISH
CARPENTRY
UNOER
STUO
OR
BLOCKING
STU O
AUILOING
JOINT
SHEATHI
NG
EATHI
PAPER
BUILDING
FUSHING
PAPER
BUILOING
UNDER
RASHING
E'ELTLINE
NG
SHEATHI
TLINE
JOISTS
FLOOR
CHANNEL
(VEffi.
I/2..
OVERLAP
BOARO
ANO
BATTEN
(VERT.I
37s
' , 't r r " . r t r " . t . t z z " , ,
tz,,,,nttr,. ata.,_
-r:,
z----------------___-_--F
ft
nTtttl,l
I I l-il1I ii#-
I I I l l lz I----1l lr-r-lt"-
TEXTURE I.II
REVERSED BOARO AND BATTEN
ROUGH
4" OC
SAWN
0R{
a- o.c
OPTIONAL
CHANNEL
PLYWOOD
SIDING 3O3 A N D
NO OIAGONAL
WALL
BRACING
OR SHEATHING
REOUIRED
WITH STANDARD
THICKNESS
PANEL SIOING
Tt-t
| (3O3
GROOVE
MD-O (MEDIUM DENSITY ovERuIo}

V-GRoOVE SHOWN; OTHERS AVATLABLE
HOR IZONTAL-qPFEO
MDO AND
ROUGH
SAWN
SPECIAL)
BLOCKING REOUIRED
AT END JOINTS
AS
ROUIRED
Medium donsity overlay (MDO) ptywood

lap siding: standard thickness is 3/, in. in
'16
lngths to
ft on dder; standard ;idths
are 12 or 16 in.
SHINGLE WEDGE UNOER
VERTICAL JOINTS
r/e"
SPACING
PANELEDGES
AT ALL
--
CAULK VERTTCAL
JOINTS OR BACK
WITH BUILDING PAPER
2 X 4 BLOCKING
AT HORIZONTAL
JOINTS
INSULATION
AS REOUIRED
BUILDING
PAPER
7j-"
,/\
STAGGER AUTT
JOINTS OVER
STUDS
6- MrN
I
CLEARANCE I
ABovE GRADE/
RATED
SIDING
LEAVE I/s,, sPAcE AT END
AND EDGE JOINTS UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENOED BY MANUFACTURER
PANEL SIDING VERTICAL APPLICATION

CAULK oR BACK
fi-7
w r r HB U T L D T N G
"or." llyl
sg
VERTICAL
,r",,wroe
LAP SIDING APPLICATION
PANEL SIDI NG HORIZONTAL
N7
PANEL SIDING
DESCRIPTION
(ALL SPECIES
GROUPS)
MAX. STUD SPACING
(IN.)
NAIL SIZE (USE

NONSTAINING
BOX, SIDING.
(SIDI NG DI RECT
NAIL SPACING
(IN.)
txl
thick or less
8d for thicker rnels
BA
SHIPLAP
VERTICAL
MAY USE BANENS

TO CONCUL
BUTT JOINTS
CON-STR UCTION
O M M E N DATIO N
- S
T o s r u D s A N D o v E R N o r q s r R u c r r i nReEi C
iHearnrNG)
,--
N OTE
Nailable panel or lumber
sheathing required
APA STURD-I-WALL
L1[f---r
BUTT ANo cauLK
STARTER
STRIP ,-
JOINTS
NOTES
'1.
lf siding is applied over sheathing thicker than r/, in., use
next regular nail size. Use nonstaining box nails for stdino
installed over foam insulation sheathing.
2. Hotdipped or hot-tumbled gatvanized steel nails are recommended for most siding applications. For best perlormance, stainless steel nails or aluminum nails should be
considred. APA tests also show that electricallv or
mechanically galvanized steel nails appear satisfaitoru
w-hgl-11lating meets or exceeds thickness requirementl
of AS-TM 464l Ctass 2 coatings and is further'prorJcreJ
DV yelow chromate coatino
3. Only- panels 1V,r.in. and thi-cker that have certain groove
depths and spacing quality fo( 24 in. o.c. Span Rating.
iift2 in. or
4. For.braced. wall
% in. siding
.seclions with
applied horizontally over studs 24 n. o.c, space narls 3
In. o.c. atong panel edges-
FFF
AUTT AND
FUSH
SHIPUP
HORTZONTAL
JOINTS
OVER UP
MINIMUM BENDING RADII FOR

PLYWOOD PANELS
PANEL
THICKNESS
(IN.)
NOTE
The types of pl! rood recommended for exterior siding are
APA grade trademarked medium density overlay (UbOi
Typ.303 siding or lexlure 1-1 I [rt-t I speciat 303 sidrngi'
I,l-11 plywood srding is manufactured with 3/" in. wrde pJr
allel gr@ves and shiplapped edges. MDO is recommended
Ior parnt trntshes and is available in a variety of surfaces.
303 plywood panels are also available in a wide variety;f
surfaces. The most common ApA plywmd siding pinel
drmensions are 4 x I fl but the panels are also availa-ble in 9
and 10 ft lengths, lap srdrng to 16 ft.
Bl@dgood, Sharp, Euster Architects and planners; Des Moines,

lom
American Plywood Association; Tacoma. Washinqion
FINISHCARPENTRY
380
Wood Joints
END JOINTS_TO
INCREASE
LENG
.A
'/ll ll
-a\
,#l
/'ll
".ffi
BACK BATTEN
"")^
'l I I
(._t4- |
TONGUE ANO GROOVE
EDGE JOINTS_TO
INCREASE
.C.t
1l
SPLINE
;A
' "'tr I
BUTTERFLY WEDGE
WIDTH
-'-Y"-./
\tr
"v
"V\-l
IV
\,
s-z
--V-
!,j--
KEYEO JOINT
STOPPEO OADO
RTGHT ANGLE JOINTS
v---S-WOOD SPLINE
---lr-
SHOULDER
MITER
JOINTS
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Vitullo Architecture Studio; Washington, D.C
RALWOODWOR K
ARCHITECTU
TONGUE AND GROOVE
FOXTAIL WEDGE
WEDGED JOINTS
BUTTERFLY SPLINE
Wood Joints
\\,
VI
\\\t
-\Y,a l
\"/\
->2
OOVETAIL
DOVETAIL
HALFUP
SECRET
(MITER
z
g
DOVETAIL
LAP OOVETATL
(HALF
BLIND)
DOVETAIL)
THROUGH
(COMMON
MULTIPLE
DOVETAIL)
JOINTS
V
>rt
v
;
-,-
<*-7
-iY-/
MITERED HALF LAP
CROSS
LAP
LAP JOINTS
w
THROUGH TENON
HALF
BLINO
PINNEO
ALIND
HAUNCH
BLIND
HAUNCH
MORTISE AND TENON JOINTS
RichardJ. Vituilo.AlAj Vituilo ArchitectureStudio;Washington,D.C
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
38r
382
CobinetDetqils
BUTT JOINT. SET
NAILEO.PUNIED
AND SANDEO
HARDWOOD EDGE
MAY 8E MOLDED
TO PROFILE
OF WEB FRAME
WOOD SPLINE MITER
SHOWN (TONGUE AND
GROOVE ALSO USED)
3to" uor
OR PBI
GENERAL
The Architectural Woodwork Instatute's Ouality Standards
classify custom-manufactured cabinets in three categories:
premium, custom, and economy. The materials, toinery,
and finish quality are delineated in the specifications for
cabinet shops to follow. Premrum is the highest grade, with
close tolerances reserved for only the finest cabinets. Customrade cabinets, the most common, are made lrom
very good materials with durable joinery. Economy-grade
cabinets are used for utilitarian and inexrensive residential
caDrners.
The AWI Ouality Standards classify cabinet parts as
exposed, semiexposed, and concealed. 3nd specify a mini
mum grade for each. The finish to be used is specified as
paint grade or stain grade or whether plastic laminate or
other material will be used.
LINE OF WEB FRAME
To prevent movement caused by wood shrinkage, use only

kilndried solid lumber or panel product for base supports.
PUSTIC UMINATE
oN 3/4" MDF oR PBI
ABBREVIATIONS
illl--
ulrWALL CABINET
PUSTIC UMINATE
COUNTERTOP ON
The following abbreviations are used on the three AGS

pages on cabinet details: MDF{ediumdensity
libeF
board: PBI;ndustrial oarticleboard.
LINE OF WEB FRAME

' /
SOLID CORE
oN 3/o" MoF
UMINATE
oR PBI
NUI
l\\)L
l,\:
L\\17-7771
____________y/)
---------74
|
F:lv///,t/)
EDGE OETAILS
ltl
1I
lll
ll
HARDBOARD//
BAcKING-
lll_
AACKSPLASH
POST FORMED PUSTIC

UMINATE ON
MDF OR PBI
Flush overlay construction oflers a clean, contemporary

designbecauseonly the doors and drawerlronts are visible
in elevation-The grain between doors and drawer lronts
can be matched by cutting all pieces from the same panel.
Thiscabinetstylelendsitselfwell to the use ot plasticlaminate tor exposed surfaces. Conventionaland concealed
hinges are availablefor a varietyof door thicknesses.Door
and drawer joinery and materialsmay vary from the selection shownin the details.
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION
lL__llr-Tl[
BASE
suPPoRT
ll \/ |
,+l x I
r .""^' *"ll/\l
ry
-Fll
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTIONVERTICAL SECTION A.A
-TII-
HARDBOARD BACKING
POST-FORMED LAMINATE COUNTERTOP
SCRIBE TO
MEUMINE, WOOD
VENEER, OR PLASTIC
UMINATE SURFACE ON
MOF OR PBI. TYP.
BACKSPLASH
-:-tE
SOLID SURFACE.
SOAPSTONE. GRANITE
MARBLE. OR OTHER
STONE ON THIN,SET BED
WALL CABINET_SECTION
]TIE
A-B
3/a" PLYwooD
SOLID
STONE COUNTERTOP
COUNTER
AND BACKSPLASH
AASE CABINET-SECTION
DETAILS
FLUSH
Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
OVERLAY
HARDWOOD
FACE
PANEL
C-C
CONSTRUCTTON-HORIZONTAL
SECTIONS
----]
Cobinet Detoils
383
HARDBOARD
BACKING,
TYP
MEUMINE. WOOD
VENEER OR PLASTIC
UMINATE SURFACE
ON MDF OR PBI, NP
l1 ll
iFgs,?rE
L_ll
ITF
:-1F
-
REVEAL
___jilL_
\ lr_
-]/
--'__--/
llll
tL)
\--
TYP
REVEAL.Typ.J
WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
li llN
uilll
IJN\
soLtD
BASE
CABINET
REVEAL
SCTION
OVERLAY
AD
=ryz N-
HAROWOOO
\ \
C.C
CONSTRUCTION_HORIZONTAL
CABINfr
-DRAWERFRoNT
DOOR
TYPICAL
SECTIONS
CABINET
ELEVATION
REVEAL
OVERLAY
CONSTRUCTTON
In this style of cabinet construction, the separation
between d@rs and drawerlronts is accentedby the reveal.
The style is suited equallyto ither wood or pla;tic laminate
construction.The detailsshown at left show a revealat all
venicaland horizontaljoints. but th designermay vary this
arrangement.
A revealgreaterlhan h inch would requirethe additionof a
face trame,whichwould changethe hinge requrrements.
Wrth or without a face tram6. this sMe allows the use of
conventionalor concealedhinges.Door/drawerjoinery and
materialsmay vary from selectionsshom in the drawinos.
WALL
CAAINET
SECTION
FLUSH
INSET CONSTRUCTION
WITHOUT
FACE FRAME
A-A
In this style of construction,all dmr and drawer faces are

flush with the face of the Gbinet. This swle allows the use
of door and drawerfronts with differentthicknesses.
HMWH
UMgUM
l
BASE CABINET SECTION A-B
FLUS H I N SET CONSTR UCTION
(WITHOUT
rACC
Conventionalas well as concealedhingesare availablefor a

variety oI door thicknesses.The material chosen for the
case and doors and drawers influences lhe choice of
hinges Avoid conventionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws
would be attachedto the edgegrain of panel products.
CABINff
Flushinset constructionwithout any face frame is generally

an expensrvestyle becauseincreasedre is necessaryto
fit and align the doors and drawers.The design featurei of
this case-workstyle are the same as for conventionalflush
constructionwith lace frame except that here the lace
trare has ben eliminated.
DOOR
FNATTE;_HORIZOI.ITAL=ECT,ON5
HARDBOARD
BACKING. TYP
This style does not lend itself to the economicaluse of Dlastic laminate covring finishs. Dor/drawer joinery and
materialsmay vary from slctionsshown in details.
nur,:'ffir
-lF:
-,- r,,
ll ll
:=vW:r: 'E
)V
=W
illl llll
WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
utirl
illl
KZZ
WJ
FACE
BASE
CASINET
FLUSH
FRAME.
SECTTON
TYP
ln this style ol construction,all dmr and drawer faces are

flush with the face of the binet. This style allows the use
of differentthicknessesfor dor and drawer fronts.
Conventronal
as well as concealed
hingesare avatlable
for a
varietyof door thicknesses.The hingeschosen dependon
the case and door/drawermaterialchosen. Avoid conventionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws would be attachedto
the edge!rainot panelproducts.
SOLIO WOOD FACE FRAME, TYP
FLUSH
INSET CONSTRUCTION
WITH
FACE FRAME
Flush inset constructionwith face frame is generallythe

most expensiveof the lour cabinetdoor styles because,in
additionto the cost of providingthe face frame, there is the
cost of the increasedcare nededto fit and align the doors
ano orawers.
This style does not lend itself well to the conomicaluse oI
plasticlaminatesurfaces.D@r/drawerjoineryand materials
may vary from the selectionsshown.
C.C
I NSET CONSTRUCTION
(VI/ITH FACE PU].A EI-gOCIZOFITAL=
ECT'ONS
Greg Heuer:ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
Cobinei Detoilsond Hqrdwore
384
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:s=..+E.HIYJ'
;3:t'fFIi{
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suPPoRT
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il/ \l
Jr \
BASE CABINET
BASE CABINET
BASE CABINET
REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION

VERTICAL SECTION A-A
FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION

(WITHOUT FACE FRAME)
VERTICAL SECTION A.A
(WITH
FLUSH INSET qONSTRUCTION
FACE FRAME) VERTICAL SECTION A-A
HARDWARE
MINIMUM NOMINAL THICKNESS

AND MATERIAL FOR CABINET COMPONENTS
HINGES
COMPONENTS
MIN. NOMINAL
THICKNESS
without face
frame, revealover
lay, flush oveday
and rail cabinet doors
n. up
heighl
1 Consulta woodworkingprofessionaltor shelf specificationsto carryanticipatedloads.
, Givespecialconsiderationto buildingvery wide and/orvery tall doors of this thickness;con,
for guidelines.
sultmanufacturr
3 Thicknessof glassfor doors shouldmeet localcode.
a Use like materialsand thicknessestor face of cabinetdoors and drawerfronts. Veneer core
doorscannotbe guaranteedagainstwarping,telegraphing,or delamination.
openrn9;no catcn
requiredon self,
closing styles
Greg Heuer; Architectural Woodwork Institute; Restm, Virginia

Architectural Woodwork lnstitute, Architectural Woodwork Auaity Standards, Tth ed. (version
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
1).
',t997
Wood Shelving
8 MM DIA
METAL STANDARDS
SURFACE
MOUNTED
WOOD
38s
DOWELS
GENERALLY
NOTE
All dimensions and spacing are
based on a 32 mm module
2"Ml
BOX FRAME
STANDARDS
AND
BRACKETS
SYSTEM
32 MM BOX FRAME
SYSTEM
BLTND DADO
METAL CAM INSERTED
INTO FRAME WALL
THROUGH
OADO
SUPPORT
STANDARDS
DETAILS
FIXED SHELF
AND CLIP
AT
SIOE
SYSTEM
WOOD VENEER OR
PUSTIC UMINATE
,r'PLYWOOO
MEOIUM DENSITY
PARTICLEBOARO
OR FIBERBOARO
NOTE
WOOO EOGE BANO
This system can b hand mounted or machineinserted.A

half turn of the cam screw tightens connection and prevents disassemblv.
SEMI-FIXED
FRAME/SHELF
DETAIL
\\
PLUGS INTO TWO
\F
{'"*"""
HANGING
CLEAT
HANGING
\F
\tr
BRACKET
NOTE
N OTE
All details except hanging bracket and rail must also be floor
supported.
This system can be used for horizontal shelf attachment or

vertical divider suppon.
BULLNOSE
BOOKSHELF
REMOVABLE
SHELF
vt/ALL
ATTACHMENT
GROOVED
SHELF DETAIL
EDGE DETAIL
Richard J. Vtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Helmut Guenschel, lnc.; Baltimore, Maryland
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
_-<
386
InteriorWollPonelingDetoils
COVE
caowir
MOLDING
MOLDING
WAINSCOT CAP
9
z
E
o
wooD lRrM
MEOIUM DENSITY
FIBEREOARD RAIL
ANO STILE WITH
WOOO VENEER
a
CORONA
BED
PLYWOOD
BACK UP
E
l
F
MOLDING
soLrD wooo
RAIL (AND STILE)
5
@
oEruttL ropr.r
LIP MOLDING
FLUSH PANEL
MOLDING
RAISED
PANEL
,.
<F
PLYWOOD
BACK,UP
/ <PUSTER
BELOW
ENTABUTURE
RAISED
FLAT PLYWOOD
PANEL WITH
WOOD VENEER
PANEL
PLYWOOD
BACKUP
AASE CAP
BASE CAP
BASEBOARD
BASEBOARD
BLOCKING
ALOCKING
BASE SHOE
SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED

PANEL AND FLUSH MOLDING
SECTION - WAINSCOT \ivITH FLUSH

PANEL AND RAISED MOLDING
BLOCKING
RAISEO
MEDIUM OENSITY
FIBERBOARO
FOR
PAINT FINISH ONLY
PANEL
BASE CAP
AASEBOARD
BASE SHOE
1. Becauseof its stability,plywood is prelerableto solid

lumberor other matrialsas backup.
2. To join stile to rail, monise and tenon or dowelled ioints
are used.Stte to stitejointsal outsidecornersare ipline
lorntsor lockm;ters;insidecornersare bun iointed.
SECTION _ FULL HETGHT WALL PANEL
INTERIOR
\^/ALL PANEL
DETAILS
Architectural interior paneling consists of a series of thin

sheets ot wood (panels) lramed together by means of
stouter strrps of wood, vertical (stiles) and horizontal (rails),
to lorm erther a d@r, screen. or lining for internal walls.
Paneling was first used as a wall coveri;g in England in the
13th century. Up to the l6th century. the lriming was
almost as massive as half,timber constiuction. Then it was
prcgressively lighrened until by the middle of thal cenrury
when lhe thrckness of the framing was reduced to an Inch.
loday, Inch thick or less panels are made from veneers
over plywood or composrtion boards, which n be treated
for fire proteclion The strles and rarls are made lrom solid
wood or veneered boards. Rim and lip moldings and other
tflms are almost exclusivelv made from solid wi@d.
SOLIO
STILF/RAIL
STILE/RAIL
Richard J. Vituilo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Architectural W@dwork Institute; Arlington, Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
WOOD VENEER
ON
PLYWOOD
OR
MEDIUM
OENSITY
FIBERBOARD
TO PANEL JOINERY
TYPES
SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED

PANEL AND RAISED MOLDTNG
Wood Stoirs
GUIDELINES
Conslruction details on thrs page are for shop-built stairs
using Premium Grade Standards of the Architectural Woodwork Institute. W@d stairs used in private, residentialapplr
cations usually are not governed by the ADA; however.
wood stairs in commercial lacilities and olaces of oublic
accommodatron must conlorm to ADA accessibrlrtygutdelines (ADMG). Details on these lwo pages depict both
alternattves.
1. Check current l@l building codes and regulations lor
requirements that may differ from the general recommendations provided here.
2. Interior stair width: 36 in. minimunr.
3. Minimum headroom is 6 ft 8 in. as measured verticallv
from a dragonal line connecting lread nosings to the
underside of the finished ceiling or stair landing directly
above the stair run. Recommended headr@m is 7 ft.
required width of a stair

Handrail projection: 3,/2 in. maximum.
Stringer projectionr 1'12in. maximum.
For a stair to comply with ADMG, no proiections are
allowed Into the mrnrmum requrred starr wrdth.
5. The width of a landing or platform should be at least as
wide as the stair.
6. The maximum vertical rise of a stair between landinqs is
12 tI7. Biser height: 4 in. min. and 7 in. max.
'11
Tread width:
in. min.. measured from riser to riser.
Variation in adiacent treads or rjsers should not exceed 3/
16in. The maximum difference allowed the tread width or
riser height within a ftight of stairs is % in. ADAAG
requires unrform treads and risers.
Nosings project 1rl2 in. max. Check codes and ADAAG
for other restrictions.
387
L Height of handrail above stair nosings: 30 to 34 an.;34

to 38 in. per ADMG. Guardrail height at landings: 36 or
42 in.; check lolcode.
9. Design handrails that can be gripped easily and fit the
hand. Recommendd diameter is 1,/a to t,/, in. for
round handfails and a similar srze for an eilrblrcal or
rounded square edge section. Handrails should be
structurally designed so that both downward {vertical}
and lateral (horizontal) thrust loads are considered.
10. Exlensions ot handrail at top and bottom ot stair may
aflect total length ot required run. Verify extensions
required by local codes or ADAAG when designing a
stair.
1 1 . Refe. to related stair topics in chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9.
4. Only handrails and stair stringers may prcject into the
NEWEL POST
TREAD RtrURN
MITERED AT END
SHOE
AALUSTER
RAIL
HOUSED STRINGER
FILLER
BETWEEN
BALUSTERS
ffi['fJ,"\]:
NffEL
POST
ROUTED FOR ALL
INTERSECTING
TREAOS ANO
BLOCKING
FLOOR LEVEL
NffEL
POST SHOWN
FOR LANDING.
POST STOPS
AT FLOOR
LEVEL
AT BONOM
OF
STAIR
BALUSTERS
STRINGER
AND TRIM AT FACE
NEWEL
POST
SECTION A
FINISH
HANORAIL (INSTALL ON
BOTH SIOES WHEN
DESIGNING FOR PERSONS
WITH
OISABILITIES)
HOUSED WALL
STRINGER
FILLER
BETWEEN
BALUSTERS
AALUSTER
BALUSTER
DOVETAILEO
TO TREAD
ACCESSIBLE
NOSINGS
FOR
PERSONS
WITH
DISABILITIES
TREAO
RffURN
BLOCKING .
CARRIAGE
FACE
STRINGER
WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
BLOCKING
BEruEEN
CARRIAGES
Center carriage is recommended

TREADS
AND
STRINGER
RISERS
AT
HOUSED
ACCESSIBLE
NOSINGS
SECTION B
The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle. Washington

Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington. D,C.
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
388
Wood Stoirs
HOUSED STRINGER AT
NOTE
Open riser stairs do not comply with Americans
with DisabilitiesAct AccessibilityGuidelines.
OPEN RISER STAIR
OPEN
OPEN
ELEVATION
I l/2"
lttt
CLOSED STRINGER/
SOLID RAIL
STRINGER/
RAIL
CLOSED STRINGER/
OPEN RAIL
OF FACE STRINGER
HANDRAIL DOES NOT
coMPLY W|TH AOAAG
,',a'rrrl@
MtN
- 11t2':
Itto'
WEfl
ffi
/1
METAL
eRrcrEr
\-BLocKrNG
st
Handrail complies with
RISER STAIR/CARPET
FINISH
$,'sHÎffS
HB
NOTE
CLOSED
\ DowEL LET
rl
---l
watr\
Itta':--'aQ
ADMG if dimensions
are maintained.
BLOCKING
FLUSH
TRANSITION
l/2" RADtus
TRtM Typ.
TREAD
WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
CARRIAGE 9PACER
wooo BLocK
CUT TO FIT
WOOD
FINISH
-S
NO STRINGER
ADAAG
ACCEPTABLE
NOSTNG
BASE AT WAL|_
CARRIAGE
CLOSED
NOTCHED
RISER STAIRS AT \^/ALLS AND SOLTD RAILING
vi/ALLS
FLOORING
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
AT TREAD ANO RISER
RADtus'/2"
STEEL ANGLE WITH UG

OR THROUGH BOLTS TO
BEAM AND CARRIAGE
60'MtN
FULL
STRINGER
STEL
ANGLE
BEYOND
NOTCHED
STRINGER
ADAAG ACCEPTABLE
NOSING
TREADS
AND
(2 X MrN.)
RISERS
TREAD
BEAM
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
CARRIAGE
CHAMFER
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
STEEL ANGLE WITH
UG BOLTS TO
CARRIAGE AND FLOOR
CLOSED
RISER
STRINGER
STAIR/\MOOD
FTNISH
HEAVY TIMBER
The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington

Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington, D.C.
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
STAIR
SECTION A
Wood Ornomenls
CYMA
MOLDING
CORONA
MOLDING)
(DRIP
--
389
--
DENTILS
SCROLL
GEE
MOLDING
AAY.LEAF
FRILZE
ORNAMENT
OGEE MOLDING WITH

TALON ORNAMENT _
FRIZE
DOOR
OVERDOOR
------__\
DETAILS
wooD
CORBEL (BRACKET)
] "o**,.-
@_
--^.--.
EWt
r
:i
lirliffiear
] ORNAMENTS
IaRCHTTRAVE
PUSTER
APITAL
FLfED
PIUSTER
V \ / O O DC O R B E L S
GENERAL
W@dwork is considered an ornament when it has a sEcial
or uniq@ design that does not tall within the standard cate
gories ol architectural woodwork as defined bv the Architctural Woodwork Institute.
Some typical uses for ornamental wood include pediment
heads, mantels. ornamental gfllles, fluted pilasters, cupe
las, finials, medalltons, corbels, balusters, posts, and columns. Wrthrn the classificatrcn of ornarental wood are
combinations of flat or molded solid lumber, or cored lumber components with wood veneer {aces with. or wilhout_
the addition of moldings. All joinings between ornamental
members should be designed lor lunctional as well as decorative ourmses.
Wood ornamentation is an art that can take shaoe in an
almost infinire number ol lorms and designs, limited only
by the mechanical production constraints of woodworking
shops. "Wood" ornarents can also be produced in largei
quantities (in molds) with the synthetic material polyurethane. Once cured, the polyurethane @n be painted and
substituted for the wood ornaments.
.STOP'
FLUTING
WAINSCOT
FLUTING
FTEVERSE
FLUTING
FLUTING SECTIONS
ORNAMENTAL
V\/OOD PILASTER
Richard J. Vatullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
Wood Ornoments
ffi ffi
ffi
ffi
"&
W
@
ffi
@
G.fr
@N
MISCELLANEOUS
ffi
M
_l
]va"-.e
jFRrzE
I ARGITRAVE
PIUSTER
CAPIT&
FIREPUCE
SURROUND
(NON-
%$tri
r\l
COMBUSTIBLE)
MATERIALS
1t
PIUSTER
SHAfl
PANEL
ALSO
CALLED
CANDEUBRUM
PANEL
ffi @
.(qT/A
@ W
PLINTH
FIREPLACE
MANTEL
ORNAMENTS
---------------
ffi
'
r7----------,
)t-Jl
'/)-
_-/ll lv/
s.ecr
_______l
-:::: .=]-:."o*^-ff
ffiM
ffiW
A
WL)
AA
PINEAPPLE
FRIEZE ORNAMENTS
MISCELIANEOUS
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville,Maryland
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
ORNAMENTS
FINIALS
ACORN
ACOR,N
GENERAL
N OTES
Intenor trim ts a generally decorative treatment -applied

atter mll. floor, and ceiling finishes have been installed. lt
can be made of flat or molded wood from single pieces of
wood or built-up pieces that give a more complex ind deco_
ratrve appearance_ lnterior trim conceals joints between
dif_
ferent materials and blocks air infiltration through wails,
which typically is greatest at material joinrs. Int;rior vim
also- frames wall and ceiling openings idor and window/
skylrght trim). defines planar edges (crown and base mold_
Ingl, and acts as a visual divider between dissimilar materi_
als (chair rail).
The Architectural Woodwork Institute differentiates wood

trim ccording to its length. Standing wood trim is trim
that
can be accommodated easily wilh s,ngle lenglhs ol wood
l@penorng on specres). such as crown moldings, fasc;as,
soffits, chair.rails. baseboa.ds, ana sfroe motOing's.'nunnn!
tflm. is usually made up of frnger jointed woodto achievJ
rne rengths customarily needed tor thrs tvoe ot trim.
DOOR
CASING
BUILT.UP
MOLDING
wrNDow
casrre
CORNTCE
1. Blockrng that recerves moldings shoutd be set

olumb
tevet, true. and straight, with no distortion, and should be
provided for full surface contact. Attach blocking to
iubslrales wrth nails, screws. or bolts.
2. Woodwork should be stored in a dry, ventilated space. tf
this is oot possible, seal the ends ot all pieces as ioon as
possible- Moldings should be at optimum moisture
cm
tent at the time of installation and should be allowed to
acclimate to project conditions before installation.
3. Joints In adjacent and related members should be staq_
gered. Cope at inside corners and miter at outsiae
coi.
ners to produce tighlJitting
ioints with full surface
contact lhroughoul lhe length of the jornt, use scarf
Jornts{face mitered) for end-tond joints in trim.
4. Blind nail where possible, and use finishing nails in
exposed areas.. Predrill as required to eliminat; splitting;
set exposed nail heads for filling.
5. Most flat rrim like baseboards and casing has a ploughed
or retieved back, whjch gives wide trim a degree of itexi
orrry, alowtng tt to frt snugly against a wall surface
6. The molding profiles illustrated are a small sampling of
those available from most millwork shops. Custom "pro_
liles should be shown on drawings full size. Dimensrins
grven are tor typical Stock molding profrles.
---
r>\
:(/b
-_+'_v
| >--
_,.\
(,2-72-*,
| /
l,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ \
L-4-'rJ
/
>1
aTEDEDGE
l/'-
fuINTH
TYPICAL
F7__*
// / / >\-r'
f / /./ ,/ /\
BLOCK
WOOO TRIM AND MOLDINGS

WINrcW
F%ME
Hru
BLIND
STOP
JAMB
PAffiING
PARTNTG
G
PffiNG
STOP
OR
PARTING
SIDE
LJ--/_A
a-7-7-7---
NOTE
INSIDE
CORNERS
OF
SHAPED
MOLDINGS
ARE
(CUT WTH
COPED
@PING
SAW
TO FT
OVER
COMOURS
OF ADJOINING
MIM
Casings are used to tinish the joint btween the window or

d@r had and side jambs and wall finish. Often a casing
used at windows is also used as apron material, wtth th;
wde stde toward the stool
CASINGS
JAMB
WINDOW
ASING
SASH.
WP.
INSIOE
STOP
-t/
STOOL MTERED
AT CORNERS
ARON
MMERED
AT CORNERS
LEMON
E}ISCUIT
SCARF
TYPICAL
WINDOW
TRtM
MOLDING
W@D
BL@KING
AS NECESSARY,
AP
WP
CROWN
MODING
USED
CryPICALLY
TOWARO
TOP
OF
CORNICE
ASSEMBL).)
CONNECTTON
S;PLINE
JOTNT
OR
DETAILS
sTooLs
MOLDING
(MreRED
@NER)\
AT
MOLDED
MOLDING
AT TOP
CORNERS
MOLDED
D@R
ASING
ONE.PIECE
BASEBOARD
NOTE
St@ls are used as interiorcaps on windowsillsand recetve
ca$ng fiom above and apron below. They are specifiedby
width of rabbetand degreeof bevel.
ovouo
SHOE
tfr-" N W'?'*Ew
ll N N N P-=o='=oo*o
:l N N t.i N
ts S S M'Fhiq::
NOTE
PLINTH
DENNLS
\
PICTURE
MOLDING
aase
BASE
MoDING
BASE
TYPICAL CORNICE TRIM
CAP
BASEBOARD
BED MOLDING
TYPICAL
SHG
DOOR AND
BASE TRIM
BLOCK
Baseboards and base moldings are used at the juncture of

wall and floor exclusively. Baseboard may be one piece
{with integral.base cap) or flat with optional base cap. Separate caps and sh@s are flexible and tacilitate a close fit to
uneven wall and lloor surfaces.
BASEBOARD
AND BASE MOLDINGS
Richard J. Vitullo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsvjlle. Maryland
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
392
InteriorWoodTrimond Moldings
,\';
\"
,r4
-tf
/
o"/ I
/t,
<?
ffv
N OTE
Crown moldingsare appliedalone at the joint betweenwall

and ceilingor togetherwith other moldingsin a built-upcornic,typicallytoward the top of the corniceassemblyjmeae' 'r6a
oi^6
r^
CROWN
odd6
MOLDINGS
NOTE
NOTE
Cove moldingsare used at insidecorners,such as wall-towall or ceiling-to-wall.
Bed moldings are used at the bottom of built-up cornices

and at other vertical-tehorizontaliunctures.
COVE MOLDINGS
BED MOLDINGS
1/2'
t
"*Fffi
i l\\r- F
fiI
Y^-,
w \rm
((p
i|u/ N
rVTtxl
ROUNDS
11h6'frP.
Mwn
t-
r*-n
l>
:l/\r I A
uh* rx R
,.e
I V2^ li/lll.!
W,hr
F\
}F)*L1Z
-T-U_p/
U.I_ly Ey
BASE CAPS
N OTES
This molding is used on outside corners
Often integratedwith cornices,picture moldings are used

as continuousprcjecting supportslor picture hooks. Customflade h@ks are availableto fit thse orofiles.
1. HalJ-roundsare used to conceal vertical and horizontal

joints. Ouarter-roundsare used at inside corners and as
base shoe.
2. Base caps are appliedat the top of the basebcrd, flush
againstthe wall.
CORNERS
PICTURE
BASE CAPS AND
NOTE
NOTE
MOLDINGS
%W
T1
ROUNDS
td*
aR
a
,lu = a s n ilW u)
II-EYVN
WWMW
NOTE
Stops are used at iambs to guide windorc
and stop doors.
STOPS
|
BATTENS.
| r:r
; F\trSSN
lf-J
NOTE
These moldings are used in panelsto concealjoints, over
window jamb edges in a multiple{pening window, and as
astragalsat middlejoints oI doubleleal d@rs.
PANEL STRIPS,
ASTRAGALS
---
._-l_fI
rf R.
rl -2
AND
ll..-l
N OTE
Backbands are applied as trim at the outer edg6 of door
jamb and head, among othr uses.
BACKBANDS
---T
1 th. - 21b". wP.
1--
|:'
SIS:
N\v-
*t\z
FS
N
S
F
+!,
*l b-lo
a.
%:
%-,-,
II
E*WWF
t,7
?b
F-a
NOTE
NOTE
Cap or rake moldings are used at head of door and window

trim and at top of wainscots.
Panel moldings are typically used as door and wainscol

trim, mitered together and arranged in rectangles.
CAP OR RAKE MOLDINGS
CHAIR RAILS
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeatStudio;Crownsville,

Maryland
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
PANEL MOLDTNGS
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers

FACE
VENEER
/
-
PARTICLEBOARD
WNEER
PLYWOOD
'Gffu.*
HARDWOODPLYWOODpanelsare made from hardwood

or decoratiw softwood veneers ovr a core materialsuch
as mediumdensity panicleboard, mediumiensity liberboard.or lowdensity lumbr.
@='GFF..^
SOFTWOODPLYWOODpanels are made with soltwood

face veneers and are seldom incorporatedinto finished
architecturalwoodworkingprojectsbecauseof the instability of the corematerialandcorevords.
VENEER
MEDIUM.DENSITY
FIBERBOARQ
PLYWOOD
CORE TYPES
GENERAL
Architecturalwood panels are made from wood material
that is cut or formed into sheel Droductsthat are reterredto
as the "panel core.- These sheets are used alone (with or
without a finish) or laminatedtogether with other veneer
products to make plywood. A great variety of panels are
manufacturedusing differentcore materialsand adhesives
or binders and various torming tchniques and surfaco
treatments. The characteristicsof the panels vary with
these differencesin materialand construction_
PANEL
CORE
TYPES
Panelcores,which sere as the substratefor laminatsand

veneers on the outer surfae, are classifiedby ingredients
and methods of runufacture. The following types of panel
cores are suitabletor architecturaluse:
INDUSTRIAL GRADE
P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
This core type is made by using heat and pressureto bond
together synthticresinor binderand wmd particlesot various sizes- Employed in a wide variety ot architectufal
woodwork applications,industrial grade particleboardis
especially well suited as a substrate for higlFquality
veneers and de@rative laminates.When used as mnels
without any surface layqs, the product is called panicleboard. When used with wood vener on the surface.the
panels are referred to as particlore plywood. Particleboard core classifiedby density or weight per cubic ft falls
into three categories:
1. Low density---lessthan 40 lb per cubic ft (640 kg per
dbic meter)
2. Medium density--4o to 50 lb per cubic ft (640 to 800 kg
oer cubic meter)
3. High density-more than 50 lb per cubic ft {80Okg per
cubic meter)
MOISTURE.RESISTANT
P A R T I C L E B O A R DC O R E
Some mediumdensity industrial particleboardis bonded
with phenolic resins, which makes it more resistant to
swellingwhen exposedto moisture.Phenolicresins,unlike
urea resins, do not emit significantquantitiesof tomalde
hyde. The most common gradesare type 2-M-2 (M-2exterior glue)and 2-M-3 (M-3exteriorglue).
CHARACTERISTICS
PANEL
OF CORE MATERIAL
TYPE
F I R E - R E T A R D A N T P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
Mediumdensity industrialpanicleboardmay be treateddutr
ing manufactureto carry a UL Class'l frre ratingstamp
(flame spread20, smoke developed25). This materialcan
be used as substratefor panelingrequiringa Class'l rating.
MEDIUM-OENSITY
FIBERBOARD (MDF) CORE
MDF is made from wood particles reduced to fibrs in a
moderate?ressursteam vessel,combinedwith resin.and
bonded together under heat and pressur.The surface is
flat, smmth. uniform.dense,and free of knots or grainpattern. MDF is useful as a substrate for paint, thin overlay
materials,veneers,and decorativelaminates.The homooneous edge allos machiningand paint finishes. MDi is
ono of the most stable mat-forred panel productsand is
widely usd as an architecturalparel.
A THEDru
PANERN
This is the slicing method most often used lo produce

veneers for high{uality architecturalwoodworking. Slicing
is done parallelto a line through the center of the log. A
combinationof Gthedral and straight-grainpatternsresults,
with a naturalprogrsssionof patternfrom leaf to leaf.
VENEER
VENEER CORE (PLYWOOD)

This panel product is made up of alternatinglayersof thin
veneer and is commonly known as plywood. Adhesive is
placedbtween the layers,and th panelsa.e presseduntil
th adhesiveis set; heat is often used to sped the cure.
The two outside layers, often selcted for species,grain,
and appearance,are calledthe face venesrs.
HARDBOARD CORE
Hardb@rdis made of interfeltedfibers consolidatedunder
heat and pressureto a densityof 31 Ib per cubicft or more.
Availablewith either one side (S'lS) or two sides (S2S)
smooth, hardboard is often used for sework backs.
drawer bottoms, and divider panels. Architecturalwoodworkerstypicallyuse two types of hardboardcore:standard
(untempered)and tempered. which is standardhardboard
that has been subjected to a curing treatment to increase
its stiffness,hardness,and weight.
NARROW
SNIED
PAreRN
N OTE
Ouarterslicing,roughlyparallelto a radiusline through the

log segment, simulates th quarter-swing process used
with solid lumber,In many speciesthe individualleavesare
narcw as a result. A series ot stripes is produced,varying
in density and thicknessamong species. "Flake" is a characteristicof this slicingmethod in red and white oak.
QUARTER-SLICED
VENEER
KNIFE
LOG
PATTERN
N OTE
PERFORMANCE
ABILITY
core (MDF)
Rift verers are producedmost often in red and white oak.

rarelyin other species.Note that rift veneersand rift-sawn
solid lumber are produced so diffrently that a "match'
between them is highlyunlikely.In both casesthe cutting is
done slightly off the radius lines. minimizing the "flake"
ass@iatedwith quarterslicing.
RIFT-SL|CED
(R!FT-CUT)
\/ENEER
ffi
or
board core
VERY
BROAD
PAfrERN
N OTE
Characteristicsof core materialoerforrunce are infl@nced
by the gradeand thicknessof the core and specificgravity
of the cor species. Visual edge quality is rated belore
treatment with edge bands or fillers and, for lumber 6re,
assumesthe use of 'clear edge" grade.Surfaceunilormity
(FLAT-SLICED)
PLAIN.SLICED
M O I S T U R E - R E S I S T A N TM O F C O R E
Some MDF is bonded with an exterior resin to oroduca
highlywater-resistantproduct.
(mediumdensity)
Lumber core-hardw@d
softwood
TYPES
The term "plywood"meansa panelproductmadeof three

or more layers{plies)of w@d or wood products(veneersor
overlays and/or core materials)that have been laminated
into a single sheet (panel).Plywood falls into two groups
according
to materialsand manufacturing:
VENEER CORE
PARTIC)LEBOARD
HARDV\/OOD
FACE
/-
393
rs drrectlyrelatedto the performanceof fine veneersplaced

over the surface. Dimensionalstabilityis usuallvrelatedto
exposure to wide variations in relative humidiv. Screw
holding and bending strength are influencedby proper
designandengineering.
To create rotary{ut veneers,the log is center mounted on

a lathe and "peeled' along the path ot the growth rings,
like unwindinga roll of paper.This providesa bold, random
appearance.Rotary{ut veneersvary in width, and matching
at veneerjoints is extrerely difficult. Almost all softwood
veneers are cut this way. Rotarytut veneers are the least
useful in fine architecturalwoodwork.
ROTARY.CUT
VENEER
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte.Marvland

ArchitecturalWoodwork lnstitute; Centreville,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
PonelProductsond Wood Veneers
394
ffiffi
WIVVIW
WIVIW
NfMTm
hl/Ah
mmffiffiffi
SLIP
BOOK
MATCH
MATC:H
RANDOM
MATCH
RUNNING
MATCH
1234135/
PANEL
END
MATCH
VENEER
MATCH
GENERAL
ARCHITECTURAL
END
MATCH
E}AI-ANCE
AND
CENTER
MATCH
BAT-ANC:E
MATCH
TYPES
CHARACTERISTTCS
OF \,VOOD VENEER
SPECIES
MATCHING
LEAVES
BETWEEN
ADJACENT
VENEER
It is possible to achieve cenain visual effects bv ths manne(

in which the leaves are arranged, Botary cut veneers are
difficult lo match, therefore most matching is done with
sliced veneers. Matching of adjacent veneer leaves must
be specified. Consult your AWI woodworker for choices.
BOOK
MATCHING
Book matching is the most commonly used match in the

industry. In it, every other piece ol veneer is reversed so
ad,acent pieces (leaves) are "opened" hke the pages of a
'tight"
book. Because the
and "loose" faces jlte-rnate in
adjacent leaves, they reflect light and accept stain differ
ently. The veneer joints match, creating a symmetrical pat,
tern that yields maximum continuity of grain.
SLIP
MATCHING
Adtoining leaves are placed (slipped out) in sequence without being turned, thus all the same face sides are exposed.
The grain figure repeats but toints do not show grain match
All faces have some light refraction.
END
MATCHING
End matching is often used to extend the apparent length

of available veneers lor high wall panels and long con{er
ence tables. End matching occurs in two types:
ARCHITECTURAL END MATCH: Leaves are individuallv
book or shp matched, alternating end-tond and side-to
side. Architectural end matching yields the best continuous
grain patterns for lngth as well as width.
PANEL END MATCH: Leaves are book or sliD matched on
panel subassemblies, with sequenced subassemblies end
matched, resulting in some modest cost savings on
projects where applicable. For most species, panel end
matching yields a pleasing. blended appearance and grain
conlnu[y.
RANOOM
MATCHING
Veneer ieaves are placed next to each other in a random

order and orientation, producing a casual board$y-board
effect in many species. Conscious effort is made to mismatch the grain at joints.
RUNNING
MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from as manv veneer leaves

as necessary. This often resulls in an asymmetrical appearance, with some veneer leaves of unequal width.
BALANCE
rCost retlects raw veneer
costs weighted for waste or yield
characteristics and degree of labor drlfrculty
'?Seasonalfactors may
affect availability
3Availability ot blond
teak is very rare.
N OTE
When quanered or plain sliced are listed on the same line,
the widrh dimensions are listed with quartered lirst and
plain sliced second.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studaoj Crownsville. Maryland

Archrtectural Wmdwork lnstitute; Cenrrevrlle.Virqinta
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
MATCHING
Each panel lace is assembled from an odd or even number

of veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
BALANCE
AND
CENTER
MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from an even number of

veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
Thus, there is a veneer joint in the center of the panel, producing horizontal symmetry.
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers

FACING
MATERIAL
395
TYPES
Wmd product substratesare classifiedin two main facinq

material categories:decoratrvelaminates/overlavs
ana
wood veneers.
DECORATIVELAMINATES/OVERLAYS
This finish surface category can b broken down into the
tollowingbroadgroups:
A.PIECE
SUNE}URST
BO)<
MATCH
PARAUET
HIGH-PRESSURE
DECORATIVELAMINATESare formed
under heat and pressure from resin-impregnatedkraft
paper substrateswith decorativeplasticface materialsand
a clear protective top sheet. This assembly, commonly
lled plastictaminate,offers rsistanceto wear and manv
stains and chemicals.Common uses include casework
exterto.s,countertops,and wall paneling.
MATCH
IHERMALLY FUSED DECORATIVEPANELS are ftat

pressed lrom a thermoset polyester or melamine resinimpregnatedweb. and most have been prelaminatedto
industrialparticleboardor mediumdensiry fiberboardsubstrates when they arrive at the woodwork fabricator.Performance is similar to that of high-pressuredecoralive
laminates.Common uses includecasework interiors,furniture, shelving,displaymatrials,and decorativepaneling.
MEDIUM-DENSITY
OVERLAYSare made from oressed
paperoverlaysand ar highlyresistantto
resin-impregnated
moisture. They are availableapplied to cores suitable for
both interior and xtorior uses. Tho seamlss oanel face
and uniformdensityoffer a soundbasefor opaquefinishes
ano parnr.
REVERSE
c)R
GRAIN
BO)<
END
HERRINGE}ONE
S\^/ING
VINYLFILMS,FOILS,AND LOW BASISWEIGHTPAPERS

are decorativefacingmaterialsthat, althoughthy have limited use in custom architecturalw@dworking, are suitable
for sore installations.
MATCH
WOOD VENEERS
W@d veneers are produced in a variety of industry standard thicknesses.The slicing process is controlled by a
numberof variables,but the thicknssof the veneerhas little bearingon the qualityof the 6nd product.
There are two types of veneers, hardwd and softwood.
Haldwood veners are available in many domestic and
imported w@d spcies and are nomally plain sliced. but
certain spcies can be rift sliced, quansr sliced. or rotary
cut. Softwood veneersare usualtysliced from Douglasfir,
but pine and other softrcods are available.Most soltwood
vener is rotary cut, but plairsliced and rift-sliced(vertical
grain)softw@ds can be obtainedwith a specialorder.
DIAMC)ND
REVERSE
DIAMOND
SKETCH
Most veneers are tak6n from largs tres, but some are
sliced from fast{rowing trees, dyed, and regluedin molds
to create "grain" patterns.Th color of these reconstituted
veneers is establishedduring manufactur because the
high percenlageof glue line resists later staining.
FAC:E
NOTE
During specitication,use both names and illustrationsto
define the desiredeffect, as nares vary by regionlor these
matchingtechniques.
SPECIAL
COMMON
V\/OOD VENEER
FACE
PRIMARY
COM M ERC IAL
HAROWOOD
SPEC
MATCHING
VENEER
OPTIONS
PATTERNS
OF SELECTED
FACE VENEER
COMMERCIAL
SPECIES
PATTERN
Pr.-AtN SLTCEO
(FLAT CUT)
ROTARY
CUT
The manner in which a log segment is cut with relationto

the annualrings of the tree detemines the appearanceof
the veneer. Individualpieces of veneer, refered to as
"leaves," are kept in the order in which they were sliced{or
referenceduringinstallation.The group ot leavesfrom one
slicingis lled a "flitch" and is identifiedby a number and
th gross squarefeet it @nt8ins. Th faces ot the leaves
with relationto their positionin the log are identifiedas the
"tight tace" (toMrd the outside of the logl and rhe "loose
face" (towardthe insideor hoart of the log).
NOTES
Yellow poplar
methods ol
I The headings above reter to the face vener pattern, not

to the rethod of cutting. Fa@ ven@r panerns other
than those listed are obtainable by special order.
'zThe method of cutting lor a given face wneer pattern
shall be at mill option unless otheMise
buyer in an explicitmannerto avoidthe possibiliryo{ misunderstanding.Fo( example,plain-slicdveneercut on a

venical slicer or Dlain-slicedveneer cut on a half-round
rotary lathe could be specified.
specified by the
1. To achiew balancedconstruction.panelproductsshould
be absolutelysymmetril from the cnter line. Materials
used on either side should@ntract and expandor exhibit
moisturepermeabilityat the sme rat as the veneer.
2. In parel construction,the thinnerthe facing matedal,the
less torce it can generateto cause warping.The thicker
th subslrate, the more it can rsist a warping movemenl or rorce.
3. Wood veneer standards: For hardwood plwood, the
face veneer characteristicsof the Hardwood Plwood
and Veneer Association (HPVA) have generally been
adapted for use. These tace grades apply to custom
architecturalw@dwork.
4. Flamespreadfactors:The fire rating of the core material
determinesthe ratingof rhe assembledpanel.Fire-retardant veneered oanels must have a tirHetardant core.
Particleboardcore is availablewith a Class| (ClassA rating, but MDF is not currentlyavailablewith a lire rating.
Existingbuildingcodes. ex@pt where locallyamended,
providethat facingmaterialsr/a in. or thinnerare not
consideredin determiningth flame spreadratingof the
panel. For more information, refer to the Architectural
Woodwork lnstitute guide 'Fire Code Summary."
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crwnsville, Marvland

ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Centreville,Virginia
Chan reprintedwith permissionfrom the Hardwmd Plvwoodand VeoeerAss@iation
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
Screens,Blinds,ond Shutters
396
I
RAISED
PANEL
FI.AT
PANEL
SHUTTER
ROUTED
LOUVERED
PANEL
LOUVER
TYPES
MORTISE
SLOT
AND TENON
JOINT
HAUNCBED
MORTISE
AND
TENON
JOINT,
DADOED
SI.-A
SCREEN
PIN
MOVABLE
SI.ATS
MATERIALS
WORKMANSHIP LEVEL
--
PIVOT
5LATS
TYPES
ECONOMY
PREM IUM
TRANSPARENT
FINISH
,APPLIEO
FINISH
otneryrse
specified,
same as
transparent
parts.any ot the
listedspecies
unlessotheM,se
specafied
JOINT
the listedmaterials unlessotherwise specified
TYPE
WOOD
WIRE
FRAME
W@D
bronzewrre
( 1 8x 1 4 m e s h )
STAPLES
aT 3'O.C. Ms
TERIALS
WIRE
INSTALLATION
CLOTH
CUSTOM v\/ORKMANSHIP
SCREEN DETAILS
HAUNCHED
AND
TENON
MATERIALS
CUSTOM
WORKMANSHIP
BEAD
METAL
DETAIL
GRADE
grade
tumoer
Strles.rarls,
slats and
mullions
Applied
rcldings
MORTISE
TRANSPARENT
FINISH
OPAQUE
FINISH
PREM IUM
WORKMANSHIP
TRANSPARENT
FINISH
OPAQUE
FINISH
JOINT
TYPE
KERF CUT INTO WMD

TO HOLD WRE CLOTH
W@D
ffiGILE
INTO
not permrtted
or fiberboard
{veneeronly
by direct
spcilication)
fiberbGrd recomrenoeo
(veneer
permitted)
race: veneer
gradetor
transparentfinish and mate
rialtor opaque
finish
"A" face plus

compatibility
of mlor
between
veneer and
lumDer
"B'veneer,
Plarn
fiberboard,or
medrumdensityoverlay
BES
WITH
TO LMK
CLC)TH
PREMIUM
SCREEN
INSTALTATION
WORKMANSHIP
DETAILS
DETAIL
GRADE
NOTES
1. For additional information, refer to Architectural Woodwork Ouality Standards, 6th edition (version 1.1), 1994,
Architectural Woodwork Institute {AWl}.
2. Lumber grades indjcated in the charts on this page are
according to AWI quality standards:
Grade l: Pieces are selected for uniform grain and color
on exposed laces and edges.
Grade ll: Pieces are selected tor uniform grain on
exposed taces and edges.
Grade lll: No matching lor grain or color is required.
3. AWI recognizes three levels ol workmanship
screens, blinds, and shutters:
CUSTOM
woodwork
for wood
GRADE: Most
conventional
architectural
falls within this grade. High{uality workmar
panel
products
usedto rim panelproduct

centersandpermittedfor
panelslessthan 14 in.
acfossrne grarn
panrcteooaro particleboardor
or fiberboard fiberboard rec(veneeronry
ommenoeo
(veneer
by direct
specification) permitted)
panercor
KERF
METAL
STAPLES
AT 3' O.C, MAX.
WIRE
Veneered
stiles.rails,
andmullions
stilesand rails
Flat panels
ARCHITECTU
RAL WOODWORK
used to rim
panelproducr cenrers
usedto
rim panel
product
centers
panicleboard or fiberboard (veneer only by

direct
specification)
panrcleDoard or lDerboard (veneer only by
orrecl
specilication)
"AA face
prus comparF
bility of grain
and color
between
veneer ano
lumber
OPAQUE
FINISH
tl
permittedfor panelsin
anydimension
tl
permittedfor paneisin
anVdimension
not
panrcteDoaro
or fiberboard
recommenoeq
(veneer
permitted)
"A veneer. b race

prarn
veneer
tiberbeard.
medrumor
oensrlyover
tay
7 , ' ( 1 9m m )
r / , " ( 1 9m m )
/z (l3 mm)
/2 (l3 mm)
ship,materials,
andinstallation
are requiredfor workwith
this designation.
PREMIUMGRADE:This specificationrequirescareful
oversightto guaranteethe highest qualityworkmanship,
materials.installation,
and executionof designintent-lt
is typically reserved for special projects or project features.
ECONOMYGRADE:This gradeindicatesthe minimum
expectationsfor quality,materials,and installationwithin
the scope ot AW standards.
Richard J. Vitullo, dlA: Oak Leaf Studioj C.ownsville, Marvland
TRAN SPARENT
FINISH
w[n no
selectionfor
grarnor cotor
prus
compatibility
of grain and
color between
vereer and
lumoer
permitted for panels less

than l4 in. across the grain
harseo panels
ECONOMY
WORKMANSHIP
tl
plus
compatibility
of color
between
veneer and
lumber
rtat panets
products
Nylonor tabrglass
mesh
{ 1 8x l 4 m e s h )
BLIND AND SHUTTER
CLOTH
OPAQUE
FINISH
panrcleboard, fiber
board, or
veneer
"B vener,
prarn
fiberboard,
or medrumqensrryoverlay
' L " ( 1 3m m )
4. All exlerior screens and shutters must be treated with a

wood preservative in accordance wilh AWI Ouality Stan
dards, Section 100.
5. Pivot oins for use in damo or coastal areas must be manufactured of nylon. stainless steel, or brass.
for
6. Exterior grade panel products are recommended
blinds and shutters because once installed they are typically kept open. with one face constantly exposed to the
sun and other weathering (and drying) conditions, while
the other face is Iikely to retain moisture.
CHAPTER
SEVEN
THERMALAND
MOISTIJREPROTECTION
Waterproofing
Dampproofing
Membrane
and
398
Roofing
415
Flashing and Sheet Metal

Thermal
Protection
4O2
Sheet Metal Roofing
Exterior Insulation and Finish

4O4
Systems
Vapor Retarders
429
438
Roof Specialties and

Accessories
45O
4O5
Shingles, Roof Tiles, and Roof

4o,6
Coverings
Roofing and Siding Panels
Flashing
434
413
Gutters and Dornrnspouts
459
Woterproofingof Foundotions
398
SUMP PUMP (OPTIONAL)

BFLOW REMOVAELL
COVER
SAND
NOTES
1 Consult a soils engineer to determine sorl types anil
groundwater levels and their effect on drainage ancl
waterproofing methods. Consult a waterproofing special.
ist 10 determine a specific design approach for problenr
soils and conditaons.
FILL
BENTONITE
CUY
WATERPROOFING
MATERIAL (PANEL
,," PLYWOOO
OTHER
RIGID
PROTECTION
OR
TIMBER UGGING
PUCEO TIGHTLY
TOGETHER
SHEET
PILING
COMPOSITE
DRAINAGE
MATERIAL
OR OTHER
PROTECTION
BENTONITE
cuY
WATER STOP
AT KEY JOINT
BOARO
BENTONITE
OR OTHER
WATER STOP
MATERIAL
DRAIN TILE
TO SUMP
{OPTIONAL)
COMPACTED OR
UNDISTURBED EARTH
GRAVEL BED
NONREINFORCED
THIN CONCRETE
2'' MIN. (MUD
SLAB
BENTONITE CUY
WATERPROOFING
MATERIAL (PANELS)
PROTECTION BOARO (OPT,)
a. Composite drainage material: Recommended when

water is frequently present in soils surrounding foun
dations. Usually made up of a rigid open-weave material, approximately % in. thick, covered on both sides
by a geotextile tiltor fabric preventing small stones or
other materials from clogging the drainage route of
water inside- Typically terminated at drain tiles at the
bottom of the foundation. Higher in cost than other
protection board materials.
BENTONITE OR OTHER WATER STOP

MATERIAL AT SUBilALL
JOINT
I " HIGH,
MIN.
WATER STOP AT KEY JOINT
RIGID
NONAIOOEGRADABLE
LIQUID MEMBRANE COATING AT TOP SURFACE

WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE
VI/ATERPROOFING
OR COATING
APPLICATIONS
AT CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
b. Rigid insularion boards: Used above trostline or if

ground temperatures
are low. Usually made of
expanded polystyrene. Minimum thickness is'/4 in.
(when used as protection board only), up to 114 in.
thick (or greater. if desired) which gives an R-8 insulat
Ing value.
CONDITIONS
GRAOE
MIN
MIN
SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROD
AT EXPANSION
- AENTONITE
CUY OR OTHER
WATER STOP
JOINT
SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROO
AT EXPANSION
JOINT
BENTONITE
CLAY OR OTHER
WATER STOP
COMPOSITE
ORAINAGE
MATERIAL (ACTS
AS PROTECTION
BOARD)
WATERPROOFING
M E M B R A N EO R
COATING
RIGID INSUUTION
OR OTHER
PROTECTION
AOARD MATERIAL
WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE
OR
COATING
BENTONITE
cuY
WATERSTOP
GRAVEL
MIN
FILL
FILTER FABRIC
OVER 4'' DRAIN
I " HIGH, MIN. RIGID

NONBIODEGRADABLE
SHAPE SOIL
TO FORM GUNER
CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE

COATING AT TOP SURFACE
CONCRETE
GRAVEL
MIN
FLOOR
PROTECTION
,'
I
HIGH, MIN. RIGID
NONBIODEGRADAALE
SHAPE SOIL
TO FORM GUNER
BOARD
(OPT.)
BED
COMPACTEO
OR
UNDISTURBED
SOIL
CONCRETE
FLOOR
PROTECTION
FOOTING
IN WET SOILS
SUB
6 MIL POLYNHYLENE
VAPOR BARRIER
BENTONITE
CUY
WATER
STOP
WRAPPED
AROUND
PIPE
BEFORE
GROUT
REPACKED
AROUND
PIPE
SEALANT
AND BACKER
ROD AT
INTERIOR
GROUT
THICKEN
LIQUID
WATERPROOFING
COATING
AROUND
PIPETO I-THICK
AND/OR ADD
COLLAR
SEAL
(SEE MFR, DETAILS)
JOINT
SLAB
BOARO
(OPT.)
BENTONITE
CUY
WATERPROOFING
(PANELS)
MATERIAL
WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE
OR
COATING
NONREINFORCED
THIN
CONCRETE
SUB,2''
MIN,
6 MIL POLYETHYLENE
VAPOR AARRIER
GRAVEL
BED
PROTECTION
AOARD
GROUT WITH IRON
OXIDE ADMIXTURE
PACKED
AROUND
PIPE
BLOCKOUT
OF
CONCRETE
COMPACTED
OR
UNOISTURBED
SOIL
UNDER
FILL
FILTER FAARIC
OVER 4,' ORAIN
TILE
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
GRAVEL
BENTONITE
cuY
WATERSTOP
CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE

COATING AT TOP SURFACE
FOOTING
WATERPROOFING
3. Bentonite clay waterproofing is usually manufactured r.

the form of corrugated cardboard panels with bentonite
clay material filling the co(ugation voids. When morst
ened, the clay swells and takes on a gellike consistency.
forming
an impermeable
barrier when
confined
Bentonite panels may be placed over a substrate of com
pacted eanh, sand, and pea gravel (or mud slab, for rein
forced slabs greater than 6 in. thick). Since the panels
' swell when hydrated, pressure is exerted on adjacent
construction. For slabs less than 6 in. thick, which may
be adversely affected by bentonile swelling, special panels, made to accommodate the swelling, are required. A
6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier between the mud slab
and gravel base will provide additional p.otection against
water penetration. Consult with a structural engineer and
the manulacturer to assure proper use and structural
adeouacv.
4. Protect membrane waterproofing or coatings during con
struction and backfjlling. Protection materials include the
following {select according to soil, climate, and cost
requrremenlSr:
CONCRETE SUB
BENTONITE CUY
2. Most waterproofing materials require a stable, rigad,anr

level subslrate. Generally, a mud slab (subslab that rs
nonreinforced and nonstructural) is used when the
waterproofing material is placed below the structural slab
and/or when a solid working surface is needed on unsta
ble soils. When waterproofing materials are placed on
top of the structural slab, a protective cover, such as
another concrete slab, is required.
SLAB
PIPE
PENETRATION
AT
vt/ALL
Krommenhoek/McKeown& Associates;San Diego, California

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak leaf Studio;Crownsviile.
Maryland; in consultation with James B. Thompson Co.; San Marino, Calilornia
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
c. Protection board: Used only to protect waterproofing;

does not drain or insulate. Usually mad of r/s in.
asphalt-impregnated
fiberboard or, as mentioned
above, r/. in. extruded polystyrene. Least expensive.
5. Footing drains are recommended when groundwater
level may rise above top ol floor slab or when the founda
tion is subject to hydrostatic pressure after heavy rain.
Composite drainage material conveys water to the drain
tile, thus reducing hydrostatic pressure.
6. Special negative-side coating on interior face of founda
tion wall is only recommended when exterior is not
accessible7. Bentonite ciay water stop should be placed on top of
footing, at vertical concrete keyed joints, and along inside
edge of outermost vertil rebars before pouring the con
crete wall.
8. Grout, packed around pipes penetrating the loundation,
should have a mixture of iron oxide. lron oxide chemically
alters lhe grout to be more water-resistant.
fems over Occupied Spoce

WEARING
SURFACE
wEARING
COURSE
\)&-.\
+.ORAINAGE
&a
o
PRorEcrroN
Ô-
WORKING
'(
6, .d
COURSE
oR
SLAB
NSULATION
DRAINAGE
COURSE
WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE
o
d
to surface drarns and to allow a minor portron to tnlil

trate to the membrane.
A drainage course of washed, round gravel or prelabri.
cated drainage composite should be provided above the
protection board, over the membrane. This permiti
water to filter to the drain and provides a place where
rt can collect and treeze without damaging the wearing
couase.
Penetrations should be avoided wherever possible.

For
protectton at such critical locations, pipe
sleeves should
be cast into.the structural slab against which
the mem.
or-are can be terminated by flashing onto the pipe
sleeve-
INSULATION
When required, insulation should be located above the
membfan, but not in direct contact with it.
Treatment at reinforced and nonreinforced joints

de_
pends on the membrane used. See following pages.
PROTECTION
BOARD
C}
<l
When the membrane is lurned up on a wall, il

is prel
erable.to terminate it above the wearing surface
to !lim,
Inate the possibility ol ponded surface
water Denetratino
tne wail above the membrane and running down
behinj
it into the building.
" " r ,G--BERg?Effg.^-
EIASIC
COMPONENTS
OF
WATERPROOFING
SYSTEMS
GENERAL
The basiccomponents,subsystems,and featuresfor a
Durtdrngdeck waterproofingsystem are the structural
Durtdrng
deck or substrateto be waterproofed,water
proofingmembrane.protectionof membaane,drainage,
insulation,and wearingcourse.See followingpagesioi
genelc membrane applications.
SUSSTRATE
The substrate referred to is reinforced cast-in-olace
structural concrete. Pr*ast concrete slabs pose more
technicalpfoblemsthan st-in-place concreteand the
probabiliryot lasting watertightnessis greatly dimin_
rshedand difficult to achievebecauseof the multitude
of ioints which have the capability ot movercnt and
must be treated acco.dingly.
The concrete used lor the substrate should have a minimum density of 1762 kg/m3 1110 lb/ft3) and have a
maxrmummotsturecontentof 8% when cured.
SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE
A monolithic concrete subst,ate slope of a minimum I l
mm/m {% in./ft| should be maintained. Stooe is besr
achievedwith a monolilhicsl.ucturalslab and not with
a separateconcrete fill layer.
MEMBRANE
Oetectionof leakagecan be a signiticantproblemwhen
the membrane is not bonded to the structural slab or
when additionallayersof materialsseparateit trom the
structuralslab. Therefore,only membranesthal can be
bondedto the substrateshouldbe used.
The.membraneshould be appliedmder dry, frost-free
conditionson the surfaceas well as throughoutthe deprh
of the concreteslab.
Two.concepts can be considered in the detailing

of ex_
pansion joints at the membrane tevet:
ttre posirive seat
concepl directly at the membrane level and
the watershed concept with rhe seal at a higher tevet
than th;
membrane. Where additional safeguards are
desired, a
drainge gutter under the joint could be considered.
Frexrbte upward suppon of the membrane is
required in
each case to provide watershed_type arainage.
expin_
sion joint details should be considered and ur=sed
in acco.dance with their movement capability.
The positive seal concept entails a greater risk
than the
watershed concept, since it relies tully
on positive seal
joinery of materials at the membrane
levei, where the
membrane is mosl vulnerable to water penelration.
Since
the precision requi.ed is not always attainable.
this con_
cepl ts best avoided.
Th.watershed concept, allhough requiring a g.eate,
nergnr and more costly concrete forming, is superior
in
sareguardtng against leakage. having the advantage
of
provrotng a monoltthic concrele water dam
at the mem_
brane level. However, it a head of water rises to
the
height of the materials joinery, thrs concepr becomes
atmost as vulnerable as the positive seal concept.
nererore, dratnage is recommended at the membrane
.r
levelPROTECTION SOARO
Tie mmbrane
should be protected
frcjm damage
th.oughout construction. protection board shoul{
6e
applied atter the membrane is installed. The properi;6ing of application after placement of the membrane
is
mponant and varies with the type of membrane
used.
tsoilow the manufacture.,s printed Insrructtons.
ORAINAGE SYSTEM
Drainage should be considered as a total system
t.om
the wafing surface down to the membrane, including
use o, multilevel d.ains.
Drainage at the wearing surface rs gene.aily
accom_
pxsneo In one ol two ways: {11 by an
open jornt and
pedestal. system permitting the rainwater
to penelrate
raproly down to the membrane level and subsurface
drainage system; and (2) by a closed-joinr sy"te.
ae_
srgned to remove most of the rainwater rapidly by slooe
PROTECTION OR WORKING SLAB

A concrete slab could be placed soon after lhe membrane, protection board, drainage course, and insulation,
rl requrred, have been installed. lt would serve as pro_
tection for the permanent waterprogfing materials and
Insulation below, provide a working platform for con_
st.uction traflic and storage of materials (within weiohr
limitsl, and prcvide a substantial substrate for the plaie_
ment ot the finish wearing course materials.
WEARING COURSE
The major requirements for the wearing course are a sta_
blesuppon of sufficient strength, resistance against lai_
eral lhrust, adequate drainage to avoid ponding of water,
and proper treatment of ioints. Under a thick-set mortar
bed supponing masonry units, a prefabricated drainaoe
composite helps resist freeze-thaw damage to tie
wearing course by expediting water flow down to rhe
subsurface drainage system.
Joints in which movement
is anticipated
should be
treated as expansion ioints. Various compression seals
are available that can be inserted into a formed ioint
under compression. lvlost of these, however, are not
flush at the top surface and could fill up with sand or
din.
Wet sealants are the materials most commonly used in
movaog joints at the wearing su.face level. Dimension A
is the design width dimension o. the dimension at which
the joint will be formed. The criterion normally used for
determining this dimension with sealants capable of
movement is to mulliply the maxtmum exgected
l25
movement in one di.ction by 4. Generally, this is ex.
pected to be about three-fourths of lhe rotal
anticipated
joinr movement, but il there is any doubt,
mulripiy the
total anticipated ioint movemenl by 4. lt is better io have
lhe joint too wide than too narrow. Dimension B (sealant
depth) is related to dimension A and is best established
by the sealant manufacturer_ Generally, B is equal to A
f o r w i d t h s u p l o ' 1 3 m m ( % i n . l , I 5 m m l e l r ei n . ) f o r a 1 6
mm l7B in.l width. and 16 mm {% in.) tor '19 mm (3/orn.l
and greater widths. This allows some tole.ance Ior selfleveling sealants.
Reference: ASTM C 898 and C 981. Highlights of text
and figures are reprinted with permission fro,-mCommit.
tee C-24 ot the American Society for Testing Materials.
/zsuPPoRT\
_WEARING
f-f
tl r_i-l
WEARING
SURFACE
\gAB
SURFACE
SEALANT
MEMBRANE
LEVEL
POSITIVE
EAL CONCEPT
{MOST VULNTRASLEI
OPEN
JOIN?
-
WEARING
SURFACE
FOR
JOINTS
UP
TO
l/2"
W|OE
WEARING
SURFACE
SEALANT
EONO
BREAKER
ANO
JOINT
FILLER
MEMBRANE
LEVEL
WATERSHED
CONCEPT
SLIOING
(PREFERREO)
SUPPORT\
/
---v,ll
--,Jl
\dA
PLATE
NN
WEARING
FOR
JOTNTS
Up
TO
tt/2',
wtOE
./
EXPAN6ION
MEMBRANE
JOINT
LEVEL
CONCEPTS
AT
NWNN
.\\\S\\\\
r,\\Wr\\\
"WET"
WEARING
SURFACE
SEALANT
BOND
COMAINATION
POSITIVE
OR WATERSHEO
pLUs EXpaNsoN SAL@TTER
(sHowN)
coruCeei
{PROV|OES AOOITIONAL SAFEGUARO)
BREAKER
SLIOTNG
SUPPORT
a\\\W\\
SEALANTS
JoINT
coNcEPTS
EXP-AIIS|oN
WEARING
SURFACE LEVEL
aT
3gg
FOR
JoINTS
wtDER
SEE
OTHER
OIMENSIONS
PAGES
THAN
FOR
METAL
t,2.,
JOINT
WET SEALANT
OETAILS
WEARING
SURFACE
OESTGN
AT
CharlesJ. Parise,FAIA,FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& crylls Assmiates. Inc.; Detroit. Michioan
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
400
PlqzoBuilt-upBituminousMembroneWoterproofingSystems
The structural slab should have a tinish of suilicientlv

rough texlure to provide a mechanical bond lor the membrane, but not so rough lo preclude achievrng contrnurty
of the membrane across the surface.
J
ZL_
V
--
:__b_
@
o\
oD
t"
'
The concrete should be cured a minimum of 7 days and

aged a minimum of 28 days, including curing time, betore applicalion of the bituminous membrane. Curing is
accomDlished chemically with moislure and should not
be construed as drying. Liquid or chemical curing compounds should not be used unless approved by the manulacturer of the buill-uD bituminous membrane as the
malerial mav interfere with the bond of the membrane
to the structural slab.
MEMBRANE
A builr-upbituminouswaterproolingmembraneconsists
ot componentsjoined togetherand bondedto its substrateat the site. The major membranecomponentsinclude primers,bilumcns, reintorcements,and flashing
materials.
Surfacesto receivewaterproofingmust be clean. dry,
reasonably
smooth,and free ot dust. dirt, voids,cracks,
laitance, or sharp projections before applicationol
msterisls.
AT
CONCRETE
JOINT OPTIONAL
ON CONCONDITIONS
TERMINAL
FINISH
\^/ALL BELOW
CRETE
SURFACE AT GRAOE
\^/EARING
WOOO
ION
NAILER
BOARO
TRIPPING
"Q
BITUMINOUS
EULT-UP
MEMERANE
CONCRETE
SUBSTRATE
:oo'
ABOVE
WALL
TERMINAL
CONOITION
GRAOE ON CONCRETE
Oo
FINIiH
MASONRY
METAL COUNTER.
FLASHING WITH
LAPPEO ANO
SEALEO JOINT
WEEP HOLES
JONT
SEAL
FNISH WEARING
SURFACE AT
GRAOE
CONCRETE
SUEISTRATE
TAL COUNTER_
ASHING
r
BUILT-UP BITU-
BOARO
4 EoLT aNcHoRS
MIN.4LONG-
TERMINATION
--ll::=====
"
O.
AT PIPE PENETRATIONS
\^/ITH
CONDITI()N
ABOVE FINISH
\^/EARING
AT GRADE
TERMINAL
MASONRY
SURFACE
JOINT
joints should receivea bead ol compatNonreinforced

ible sealanrin a recessedjoint beforeapplicationof the
memDrane.
SEAL
WEARiNG
FINISH
AT GRAOE
SURFACE
PROTECT'ON
At expansionjoints, gaskets and tlexible preformed

sheetsare requiredinasmuchas bituminousmembranes
have little or no movementcapability.Since such matedalsmust be ioinedlo the bituminousmembrane,the
watershed conceot should be used
RIGIO NSULATION
STAINLESS
SCREEN
R160
SPONCE
RU6ER
PROTCAON
BAC(O
MMBR
NE ÎIACHEO
wrTH
ôHEgrvE
ro
6L
MEVARAN
INSULATON
6FLICE
STEEL
inorecrror
BOARD
Reinlorceall intersectionswith walls and cornerswith

two layersot woven fabric embeddedin hot bitumen.
Flashingmembranesshould extend above the wearing
surtaceand the highest possiblewater level and not less
than I 50 mm (6 in.l onto the deck membran.
TREATEO
WOOO NAILER
WITH LEAD FLASHING
CAST
IN CONCRETE
EUILT-UP BITUMINOUS
MEMBRANE
PROTECTION
AOARO
MtN.
TRTATEO
The numberol pliesol membranereinforcement

tequired
is dependentupon the head of water and strengthrequked by the design tunction ol the wearing surface.
Plazadeck membranesshouldbe comoosedof not less
than three plies. The composition ol the membrane
is normallyol a "shingle" or "ply-on-ply" {phasedl
conslruction.
Over.einforcedstructuralslab joinrs. one ply of 6-in.wide membranereinfo.cement should be applied belore

applicationol the bituminous membrane.
COUNTERFLASHING
NAILER
WOOO
SEALED VERTICAL
JOINTS IN CONCRETE
Concretesudaces should be unilormly primed to enhance the bond between the membrane 8nd the subStrate,so as to inhibit{atefalmovementof water.
For applicationtemperatures, lollow the recommendatims of the manulactu.ersof the membranematerials.
SURFACE
JOINT
JOINTS
REINFORCED
VERTICAL
JOINTS
SEAL
-4
LB LEAD
NAILEO
TO
CRACK
RENFORCED
CONSTRUCTION
TREATMENT
JOINT
O\- nEtruronctruc
REINFORCEO
IN
SE:ALANT
CONCRETE
TYPE
I FELT
ASTM
O
MEETING
226
OR ASTM
D
227
deR
AtavPLASTIC
MINOUS
CEMENT
I/EETINIG
FEDERAL
SPEC
TYPE
ss-c-ls5c'
SUBSTRATE
The building deck or substrate referred to is reinforced
casl-rn-place struclural coocrele.
ORAINAGE
COURSE
CLAMPING
RING--
STRIPPING
The flashingshould extend over the wall dampproofing or membranewaterproofing not less than 100 mm
l4 in.).
Dfainsmu$ be providedwith a wide metal flange or base
and sel slightlybelow the drainagelevel.Metatftashing
fo, the drain,if required,and the clampingring shouli
be set on the membranein bituminousolasticcement.
The metalllashingshouldbe slrippedin with a minimum
ol two pliesof membranereinforcementand three aoplicationsof biluminousplasticcemenr.
METAL
FLASHING,
IF REQUIREO
?
6
TERMINATION
\BUTLT-ue BrTUMrNous
MEMBRANE
-^\' - - " t " T " T U R A L S L A B
\^r'ATERSHEO
JOINT
CC)NCEPT
EXPANBION
AT DRAIN
oQ
Penetrations
th.oughthe membranesuchas conduitsand
pipes should be avoided wheneverpossible.Penetrations must be flashedto a heightabovethe anticipated
water tablethat may extendabovethe wearingsurface.
REINFORCE
CORNR WIfH
TWO
LAYEre
OF WOVEN RENFORCEMENT
FABRIC EMBEOOEO IN HOT BITUMEN
OR FIAHINO
CEMENT
CARRY
FSRTC
ONTO
ECK
ANO UP WALL TO
FULL HEI4T
OF FLAeHING
5" X S" FIEERrcARO
CANT ETRIP
REQUFEO WITH MM6RANE
REINFORCEMENT
OTHER THAN
WOVEN
FABRIC
The built-upbituminousmembraneshouldbe protected

fiom damage.Protectionboardshouldbe placedon the
wate.prooting
membranewhen the finalmoppingis being
placed.lt will then be adheredro the membrane.
Reference:
ASTM C 98 1. Highlightsol text and tigures
a,e reprintedwith permissionfrom ASTM Commitlee
C-24 of the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials.
-"
BIiUMINOU6
TIBLE
MEMBRANE
EEALANA
6IRU'ruRAL
6LAE
NONREIN|:GCEO
6INT
TREATMENT
JOINTS
AT
NONREINFORCED
CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA, FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GryllsAssociates,lnc.; Detroit, Michigan
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
\^/ATERHEO
JOINT
CONCTPT
EXPANAION
PlqzoLiquid-AppliedElostomericMembronewqlerproofingsystems
SUBSTRATE
The building deck or subslrate relerred to is rerntorced

cast-in,place structural concrete_
Polymeric, latex, or other organic chemacal_based
admix.
lures or modifiers can coat the concrele partrctes
and
teduce lhe abilitv ol lhe membrane to bond
to ths sub.
strate. Admixtures should not be used in the concrete
unless determined that theV are acceptable for
use wrth
lne membrane
The underside of the concrete deck should not
have an
rmpermeable barrier. A metal liner or coaling
that forms
a vapor barrier on the underside traps moisture in
the
concrete and destroys or prevents the adhesrve
bond ol
Ine membrane to lhe upper surtace of the concrete.
ooueLc
THrc<NESS
MEMSRANE BONOFO
. J TOGLTHER
+i$lQEt
-E%
QE'NFoRCED
.(.E .II G
" o
srEEL
coNT
o lL
rsnouGt
- - o cnac<ll\
\
;-'
I
ANO
JOINTS
IN
-L
SLAB
LIQU-IO-APPLIED
MEMBRANE
-\sEauarur
\---
\JOINT
FILLER
JOINT
IN CONCRETE
TREATMENT
OF NONREINFORCEO
etUT-FED JotN-r tN coruCae-re
slae
WEEP
HOLES
JOINT
SEAL
FINISH
WEARING
SURFACE
f
GRADE
LIQUIO-APPLIEO
MEMARANE
.TERMINAL
CONDITION
WITH
goF_xt+r.*P
3E=o5S'.*wEaRrNG
SEAL
DETAILS
AT REINFORCEO
22A.
t d 3Bi,:+-,J,5-,,CI3'"'
'r\
IEfrfil /-rotNr=EAL----\
il
--
MASONRY
TERMINATION
AT DRAINS
Drains should be designedwith a wide flange or base as
an Integralpan. The drain base should be sat flush with
the structuralslab. Vehicularsupportingdrainsgener
axy requrreaddttronat
weep holesdrilledinto them (see
detaill.
i l z l l l l'iF l / , r n r s r
FOi:
wEARTNG
SURFACE
I / /
".i.1
AT
\g
""""'
.8!r
Ii*f ['E?E"rî.'::=
x
Y\i;$
PE.
lLffi
3i$ '.m-93"
WITHOUT
REGLET
WITH
TERMTNAL coruorrroNs
REGLET
oru
CO_NCRETE WALL BELOW FINISH

\MEARING SURFACE
AT GRAOE
OPTIONAL
LIFTABLE
ESCUTCHEONPIPT
SYSTEM
JOINT
SEAL
SEAL
INSULATION
DRAINAGE
COURSE
PROTECTION
AOARD
STAINLESS
SCREEN
t/2 DlA.
wzEFOLES,
JOINT
FILLER
PIPE
SLEEVE
tN coNcRETE
TERMINATION
AN
EXPANSION
JONT
AT
(SEE
WEARING
COURSE
OTHER
PAGES
FOR
CONCEPTS
ANO
OETATLSI
nrCO
rlSuUaltOl,
O,
q)
SPONGI
RUBBER
AACKED
PROTECTION
ATIACHEO
MEMERANE
wrTH
ôHesrvE
ro
ELASTOMERTC
MEMgRANE
SPLICF
WEARNG
C@RSE
AT
/
/
a__)
J
fu
CONCREIE
PROIECTION
LAP
RIGIO
:;E!A?:?MERrc
CAST
-
TERMINATION
PENETRATIONS
ONAIN
EXPANSION
Gasketsand tlexibleprefo.medsheetslend themselves

better to absorbinglargamountsof movement.Srnce
sucn matenals,when used at an expansion
ioint, must
be joinedto the liquid-applied
membrane,the watershed
conceplshouldbe used.
TURNUP
JOINT
co^srnuct,o^
rcNT
AT
. . /.
)!oHl
? N
walL
PROTECTTON
BOARO
ecrxroa.Eo
=re..\
coNTrNUouS
rHRouGH
JorNT----\b'
TERMINATION
TREATMENT
JOINTS
MEMBRANE
BOARO
r-rro r.r-eE6VE rrr.r'iGH

I_Ei!,tN {loN c_o_No
coNcRETe
GRADE
coNsTRUcrroN
The.membrane should be applied under dry, trost_tree

condttrons on the surface as well as th.oughout the
deprh
of the concrete slab. Use manufacturer,s ,equirements
for the particular membrane.
TREATJi.I ENT Ai
NONREIN FORCED
JOINTS
Srncthe joints are not held togetherwilh,einforcinq
steet,somemovement,howeverslight,shoutdbe antic:
rpatedand providedror, since the liquid_applied
memb.ane has limited ability lo take movement.
LIQUIO.APPLIED
PROTECTION
NSTRUCTIONS
METAL
COUNTERFLASHING
WITH
LAPPEO
ANO
SEALED
JOINTS
TREATMENT
AT REINFORCED
JOINTS
One recommendedtreatment of reinforcedconcrete
joints in rhe structuralslab is to apply a douOte
layeroi
membraneover the crack. This rype of detail is quire
limited and implicitlyrelieson the memb.ane.scrackbridgrngability.An alternarive
approacnts lo preventthe
memD.anetrom adheringto the subst.atetor a linite
wrdth centeredon the joint o. crackby meansol a propefly 0esrgned
compatiblebond.breaker
taoe.
_-
BONOED
G)ONCRETE
SEAL
J-''.,t
MEMBRANE
-s
MEMBRANE
ON
WALLS
A liquid-applied memb.ane, because ot its inherent
ad.
hesive properties, may be terminated flush on
the wall
wrthout the use of a reglet. Howeve., the use
of a realet
In a concrete wall has the advantage of providing grei'ter
depth protection at lhe terminal.
JOINT
gt-ffi,o-o"".,.o
THRoUGHJoi\T]:\
--.- . -f
r-
P.F3.oi%xu.+I'"aL JorNTs
--
H A | R L T N Ec F a c K
JOINT
toPTroNAL)
o^
a----JJ3""'.'lit"1
_
FACTURER.S
J
ts
The sur{ace should be ot sufficiently rough texture

to
provrde a mechanical bond for the memb.ane,
but not so
rough as to preclude achreving contrnuity of the
mem
brane ot the specified thickness across the surface.
The concrete should be cured a minamum of 7
days and
aged a mrnimum of 28 days, rncluding curing time.
berore apprrcalron ot the liquid_applied membrane.
Curing
rs accomplished chemically with moisture and
should noi
De construed as drying_ Liquid or chemical curing
com_
pounds should not be used unless approved
by thi manutacturer of the laquid,applaedmembrane as the material
may anterfere with the bond of the membrane
to rhe
struclural slab.
L,QUID-APPLIED
ME-MBRANE-
MEMBR^NE
6.-
\-
--
THtCKNeS6
/oousLe
l*-
CONCRETE
IN6iRUCTO
-,--
40t
EXP^NSTON
JOrNt
AT
WE'RING
(sEE
couRs
OTdER
PAGES
FOR
coNcPrs
aNo
OET
ILSI
SIE
TEFMINAL
SLAB
OPTIONAL
LIqUIO.APPLIEO
NSOLATON
suPPoRr
erostowec,i
SUPPOR-
PROTECTION
BOARD
The liquid-applied
membraneshouldbe p.otectedfrom
damagepriorto and durng lhe remarnderof deck con_
srrucrron.the proper timing of lhe applicationof
the
Doarots lmportantand the manufacturer,sprinted in_
structionsshouldbe followed.
ASTM C 898_ Hightighlsof rexl and,igures
l"-tu1:1"":
Ae
rep-nntedwith permissionfrom ASTM COmrn'ittee
u 24 ot the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Matenals.
METAL
GASKf
REIAINER
r/16'
ELASTOMERTC
SHET
MEMaRANE
WATERMOOFING
tttd' u,*
Lreuro-appLrEo
vewecirue
rcrcLrlHtc
STFUCi
SLAS
NO CURB -
WATERSHED
JOINT
CONCEPT
AONOEO
LAP
JOINTS
^NO
60NOEO
TO
L IOUIO - ^PPLIEO
MEMBRANE
AS
PER
MANUFACTURER'S
INSTRUCTIONS
EXPAI\ISION
CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA. FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GMts Associates,lnc.;

Detroit, Michjoan
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
402
BuildingInsulotion
INSULATION
DEFINED
The word insulate comes from the Latin "insula. " meanino
island, i.e.. an isolated and/or separated Filace or condition:
An insulating material is one that isolates sources of electncitv, heat, or sound energy. Building insulation should
effectively isolate heat, sound or both
Nature seeks consonance. This explains why heat {energyl

moves toward cold (lack of energy). A balance and harmony
is being sought. The primary concept of insulators is to
resist the natural tendency of energy to ilow from the
source and affect the surroundings. By this definition, any
material that effectrvely blocks, absorbs, slows down, or
reflects heat and sound is a building insulator.
VAPOR
AND
MOISTURE
In conjunctron wilh thermdl insulators ts the necessary concern tor vapor retarders and barners. Although heat energy
moves an a variety of ways such as direct radiation, convection, and conduction, one primary vehicle tor heat transfer
is air. Air expands when it is heated and gains the capacity
to hold more water vapor. When warm and moist air is
c@led, it condenses and loses the caoacitv to hold the
same amount ol vapor. The water vapor condenses, dewpoant is reached. and the water vapor becomes liquid in the
same manner that moisturo occurs oo the warm side (outer
surface) oJ a cold glass of iced tea on a hot and humid day.
Since an insuiator is normally placed on th warm side of
the building, closest to the interior to rsist the flow of heat
to cold, it follows that this is also wher the greatest potential for moisture and moisture daruge may occur inside the
building section.
FIBERS
CELLULOSE
FIBERS
HEAT FLOW
PARALLEL
The fibers of glass fiber insulationhave firm and cylindrical

cross sectionsthat only touch at tangentpoints.Therefore,
there is little heat transmitted by conduction.In addition,
glassfibers trap a largeamountof air, which increasesinsulationootential.
The tibers of cellulose and other blown or hand Dacked
rnsulators
are softerftbersthat havewider contactooints.
This permitsmore heat transterthroughconducttonthan
glass fibers. These fibers also trap a large quantity of air
that Increasesinsulationvalue.
f;A-FFi4h,:S=''*---- ----v
-,^,
fl\\r/
$ffi-
,r=Y-OI-;B|:iEIlg. -,^rd.
(oX..9
*o liinu,
*orove"e'r-{)y'Vf
vV2
idoxx
o f2a^--coNVEcTloN
M''EMENT
a(! (
i1
/)
i\\v
u wr
NouoveuErutY
^,O f,--,U
GRANULAR
CELLUUR
BUILDING
fn
/:t
l{ there are many smallfibers of insulationmaterialwithin a

given space, they provide more surface area than larger
fibers in the same ara. Since thickness o{ air films sur
roundingany fiber is essentiallythe sare understill air conditions, smaller libers provide more surlac and more air.
Largerfibers may leavelargergaps and paths that allow air
to flow by means oI convection.Granularand cellularinsulation also possess air films. lf the cell or space between
granulesis too large,convectioncurents n occur that will
transmit heat acrossthe soace.
Extrudod,molded, and foamed plasticinsulationsare cellular or honeycombed.Walls of the cells conductheat around
the clls. Cells contain a large volume of air that greatly
increasesinsulationvalue.
OF COMMON
HEAT FLOW
PERPENDICULAR
lf fibrous insulation is used, the direction ol the fibers in

relation to the direction of the heat flow will affect the rate
of heat movement. Under equal @nditions, fibers perpen
dicular to heat flow transmit heat slower than fibers oaralle
to heat flow.
Vermiculiteand perlite insulationare composed of small,

rock-like,rounded granulesthat have small contact points
that limit h6at conduction. Spacesbetween the granules
containinsulalingair.
It is virtually impossible to construct a perfect vapor barrier.

'bader"
The word
is us6d in common buildino terminology Construction vapor barriers are actually vef effectrve
vapor retarders made of such materials as polyethylene and
various facings on insulation that do not totally stop moisture vapor transmission. When a retarder reduces the transmission of moisture to one perm or less, it may be referred
to as a vamr barrier.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
GUSS
INSULATION
o
o
DEGRADATION
iU
^;z
tr(DY
trtlt i
zl
<LZ
Fd-
v,0ola
urU
83tr
BUILDING
INSULATION
n>
5L
ii"
>z=
fr3;
igil
>:
lL
99
FU
**,
U^>
S.ix
bans and blankets

rigid boards
(rigid boards)
Vermiculite (loose
or ngid b@rds)
1 . By volume
2. Aged unfaced or spay applied
David F. Hill: Burt Hill Kosar Rittelmann Associates; Butler, pennsylvania

Donald Bosserman. AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appleton; Alexandria, Virginia
THERMALPROTECTION
rd<
>uJ
dt
J0LO
t
9
x
F
o-i
I! ID
>s
oo
U
t
l
ts
U
L
U
tr
DUE TO
o<
l
F
o
o
dE3
zoo
l<E
o
z
U
T
o
o
u
z
UJ
o
o
t
t
o
o
BuildingInsulotion
THERMAL
INSULATTON
Thermal insulation@ntrols heat flow under tempera.
tures ranging from abslute zero to 3000oF. This
broad range can be gbdivided into four generaltemperature regimesthat classifyapplicationsfor vaious
tvpesof insulation:
1. LOW TEMPERATUBES: lnsulation for vm*ls
containing cryogmic materials, ruch as liquefied
natuiel gas.
2. AMBIENT TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor buitdIng structures.
3. MEDIUM TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor tanks,
pip6, and equipment in industrial prces heai
apDlications.
4. HIGH TEMPERATURES: Refractory or other
speialized insulation materials used in foundrv
work, nuclear porcr facitities, te
aercspi!
industry, and $ on.
Architects and buildec are generally concerned with
rne.d6rgn and material performance of buildino
Insutataons
that opecte within ambient temperaturi
limits. As tempectuG range much above or below
ambrent conditions, d6ign and per{ormane reouire_
ments_change and flust be matched with insulation
materials that withstand the stress introduced by
extreme temperaturG, large temperature differentials,
and themal cyclinO.
BUILDING
INSULATION_THERMAL
FUNCTIONS
The. -two maior furctiom of building insulations are
to- (l) control tef,peraturB of inside surfeE that
altrct the comf6t ot Gupants and aid or deter
condenstion and (21 consrve enerqv bv reducino
heat transmision through buitding'sctions ttrai
oerrmtn the_enrgy.requirements for both heating
and cooting. E@mmics in fuel consumption en bi
calculated- with reGonable *cur*y
and balanced
againsl initial ccts of insulation and the costs for
heating and cooling with equipment (seefigurey.-'-
BASIC MATERIALS
Thermal insulationis made from the following basic
materials:
CURVE (c)
fNsuLATroN
THrcKNEss
wtrH
LOwEST
CoSa
U
0
/
.//
/
/+_3
LAYERS
INSULATION
CURVE
J
J
o
o
LOST/
ENERGY
<
l. LOOSE FILL: Dry granulc, nodules, or fibers

pouredor blown into place.
2 . F L E X T B L E O R S E M | R t G t D ; B t a n k e ba n d b a t t s
of wool-likematerial.
3 . R I G t D : B o a r d sa n d b t c k s .
4. MEMBRANE: Reflrctiveinsutation.
5. SPRAY APPLIED: Mineral fiber or insutating
concrete.
6. POURED-lN-PLACE
I n: s u l a t i ncgo n c r e t e .
7. FOAMED-lN-PLACE: polyurethane,urea formaldehvdeMECHANISMS
OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat flos through materialsand sprceby conduction.
conv_trtion, and radiation. Convmiion .na
are functions of the roughnss ot ,urt.""s,lii.o"'"1
"onOr"iiori
ment, and the temperaturedifferencebetweenthe
air
ano sudrce. Mas insulatioos.by their low densitiB.
are oestgned to suppre$ conduction and convction
acrossthelr.sectionsby the entrapment of air molftules
wrlnrn ther structure. Convective air cg1lgn1r
ar"
b"
surounding marrix of fib;;; ;;-;e-ilt
:,:1{,
.the
and
the chancesof heat transfer by the collision oi
air.moleculesis reduced. Radiant t
transts Uet*el
oolcts.operates independentlyof"ai
air currents and is
conrroiled by the characterof the surfacs (emisivitv)
and the.temperature difference uetween'warm
oijlffis.emrtttng radiation and cooler objects absorbing
raotatlon-
-//
ADDITIONAL
FUNCTIONS
Thermal inrulatioN may also perform *veral other
functions:
1. Add. structural strtrgth to a wall, ceiling. or flmr
s*tron2. Providesupport ttr a srfae finish.
3. I mpedewater vapor transmission,
4. Preve_ntor reducedamageto equipment and struc_
ture trom exposG to fire and freezingconditions.
5. Reducenoie and vibration.
PHYSICAL
STRUCTURE
AND FORM
Thermalinsulationis availablein the followingphysiel
forms:
l . M I N E R A L F T B R O U SM
: a t e r i asl u c ha s g l a s sr,m k .
slag, or asbestosrhar is melted
.pri inio it iri
fibers.
"no
2. MINERAL CELLULAR: Materiatsuch as foamed
glass,calcium silicate,perlite, vermicutite,
ioamJj
concrete,or ceramic.
3. ORGANTCFIBROUS: Materiatsuchasrcod, cane_
cotton, hair, celluloe, or syntheticfibers.
4 . O R G A N I C C E L L U L A R : M a t e r i a l$ c h a s c o r k ,
foamed rubDer,polystyrene, or potyurethane.
5. METALLIC: Aluminum or other foils, or metallized
orga,nic reflective membranB that must face air,
96 filled. or evacuatedsoac6.
Jo;r6L:3osT
403
(B'
LAYERS
- I LAYER
INSULATIc)N
8FIFBUU+r,5oî oF EcoNoMrc THTCKNE6G
The rmistanc of thse modes of heat transfer

mav be
retardedby the elementsof a buildingwall sction.
1. OUTSID.E_
SURFACE FTLMS:The outsidesrfrce
lraps a thin film of air, which raists heat flow. Thii
nrm vafl6 with wind veleity and surfrce roughnes.
_
2. MATERIAL LAyERS; Erch tayerof material
contributs to the rsistance ot ieat flo-. uiuati"
mording to its density. A tayer of suitaUielns]ia1
Uon.ts normally many times more effective
in
reststtngheat.transfer than the combination
of all
other materials in the fftion
3. AIRSPACE: Each meaurable ainpae also
adds
to the owrall rBigtance. Foil faced iurfrcc of low
emissiviti6 that form the boundariesot ttrc iiô*"
can funher reduce the rate of radiani i;;f;;,;
the space.
4. lNS|DE.
.SURFACE FtLM: The Insrdesurraceo,
ne outtdrngstion also traps a thin film
of air.
I ne arr trtm thus formed is usuallythicker
bcause
or mucn tower air velocities_
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM THERMAL

RESISTANCES (R) OF INSULATION
ZONE
,|
HAWAI
REC&MEWO
TNSULATION
WALL
to
ll
zo
13
FLOOR
l1
l1
't3
26
30
19
r9
19
JJ
19
22
38
19
NOTE: The minimum insulationR valu6 recommended
for variousparts of the United Statesas delineatedon
the map of insulationzones.
ALASKA
NOTE:
CE ILING
ZONES
FOF|
EATING
ANO
COOLTNG
David F. Hill; Eurt Hill Ko$r Rittelmann Ass@iates; gutler, pennsylvania

Donald Bosserman, AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appteton; lfexanOrial
Viiqinia
THERMAL
PROTECTION
ExletiorInsulotionond FinishSyslems
404
' --x
///
FOR HEAVY DUTY USE

ARE THICKENED
AND BASE UYERS
HEAVY DUTY MESH lNsrEAo
ovER
aRE usED
FASTENERS
rNTo PANEL
FINISH
MECHANTCAL
-oF RICESSED
-\\HEN
->
EXTERIOR
GYPSUM
SUBSTRATE
OR PLYWOOD
BOARD
GENERAL
Exterior insulation and finish systems provide a uninter
rupted layer of rigid insulation that is attached by adhesives
ormechanical faateners directly onto the building substrate
A continuous tiberglass mesh layer is then applied and
attached bv adhesives oi mechanical tasteners A finis'
coat covers and seals the entlre system.
NOTES
INTERWOVEN FIBERGLASS
MESH RETNFORCEMENTLAYER
POLYSTYRENE INSUUTION
PANEL
2. For areas likely to tceive abuse by high impct or.high

layer
traffic, a heavy duty fiberglass mesh reinforcerent
is used in addition to, or in place of, the standad mesh
layer
fnish
Also, zinc casing beads are frequently used at
edges.
3. When mechanical lasteners are used they should be
installed tlush with oI, preferablY,recessed into the insu
When
lation Danel to orevent "bubbles" on the surfce
recessed, some manufacturers provide an insdation plug
layer
otinsulation
over the lastener to leave a continuous
at the surface belore the finish is applied
ADHESIVE
CMU SUBSTRATE
PLASTIC FASTENER
DISK
INSUUTION
PLUG
EXTERIOR
NOTE
CORROSION RESISTANT MECHANICAL FASTENER
SYNTHETIC STUCCO
FINISH UYER
GROUND COAT ADHESIVE ANACHES

TO INSUUTION BOARD
AND FINISH
INSULATION
Extend mechanical fasteners

into studs.
MESH
I lnsulalron panels are made in varyrng thrckness from l

to a in., depending on the wall U-tactor reqriremenls
Thev come in varying sizes, generally 2 x 2 11'2x 4 ll, ol
2 x'8 ft, depending on manufacturer or sysEm used
Exoanded polvstvrene (l to 2 lb/cu ft) is genslly usPd
above qrade; extruded polystyrene (2 to 3 lb/cu tt) is gen
erallv used below grade or in high lrallic areas
4. For walls with damaged or brittle subslrates, a mechanl

callv fastened track ststem is used bY some mnutactur
ers io fasten the insulaion panels to the substrale'
5. The svnthetic-stucco finish layer is generallY weather
resistmt. crack resistant. and vapor prmeable and ls
troweled, rolled, or sprayed onto the surface over the
ground coat adhesive. lt is generally made fnm acrylic
polymers with an aggregate or silica sand, quru chrps.
br marble chips to glve it the desired texture Color is
achieved bv either tinting the finish coat with ligment or
painting the surface.
SYSTEM
INSUUTION
PANEL
INSUUTION
PANEL
FIBEFIGLASS
MESH
SUBSTRATE
FIBERGUSS
MESH
5/a" MtN.
CMU SUBSTRATE
INSUUTION
FINISH
UYER
ROUTER CUT
DRIP
PANEL
BACKER ROO
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
SUBSTRATES
DISSIMILAR
CMU
PARAPET DETAIL
INSULATION
PANEL
ROD
BACKER
ANO SEAUNT
ROUTER CUT
DECORATIVE
V-JOINT
3la" MtN
FINISH
UYER
,r
FIBERGUSS
MESH
3L" MtN.
MESH
INSUUTION
PANFL
FINISH UYER
SUBSTRATE
JOINT
DETAIL
AT
FLOOR
CMU
LEVEL
SULATION
PANEL
SUBSTRATE'
FIBERGUSS
MESH
INSUUTION
PANEL
FIBRGUS5
MESH
ROD
BACKER
AND SEALANT
FINISH LAYER
CMU
\^/OOD FRAME
EXTRUDED
POLYSTYRENE
INSUUTION
BOARD
CMU
OECORATIVE JOINT
EXPANSION
EXPANOED
POLYSTYRENE
INSULATId
BOARD
DETAILS
BRING GROUND
COAT, FIBERGLASS
MESH, AND FINISH
DOWN
UYER
ONTO WALL
SIDEWALK
DETAIL AT SIDEWALK
DETAIL BELOW GRADE
MA,SONRY DETAILS
MISCELLANEOUS
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsville,
SYSTEMS
AND FINISH
INSULATION
EXI'ERIOR
DETAILS
WoterVopor Migrotion
WATER
VAPOR
MIGRATION
Water is presentas vapor in indoor and outdoor air and as

absorbedmoisture in many building materials.Within the
rangeot temperaturesencounteredin buildings,water may
existin the liquid,vapor,or solid states.Moisture'relateA
problemsmay arise from changesIn motsturecontenl,
lrom the presenceof excessivemoislure,or from the
effects ot changesof state, such as freezingwithin walls or
deteriorationof materialsdue to rouing or corrosion.
ln the designand constructionof the thermal envelooeof
buildings(lhe enclosureof desired temgeraturesand
humidities),the behaviorof moisture must 6e considered,
particularlythe change of state from vapor to liquid (con
densation).
Problemsa.isewhen morsturecomesinto con
tact with a relativelycold surface {temperaturebelow the
dew point),such as a window, or within outdoor walls or
undeHoof ceilings. Excessivecondensationwithin indoor
walls that enclosecold spacesmust be considered.
While moisture moves in still air by vapor pressure differ
ences, it is important to recognizethat mojsture in air is
moved by the air. Consequentlv,tne causes of ajr motion
must be considered,especiallythe infiltrationand exfiltration at undesirableleakagerates at windows, doors, and
other penetrationsthrough the thermal envelope of the
building.
Moisture problems in residencesgenerallyoccur in seasonswhen the outdoortemperatureand vaporpressureare
low and there are many rnd@r vapor sources.These may
includecooking,laundering,bathing,breathing,and perspiratlonlor the @cuFnts,as well as automaticwashers and
dryers,dishwashers,and humidifiers-All of these sources
combine to cause vapor pressure ind@rs to be much
higher than outdoors, so that the vapor tends to migrate
outward through the buildingenvelop.Vapor cannot permeate glazed windows or retal dmrs. but most other
buildingmaterialsare pemeable to some extent. Walls are
panicularlysusceptible to this phenomemn, and such
migrationmust b preventdor at least minimized bv the
use ot ow pemeance membranes, alled vaDot retarders
lfomerly, vapor bailersl. fh6/ arc now called retarders,
nol barriers, because they do rct stop moisture flow coG
pletely.A vaporretarderis a materialthat has a flow ratino
of one perm or less. ('l pem = 1 gcin/hr ft - in. Hg vapoi
pressuredifference;there is no metric perm.)
Vaporretardersshould be installedas close as possibleto
the side of the wall through which moisture enters. Estab.
lish the side of moisture entrance in walls of controlled
r@ms wilhin buildings.Howswr. the beneficialeffects of
g@d vaporretardersar lost without adequateair barriers.
Moisture in building materialsusuallyincreasestheir ther
mal conductancesignificantlyand unpredictably.porous
materialsthat become saturatedwith moisture lose most
of their insulatingcapabilityand may not regain it when
they dry out. Dust, which usuallysettles in airspaces,may
become permanentlyaffixed to originally reflective suc
faces. Moisture migrationby evaporation,vapor flow, and
condensationcan transpon significantquantities of latent
heat.panicularlythroughfibrous insulalingmaterials.
grven, setecl an average value or use judgment in

assign.
Ing a value based on the character and potential installa_
tion method of the material prooosed td use.
. Start at the top of the list and note any material
that has
less permeance than the materials above it on the list. At
thatpoint the possibilrtyelrsts that vapor leaking through
lne rrsl mdtenal may condense on the second, provided
the dew point (condensation point) is reached and the
mvement
is considerable. In that se, provide ventila_
t,on through the cold-side material or modify the design
to eliminate or change the material to one of greater p;r
meance.
Any buildingsection my be analyzedwith simple calculations to determine where condensationmight @cur and
what might be done in selectingmaterialsor their method
of assemblyto eliminatethat possibility.The section may or
may not containa vaporretarder.or it may containan inadequateone; the bualdingsectionmay includecold-sidematerials of comparativelyhigh resistance to the passage of
vapor (which is highly undesirablel.With tew exceptions,
the vaporresistanceat or near th warm surfaceshouldbe
tive times that of any components. The table gives peF
meance and permeabilityof building and vapor retarder
materials.These values can be used in analyzingbuilding
sectionsby the lollowing simple method:
. List the materials,without surface lilms or airsoaces.in
the order of their appearancein the building sectron.
beginningwith th insidesurtacematerialand working to
the outside.
. Againsteach malerial list the permeance(or permeabitity) valuefrom the table or a more accuratevalue if available from tests or manulacturers'data.Where a rangeis
PLASTIC AND
%Mffi
GWts(% )
vapor
retarder
Insulalion
Wood
sheathing
4" brick
veneer
50.0
0.6 (lowest)
29.0
2.9
1.1 {next}
EX.A,MPLE
ln this examplethe vaporretardertransmits I grainot moisture per square toot per hour for each unit of vaoor oressure diflerence,or one perm. and nothingelse iranjmits
less. However.since the cold brick veneer is nearlvas low
In permeance.it is advisableto make certainthat the vapor
retarderis xpertlyinstalled,with alt openingsa pipes ind
with outlet boxes or ioints carefullyfittod or sealed.Altermtively, the brick veneer mav have open mortar joints near
the top and bottom to serve both as reep holes and as
vaporreleaseopenings.Theywill also ventilatethe mltand
help reduceheat gain in summer.
ESTIMATED
PERMEANCE
cwETmFurred
space
8- CMU
4" brick
veneer
50.0
2.4
1.1 (lowest)
EXAMPLE
Vapor(underpressure)would easilypass throughthe interior finish,be slowed by the concreiemasonryrinit, and be
neadystopped by the cold brick veneer.Unlessthis design
is radicallyimproved, the masonrywill become saturated
and may cause seraouswater stainsor apparent"leaks" in
cold weather.In addition,alternating
treezingand thawing
of condensationwithin the masonry wall can physicallt
damagethe construction.
PERMEANCE AND PERMEABTLITY

OF MATERIALS TO WATER VAPOR
MATE R IAL
MATERIALS
PERM IN.'
USED
PERM IN-]
INSULATIONS
Luilular glass
Mineral wool, unprotected
Expanded polyurethane (R-11 blown)
Expanded polystyrene - xtruded
Expanded polystyrene - bead
ESTIMATED
PERMEANCE
Positive steps should be taken to prevent migration of

moisturein the torm of vaporand acumulation in the form
ol water or ice within buildingclmponents. Vapor retarders. corectly l@ated near th source ol the moisture, are
an effective reans of preventingsuch migration.Venting
of moistureladon air frem bathrooms,laundryrmms, and
kitchenswill reduceind@r vaporpressure.as will the rntrq
ductionol outd@r air with low rcisture content.
BUILDING
SECTION
ANALYSIS
FOR POTENTIAL
CONDENSATION
MATERIAL
THERMAL
405
METAL
FOILS AND
0.029.4
0 . 4- 1 . 6 5
1. 2 5
2.0 - 5.85
FILMS'
0.0
0.08
0.06
0.04
o.7
0.68
0 . 8, 1 . 4
Polyethylene (4 mil)
Polyester (1 mill
Polyvinylchloride,unplasticized (2 mit)
Polyvinylchloride, plasticized (4 mit)
BUILDING
PAPER53
PAPERS,
FELTS, ROOFTNG
Duplex sheet, asphalt lamrnated,-trmum

foil one side (43)a
Saturatedand coated roll roofing(326)4

Kraftpaperandasphaltlaminated.
rernforced 30-12G30 (34).
Asphalt-saturated,
coatedvaporbarrier
paper (43).
Asphalt-saturated,
not coatedsheathrng
pape( (22)4
15-lb asphaltfelt (701!
1slb rar lelt (70)4
Singlekraft,doubleinfused(16)d
LIQUID
- MO
APPLIED
COATING
_0.176
0.24
18
0.6
20.2
5.6
18.2
MATERIALS
COatS
Aluminum varnishon wood

Enamelson smooth plaster
Primersand sealrson interiorinsulation
board
Miscellaneousprimersplus one coat llat oil
paint on plastic
Flat paint on interiorinsulationboard
Water emulsionon interiorinsulationooaro
Paint- three coats
Exteriorpaint,white leadand oil on wood
siding
Exteriorpaint.whit lead-zincoxideand oal
on wood
Styrene-butadrene
latex coating.2 oy'sq fl
HorwrnytactateIatexcoating,4 ozlsq ft
Asphaltcutbackmastic
l/16 in. dry
3/16in. dry
Hot melt asphalt
2 ozlsq ft
3.5 oZsq ft
0 . 3- 0 . 5
0 . 5- 1 . 5
o . 9- 2 . 1
1 . 6- 3 . 0
4
30-85
0 . 3- 1 . 0
0.9
11
5.5
0.14
0.0
0.5
0l
NOTES
'1.
The vapor transmission rates listed will Dermit comoari
sons ot ruterials, but selection of vapor retarder mateil
als should be based on rates obtained from the
manufacturer or from laboratory tests. The range of values shown indicates variations among mean values for
materials that are similar but of different densitv. Values
are Intended tor design guidance only.
2. Usually installed as vapor .etarders. lf used as exterior
linish and elsewhere near cold side, special considerataons are required.
3. Low permeance sheets used as vapor retarders. High
prmeance used elsMere in construction.
4. Bases (weight in lb/500 sq ft).
5. Permeability (perm in.)
IN CONSTRUCTION
uoncrte (1;2:4 mix:)

Brick-masonry (4 in. thick)
Concrete masonry (8 in. cored, limestone
aggregate)
Plaster on metal lath (3/din.)
Plaster on plain gypsum lath (with stuos,
Gypsum wallboard {% in. plain}
Structural insulating board (sheathing quaf
tIy,
Structural insulating board {interior,
uncoated. 1/, in.)
Hardboard (r/e in. standard)
Hardboard (r/s in. lempered)
Built-up roofing (hot mopped)
Wood, fir sheathing, % in.
Plywood (Douglas fir, exterior 9lue, '4 in.)
Plyw@d (Douglas fir. interior glue, 1[ in.)
Acrylic, glass fibr reinforced sheet, 56 mil
Polyester, glass fiber reintorced sheet,
48 mil
3.25
0.8-1.r
Based on data lrcm ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentats,

1984 l-P section. chaoter 22.
2.4
tb
20
50
20 - 50s
50-90
11
5
0.0
2_9
o.1
1.9
o.12
0.05
DavidF. Hill; Eurt Hill KosarRittelrunn Associates;Eutler,pennsylvania

Marc A. Giacrdo; Collegeof Architecture,Texas Tech Unive.sity;Lubbock.Texas
VAPORRETARDERS
Wood Shinglesqnd Shqkes
406
] A'' WIDE 30 LB UNDERUYMENT

OVER TOP PORTION OF EACH
COURSE
l'lz
OF SHAKES
IO- ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR LESS

7" ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR MORE
MlN
30 LB FELT UNOERUYMENT
+it
SPACED
SHEATHING
{1 X40R
I X6)\
REMOVE OLD RIOGE

COVERING:
REPLACE
WITH CEDAR
BEVEL
SIOING
MilAL
VALLEY
FDSHING
SHOULD BE ALUMINUM
OR 26 GAUGE MIN GALVANIZED
IROI
30
REMOVE 6'
WIDE STRIP
OF OLD
ROOFING;
CRIMPED
MN
vaLLEY FusHtNG
USE LONGER NAILS TO

PENETRATE THROUGH NEW
SHAKES ANO SHEATHING
r/d'
NOTES
UNIFORM
WIDTH
SHINGLES
3" TO 5'
wroE
OOUBLE STARTER
COURSE
STNGLE
RED CEDAR HANDSPLIT
RED
CEDAR
GRAOE
NO. I nandspttt
and resawn
rro
AND
SHAKES
THICKNESS
DESCRIPTION
Theseshakeshave split faces and swn Orcfs.tedaiiog!;61

cut intodesiredlengths.Elanksor boardsof properlhickness
aresplit
andthen run diagonally
lhrougha bandsawto producetwo tapered
shakesfrom eachblank.
15 starter-tinish
18 x1lr" medium
18 x 3/o" heavy
No. 1 straight
(HANDSPLTT)
Produced largely bv hand, usrng a sharp bladed steel froe and a

wooden mallet. The natural shinglelike taper is achieved by reversing
the block, end-lornd, with each sDlit.
Producedin the same manneras tapersplitshakesexcept that by

splittingfrom the same end of the block,the shakesacouirthe same
thicknessthroughout.
srde wall
18x%
24 x 3le"
RED CEDAR SHINGLES

NO. 3 BLACK
MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
Over stucco, horizontalnailingstrips are attacheddirectlyto

wall- Nailsshould penetratesheathingor studs. Over wood,
applyshaksdirectlyjust as it on new sheathing.
\iVOOD SHAKES
ROOF
GENERAL
24 x3le"
24 x t12" medium
24 x 3/.,, heary
/4 x 'lz
r tapelsplr
STNGLE
SHAKES
HANDSPLIT
LENGTH
(SAWN)
Shakesn also be appliedover any existing wall or roof.

Brick or other masonrv requires venical frameboardsand
horizontalnailingstrips.
RECOMMENDED
LABEL
FOR ROOFS (IN.}
APPLIED
NOTES
1. Wood shingles and shakes are cut from wood species

that are naturally resistant to water. sunlight, rot, and
hail:i.e.. red cedar, redwood, and tidewater red cvpross.
Ihey are typicallyinstalledin the naturalstate,although
starns,pramers,
andpaintmay be applied.
2. Nailsmust be hot dippedin zincor aluminum.Nailheads
should be driven flush with the surfaceof the shinqleor
shakebut neverinto the wood.
3. Underlayment
and sheathingshouldbe designedto augment the protection providedby the shinglesor shakes,
dependingon roof pitch and climate. A lowfitched roof
subject to wind driven snow should have soljd sheathing
andan additional
underlayment.
AV
t--l
tl
ROOFING
shangles
TYPE
r-t
tl
AND SHEATHING
SH EATHING
UNDERLAYMENT
asphalt
telt interlayment
NORMAL
4ta12
and up
SLOPE
slaner course;
rnteilayment over
entire roof
LO\^/ SLOPE
Jtn
to
4in12
entire r@f;
anterlayment
over
entire r@f
":?:"*
tt
(,
ffi
tt
tt
tl
UNDERLAYMENT
TO EXISTING
HALF-COVE
r-l
Fancy butt shingles are 5 in. wide aod 7 ltzi^. long, custom
produced to individual orders.
FANCY BUTT RED CEDAR SHINGLE

SHAPES
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
Wood Shingtesond Shqkes

ROOF
SHAKE
4O7
PANEL
SHEATHING
ROOF
PANEL
ROOF
PANEL
SYSTEM
UTSIDE AND tNstDE CoRNERS

EM
P MO
(l {R] rEECBO
ENDED)
PANEL NAILED DIRECTLY
TO STUOS
30 LB BUILOING
PAPER
SINGLE
COURSING
APPLICATION
EXPOSURE FOR SHINGLES AND

SHAKES USED FOR StDtNG (tN.)
EXPOSURE
SIDEWALL
OF SHINGLES
PANEL APPLTED TO STUDS

PANEL
STRIP
NAILED
TO
AT STUOS
NAILING
WOVEN OUTSIDE ANO INSIDE CORNERS

(MORE ECONOMICAL)
NAILING: THtCKNESS
AND NAtLs
30 LB BUILOINC
PAPER
NAILING
STRIP
SHEATHING
SIDEWALL
PANEL
APPLIEO
IO
NAILING
NOTES
1. Sheathing may be strip type, sotid 'l x 6 in. , and diagonal
type, io plywood, fiberboard, or gypsum board. Horizonlal
w@d nailing strips (1 x 2 in.) should be used over frbef_
board and gypsum sheathing. Space strips equal to shingre exposure.
STRIPS
PANEL NAILED TO
SHEATHING AT STUDS
2- Many finishes can be used on red cedar shakes and shingles: solid color or semitransparent {,,weathering,,)
stains, exterior latex paint with primer, wood preseria.
tive, and bleaches.
30 LA BUILDING
SHEATHING
WALL PANEL:
9" - X 36" W|TH
7
EXPoSUREI
8" x 96- wtTH
I4- EXPOSURE
SIOEWALL
PANEL APPLIEO
TO SHEATHING
CORNER BOARDS AT OUTSIOE AND INSTDE

CORN ERS
WOOD
SHINGLES
ta" wtDE,30 LB
ASBESTOS FELT
UNOERUYMENT
AND
SHAKES
FOR
SIDING
FIRE RETARDANT
RED CEDAR SHAKES
OR SHINGLES
FIBERGUSS BAN
INSUUTION
5/r- TYPE x
GYPSUM AOARD
NOTES
1 . Vvith the panel system, shakes and shingls plus shathing go up in me operation: 8 ft rmf panels\hive 't6 hand
split shakes bonded to 6 xrl, in. plywood strip, which
forms a solid dtrk when the panels are mited. A 4 to i 2
or st@per roof pitch is recommended.
2. After applition of starter pnels, attach panels directly
to rafters. Although designed to center on 16 in. or 24 inspacrng, they may meet between rafters. Use two 6d
nails al each rafter3. 8 ft sidewall panels are ot twcply consrruclon:
a. Surface layer of individual l+1 grade shingles or shakes.
b. Backup of exterior grade plywood shakes or shingles
is bonded under pressure with exterior type adhesives
to plywood backup.
4. Lap building paper behind panels 3 in. vertically and horizontally. Stagger joints between panels.
5. Application types are determined by tol buitding codes.
6. Matching factory-made corners for sidewall or roof Dae
ls are available.
PANEL
SYSTEMS
PLASTIC
COATED
SEEL
FOIL
2 X 4 STUDS
t 6 0R 24' O.C
RAFTER
BUILDING
PAPER
rlz" oR 5le
GYPSUM
SHEATHING
BOARD
36" W|DE,
30 LB FELT
STARTER STRIP
WITH 2- OVERUP
ROOF
CONOITION
UNTREATEO PLY
)D DECK OR I "
NOMINAL AND THICKER
TONGUE AND GROOVE
DECKING
CEDAR
SIDING
SIOEWALL
CONDITION
N OTE
In treating shakes, fire-retardant chemicals are pressure impregnated into the wood cells,
and chemicals are then tixed in the
wood to prevent leaching. Treatment does not alter appemnce. Fire{etardant red cedar shakes
are classified as Class C by UL.
Class I classification by UL can be met with the addition of the deck constructed of 5/" in. plywooJwith e;riJr
gfue or 1 in. nom_
Inal tongue and groove boards, overlaid with a layer of approved asbestos feltlapped-2 in. on all joints
andin ld in. wide strip of
approved asbestos felt berween each shake and not exposed to rhe weather. Decbrative staini m;t
;;;p;[";.
FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTTON
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio: Crownsville,Maryland
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
408
Aspholtond CompositionShingles
ECHEDULE
EAVE FLASHING
UNDERLAYMENT
OF
Single layer of 15 lblasphalt etura'

ted lelr over entire rbbf
ALL
LAPS
SHOULD
BE OUTSIDE
WALL
LINE
Two layers of 15 lb asphalt salura'

ted telt over entire roof
FELTS
||\
t5 LB ASPHALT
UNOERLAYMENTT
Eave flashing is required wherever the JanuarY daily average temperature is 30oF or less ot where there is a
possibiliry of ice forming along the eaves.
STRIP
FLASHTNG
EAVES
DAMAGE
PREVENTS
AACKUP
SLOPE_4
IN./FT OR OVER
NORMAL
A course of 90 lb mineral surJacedroll roofing or a
course of 50 lb smooth roll roofing is installed to
t/. to 3/s
overhangthe underlay and metal edgelrom
in. Extend up the roof far enoughto cover a polnt at
least 24 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
When the werhang requirm flashingwider than 36 in.,
the horizontal lap joint is cementedand lcated on the
roof deck extending beyond the exterior line of the
buildinq.
TO 4 IN./FT
LOW SLOPE_3
Cover the deck with two layersof 15# asphaltsatur
ated felt. Beginwith a 19 in. startercour* laid along
the eaves,followed by a 36 in. wide sheet laid even
with the eavesand completely overlappingthe starter
course. The starter course is covered with asphalt
cement. Thereafter, 36 in. sheetsare laid in asphalt
cement, erch to overlap the precedingcouree 19 in.,
exposing17 in. of the underlyingsheet.
The plis are placed in asphaltcement to a polnt at
least36 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
-o=raor)
CEMENT/
Us only enoughnails to hold underlaymenlin placeunlrl

shinglesare laid.
APPLICATION
LO\^r' ALOPE
ON
OF UNOERLAYMENT
ROOFS
EAVE
CHIMNEY
FLAEHING
_'----------\
MASONRY
SCHEDULE OF SHINGLE TYPES (II
Fiberglass
Organiclelts
I rar
I r+r
Laminatedoverlav(21
Fiberglass
Organicfelts
Randomedge cut
Fibe,glass
Oroanicfelts
I r:r
Fiberglass
Oroanictelts
G;
fil
Three-tabsquare butl
Two-tab souare butt
[J
rJ,
IT2 REGLET
stzE
WEIGHT
U.L. RATING
MATERIAL
DESIGN
DESCRIPTION
205-225 lb/sq
235-30O lb/sq
36"x1
260-325 lb/sq
300 lbi sq
36" x
300 lb/sq
330-380 lb/sq
225-260 lb/sq
250 lb/sq
36" x 14
SHEET METAL,
CAP FLASHING
MINERAL-.-.SURFACED
ROOFING
36" x 12
ROLL\
EMAEDOEO IN
PLASTIC
ASPH{T
ON
CEMTNT
NOTE: Exposure5" , edge lap 2" .

NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exposure5 in., edge lap 2 in., lor all designs.

Mo.e than one thickress for varying suttace texture
Many rated as wind resistant.
All rated as wind resistant.
TOP
TE
T ORF
AM
EDG
FELT
OVER
RAKE
ONG
STffi
FLASG
36'MIN.
w@D
DECK
(VARES)
5" EXPOSURE
MET
(r(
STRIP
9'STARTER
OF
G
COURSE
INVERTEO
*INEES
START
WTH
\START
WITH
MINUS
TAB
eQUARE
PLASTIC
ASPHALT
FACE
OOWN
BUTT
STRIP
OECK
METHOO
FLAEHINO
OF EECURINO
TO CHIMNEY
SINGLE.
COURSE
G
CEDAR
SHINGLES
EX_
I2"
OF
ALUMNUM. GALVANIZEO
IRON OR COPPER.
NAIL
BFEAK SHAES,
UNDERLAYMENT
CEMENT
UNOERLAY.
FACED
36"
WIOE
STRIP
SURFACE
UP MINERAL
ROLL
ROOFING
NAIL
EXTRA
OF STRIP
MENT
IN
END
HEM
EDGE
METAL
OF
DRIP EOGE
n-SMOOTH
OPEN
VALLEY
.Valley width should be 6" wide at fldg and spreadwrder at
downward to eave. Establish vallev
the rate ofil""/loot
.idoe to cove
width uring chalkline trom .idge
APPLICATION
CLOSEO
VALLEY
DIAGRAMA
Robert E. Fehlberg,FAIA: CTA Architects Engineers;Billings,Montana
AND ROOFCOVERING
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
CAP
MA'ONRY
SHINGLEe
AT
ROOFING
ROLL
36"
55 LB OR
LEAST
'46
NEoPRENE
SHEET
TO
STRIP
EACH
AT LEAST
TEND
CENTER
BEYOND
VALLEY
wooo
IE'STRIP
FIRST
COURSE
FULL
STRIP
SECOND
STAff
F&L
WITH
C@RSE
MrNs
srRrP
72 TAB
THiRD
FULL
STRIP
FIRST
TA8
THREE
SHINGLES
Fry*"**
n
t
THREADEO
scREw
THREAOEO
NAIL
TYPEA
r)ETAILA
SloteRoofing
409
POINT
WITH
ELASTIC
CEMENT
WOOO
STRIP
SOMETTMES
OMITTEO
COMBTNG
SLATE
ELASTTC
CEMENT
ROOFING
SLATE
INSULATION
SECTION
o
:- J<
FN
<l
J(,
ELASTIC
oz
oQ
za
CEMENT
ol
o{
POINT
ni
WITH
DIAGRAM
SAODLE
OF PROPER
LAP
FOR
RIS|E/RUN
HIP
GENERAL NOTES
POINT
WITH
MITERED
HIP
r/6" TO
TAPER
r'-O
WIOEN
TOWARO
BOTTOM
,ROOF
SHEATHING
'
UNOER.EAVE
OR STARTER
RAFTER
SLATE
INSUL
OZ
=::
O:P= E
N
::::
VALLEY
COPFER
ATION
FLASHTNG
,4o., NEoPRENE
oc
SHEET
::HEET
EAVE
30'
1 . C O M M E R C T A LS T A N D A R D : T h e q u a r r y r u n
of
vr6 In..thtckness; includes tolerable variations
aDoveand below r/r6 in.
2. TEXTURAL:.A rough textured slate roof with
unwen. butts; the- slates vary in lhickne$ and size.
wnrcn ts generallynot true of slatemore than 3/s
inthick.
3. GRADUATED: A textural roof of large slates;
more variationin thickness,size,and color,
4 . A S O U A R E O F R O O F T N GS L A T E : A n u m b e r
of
$ates,ol any.s-izesufficient to cover 100 ft? with
a
J tn._tap.wetght per square:3/re in._g0Olb; r/r in.
- 9 0 O l b ; 3 / e i n . - 1 1 0 Ol b ; r / ,
i n . - 1 7 0 0 t b ;i / . i n . _
2600 tb.
s
NOMENcLATURE FOR sLArE
:I4!?A10
btue btrck, mottted sray, purpiel
9_9-!Ol
^ql*.k.
green.
motued
purple and green,purplevarieoaied
prêded by the word .,Unfadins,,oi
q"
:,:g; 19
"weatherang."
Other colors and combination-s
are
available.
6. PROPER JOtNTtNG FOR PITCHED ROOFS:
Requirs a 3_in. minimum venicaf overfap.b-virla'p
varieswith pitch; seegraphabove.
7. FELT; With CommercialStandard Slate use
30#
sturared felt. With graduared ,oot, ur" !O+
t-oi
'/.
slate and 45#, 50#, or 65# prepared.oll
.tn.
r@Ing lor he&aerslate8 . N A I L F A S T E N I N G : U s l a r g eh e a d .s l a t e . s h
, ard
copper wtre nails, cut copper,cut bra$, or cut veltow metat stating nails. Eeh slate purched with
rwo, natt hots. Use nails that are I in. longer
than
tnrckn6s of.slat.Coverall exposd headsw-ithelasrrc cement. ln dry climats hot dip galvanizednails
may be usd.
GABLE
RAKE
STANDARD SLATE DIMENSIONS'
FELT
TWO
NAILS
TO
A SLATE
RAFTER
NSULATION
JE!'S8.3=
35"R:?"J-
5i''SR"'"?+E"sIF"
ROOFERS
r" /a G . 6
0R
WOOO
RAFTER
RECEIVE SLATE
a.
1 1 , 1 2 ,1 3 , 1 4 .1 6
TO
RC)OFING
SLATE
a.e split in th6e thicknesses: rlrd, t/t,3/a,

':fhg,sfa-t6_
!3,3h, 1,11/a.
and 11/z in.
rl. ar.rd larger.slat6 are not often
used in the*
l:],
srzes. Handom widths are usually used.
Domenic F. Valente,AlA, Architect& planner;Medford, Massachusetts
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
Concrete TileRoofing
410
WEEP
AROWEL
1O" MASON
M MORTAR
OF frPE
,'
',
,
FUI
MORTAR
CoNTACT
WIIH
IS MADE
TILts.S
THREE
HOLE
TROWEL
1 O" MASON
M
FULL
OF ryPE
MORTAR
NAIL COVER
HERE OryBEN
REOUIRED)
(WIIEN
.I
NAIL HERE
REQUIRED)
BED
MORTAR
TO
rcINT
AND
FINISH
NAIL HERE
(WHEN
REOUIRED)
a'-
FASCIA
FASCIA
WEEP HOLE:
HALF
TILE
OVERUY
__OVERSP
MORTAR BED
FOR COWR
PREFABRICATED
AND
MORTAR
BED
TO FTNISH
rcINT
(EPDM)
CLOSURE
EA
MORTAR
rcINT
WITH
]il
FINISH TO MA]CH
EAVE
DRIP
ROLLED
GABLE
S
SPANISH
TIT-E
FI-AT
NOTE
HERE
O'HEN
REOUIRED)
AND
E SURFACE
(SPANISH
TROWEL
10" MASON
M
OF ryPE
FULL
MORTAR
S CUTS)
E}ARREL
TILE
Mortar contact is made with 3 tiles
MORTAR AND TILE
PLACEMENT
GENERAL
Concrete tile is manufactured by extruding a mixture of
oortland cement. sand, and water on individual molds under
irioh oressure. The finish surface of the tile is covered with
material that has been colored with syn
a;ementitious
thetic oxides. The tiles are cured to required strengths tn
chambers where humiditv and temperature are controlled.
Moisture absorption by concrete tiles can lead to structural
r@{ problems, and particular Gre should be given to spects
fying the correct corcrote til for a given environment
ROLL TILE
When usina roll, or mrssion,tile, apply the first murse
above a meial brrd-stopwith weep holes. Fit the underside
of the tile with speciallyformed eave closure strrps' lastened insidethe tile cover. The headsof all remainingtiles
shouldbe alignedwith the horizontalguide lines.Adiust roil
tile soacinqto provideuniformexposure'with at leasta 3
in. hbadlap.Jamminginterlockingtiles together(side to
side)will restrictmovementand result in brokencorners'
or flat-it is imporFor both categories of concrete tilHoll

tant to adhere to minimum slope requirements as follows:
ROOF SLOPE
For roof slooes5 in. in 12 and less.solid sheathingmay be
used with dr without battens. Nailingis not requiredwith
battens, but every tile should be nailed if battens are not
used. ln eithercase, perimeternailingis requiredIor 3 ft or
three courses.whichever is greater,from all aves, rakes,
ridges,hips,or valleys.{Donot nailintovalleymetal.)
'1.
be installed on roof decks with

more when at least one layer of
is apptied horizontally and tiles
a minimum 3 in. headlap. Use of
recommended.
2. Anv concrete tile can be used on solid-sheathed roof
decks with slopes less than 4 in. per ft as long as two or
more layers ol No. 30 or No.40 asphalt-saturated (non
perforated) felt are set in hot asphalt o. mastic lo serue
as the underlayment. A single layer of modafied bitumencoated roofing systems rollgood sheet with laps either
torched or heat welded is acceptable. Venical lath strrngers with horizontal battens are installed over the underlayment. creating a supporting surface lor the tile, which
must be installed with at least 4 in. headlap. Do not use
spaced sheathing.
3. Reqardless of slope, in l@alities vvhere the January
me;n temoerature is lSS than 30oF. Stricter mrnimum
requirements appv. Rofer to the National Rooling Contractors Association manualRoll tile and flat tile cn
slooes of 4 in. oer ft or
3Glb felt underlayment
are nailed or wired with
spaced shathing is not
FLAT
TILE
When using ttat roof tiles, a metal eave-riser wath weep

holes should be installed at the eave line. During installation, adjust tile spacing to provide uniform exposure, with a
minimum 3 in. headlaD.
ATTACHMENT
PROCEDURES
lo
5:12to less
2:12andover
1 X 2 MOLDING
CARRIED
UNDERUYMENT
METAL BIRD-STOP
OER
TYPICAL
ROLL TILES
For slopes12 in.io 12 and greater,naileverytile oversolid

sheathingwith battens;perimeternailingis n*essary.
TILES sET IN MORTAR
The practiceof installingcementtiles with mortarover a
built-up subroof evolved in hrgh-windand higtFmoisture
areasof the southeasternUnitedStates ln this system. the
built-uosubroofprovrdesthe moisturebarrier,and the tiles
oroteci the subroof from solar ultravioletrays, high winds,
ind externaldamage.This concretetil system n also b
but the minimumis 2 in. in 12. On
usedon low-slopeioofs,
slooes btween 5 in. in 12 and 7 in. in 12, additional
mechanicallastening is requiredfor the lirst three courses
of tile in areassubiectto high winds For r@fs with steper
slooes.tile shouldbe mechanielly fastened.
FOR CONCRETE
SOLID SHEATHING
WITH BATTENS
BIRD-STOP
WEEP
WITH
HOLES
For roof slopes between 5 and 7 in. in 12. nail every other
tite over soiid sheathingwith battens and every tile if battens are not used.For slopesbetween7 and 12 in. in 12,
with
every otherlrle shouldbe nailedover solidsheathrng
battens.Perimeternalltngis requiredin all thesesituations
ROOF TILES
FIELD TILE NAILING

ROOF SLOPE
._METAL
SOLID SHEATHING
WITHOUT BATTENS'
AILING FOR PERIMEER TILE AND TILE ON

ANTILEVERED AREAST
Not required
Everytile
Everv other tile
Every tile to 7:1 2
tte
Every tile
N/A
nre
METAL
trAW
RTSER
FIELD
INSTALLATION
OF
NAILER
RIDGE
OF SUFFICIENT
TO MAINTAIN
HEIGHT
OF
PUNE
EVEN
TILES'-\
RIDGE
MINIMUM
ON W@D
AND
OWR
WRAPPED
NAILER
trom edqes ot eaves and gable rakes ln special wind

areas de-srgnaledbv lhe buildrng oflicial, additronal fas'
tenings may be required.
WMD
SHEATHING
HIP AND RIDGE DETAIL

National Rooting Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois
Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C
AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
WEEF
HOLES
This detail is for pitches 4:1 2 and greater
NOTES
1. For slopes exceeding 7:12, battens are requrred
2. Perimeter nailing areas include three tile courses but not
less than 36 inches from either side of hips or ridges and
WnH
N OTE
FLAT
TILES
Miscelloneous
RoofingTiles
COMPOSITE
ROOFING
4tl
TILES
Fiber cement. cemenl w@d, galvanized steel with acrylic

coatrng. and ceramic slate roofing tiles are popular alterna_
trves to clay or concrete roofing tGs },e.e tomposire r,tes
nave_oeen desrgned to be lighter, slronger. and easier
to
Inslail than traditional, "natural, tiles. Thetr strength
and
combination of ruterials make them more lire re'tardani
and wind resistant than conventional tiles.
FIBER CEMENT
Fiber cement tiles combine organic flber with cement, sil_
rca, water, and other additives. The resulting product is
a
rooJ slale thar rs tightweight, strong, versatil6, and easy
to
Instail. Ihe tttes can be made in a variety of dtstinctive
shapes. colors, and textures that mimic natural materials
such as_slate and patterned wood shingles. Fiber cement
tiles resist deterioration and moisture penetration and are
immune to pests and lungal growth. iley are wett_suitea
ror coastat regrons and other areas with high humidity.
E}OTTOM
OF FIELD
RIE}E}ED
SHAKE
SIOE
CEMENT
WOOD
TILE
LAYOUT
Cf
OFF
UNDERUP
MEN
FINISHING
GABLE
IF I
OERHANGS
Frbercement tiles should be applied to narlable decks only.

l-or plywood decks with rafters spaced 20 rn or less, the
plywood,should be at least '4 in. thick. lf rafters are spaced
greater than 20 in., % In. plywood is recommended. io fas_
len, use standard |/, in. galvanized 1 1gauge flat_headroof_
Ing nails wrth a % in. head. Flashing should be
of a
noncorrosive metal not lighter than 2g gauge.
CERAMIC
FUSHING
SLATE
Ceramic slate tiles

the fireGin strength
haw the thickness,
but at a Jraction of
ous to treez+thaw
cence.
combine the l@k ot natural slate with

and durability of ceramic tite. Such tiles
texture, and appearance of older slate
the weight and cost. They are imperyi_
cycles, tire. moisture, and effiores-
CW
WOOO
TILES
WEN
AT GABLE
oFtoN{
TWO UYERS
OF
UNDERUYMEM/
TOP
CEMENT
OFF
OVERGP
STARTING
SIOE
CEMENT
OF
FIELD
SHAKE
EAVE
OETAIL
WOOD TILES
Cement wood trles are lightweight tiles that n be used for

reroottng as well as for new ccnstruction. They have
excellent impact resistance and ar easily sawn and nailed. As a
richly textured, composite product. cement w@d tiles cre_
ate an aesthetic similar to that of heavy cedar shakes yet
provde the fire protection ass@iated with cementitious
products. Cement wood_tiles, with their composit
of portland cement and w@d fiber, are long lasting. The poriland
cement is noncombustible and allows for Class A fire ratIngs. and.the rcod fibrs provide excellent tensile strength
and a light weight when compared to standard concr;te
lrles.
METAL
ROOFING
TILES
The advantage of metal roofing tiles over traditional clay or

concrete tiles is that they are lightweight. They are easier to
nanole, qurcker to install, and, because they.equire fewer
oulotng components, are less costly. Minimum recofr
nrended root pitch for use of metal rooting tiles is a stofe of
'in
3 in 12. R@fs with shallower slopes re{uire sealant
jtt
side laDs.
Metal roofing tiles usually come in sheets and have a base
material of roll-formed 24- to 26gauge prepainled
oalva_
nrzed or galvalume steel. A layer ot crushed and gcded
stone granutes is bonded to the steel panels with an;crylic
resin formula and lhon a clear acrylic overglaze is
applied.
)row oven cunng completes the process, and the undetr
sr@.or the.ile rs protected with a final coat of polyester
parnr. tsaners can b mstalled quickly and ar secured
to
erther wood or stsl banens, creating a strong, weatherpr@t constrwtion- Th panels can be installed
directlv over
exrstrng rmts, unlike clay or concrete tiles, and are thus ide
ally surted tor .etrofitting r@fs.
2'
BATTEN
HEIGffi
OPEN
NOTE
FASOA
RAFTER
OWR
as sHowN
sotlD
SHEATHING
CAM STRIP USED

FOR 'DRY IN' STATE
Metal roofrng panels can be applied directly over solid

oly_
wood, sheathrng or over open ratters if a self_supponing
undertayment is used.
METAL
ROOFING
TtLE UNDERLAYMENf
END AP
(SECURE
SCREWS
VERTICAL
I.AP
RIDGE
METAL ROOFING TTLES

FE.LT OVER
FRAMING
AT
GAE}LE
%' PLWoOD
/,/-
FRAMING
GM
-$
,
N OTE
STRIP
eaneN
HEIGffi
ABOVE
SHATHING
When an equal oumber of full courses cannot be accommo_

drted at the pitch change, a full panel can be bent to
suit.
vvnen lne
_rmflrne changes drarutically, install a batten at
rne prtch change.
The tascia_must be positioned above the root deck sheatfts

Ing or rarters by the height ot the batten. The tascia
becomes the first oanel batten
METAL ROOFING AT PITCH CHANGE
METAL
SOLID
SHEA]-HING
A.]- EAVE
ROOFTNG DETAILS
SOLID
SHEATHING
RIDGE
AT EAVE ANO RTDGE
Grace S. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
OETAIL
Cloy TileRoofing
412
TOP
COVER
CIRCULAR
R
STARTE
crRcuLAR
RIOGE COVEF
FTXTURE
_v_ ^T_YPÊ^.Ti
aNo
OETACHEO
RAKE
GABLE
UN DER
EAVE PIECE
FIELD
TILE
TILE
MAKE
PIECES
ITHESE
MAIN
EXPANSE,
THE
UP
''FIELO"
TILEO
OF
OR
AREA
)
TILE
SPANIAH
Typ FrELo rtLE ts t374" rcNG aNo 95/." wloq ..WHEN INSTALLEO.
ror4; wl-DTH E,!.: - of E SQUARE oF
AvEnaces
ueruorx
eieosEo
aE Nor
sLoPE'sHouLo
aeouT
9oo uss.-aoor
iiiis-weroxs
HIP
TOP
FLAT
4..
THAN
LESS
IN
12'
TNTERLOCKING
FLAT
EX POSeO
TrLeS
ARE 14" LoNG aND
9" W!O-E . llaSTALL.E-Or
F|ELD
ABoUT
aoo LBS
WEIGHS
: a7-:' oNE
sQuaRE
i i-ru-crx =--f wro-H
TILES
wlrH
aNcHoR
4"tN
r2"MtN,
RooF
sLopE,
NAILS.
NONCORROSIVE
ANGLE
IS
HIP
THE
THE
ANGLE
THAN
TYE
COVER
HIP
ECTION
SECTION
FIXTURE
ROOF
MEETA
SLOPE
TILES
FLASHING
OVER
TILE
AT
SHEO
ROOF
RIOGE
FLASHING
TILE
OVER
SECTION
TILE
FIE@
BUILOING
VALLEY
SECTION
/ CONCRETE
ROOF
NOTE
WHERE
IN CLIMATES
AND
ICE
SNOW
OCCURS;
BUILDUP
VALLEYS
SHOULD
avoroEo
Bt
Darrel Downing Rippeteau, Architect; Washington, D.C
AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
CUT
FELT
FIT
AT
ANGLE
FLAT
OF
ROOF
VALLEY
L- 5'-O' TO 39.-O"
w- 3 -6.. C)OVERAGE
POWER
SEAM
CLO9URE
L-3-O-TO
39-O'
w- 3'-4- COVERAGE
STANDING
SEAM
ALUMINUM
ROOFINE
INSIOE
CLOSURE
ALUMINUM
FLASHING
V BEAM
L- 3'-O' TO 39-ow- 5 -5'. C)OVERAGE
OUTSIOE
CLOSURE
FACTNG
SHEET
FACING
WALL
///
CiECTION
E AVE
PARAPET
//.[\
FLASHI
NG
COF'RUOATEO
L- 3'-O. TO 39_o"
w- 2'-ac-ovERAeE
EXPAN6ION
FoRMEo
ALUMINUM
RooFINc-;RD
JOINT
=,IE;TE
NOTES
l. Endlapsfor roofing and sidingshallbeat teasr in.
6
ano .tastened at every rib. Two fastenersmay be
*L"l designing for a negative (uptiftl
I3y]l"d
toaotngcondttron.
2. Minimum sidelapsshall be equar to one rib
or
c-orrugationand laid away from prevailingwind.
tsasteners
sh?ll be spaceda maximum of lj in. on
centerfor all typesol rooling and siding.
^
3. F-or rofing,_fastenerushall prerce onty th high
corrugation..Forsiding,fastene.sshallpierceeith'er
Ine htgh or low corrugation.Consult manufacturer
ror proper shet metal fastenersand acc6sories.
4. Minimum slopesfor sheetroofing are as tollows:
a. I in. depth corrugated_3in 12.
b. 1rlz in. depth ribbed-2 in 12.
c. 13h in. v-@rrugated_2 in t 2.
5. Se ,page on Metal Walls for insulation detaits
and tire ratedwall assemblies.
AND
OESIGN
LOAD
BOLD RIB
4" Box RtB
0.032rN 0.040 tN. 0.032rN. 0.040rx. 0.032rn. 0.040

rN
THICK
THICK
TH ICK
20
95
rzJ
77
t00
87
60
NO
BEAM
THICK
THICK
THICK
SIDING
N.
coRRUGATED
U.UJZ IN
TH ICK
0.040 rN 0 . 0 3 2r n .
TH ICK
040 rN
TH ICK
100
120
131
l5'l
90
a2
98
103
r07
124
98
124
73
80
86
71
104
85
92
r07
64
69
77
qf
62
?o
92
83
83
:vatues are basedon uniform poritire 1do*n*ard1-ndliifGg
OJ
96
t-ildin
singtespan onty.
John A. Schulte;Hellmuth,Obata& Kassabaum,Inc.; St.

Louis,Missouri
ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
lnsuloledMetol Ponels
414
OF
EXTRA STRENGTH
ONEN
DEEP SECTION
FULL
PERMITS
PANELS
HEIGHT
INNER FACE
PERFORATEO
FOR SOUND
CONTROL
INTERMEDIATE
INSUUTION
METAL DIVIDER
(OPTIONAL
FOR EXTRA
CONTROL)
THERMAL
INSUUTION
EXTERIOR
PANEL
CUSHIONED SEAM
EXTRA RIGIO
ACOUSTICAL
TYPICAL INSUUTED
FIELD-ASSEMBLED
SYSTEMS
GASKETED
PANEE DO
NOT INTERLOCK;
MAY
ANY PANEL
OR
BE PLACED
WITHOUT
REMOVED
JOINT
NESTED
CONCEALS
PANES
INTERLOCK
SIMILAR TO
INSULATION
CORE
FOIL SIDE MUST

NOT BE
EXPOSED
CLIPPED TO GIRTS (NO
ADDTTIONAL
TYPICAL INSUUTED
FACTORY.ASSEM
BLED
JAMB
OUTSIDE CORNER
FUSHING
COPI
STAINLESS
NG
casKEr-.-k_rF_fH
EXTRUOED
ALUMINUM
FASCIA
+]+#ffitr-t-ffi
.t-+-tsH
t> / ffiffi+
ffilE=Sffi1]1
CONTINUOUS
NOTCHEO
M ETAL
CLOSUR
COPI
OUTER
| | r rft{ L_-l
t
----@--.'lr-----l'm@-
SHEET
,-_r.l m!f,
GASKETED WINDOW
CONCEALED
GUNER
NG
PREDESIGNEO
OETAILS
SHEET
INSUUTION
SUBGIRT
EAVE / COPING
NOTES
WINDOW
UNIT
Shown here are basic panel designs with an assortment of

connection details. A vast array of folded. ribbed, and
grooved sheet configurations is available.
FUSHING
INNER
l o' MtN
RADIUS
SHEATHINC
3r/4" wtDE (TYP.)

INTERMEDIATE
INSULATION
INTERMEOIATE
SHEATHING
CURB
Typical applied frnrshes avarlablefor ouler sheets are acryl

ics, vinyls, alkyds, fluoropolymers, porcelain ehamel, and
on aluminum onlv, various anodized finishes. Length ot
sheets available is 40 Jt. Span and wind load must be con'
sidered in the selection of panel components and spacrng
of girts.
Panels can span from 9 ft 6 in. to 26 ft or more if placed in
multispan arrangements. Face panel configuration and wind
load value vary.
OUTER METAL
ANGLE
SUBGIRT
Consult manutacturers
EXTRUDED
ALUMINUM
CLOSURE
FOUNOATION
FIELD.ASSEMBLED
WALLS
INSULATED
METAL
FIELD.
FACTORY-FORMED,
ASSEMBLED INSULATED METAL
Beach; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
=)
CONFIGURATIONS
AT DOOR
I8.26GAUGE
GALVANIZED STEEL
ALUMINUM OR
OUTER
JOINT
SYSTEMS
ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
for thermal and acoustical ratings
4t5
VAPOR
RETAROER
TEMrcRARY
ROOF
WHEN
REQUIRED
OELETE
NAILABLE
SECURE
BITUMEN
ON
OECKS
AND
WITH
FASTENERS
INSULATION,
APPLY
INSULATTON
tN
A
MtNtMUM
TWO
LAYERS.
BREAKING
JOINTS
BOTH
WAYS.
WHEN
INSULATION
JOINTS
ARE
TAPED.
JOI NTS
MAY
BE
CONTINUOUS
IN
BOTH
OIRECTIONS
STEEP
BARRiER.
GRAOE
ASPHALT
INSULATIC)N.
SHEET:
OI M ENSI ONALLY
OR
HEAVIER
JOINTS
ARE
BITUMEN
PROCESS
AITUMEN
FELTS
FELTS.
ROOFING
\
SLAG
BITUMEN
GRAVEL
OR
IN
SURFACE
MAY
BE
STABLE
FACTC)RY
TAPEO
FOR
FINISHING
MASTIC,
TAPEO
FOR
RC)OF
ELIMINATEO
INSULATION
APPLIEO
CEMENTING
TAPE,
ANO
VAPOR
BASE
siHEET
WHERE
HAS
40
BASE
ANO
PLIES
MAY
BE
COLO
ASPHALT.
OR
COAL
OF
LB
TAR
. USE
ASPHALT
WITH
ASPHALT
COMPATIBLE
AND
TAR
c;c)AL
PITCH
WITH
TAR
SATURATED
NUMEER
OF
PLIES
VARIES
ACCOROING
TO
SYSTEM
USED;
CONSULT
MANUFACTURER
NOTES
INSULATION
1. Fo. smooth surface rools omit gravel or slag and add

addiriooal ply using inorganic plysheets only.
2. On slopes over 1 in./lt atl felts along top edge must
usually be slrapped and back-naited.
3- When vapor retarder is used, edges of feh should be
turned up to a height of 2 in. above cant strio at vertical surlaces. Felrs should overlap alt roof edges a
minimum ot 6 in. befo.e application ot roofing. 6 in.
of felt musl be re-turned over the insulation and
mopped solidlv.
20 YEAR
TYPE
BUILT.UP
ROOF
OVER
INSULATTON
NOTES
'1.
Over nonnailable deck or insulation omit rosin paper
and cement with asphalt. Nailing strips must b provided.
2. Minimum slope to, ofganic felt: '/, in.ttt.
3. Minimum slope for tiberglass telt: O in./ft.
4. Consult manufacturer lor spacing of nails for particular rooling system.
TAGGER
NAILS
aT
SCHEOULE OF FELT OVERLAP

flNCHES)
t2" o c
OECK
/NATLABLE
I
{ovER
WOOD,
EXCEPT
PLYWOODI
MINERAL
SURFACE
ROOFING.
2"
SIDE
LAPS
IF
SELVAGE
IS
UNGRANULATED:
3''
SIOE
LAPS
IF
SELVAGE
IS
GRANULATEc)
STEEP
GRAOE
MINERAL
'ASPHALT
BETWEEN
PLIES
OF
i5
FELT
Lg
ASPHALT
TYPE
II.N,
II!,
OR
E
)
DETERMINEO
BY
ROOF
SLOPE
ASPHALT
SURFACE
BUILT-
UP
+g+
IJ
r.r
6 0 0 0 0 0
PATTERN
Fc)R NAILING
BA6E
SHIET
c)R VAPOR
RETAROER
NAILABLE
OECK
OVER
ROOF
Kent Wong: Hewlett, Jamison,Atkinson& Luey; Portland,Oregon;

Developedby AngeloJ. Forlidas.AIA; Charlotte,North Carolina;trom data furnishedby RobertM. Staflord, p.E., ConsultingEngineer;Charlotte,North Carolina
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
416
Built-upRoofing
. ASPHALT
DECK . .\
)/
FIRST LAYER
PREFGMEO
R@F
INSUUTION
BOARD
ASPHALT
EDGE OF ROOF
AGGREGATE
THREE-PLY
N OTES
OVER
NAII.-AE}LE
THREE-PLY
DECK
1. lI applied over sheathing pansls, add rosimized

base shet.
sheathing paper between
the deck and
SURFACE
BUILT.UP
NON.NAII.ABLE
LAYER
'
DECK
NOTES
1. For a more con$ryative system, specify four plies rather than three.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable producl.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable product.
AGGREGATE
OVTR
SECOND
ROOFING
COAL TAR TYPES

SOFTENING
ASPHALT
POINT (OF)
TYPES
SoFTENTNG
POTNT (.F)
KIND OF ASPHALT
EreE
ONE
\^r'OOD NAILER
NAIL
BACKNAILING
OF ROOF
PLY
SYSTEM
GENERAL
A built-up roofing (BUR) system is composed ot a base
sheet attachedto the r@f substrate,two or more reinforcing felt ply sheets, and a surfaced cap sheet. AsDhaltand
coal tar are the bitumens used for built{p roofing.As the
heatedmoppingbitumen fuses with the saturatingbitumen
in the roofinglelts. the layersare welded together.Surfacrngs rncludeaggregate,minerals,protectiveor reflective
coatings,andsmoothsu.face.
Fourtypes of asphaltand two types ot coaltar are presently
used as bitumensin built-uproo{ingsystems.The gradeof
asphaltused for BUR systems shouldbe appropriate
for
the slope ot the roof. Backnailingof telts is recommended
for built up roofingwhenever the roof slope exceeds '/2 in.
per ft. Aggregate-surtaced
built-up roofing should not be
usedon slopesexceeding3 in. per ft
Reinforcingtelts for BUR may b saturated. coated. or
impregnatedwith bitumen and are manufactured{rom both
organrcand inorganicmaterials.Organicfelts are manufactured from the fiber of paper.wood. or rags.Saturatedfelts
are saturatedwith asphaltor coal tar bitumen. lmpregnated
roofing telts are generally lighter in weight and termed
impregnatedbecausetheir surface is not completelycovered (coated)with asphalt. Saturatedand coated roofing
felts are generallylactory coated on both sides and surNationalRootingConlractorsAssociation;Rosemont.lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
faced on one or both sides with fine mineral sand or other

release agents to prevent adhesion inside the roll prior to
aoolication.
Prepared r@ling materials are saturated and matd felts
with talc, mica, sand, or ceramic granules incorporated into
the weather surface of the telts, both to provide weather
protection and for decorative purposes. Reinforced flashing
membrane consrsts of a glass-fiber base lelt that is laminated with cotton or glass fiber fabric and coated with
asphalt. Rosin-sized sheathing paper asa rosin+oated building paper generally used in built-up roofing to separate felts
from wood olank root decks-
TEMPERATURE
Proper application temperatures are vital to the creation of a
quality root membrane system. Temperatures that are too
high can lead to incomplete coverage, voids, and a lack of
waterproo{ing qualities. Temperatures that are t@ low can
lead to poor adhesion, high expansion propenies, and low
tensile strength.
Bitumens can be heated at high temperatures for short
periods of time without damage and must be heated at
high temperatures in order to achieve complete fusion and

strong bonding of the plies. There is an optimum viscosity
range and an optamum temprature range at the point of
application that allow complete fusion, optimum wetting
and mopping properties, and the desirable interply bitumen
weight. The equiviscous temperature (EW) is defined as
the temperature at which the viscosity of roofing asphalt is
125 centistokes, plus or minus 25'F, at the mop bucket or
Ielt layer immediately prior to application to the substrate. A
centistoke is a unit that measures the kinematic viscosity.
Centistokes = IDynamic ViscosiV/Densityl x Centipoise
The recommended EVT range for roofing asphalt, Types I,
ll, lll, and lV, is the temperature at which a viscosity of 75
centipoise is attained, plus or minus 25"F. The recom,
mended EW range for coal tar products, types I and lll, is
the temperature at which a viscosity of 25 centipoise is
attained, plus or minus 25"F. One consequence of a change
in EW from 125 centistokes to 75 centipoise, plus or minus
25"F, is the potential need to increase the temperature at
which bituren is heated in the kettle or tanker. Excessive
and prolonged heating of asphalt and coal tar products may
have a deleterious effect on the quality of the producl.
417
ASPHALT
.
SECOND
LAYER
PREFORMTD
ROOF
INSULATION
BOARD
ASPHALT
FIRST
LAYER
PREFORMED
INSUUTION
ROOF
BOARD
--\
EreE
ASPHALT
ASPHALT
GUSS
OF ROOF
GUSS
ASPHTT
OVER NAII-ABLE
NOTE
OECK
OVER
NON-NAII.-ABLE
MINERAL-SURFACED
INORGANIC CAP SHEET
DECK
lf appliedover nailabredeck shathingpaners,add a rosin-sizedsheathingpaper

between the
deck and base shet.
MINERAL-SURFACED
CAP SHEET BUILT.UP
NOOTTNC
NAUBLE
DECK
SECOND
UYER
iEEfoByED
NSUunoN
\!-------
F|RS]
Roor
BoaRD-__\
\,
UYER
cnLlonMED RooF
rNsuulonaoaeo
NON.NAUALE
---------\ \
ROOF
R@F
ASPHALT
ASHALT,
{UMINUM
THREE-PLY
OVER
NAII,-AEILE
EMULSION,
TOP COAT
OR
FTBRAED
ASHALT,
EMULSION, OR FIBRATED
ALUMINUM TOP COAT
DEC}<
THREE.PLY
NOTE
lf applied over sheathing panels, add a rosiftsized sheathing paper between the deck
and base
sheet.
SMOOTH
SURFACE
BUILT.UP
BUILT-UP
ROOF
SURFACING
Surfacing protects the bitumen and felts of

trom direct sunlight and weather exposure.
vide other properties such as tire resistance
Surfacing types include aggregale, smooth
maneral cao shet.
AGGREGATE
GUSS
OVER
NON.NAITABLE
DECK
NOTE
ror a more Conseryattve system, specify four plies rather than three
ROOFING
a built-uo roof
and may pro,
or reflectivity.
surfacing, ani
SURFACING
The aggregate in roofing seryes as an opaqw covering that

tmproves the appearance and fire resistance ot the roof and
helps resist premature aging and damag from weather,
temperature fluctuations, and ultraviolef.ays.
Aggregate
also increases lhe wind uplift resistance of the oi
m-em_
brane and permits much heavier pourings of bitumen than

would otheMise be possible.
SMOOTH
SURFACING
Built-up roof membranes may be left sm@th, surlaced

with a top coating of hot asphalt. Smooth surfacing should
not be confused with a built{p membrane left unsurfaced
(exposed felts). Smooth surfaced buill{p roofing should b
specified only in those circumstances where aggregate-surfaced built-up roofing is impractical. such as whln1he roof
surface exceeds 3 in. per ft. where the proximity of an airIntake or exhaust equipment may cause loose aggregate, or
Mere appropriate aggregate is not available.
MINERAL
SURFACED
(CAP SHEET)
Some areas of the country, particularly the far western and

southern states, use mineral-surfaced cap sheets as the
final surfacing for built-up roofing membranes. These specr
lcalons are srmrtar to aggregate and smooth_surfaced
specrlrcatrons excepl that a final layer of prepared roofing
material is installed on top oI the multiply built-up rool
assembly. This specification is not popular in colder climates, primarily because it requires phased construction ot
the final layer of roofing material.
National R@fing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
'
ModifiedBifumenMembroneRoofing
4t8
"="'"'r
\ON
PFL-ORMLO
TNSULATTON
NAILABLE
DECK
ROO'
BOARD
NAIGBLF
----
\.
\\
BASE
..-
SHEET
EDGE OF ROOF
CAP SHEET
WTH
SURFACED
MINERAL
GRANULES.
METAL
FOIL, OR FIELD.
PPLIED
COATING
TI /O-PLY
OVER
NAIL.A,EtLE
SURFACED WrH MINERAL

FOIL.
MET{
GUNULES,
OR FIELD-APPLIED COAT1NG
TWO.PLY
OECK
OVER
\MODIFIED
BtrUMEN SHEET
ffORCH ryELDED. HOT-MOPPED,
TO BASE
'!R SELF.ADHERED
SHEET)
NON-NAILABLE
DECK
N OTE
lf applied over-sheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot-mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath
ing paper between th deck and base sheet.
T\,VO-PLY MODIFIED
BITUMEN
MEMBRANE
NON.NAIUBLE
ASPHALT
AY
SHEET
EreE
OF R@F
MODIFIED BIUMEN
SHET
CTORCH reLDED,
HOT-MOPPED, OR SELF.
AOHERED TO AASE SHTM
GP
Wffts
THREE-PLY
(SURFACED
SHEff
MINERAL
GRANULES.
THFTEE-PLY
OVER
OVER
NON.NAII.AEILE
DECK
N OTE
lf applied ovetrsheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot,mopped, add a rosin-sized sheathing paper between the deck and base sheet.
THREE-PLY
MODIFIED BITUMEN
MODIFIED
BITUMEN
MEMBRANE
MEMBRANES
Polymermodifiedbitumen membranescouplebitumen and

oolvmerswith variousreinforcementsto form a membrane
system with improvedproperties.Modifiersinclude atactic
polypropylene, styrene+utadiene-styrene,and styrenebutadiene-rubbr. The modifying compounds impart
jmproved flexlbility. cohesive strength, toughness, and
resistanceto flow at high temperatures.The seams are
sealed by torch welding or with hot asphalt. Thickness
rangestrom 40 to 160mils.
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;
Rippeteau
Architects,PC:Washington.
D.C.
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
For some systems a base sheet is fastened to the deck as

an underlayment. In the hot-mopped system, the membrane is constructed similar to a built{p roof with hot
asphalt mopped between the plies. Self-adhered sheets
have a factory-applied asphalt-adhesive coating on the
underside. The protective sheet is peeled away to stick the
membrane to the roof deck. Torch-applied membrane systems have a tactory-applied coating of modified asphalt on
the underside of the sheet, which is melted with a oropane
torch to make the sheet adhere.
Reinforcing materials for polymer modified bitumen membranes include plastic Iilm, polyester mat, glass fiber, felt or
fabric. and metal foils. embedded within or laminated onto
the moditied bitumen sheet. Memb.anes may be surlacad
with liquid coatings, metallic laminates, or ceramic or min
eral granules to enhance resistance to weatherang, ultraviolet rays, or fire or to improve appearance. Terminations at
roof edges, parapets, and olher tlashings may be torchapplied, hot-mopped, or self-adhered. Laps are formed as
the sheet is being applied.
Eg!!!-upond Modified BitumenDetqits
419
GENERAL
=
-- XFJAbS,'FiEJ;'4?83'^
In. general. the details for installation of bitumen rooftnq_

whether burlt-up roofing or modifred Oltumen rootLnq'_
ail
srmrrar In many respects. Details for both types of rdofrno
are included where applicable. I he details strow typicat
cqni
gluons that occur at bitumen roofs. such as roof;dge conorrons, prptng penetrations, and equrpment suppodJ
L"J?S?|i9",3X.FJFUSHING
2'WID
CLIP,
BruMFN
FUSHING
FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
S'
HEAW
METAL
EDGE
FUSHING
STRIP)
AffiOXIMAELY
FIB_ER GNT
(OPTIC)NAL
O,C
A'
O.C
STRIP
SE]
IN BITUMFN
FOR
MC)DIFIED
BIUMEN)
WOOD NAILER SECURED TO DECK

WTH FASENERS
AMOXMAELY
24' O.C
BULT{P
ROOFNG (OR MODIFIED
wrH
omoNAL
FrLq:rEJ! MEMBUNE)
suRFAcrNG
oR coariNc
HEAVY METAL
BASE
SHEfl
N OTES
'l.
This dtail,shouldb used onty when the deck is sutr
Ponedbv the wall.
2. The joints in the two piecesof flashingshouldnot be sot-
BASE FLASHtNG FoR wALL-supponieo
SHEET (OR MODIFIED

IF REOUIRED)
ROOF EDGE
BruMEN
dered. Breaks in soldered joints could channel water

behind the flashing.Clips at the bottom of the flashinq
are not necessaryon tlashingsof 6 in. or less.
oecr<
MflAL
REGLfl.
APPROXIMATELY
FASENERS
24' O.C.
RilOVABLE
COUNTERFUSHTNG
UP ME:TAL AT JOIMS
FLUTBLE
VArcR
RETAINER
FASTENERS
2'WIDE
RETARDER/INSUU]
APPRC)XMATELY
A' O-C.
CLIP APPrcXIMAELY
BASE FUSHING.
CC|WR
VArcR
RETARDER
toN
S'O.C.
SCUPPER THROUGH
TOP Wfr
ROOF EDGE
3Uffi;3L3OJL"5-'E=JilERFR*=O
COMPRESSIE}LE
INSUUNON
RIME
WOC)D CAM
STRIP Tc) PRC)VDF
STBUCTURA
SmENGB;
narf
AND BONC)M
AffiC)XMATELY
16'OC
Cc)NCRffi
CAULK WH
ETASTOMERIC
SAUM
ANGLE CUMPNG
BAR
WTH SLOfrED
ANCHOR HOLES
rOe
FASENERS
EXPANSION
IN
S;HIELOS
COMRESSIBLE
EUSTOMERIC
TAPE
TO SPAN
IRREGUURMES
WOOD
M[
FASTENERS
ER
SECURED
TO
APROXIMATELY
DECK
24'
WTH
OC.
CHAMFER
TO DRAIN
\
BUILT-UP
BTUMEN
SURFACING
NOTES
'1.
This detail allorc mll and deck to move independentlv.
2. This detatl should be used where there is any possibility
that differential movement will occur betwdn
the decl
and a venical surface, such as at a penthouse wall. The
(OR MODIFIED
RC)OFING
MEMBRANE)
WG
OMONAL
OR C;OAING
BASE
(OR MODIFTEO
SHEFT
SHEET)
AS REOUIRED
TOP
seoa roP oF sysrEM

WTH FAERIC TAPE AND
MASIC (Om|oNAL)
FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
A'
BTUMEN
vertical wood member should be fastened to the deck

only. Thrs is one satisfactoryrethod of ioinrngthe two
piece flashingsystem. Other methods miv be-used.
FIBER
CANT
STRIP
SET IN BITUMEN
ANACH
WOOD NAILER
TO CONCREE
Wft
AFROVED
MEBOD
BAsE FLAs H ING Fo R No rg_wa,r_l-sUFFoETEEEEEI
Ff*"IrLlF
rros HrNGco Nc RErE
NationalRoofing ContractorsAss@iation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitect;. pC: Wa;hin;io; D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
O.C
420
Built-upond ModifiedBitumenDetoils
1 2'
TO 6
JOINT COVER 4
WIDE SET tN MASTIC
WLDE
STRIPPING (MODIFIED
BITUMEN FLASHING STRIP)
CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
FASENERS
APPROXIMATELY
SET IN MASTIC: PRIME

BEFORE
STRIPPING
A'
PLWMD
EfERIOR
CLEAT
OR TAPERED
SLOPE
TO PROVIDE
M O D I F I E DB I T U M E N M E M B R A N E
+----
UNDER
JOINT
_ OSIONAL
SEAL
WITH
FUSHING
AND
MASTIC
NAILS STAGGERED
3'' O.C
APPROXIMATELY
METAL
FUNGE
FELT
4- TO 6'
JOINT
COVER.
IN ELASTOMERIC
WIDE
SET
SEALANT
TO I 8" TAPERED EDGE STRIP
TOP OF
FABRIC
O.C
ON
BLCKING
(OR
FUSHING
BASE
BITUMEN
MODIFIED
FGSHING
STRIP)
AASE SHEET (OR MODIFIED

BITUMEN SHEET)
TURN DOWN ONE PLY OF FELT TO BELOW
BLOCKING FOR AUILT.UP ROOFING
FIBER CANT STRIP SET IN

BTUMEN
N OTES
'1.
Envelope shown is for coal tar pitch and low-slope asphalt.
2. Attach nailer to masonry wall.
MEMBRANE
5. Wood bl@king may be slotted for venting wher required.
GRAVEL
MoDTFTED BrruMEN
\.==-
3. This detail should be used only where the deck is supported by the outside wall.
4. This detail should be used with light{auge metals, such as 16 oz. copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.O4Oin. aluminum. A iapered edge strip is used to raise the gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to @ntrol thormal movement.
NOTE
This detail should b used onlv when the deck is suppbned by the wall. An expansionioint
detailshouldb used for a deck not supportedby a wall
LIGHT METAL
STOP
PARAPET
CAP
CLAT
OR
DRW
STANDING SEAM
SECTION
STRUCTURAL
VArcR
FLEXIBLE
RETARDER/INSUGTION
AfrACHED
RETAINER
TOP
OF CURB
TO
J
_
--.2'_
',(
.Z
FASTENERS
1
o
z
FASTENERS
APMOXMAELY
1 2', O.C.
FASTENERS
A' O.C, BOTH
TO PREVENT
INSUUTE
CONOENSATION
SEALED
WELDED PUTE,
WATERTIGff
APPROXIMATELY
SIDES
FIBER
CAM
STRIP
IN BIUMEN
SET
FuSHING
VAPOR
COVER Wfr
RETARDER (OR MODIFIED
STRIP)
BITUMEN FSSHING
INSUUTION
COMPRESSIBLE
WOOD CANT SMIP TO
PROVDE STRUCTURAL
STRENGTHj NAIL TOP AND
APPROXIMATELY
BONOM
16', O.C.
MODIFIED BITUMEN
MEMBRANE
NAILER
EACH
SIDE
WOOD
TO DECK
WTH
SECUREO
AI
24'
O.C,
FASTENERS
T (OR
D BTUMEN
CAP
FUSHING
SET
BOLTS
STRUCruRAL
FRAME
WTH
SEAI}NT
DRAW BANO
APPROXIMATELY
WATERTIGHT
OWRUPPING
RAOIUS
OF
REMOVABLE
COUNTERFUSHING
UMBRELU
JACK
BY
TO 4'
1/.' MlN.
CLEARANG
TO
PIPE
APPROXIMATELY
FASTENTRS
(OR
BASE
SHEET
BruMEN
SHEET)
MODIFIED
/-/
./
BITUMEN
FIBER
CANT
AIUMEN
STRIP
SET
FUNGE
TO 4' MAX
3" MIN
OVER
lN MASTIC
SEI
FUNGE
PRIME
R@FING
(FOR
BEFoR.
S] RIPPINC
NAIL
MODIFIED
EITUMEN,
NAILER)
TO WOOD
FLANGE
WELDED
IN
NOTE
This detail allows for roof maintenancearoundthe equipmentsupport. Continuoussuppon is
preferredin lightweight roof systems becauseequipmentweight can be spread over two o-r
more supponingmembers. Clearancemust be providedfor removal and replacementof roof
ing and flashingbetween parallelsupports.
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
3'
ROOF
MSAL
SHEET
MIN. A' ABOVT
JACK
('/"'MIN
R@FING
TO UMBRELG)
CLEARANCE
(OR
FUSHING
BASE
BIruMEN
MODIFIEO
FCSHING
STRIP)
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.
EITUMEN
ROOF
MEMBER THROUGH
CAULK
PAD
FASTENERS
24' O.C.
SHEEI)
NOTE
This detail illustrates one method of eliminating pitch pockets. The curbed system aliows for
movement in the structural member without disturbing the rool system.
IN SfuNT
NEOPRENE
MODIFIED
MEMBRANE
/-
STRUCTURAL
EXPANSION JOINT
MODIFIED
MEMBRANE
A' O.C.
FUSHING
BASE
(oR
MODTFTED
FL$HING
BITUMEN
STRIP)
CHAMFER TOP OF BOfr

WOOD CURBS TO ORAIN
TO ONE SIDE
BASE
AS NECESSARY
FASTENERS
APffiOXIMATELY
ANCHOR
PUTE
N OTE
This detail depicts site-fabricated construclion. Many manufacturers now offer prefabricated
llashing piece! or permit the use ot materials lor flashing purposes other than those shown
he.e- Proprietary designs vary widely: consult individual manulacturers about use.
Built-upqnd Modified BitumenDetoils

WOOD
NAILIF.
2 X 4
NOMINAL
METAL
421
FRAME
SEAL
/-
STRIP
FUSHTNG
'
RECEIWR
APPROXIMATELY
24' O C.
COUNTERFLASHING
APPROXIMATELY
FASTENED
1A'O,C.
FASTENERS
FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
APMOXMATELY
A'
a' o.c.
---- BASE
O.C
-
1 4' STANDARD
MANUFACTUREO
FUSHING
HEIGffi
COUMERFUSHING
EXTENDED
DOWN TO ROTEfr
AGAINST
FOOT OAMAGE (OffIONAL)
(OR
AASE FGSHING
MODIFIED BITUMEN
FUSHING
SRIP)
INSUUTON
NOTE
FIAER CAM SRIP.
SET iNTO BIruMEN
WOOD BLOCKING FASTENED
TO DECK (OmONAL)
EQUIPMENT
CURB
EreE
An area divider is designed simply as a raised double wood

member attached to a properly flashed wood base plate
that is anchored to the roof deck. Area dividers should be
located between the roof's expansion joints at 150 to 200 lt
intervals, depending upon climatic conditions and area practices. Thev should never restrict the flow of water.
AREA DIVIDER
OF SUMF
sRrFlNG
METAL
FELTS
sRtffiNG
FELTS
FGSHING
SNAINER
CUMANG
RING
SET BOLTS
EUSTOMRIC
DECK
CUMP
MJUSTS
WRTICALLY
AND
HORIZONTALLY
SMIFING
FELTS
TAPER
IN
SEAUNT
INSUUNON
TO
DUIN
N OTES
1. Minimum30 in. square,2'l2to 4 lb leador 16 oz solt cop

per flashingset on finishedroof Ielts set in mastic.Prime
top surfacebefore stripping.
2. Membraneplies,metalflashing,
andflash-inpliesextend
underthe clampingring.
NOTE
This detail allows for expansionand contractionof pipes
without roof damage.
3. Stripping felts extend 4 in. and 6 in. beyond edge o.f

llashingsheet, but not beyondedge of sump.
4. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended.
PIPE ROLLER SUPPORT

ROLLED
1'OOWN
LEAD
rMO
PLUMBING
FUSHTNG
PIPE
VEM
STACK
ROOF DRAIN
INSUUTE
INSIDE OF METALWORK
IN COLD CLIMATES
SHEff
SLOPT
METAL ErcLOSURE,
FOR DRAINAGE
SHEET
CRC)SS;E}REAK OR
METAL OR FLg-ruBE
FUSHING
COLI.A
RECEIWR
PIPES
SLffi
AWAY
Mc)M
H@D
COUNTERFUSHINc;
FASTENERS
-,
o-?:- - 't)
/
FASTENERS
APROXIMAELY
MIN. 4' CLEARANC)E

FROM
OF CURB,
MIN- 2'BETWEN
- //
APPROXIMATELY
BASE
FbSHING
24' O,C
PIPE TO
PIES
TOP
SITE-FAE]RICATED
A'
O.C.
DETAIL
PREFABRICATED
PIPING
BOOT
(CONSULT
MANUFACTURER
FoR
spEctFtcarloNs),,--1
FIBER
AM
STRIP
_
SET IN BruMEN
N OTE
PREFABRICATED
N OTES
This detail illustrates another method of eliminating pitch

pockets and a stisfactory method of grouping piping that
must come up above the r@f surface.
2. Minimum clearance of 12 in. from cant strips and other

curDs or prpes.
MULTIPLE
SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION
PIPE PENETRATION
DETAIL
1. Sheet lead minimum of 2rl, lb per sq lt.
NationalR@fing ContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
422
EPDMSingte-Pty
Roofing
EPDM SINGLE-PLY
ROOFING
Ethylenepropylenediene monomer (EpDM)membranes
are 30 to 60 mil thick, single-sheetroofing materials.They
are availableeither nonreinforcedor reinlorcedwith fabric
Seamsin the membraneare splicedandcemented.EPDM
membranesare highlyresistantto degradation
from certain
chemicals.ozone,and ultravioletradiationand have excellent resilience,tensile strength, abrasionresistance,hardness. and weatheringproperties.
agarnst wind uplift forces. Some membranes require field

application of surfacings or coatings to provide weather
resrslance, aesthetrcs, or other propertjes. Specifications
for formulation and installation of EPDM membranes vary
wth the individual manufacturer.
Separation layers of asphalt-saturated organic felt or boardtype r@f insulation permit the membrane to move relative
to the deck without abrasion. Membrane terminations at
roof edges, parapets, and other flashings employ material
idntical to the roof membrane material shaoed to conform
to the substrate and area berng flashed. Standards for
EPDM membranes are maintained bv ASTM and the Bubber Manufacturers Association.
EPDM membranes may be laid lmse, mechanicallvfastened, or fully adhered to either nailable or non-nailable
decks For loose-laidsystems, ballast provides resistance
FrcM
SHEET
SEPARAION
UYER
NAIGALE
DECK
\
(tF REOUIRED)
\\2
LOOSE.LAID
\\--
EXPANSION
/.
JOINT
SEAUNT
DRAWBAND
ELASTOMERIC
IN
SET
MASTIC
PREFABRICATED
COWR
ADHERED
TO EPDM
MEMBRANE
WITH
APPROPRIATE
ADHESIW
SEAL EDGE OF
COVER WITH UP
EDGE SEAUNT
z'
MLUST
ADHERED
SEAMS
OVER
NAII.-AEILE
LOOSE-LAID
PREFABRICATED
DECK
OVER
NC)N.NAIL-A,E}LE
DECK
EPDM ROOFING
EPDM
SHEET\
PIPE FLASHING
SMOOTH CONCRETE,
ErcSED
SURFACES
MUST BE
WATERMOOFED
/ CAULK WITH
EUS;TOMERIC
SEALANT
/ ANGLE
cuMPtNG
/
8AR WTH
,/
/
SLONFD
COMPRESSIEILE
EUSTOMERIC
TAPE TO SPAN
IRREGUURMES
SEPARATION
UYER
OF REQUIRED)
ile-vilnarue
ANCHOR
HOLES
\r \/'--\
)
FASTENERS
IN
EXPNSION
SHIELDS
PRIME
CONCRETE
IF REOUIRED
3
CURED
OR
UNCURED
MEMBRANE
ADHERED
TO
WALL
AND
MEMgRANE
WTH
ADHESIVE
--
SEAL
EDGES
OF FUSHING
EDGE
SEAUNT
EPDM MEMBRANE
INDIVIDUAL OR BAR.ryPE
MECHANIAL
FASTENER
INSTALLEO UNDER UP
FASTENING
OR W[L.
OVER
MECHAN.ICALLY
FASTENED
NON-NAILAE}LE
DECK
EPDM ROOFT
PARAPET
SHEET-
MLAE]LE
COUNTERFLASH
SEAL EOGES OF
FUSHING
WITH LF
EOG
EMM
DECK
STRIP
APPLIED
TO
FASTENED
1 2" O.C,
SAI..N
FLUIBLE
VAPOR
RETARDER TO
SERVE AS
NSUUNON
RETAINER.
I NG
CURED OR UNCURED
FLASHING MEMEiRANE
ADHERED TO BELLOWS
AND MEMBRANE
WIH
APRC)PRIAT
ADHESIVE
COMPRESSIBLE
INSUSTION
CHAMFER
EACH
SIDE
OVER
NAITAE}LE
FULLY ADHERED
DECK
EPDM ROOFING
National Roofing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Ejckelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
oF wooo
CURB
OVER
NON-NAII-AE}LT
DECK
TO
DRAIN
EXPANSION
JOINT
DECK
ilrL"viEearue
Singte-ptypVC Roofing
SINGLE-PLY
PVC
ryPE l: Unreinforced
sheet
ryPE ll, CLASSl: Unreinforced
sheercontaining
fibers
ryPE ll, CLASSll: Unreinforcedsheet containingfabrics
TYPElll: Reinforcedsheet conrainingfibers or fabrics
ROOFING
Polyvin-yl chloride (PVC) membranes may be nonreinforced

or.rernlorce-dwith glass fibers or polyesier faOnc aS io
6d
mils thrck. Seams are formed by heat or chemical weldrna
and may require additional caulkrng pVC memb,anes
aie
resrstant to bacterial growth. industrial chemical afto,
spheres, r@t penetration, and extreme weather conditions
PVC membranes have excellent fire resrstance and
seam_
rng capabttfts.
SHEET\
NAIGBLE
OECK
-\
TAPER
INSUUTON
24'
DOWN
TO
DRAIN
PVCmembranesmay be laidloose,mechanically
fasrened.
or lullyadheredto etthernarlable
or non nailable
decks.For
looselaidsystems,ballastprovides,esistance
against;n;
uplrttlorces. Some PVCmembraneshave a factory-appled
coatingto provideweather resistance,aesthetics,or other
properties to the membrane. Some membranes may
requiretield applicationof surfacingsor c@tingsto provide
these ororerties.
ASTM Standard D{434 classes pVC materials into several

types and classes dependrng upon the conslruction of lhe
sheet materiall
ryC
423
3X?..- SEFeT"-o" F'S.'J^H)FF

---
ROOF DRATN
HAT-MLDED
CHilIALLY
LOOSE-LAID
OR
FUSED
HEAT-WELDED OR
GEM&IY
FUSED
UPS
UPS
PVC ROOFING
LOOSE-LAID
EXPANSION
FEXIBLE
TUBING
(MtN. DtA. 1 /2 TTMES
WIDTH OF JOINT)
.-
HEAT-WELDED OR
CHEMICALLY FUSED
OVER
NAIT-ABLE
MECHANICALLY
HtaT_wEDED
CHEMICALLY
UPS
DECK
FASTENED
WATER-.OR
SOLWM-BAS;ED
DHESW\
OVER
BAR.ryE
@WRED
MEMBUNE
OR
FUSED
NON-NAILABLE
ryC FUSHING
STRTP
WELDED TO MEMBRANE
ryC
MEME}RANE
FASTEN AS
REOUIRED
W@D
NAILER
EACH
SIDE
SECURED
TO
DECK
WITB
APPROPRIATE
FASTENERS
FASTENER
WIH
PIECES
NSUUION
JOINT
GAMFER
EACH
SIDE
OF
WMD
CURB
TO DRAIN
SLIP SHET
(IF REQUIRED)
BOARD
UPS
DECK
PVC ROOFING
*\
EXPANSION
JOINT
SMOOT
CONC:RETE-UPOSED
SURFACES MUST BE WAERRMFED
.\
AULK
WTH
EUSTOMERIC
SEAGM
ANGLE
UMPING
MH
SLOTTED
|..&ES
BAR
NCHOR
@MPRESSIBLE
EUSTOMERIC
TAPE
TO
SPAN
IRREGUURMES
ryC
FUSHING
MEMBRANE
ADHERED
Tc) WALL
AND
LDED
TO MEMBRANE
PRIME
CONCRETE
FASENING
TO DECK
FASTENED
STRIP
APPLIED
OR WALL,
1 2' O,C.
ryC
OVER
FULLY ADHERED
PVC ROOFING
NON-NAII,ABLE
DEC:K
SLIP
PARAPET
SHEET
COU NTERFLASHI
MEMBRANE
(IF REOUIRED)
NG
Na-tional R@ling Contractors Assciation; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, O.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
424
NOTE
Polvvinyl chloride (PVC) is a semirigid malerial that re

quires the addition of plasticizers to fabricate a flexible
roofing membrane. PVC exhibils excellenl weldabilitv tor
making lap joints or attaching to PVC clad metal llashrng
TYPES
'-
Single-PfyPVCRoofing
OF
MEMBRANE
Unreinforced sheet
Sheel reinforced with fiberglass or polyester
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
Contaminants to avoid: Bitumen, oils, animal fals. and

coal lar pitch. See manufaclurer's chemacal resistance
hsl.
M i n r m u m s t a n d a r d s rA S T M h a s d e v e l o p e d s t a n d a f d t e s t
methods to evaluate the materials p.operties of PVC rool
membranes. These test rsults form a useful basis for
comparing various PVC membranes. ASTN''l's standard
specificarion eslablishs minamum performance ctllerla
lof tensile streoglh, elongation, tear resistance, heal aging, wealhering, and waler absorplion.
Calendering
Sp.ead coating
Ext,uding
INSTALLATION
General guidelines: lt is recommended that all roofing
materials be installed on toofs with positive slope lo
drainage. Check with manulaclurers regarding their specific requirements.
GENERAL
Lap ioining methods: Hot air or solvent weld
Single ply roofing sYslems are also referred to as flexible

sheet rooling systems. Consult manufacturers for spe_
cilic requirements regarding mate.ials selection and installation requirements. Compatibiliry of malerials
comprising tolal rooling system is essential
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
48 and60 mil;45 milminimum
Typically
Thickness:
graY;othercolorsavailable
Color:Typically
s%N
\
\-'c
FLASHING
PARAPET
TYPICAL
vevae^rua
rr.s-'rc
Flashing methods: Membrane or PVC coated metal

Types of preformed accessories available: Inside and
outside cornersi pape stacks
-PVC
METAL
,,.
COATED
FLASHING
wELoEo
MEMBRANE
..$r- pvc
y'
COATED METAL
To Pvc
Weather restriclions during inslallalion: 0o-1 20oF tem'

perature range. Substrates and welding/bonding surtaces must be dry.
FLASH
ING
FASTENEO
REQUI RED
Merhod of repair: Clean surface; hot air or solvent weld

of PVC patch
AS
SHEET
ALTERNATE
FLASHING
PARAPET
FIRST
LAYER
ROOF
INSULATION
BOARD
PVC
SHEE\
COVERED WITH
PrEcE
/-\
ME
( ri i
\-/
ll,f ) =F.'i3ar.9-Rl
I!
\J-.{
>!!=.r-.]:f.
)-l-^
Jiiinr'csAr
|\
PVCSHEET/
AT-WELOEO
EMICALLY
OR
FUSED
SECOND
ROOF
IN SULAT
BOARD
HEAT-wELoEo
CHEMICALLY
oRr
FUSED
ll
---+r
THOD "A ',

T WELDED
LAP
MECHANICALLY
PVC
ASTENEO
LAYER
ION
AT-WELDEO
HEMICALLY
OISK
OR
FUSED
'
THOD
"C
- TYPE
FAS]
ERED
WITH
Membrane sheets are laid loose over.oot insulation {also

laid loose) and secured at the petimetet af,d around penetrations only. The membrane is then covered with a
ballast ol river-washed slones (typically l0 lb/sq ftl or
appropraate pavers.
This syslcm wo.ks eflicienlly with insulatioo app.oved
bv the membrane manulacturer and on r@fs with a slope
not exceeding 2 in 1 2.
For system with no slope limitations which secures

membrane to substrate with bonding adhesive and by
mechanically fastening lhe membrane to perameter and
penetrations. Syslem is appropriale for conloured roots
and rools that cannot withstand weight of ballasted
system.
Membrane can be directly applied to deck surface of concrete, wood surfaces, or be applied to compatible insulation that is mechanically lastened to the deck.
FULLY
Membrane sheets are laid loose over a sloped roof deck
and with the insulation on lop of it. When the roof deck
is dead level. tapered rool insulation is either loose laid
or mechanically altached under the membrane to achieve
positive slope to drainage. In either inslance, a layer ol
insulation is olaced over the membrane and held in place
by one of two methods: Either a loose labric is laid over
the insulation, wilh a minimum of 10 lb/sq ft of ballast
laid over rh labric, or insulation with an integrally
bonded concrele tacing is used in place of the fabric and
loose ballast. Membrane manufacturers should be consulted for their approved insulation list. In this roofing
svstem, the membrane is protected ftom year'round
temperature extremes. direct exposure to weather. and
damage from other sources. The heat gain or loss is just
the same as i{ the insulation were installed under the
membrane. Since lhe walerprooling membrane is placed
on the warm side ol the insulation, it funclions as a vapor
retarder. For high humidiry conditrons with a dead level
roof deck utilizing tapered insulation, a separate vapor
barrier should be placed directly beneath the lapered in'
sulation to oaevent condensalion.
PROTECTED
MEMBRANE
SHEET
Billings,Montana
CTAArchitectsEngineers;
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
ADHERED
SHEETS
A mechanically anchored rool system is appropriate ior

rools that cannot canv lhe additional load ol ballasted
roof sVstems. Systems are available with lasteners that
oenetrate the membrane or that requlre no membrane
penelration.
The membrane is anchored to the rool using metal bars
or individual clips, and it may be installed over concrete,
wood, metal, o. compatible insulation.
MECHAN
ICALLY
ATTACHED
SHEETS
1.T',
MEMBRANE
;"'"""*')
STRIP
,INSULATION
WITH
INTEGRALLY
BONOEO
CONCRETE
FACING
OR STONE
BALLAST
OVER
FABRIC
M EMBR
FILTRATION
FABRIC\
H-
ANE
TAPERED
INSU LATION
I
i
t -eo..asr
BARRIER
REQUIRED
C)EAO
LEVEL
ROOF
IF
Liquid-AppliedRoofing
GENERAL
Liquid-applied roofing systems are systems
primarily
applied as liquids at ambient tempe.atures. Most of them
h?v.e som sort of reinforcing fabric that is applied along
with the liquid component. Liquid,applied rooting applied
over exasting roofs is not generally accepted as a "mem,
brane" but as a coating.
Acrylic latex and urethane are the two main types of liquidapplied roofing. Acrylic latex refers to a familv of products
that use water,based polymers and cure by water evaooration- Liquidapplied urerhane roof coatings are chemically
cured lo form an elastomeric membrane. Because these
@tings are applied as liquids, installation is relatively simple, even for roofs with irregular geometries or multiple
penetrations. For systems using a reinforcing tabric, a coat,
ang is applied to an acceptable surface. While the coating is
still wet, a layer of polyester or fjberglass is laid into it iof
lwed by an additional layer ol coaling. Subsequent layers
may be added as desired or necessary.
Liquid-applied rooling systems are appropriate for new constructaon but are most commonly used 6 enhancements or
for repairs to existing roo{s, including modified bitumen
r@fs and built-up roofs.
Advantages ol liquid-applied roofing are that it conforms
very well to irregular surfaces, is easily applied, and comes
in various colors. However. it does cause marginal ponded
water performance end is best used in sloped roof situa,
IOnS.
12" W|DE
REINFORCING
FABRIC
OVER
METAL
FGNGE
,_
4<-z
<\_ r- -. -:-
-rJ1{..'
Lff'" }?:RBil'='
LIOUID'APPLIED
ROOF
BASE
COAT
(UNDER
FLANGE)
1 'h"
.-
CONTINUOUS
CLAA
NOTES
L Attach nailer to masonry wall. Refer to Factory Mutual
data sheet # 1-49.
2. This detajl should be used only when the deck is supported bv th outside wall.
3. This detail should be used with lightauge metals such
as a 16{2 copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.04 in.
alumanum. A tapered dge strip is used to raise the
gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to control thermal movement_
GRAVEL
STOP
ROOF COANNG OR SEAUM
W
BACKER ROD
FLEXIBLE
VAPOR RETMDTR
TO SERW AS iNSUDTION
RflAINER:
AnACH
TO TOp
OF CURB
Roofslopeminimumis 1/oin.in 12 or 29o:no maximum

RETROFIT
LIQUIO-APPLIED
ROOFING
OVER
EXISTING
METAL
ROOF
REINFORCING
FASTENERS
APFROXIMAELY
goTH
a' o.c.,
/-
REINFC)RCED OR
UNREINFORCED
LIOUID-APPLIED
ROOFING
FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
a' o.c.
-LIOUID-APPLIED
R@F
r'
z
ToTOAT(S)
SUBSMATE
OR
R@F
DECK
REFLECTIVE
COMPRESSIBLE
INSUUTION
REINFORC]NG
ADHERED
AALUST
TACK @AT
I
//-
-F
-
OR
-RETNFORCED
LIOUID-APPLIED
R@F
BASF
UNREINFMCED
LIOUID-APPLIED
ROONNG
ADHEREO
COVER
6" WDF
sET rN MASTTC
LroutD-appLtED
NAILS
APPROX
3' O.C. STAGGERED
OF W@D
CURB TO
DRAIN:
AGYLTC
TOPCOATTNG
JOINT
4I TO
METAL
SET
IN
MASTIC:
PRIME
FUNGE
BEFORE
STRIPPING
CHAMFER
ACH
SIDE
/\ffi[E
- ---
IAPER INSUUNON
24' DOWN TO DRAIN
SUBSTRATEOR
OOF
DECK
E}ALLAST
NOTE
1. Use minumum30-in.sq. 2rl, lb to 4 lb leadftashing.Set

in mastic. Primetop surtacebefore stripping.
2. Liquid-applied
roof coatings,reinforcingfabric,and metal
flashing(optional)
extendunderclampingring.
Liquidpplied roofing systems may also be used under

rigid insulation and ballast tor further protection. Refer to
"Protected Membrane Roofing" for {urther details.
LIQUID.APPLIED
ROOFING
SYSTEMS
NONSKID
TEruRE
EXPANSION
JOINT
ROOF DRAIN
SAND
(OF|ONAL)
/.
WHTE ACRYLIC
TOrcAT
c)R TACK
COAT FOR NONSKID
SAND TEXTURE
12'WIDE MEMBRANE
UNDER JOINT COWR
10'o'
MU.
LENGTH
acH
PIECE
JO|M
COWR.
4.
TO 6'WDE.
S5
IN EUSTOMERIC
SEAANT
LIOUID-APRIED
ROOF COAING(S)
SUBSRAE
R@F
DECK
TJNREINFORCED
SAL
. -y'
'
,>-2
OF
EfERIOR
PLWOOD
ON CLEAT
OR TAPERED
BLOCKING
TO PROVIDE
NONSKID
SAND TEruRE
(otrroNAL)
WHITE
TOrcOAT
TOP
FUSHING
wc
FABRTC
AND MASTIC
(offroNAL)
- ,
/x
I !
Lrr
MEME}RANE
REINFORCING
FABRIC.
4PPED
FASTENERS
ACRYL'C
OR
a' o.c.
24" O.C.
LIOUID APPLIED
ROOF
TOTOAr(S)
6', MtN.
OERLAP
425
REINFORCING
LIOUIO-APPLIED
R@F
BASE
FIBER
REINFC)RCED
COMINUOUS
MEME}RANE
LIQUID.APPLIED
MEMBRANE
TYPES
LIGHT
METAL
CANT
STRIP
CLAT
PARAPET
N OTE
Sheet lead minimum of 2rl2 lb per sq ft.
CAP
SINGLE
PIPE
PENETRATION
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsviile.Marytand

Rich Boon;The RoofingIndustryEducationalInstitute;Englewood,Colorado
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
426
Single-PlyEPDMRoofing
NOTES
G E N E R A LN O T E S
There are three genericinstallationmethodsfor EPDM

rooting:
EPDMelastomericroofingis synthesizedfrom ethylene,

propvlene,and a smallamountol dienemonomer.Manufactufedsheetsrangein thickncssfrom 30 to 60 mils.
1. Fully Adhered:Membraneroofing is .olled onto the

substrateand allowedto relax.Undersideis then fully
coated with bonding adhesive.After both surtaces
are tacky, the membraneis pressedonto the substrate with a push broom. Adioining sheets must
overlap8t least3 in., with lapssplicedand cemented.
Membraneis mechsnicallysecuredat perimeterand
penetration edges. Flashingprotects all edges. openangs,and penetrations.
2. Loose Laid: Roofing in this appticationjs laid toose
over lhe substrate,eitherdeck or rigidinsulation,and
ballastedin place.lt is positionedwithout stretching,
allowed to attain its natural shape, and adjacent
sheets spliced with adjoiningshee$ overlapping8t
least 3 in. Sheetsare cemenied8nd rolledtogether
to seal seams. The membraneis mechanicallvsecured at perimeterand penetrationedges,and ilashing is installed.For ballast, a sufficientamount ot
rivetrwashedgravel is laid over the membraneto
provide10 lb/sq ft ol weight. As an alternate,8 precast roof paver system is applied to hold the rooting
memDrane.
3: MechanicallyFastened:Membraneroof is directlvartached to the roof deck with mechanicslfasteners.
The substrate is anchored to the roof deck, and the
fastenerseither go through both membrane8nd insulationor only go throu0h the insulstionand dck,
with the membrane held down by retainer and cap
over the base. SealSntproiects against moisture.
Advantages:EPDMrooling exhibitsa high deg.eeol resistancelo ozone,ultraviolet,extremetemperatuteand

olher elements,and degradationtrom ab.asion.lt is resilient,stfong. elastic, and less prone to crackingand
tearing when comparedto other lorms ot membrane
roofing.
Disadvantages:
Applicationmethods,specificformulas
and configurationsfor adhesives,fasteners,and coatangs8re uniquewith each sVstemmanulactufed.Materials, design, and appropriateuse vary widely. Close
supervisionand regularinspectionby manufacturerare
a requirement.Laborcost and time allottedfor installaIron may vary.
INgULATEO
ROOF
APPLICATION
MEMBRANE
5E TUBING ANO
FILLER
EELF-CURING
EPOM FLASHING
RUEBER
FASTENING
STRIP ANO
METAL
FA6TENER
Many EPDM membranes 8re field surtaced to improve resastanc

to weatheringand fire, or to enhsnce
apparance.
6PLICE
RUBBER
FASTENING
STRIP ANO
METAL
FASTENER
RIGID
INSULATION
ROOF
MEMBRANE
EIALLASTED
EXPANAION
JOINT: FULLY
ADHEREO
ROOF MEMBRANE
GRAVEL
COUNTERFLASHING
FASTEN
TO WALL
AT 6" O.C.
ELASTOMERIC
MEMARANE
FLASHING-SEAL
EoGEs
AS
WITH
OVERLAPS
OF
ROOFING
MEMBRANd
BALLAST
JOINT
FASTENE
LAP EOG
SEALANT
NAILER
\r*=o
o*
..r
UNCUREO MEMBRANE
Z COMPRESSEO
r FLEXIELE TUBINGI I/2 X WIDTH
OF
FLAiHING-AOHERE
JOINT
EPOM
ROOFING
S. MEMBRANE
FASTEN ROOFING
TO rcOD
NALERS
T.O MEMARANE
ROOFING
ANO GRAVEL
sToP
\EPOM
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
TAPEREO
INSULATION
ROOF EDGE STRIP
SECURE NAILERS|
TO FIOOF
OECK USING
FASTENING
SYSTEM
RECOMMENOEO
BY
RIGIO
INSULATION
ROOF OECK AND

RIGID INS|ULATIC)N
OECK
FULLY ADHEREO
ROOF
PARAPET
OR WALL
BONONG
AOHESIVE
UNCURED
FLASHING
NEOPRENE
-
AT
ROOF
WALL
EDGE
AT NONSUPPORTING
LIGHT
METAL
TENERS
4" o'C.
EPDM MEMBRANE-TURN
OOWN PAST BLOCKING
SEALANT
DECK
ANO
INSULATION
OWSIDE
FULLY
WALL
ADHERED
EDGE
RUST-RESISTANT
WATER CUTOFF
MASTIC---
ROOF
RIGID
ROOF
ROOF
SCUPPER
CatherineA. Broad:Washrngton,
D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
PREMOLDED
VENT
PIPE
FLAAHING
ROOF
ORAIN
ProtectedMembrqne Roofing
/?" WIDE
BEMEEN
GAP
PIECES
12'
WIOI
MEMBRANE
JOINT COWR
EUSTOMERIC
SEAL
aND
UNDER
4" TO 6'
SEALAM
TOP
OF FLASHING
MASTTC
(Oq|ONAL)
ffiRIOR
TAPERED
RW@D
E]LOCKING
FASENERS
APROXMAELY
StrT
WITH
c)N
TO
GENERAL
JOINT
W|DE.
CLAT
PROVDE
tN
FABRIC
OR
SLOPE
A'O,C
BAluST
(OR
FILER
FABRIC
PAWRS)
In a typicalroofing system, the waterproof membranesvstem (burlt{p,moditiedbitumen,or single-ply)

rs appliedon
top of the insulation,which lies on top of the substrateand/
or structural deck. The membrane in this situation is
exposedto temperatureextremes and wear and tear from
peoplewalkingor working on the roof. In a protectedmembraneroof (sometimescalledthe invertedor insulatedroof
membraneassembly,or IRMA),a layerot exlrudedpolystyrene insulation board protects the membrane. Extrudei
:Fplystyrene is th only materialgenerallyapprovedlor this
applicationbeeuse it does not absorb moisture.This roofing system is best used in nreme climates,where it is
importantto protect the membranefrom the elements_or
wher the rooftop will receive heavy use (e.g., plaza or
parkingdeck applications).
GRAWL
PAERS
ENRUDED
INSUUNON
DRAINAGE
427
rcLYSWRENE
WTH
CHANNELS
FILER
BT4ST
OR
ON EDESTAL
FABRIC
4.MIL
POLY
SLIP
(OPTIONAL)
SHEET
BUILT.UP
BITUMEN
CAM
coMINUoUs
aEAT
NOTE
OR MODIFIED
ROORNG MEMBRANE
R@F
DECK
STRIP
FASENERS
ffiOXIMATELY
24'O.C
WAERPROOF
ROC)F
\
MEMBRANE (BUILT-UP.
\
MODIFIED BIUMEN.
OR SINGLE.PLN
Membrane may b built{p, modified bitumen. or singla

ply. lf thermoplasticmembrane is specified, provide ilip
sheet btwoen insulationand membrane.
LIGHT METAL
r/2' WDE
BWEEN
PARAPET
CAP AT BUILT-UP
OR MODIFIED
GAP
HECES
EITUT\,ICN ROOF-
1 2' WDE
MEMBRANE
JOIM COWR
EUSTOMERIC
SAL
aND
UNDER
4'TO
6. WOE;
SfuM
TOP G FUSHING
MASIC
(OtrtONAL)
JOTNT
Sn
Wffi
tN
FABRIC
>
NOTES
'1.
Ballastweight is a minimum of 10 lb per squaref@t.
2. Refer to ANSIISPRURMA
RP-4for wind designguidance.
3. ln lieu of aggregateor concreteballast,proprietaryinsulation boards with @ncrete topping are available.These
boardsweigh between 4.5 lb per squaref@t and 10 lb
pr squarefoot. dependingon the productselected.
TYPICAL PROTECTED
ROOF SYSTEM
MEMBRANE
BALUST
ffERIOR
TAPERED
fuWOOD
ON CLEAT OR
BLC)CKING TO PROWDE SLOPE
FASTENERS
APROXIMATELY
A'
FASENERS
APROXIMATELY
24-
O.C.
BAI I 51 (OR STONE

FRIC
UNDERNATHI
PAWR
FILER
flLER
WrH
FABRIC
ffiUDED
INSUUNON
DMNAGE
4-MIL
SHEET
R@FING
MEMBRANE
O.C.
|ryYSryRENE
W
CHANNELS
POLY
SUP
(Om|ONAL)
--=ROOFING
MEMBRANE
Cf
NSUUTION
AOARDS AND
FILTER FABRC
TO ALLOW
ACCESS
TO
O%IN
TAPER INSUUTION
DOWN TO DRAIN
EffUDED
rcLYSryRENE
INSUUNON
AOARD
4-MIL
SLIP
FILTER
POLY
SHEET
FABRIC
NOTES
tA. THICK
rcLYSHYLENE
FOAM
REFGMED
ryPANs;ION
JOIM
FILLER
CONTNUOUS
CLAT
N OTES
1 . Membrane must be single-ply. lf thermoplastic membrane
is specified, provide slip sheet betw@n insulation and
membrane.
LIGHT METAL PARAPET
AT SINGLE.PLY
2. Set pawrs on pedestalsor specity that the top layerof

insulationboardshave ribs on the top side to facilitate
oryrng.
ROOF
1 . Standard wight concrete pavers should be used to mark

drain locations and to tacilitate access to drains.
2. To facilitate placement ol insulation boards, etc., the
clamping ring and strainer are to b removed trom metal
drains. A r/, in. hardware cloth strainer should be laid at
the bottom ol the drain bowl.
3. For a thermoplastic membrane, use a 4{il polyethylene
slip sheet between the membrane and the insulation
boards. Cul a hole in the sheet at the drain, apgroximately 2 in. larger than the diamtor of the drain bowl.
ROOF DRAIN
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsviile.Marytand

RichB@n; The RoofingIndustryEducatronal
Insl(ute;Engtew@d,Colorado
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
428
Sproy-AppliedPolyurethqneFoom Roofing
GENERAL
Polyurethane foam roofing is spray-applied; seamless, and

fully adhered. The loam is made by mixing isocyanate and
resin components at a 1:'l ratio- Spray polyurethane foam is
a closed{ell foam that provides good insuiation and water
resistance. These systems are used with a prolective coat
Ing or stone ballast covering system, which protects the
foam roofing from ultraviolet rays and mechanical damage.
These systems can be applied in varying thicknesses to
eliminate ponding, to improve drainage. and to meet specitied R-values (approximately R6.25 per inch). Some advantages of spray foam systems are that they can be used over
highly irregular surfaces, unusual geometries, or existing
sloped metal systems. They are also lnherenlly lightweight
and ofter good wind uplift resistance.
N OTES
'1.
Before spray polyurethane foam is applied. all surfaces
must be clean, tree of contaminants, securely fastened
to the substrate, and completely dry. Moisture-sensitive
'indicators
may be needed to detect anv moisture within
the existing roof assembly. Vapor retarders may be necessary; consult with the manufacturer to coordinate a
specific roofing condition with foam application.
2. Most polyurethane foam manu{acturers produce three
seasonal grades: winter (fast), regular, and summer
(slow).
EUSTOMERIC
COATING
DOUBLE
THICKNESS
1 2'
(OmTONAL)
TO EDGE
\
V.GROOVE
AND
SEALANT
-.\
\
METAL
EDGE
IN MASTIC
SET
(RIME
FUNGE)-
\
\
\
EUSTOMERIC
SPRAY-APPLIED
FON
(1' MIN.
',.
AGGREGATE
=:Yi.,
M N.
4-
FLANGE
/-
ELASTOMERIC
iTHTCKNtrSS
l?;JR"=33[,,.
hcir:' l*-l
ili{EE,-,;l, \ltNrocunac
rl
SPRAY-APPrttrD
,-
| igb:"slrErs
A><
," *,a.4
PREPARID
SURFACE
OF
BOARD
STOCK
CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
EUSTOMERIC
COATING
G(.ffER
METAL ROOF EDGE
ROOF EDGE AT GUTTER

'-
12'WIDE FELT
UNDER JOIM
JOINT COVER.
4' TO 6'
WIDE, Sff
IN
EUSTOMERIC
SEAUNT
E4STOMERIC
(vx
aeeKeeA
COATING
I e,
COATING
EPDM
WASHER
AND
STAINLESS
SEEL
FASTENER
POLYURETHANE
THICKNESS
WHEN
COVERING)
\
ENERIOR
fuWOc)D
ON CLEAT
OR
TAPERED
BLOCKING
TO PROWOE
SLOPE
Ih. TO 7A' DIAMETER

AGGREGATE
COVERING
MIN. THICKNESS
7.'.
APPLIEO
OIREfrLY
TO
FOAM
SURFACE
OR IN
CONJUNCNON
WITH
ROTECNE
EUSTOMERIC
COATING
ROOF
,. V-GROOVE
AND
SIALANT
I
I
/
YFT+
-.
FASTENERS
FASTENERS
AT 3" O.C.,
STAGGERED
4' MtN.
FUNGE
3. lf wind speed affects foam quality, use wind screens or

discontinue spraying. The surface texture of sprayed
foam can vary due to wind, equipment adjustment, spray
technique, and characteristics of the system used. Foam
thar will be elastomeric coated should have a smooth
texture resembling orange peel. For an aggregate covetr
ing, the texture should be no rougher than popcorn.
PROTECTIVE
ELASTOMERIC
(OR
COAT1NG
AGGREGATE)
.
/
1
ENEND
ABOW
,
COATING
FOAM 2'
cowRrNG
COMINUOUS
CLEAT
:)
.:
SPRAYED
POLYURETHANE
FOAM
NEW
DECK
DECK
ROOF
.: j'.:i:
NOTE
This detail shouldbe used only when the deck is supported
by the wall. An expansionjoint detail should be used for
non-wall-suooorted
decks.
NOTES
LIGHT
tngs may vary. and the coating manufacturershould be
consultedtor recommendationson specificneeds.
2. Granulesmay b applied to the wet uncuredprotective
topcoat to enhance the resistanceof tha coating systems to UV or mechanicaldamage
SPRAY.APPLIED
FOAM ROOFING
POLYURETHANE
SYSTEM
DOUBLE MME
SKYLIGHT
METAL
PARAPET
CAP
STRA'NER
EGSTOMERIC
COATING
ENENDED
C)OWN INTO
DRAIN BOWL
METAL
FLUES
DECK
WITH
SPRAY,APPLIED
POLYURETHANE
FOAM
/
OR PRECUT
INSERTS
METAL
/CUMPING
R|NG
,/
/,
DECK DETAILS
DECK'SUPPORTEO
PENETRATION
ENEND
COATING
2' ABOVE FOAM
TERMINATION LINE
V.CUT FOAM
AT CUMPNG
RING AND SFT
RING IN
-)
SEAUNT
EGSTOMERIC
COATING
TAPER
FOAM
TO DRAIN
\
EMUED
ALUMINUM
FRAME WIfr WEEP
rcLES
/-
METAL
COUNTERFLASHING
.\
rasteNens
aFmox. a- o.c
DECK
DEC<
i\SMAYEDIN.fuCE
rcLYURETHANE
N OTE
-*=-or.*'.
COATING
coue
-/
NOTES
1. Remove clamping ring prior to foam application. place
protective covering over drain bowl opening to prevent
overspray from frlling bowl
FOAM
2. Taper foam toward drain bowl lo provide positive drainage.
On skylights, do not cover weep holes with polyurethane

IOam or coatrng_
3. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended.
SKYLIGHT,
ROOF DRAIN
SCUTTLE,
SPRAYED
POLYURETHANE
OR VENT CURB
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Bich Boon: The Rooling lndustry Educatronal Inslitute; Engtewood, Colorado
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION
THROUGH.WALL
FLASHING
-..
CONTINUOUS
THROUGH.
COPING
FUSHING
THROUGH,WALL
FLASHING
@UMERFUSHING
UNDER
THROUGH-WALL
FUSHING
COPING
BUILT UP
ROOFING
CAM
SRIP
ABOVE
COUNTERFL',SHING
SPANDREL
BEAM
THROUGH.WALL
FUSHING
AT SPANDREL
AND
LINTEL
SILL
AT
INTERIOR
SILL
FINISH
FL@R
THROUGH,WALL
FUSHING
AT
SPANDREL
T H R o u c H -wA1-1- psaffi'fflla17if
\MALL
AT
GRADE
THROUGH-WALL
FUSHING
THROUGH-WALL
FLASHTNG
<")
TNSTALLATION
GENERAL
Modem building materialsare often waterproof, but thev
ile nol pemanently imprviousto windiriven moisture.
uraouarsnnnkageot some materialsandthe naturalmovement of buildingscan eventually
causeleaks.When mois_
ture enters walls it tends to form pockets of water. which
eventuallydraininto lhe inleriorof the building,sometimes
by gravity,other times by pillarv action. this water will
damageinteriors,defaceexteriors,disintegralemortar and
masonry,and rust steel spandrels,lintels,etc.
Flashingsshould be used wherever there is any possibility
of water enteringa structure.Through-wallftaining is th6
most successfulmethod of permanentlypreventingleaks.
except In.areas exposed to eanhquakes,where through,
wall flashingis not recommended.Through-wallflashindis
rude of many different materials,includingretals, plasti6, and combinationsof metals with paperl fabric,orrub_
ber- Matrials that are in contact must be compatiblL
without deterioration.
Joants.in flashings must be durable and waterproof and
shouldusually lap 4 in. When the flashing is metal, joints
should be soldered.Flashingshould be exiendedto within
r/2 in. of the exterior lace. Endand edge-formeddams
should-beu_sedwhere necessa.yto contro-ldrainagedrrec_
tion.Metalflashingthar extendsbetowgradeis ins-talled
in
reglets after th surfac waterproofinghas been applied
otow{rade.
THROUGH.WALL
COPING
FLASHING
UNDER
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architeclurat Sheet Metat Manual, Sth ed., with permission
Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C.
FLASHING
AND SHEET
METAL
CounterflqshingSysiems
430
m
m
m
m
m
4
COMPOSITION
FI-ASHING
---a
COU NTERFLASH
COUNTERFLASH
ING r^/ITH RECEIVER
I NG I NSTALLATION
FASTENER
BUrON-
v
SRNG
COMACT
AMON
-
COUNTERFLASHING
RECEIVER
\^/ITHOUT
METAL
Tvl/O-PI ECE COU NTERFLAS
REGLET
HING
GENERAL
Careful considerationmust be given to flashing systems
where a roof and wall reet. The base flashing system
must keep water from enteringthe buildingand must allow
for building movement. Counterflashingturns water away
from a wall onto the rmf or base flashing.The baseflashing
is usuallyinsertedinto a reglet, lvhich must be capableof
supporting the flashing. In high wind areas.clips can be
spcifiedlor the lower edge of the counterflashing.Cour
tertlashingthat is removableis cost eftective for the work
installationsequenceand for repairof roofingsystems.
All membraner@fing should have removablecounterflashing. Metal counterflashing
shouldbe used in conjunctaon
with compositionbase flashing. Metal base tlashingsare
used with shingleor metal roofs, but are not recommended
for use with membrane rooting systems. A metal base
flashing may b used over a composition flashing as a pre

tectivq cover in lotions where the base llashing may be
that base flashings be
abused bv traffic. lt is recomrended
applied over a cant and be extended up the wall a minimum
of 10 in. above the roofline.
COUNTERFUSHING
SNAP.IN
Receivers for counterflashing should be elevated 10 in.

above the finished roof. Install metal counterflashing to
cover a minimum of 4 in. of the bas flashing. After the
counterflashing is installed. the receiver is bent 45 degrees
10 provide a drip edge. The lower edge of metal counterflashing should be a minimum of 1 in- above a cant. The
countertlashing is notched and lapped at inside corners and
ioints, and seamed at outsade corners. The flashing receiver
is notched and lapped 4 in. at corners and ioints.
,-
SPRING
LOCT<ED
INSERT FLASHING
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual. 5th ed., with permission
Valerie Eickelberger: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington. D.C.
FLASHING
AND SHEET
METAL
OETAIL
SPRING
LMKED
CounterflqshingSystems
431
BUILDING
SIDING
OR
STUCCO
METAL
COUMERFUSHING
COUNTERFLASHING
FOR CONCRETE
'6-GAUGE
X IA' X
1 Ih' X 1b' CHANNEL
G
1'X %6'BARJ
FASTEN
1A' O.C.
cooUNTERFLASHT
SAWCW
4'
REGLfl
COUNTERFLASHING
FOR
NONMASONRY
V\/ALL
114'DEEP
FASENER,
24'O.C.
WIH WASHER EXCET
IN HIGH WND AREAS
FASTEN
TO
NAILER
SEAL REGLET
SEAL AT
FASTENER
PENETRANON
NG EXPANSTO N
MIN
1' MIN
cwrcsmoN
FUSHING
90UNTERFLASXtTc
v\/ALL
e.|. exrsrtruc
F335,1?E*sH rNGwrrHour
COUNTERFLASHING
OVER
STRUCTURAL STEEL
FUSHING
AND
|.fJotMs
IN FUSHING
6' IN FLOW
DIREfrION
24'
O.C.
METAL
FUSHING
COUNTERFLASHING
AT SLOPCO
NOOF
COUNTERFLASHING
AT SLOPEO ROOr
COUNTERFLASHING
AT
TILE
ROOF
SMACNA, lnc.. from the SMACNAArchitecturalSheet Metal Manual.

--' -'
sth ed., with permission
ValerieEackelberger;
RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,Di.
FLASHING
AND SHEET
METAL
FloshingSpecioltyDetoils
432
CONTINUOUS
\^/ALL
FOUNDATION
PEDIMENT
ELEVATION
PEDIMENT
WOOD
FLASHING
FLASHING
UNEXPOSED
E)<POSED
LEOGE FLASHING
@NTINUOUS
CLEAT
WITH
WALL
FOUNDATION
FLOOR
PORCH
CONNNUOUS
WTTH
SCUPPER
STONE
LEDGE FLASHING
INTERNAL
E}RICI<
DORMER
FI_ASHING
FT,ASHING
PRIOR
TO
\A/ALL
SUPPORT
VENEER
WALL
SHINGLING
DORMER FLASHING
INTERNAL
FLOOR
SUPPORT
NOTES
l.Termite shields may be fabricated of copper or galva
nized steel. Aluminum may be used except where
masonry is above the termite shield.
2. Joints should be lapped 3t in. and soldered or flat locked
Corners should be notched. lilled, and soldered.
TERMITE
APRON
DORMER
HEAD
FI-ASHING
FLASHING
FTASHING
DETAILS
SMACNA. Inc.. from the SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual, sth ed., with permission
Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
METAL
FLASHING
AND SHEET
WINDOW
FLASHING
SHIELDS
TYPICAL
MANSARD
ROOF
ORNAMENTAL
ROOF CANOPY
&&&
SELF-SUPPORTING
ROOF
qq
FUSHING
PANil
SCREEN
EffICAL
FANEL
SCREEN
fuSHING
FUSHING
SEAM PROFILES
CONTINUOUSLY
SUPPORTED
ROOF
METAL
MANSARD
ROOFS
Metal mansardroots
typicallyused on one,storycoc
-are
merqats_ltuctures.
Often they concealrooftopequipment,
usrng Dattenscreens or louveredenclosures.Metil man_
sard roofs are also used for flat or curyedornamentalroofs
or canopiesfor the front of buildings.
staintesssteet,gatvanizedsreet,or pre_
llgT,l_r-.coppe..
Irnrsned
metals may be used for metal mansardroofs. ihe
metal can be prefabricatedfor severalstyfes ot fieia connection using various seam configurations.prefinished
metals used in curved applitions lypically trave a .lslft
r,adius
limit.Concave.or
convexpanetsnormallyhavea 24_
In. mrnrmumradiusfor standingseamsand a 72_in.mtni_
mum radtuslor battenseams.Solt metalsare used when
the metal must be stretched.
man.sa.droofs may be contrnuousrysupponed or
fl,e]1!
serLsuppontng.
continuouslysupportedroofshave a con_
Irnuous sheathing substrate. Self_supportingroofs have
structural.framing with vertiel and horizon-talmembeii
rGareo where needed for metal panel attachment. Maft
saror@ts requtrecapandsill{lashing.
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architectwat-Sheet

Metal Manual.5th
--' 'Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC;
Wasirington, D.a.
ed., with permjssion
FLASHING
AND SHEET
METAL
434
Metol Roofing-Locksqnd Seoms
coMMON
(CLINCH)
LOCI<,
HOOK
SEAM
/_-7
-"="t--
[]/-7
---,-,------t\
// //-7
SEAM
STANDING
SINGLE
LOCK
SINGLE
E}UTTON
STANDING
LOCK
PUNCHEO
@\/
SEAM
FTAT LOCK
OR
CLEAT
DRIVE
LOCK
FTAT
DOUBLE
OR
S CLEAT
LAP
JOGGLE
SEAM
SOLDERED
LAP
SEAM
SOLDEFIED
HEAVY.GAUGE
LAP
SEAM
METAL
SEAM'
a'1
LOCK
FOR
STANDING
LOCK
I,AP
RIVETED
S POCKET
A/>
\^/ITH
SEAM
SNAP
SEAM
t-AP
RIVETED
HEAVY.GAUGE
FOR
SEAM
METAL
OOUBLE
LOCK
SEAM
STANDING
o
5
DOUE}LE
SEAM
/7-l
-M
l/
q
BUTTON
PI,ATE
SEAM
COVERED
BACKUP
PTATE
PLATE
WITH
SEAM
BU-FT
FASTENED
V
3So#-
COVERED
OPEN
STANDING
SEAM
LOCK
PITTSBURGH
\ /ITH E}ACKUP
ONE
SIDE
PTATE.
CAPPED
coRNER
LOCK
DOUBLE
SEAM
ffi
v
CORNER
STANDING
SEAM
CORNER
SEAM
LOCK SEAM
SEAM
BTJTT
FASTENING
\A/ELDED
FLAT
BAC}<UP
WITH
OPTIONAL
JOINT
SEAM
SMACNA.lnc..fromtheSMACNAArchitecturalSheetMetalManual.5thed,wlthpermrssron
Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects. PC; Washington, D C
METALROOFING
SHEET
LOCK
PLATE,
SNAP
CAP
STANDING
STANDING SEAM
SEAM
435
PAN
METHOD
OF
FORMTNG
STANDING
SEAM
. +--+\
'"+--frill
\A
. |F l\r
illl
.---1.ilI-- ---JilL- 3[@[l
FIELD
METHOO
\-=---\Jl#
Bccl
FORMING
OF
GTANDING
\ll
-(--------\
\llL----\
-L
AEAM
PLASTTC
TABS
INSIDE
SLOT
HOLD
CLEAT
FOR
ALIGNMENT
BUT
BREAK
TO
/CLOSER
BETWEEN
GASKETS
SEAMS
ALLOW FOR
MOMENT.
PANEL
CLIP
FASTENING
FOR
RIOGE
RIDGE
CONsTRUCTION
ENO
SLICES
SHOULD
AE
STAGGEREO
FROM
AOJACENT
SHIETS
SPLICES
ARE
COVERED
WITH
A CLAMPTNG
PLATE
WITH
INTEGRAL
CHANNELS
TO
OIVffiT
WATER
AROUNO
FASENERS
NOTES
To allow for expansion and conlraction movement
n rool
panets, some manufactu.ers sei movable
cleats into a
stationa.y panel clip system. The cleat is held in position
in rhe panet ctip by two remporary
l-tl9
ilot
":lt",jl
ptastrc
tabs. This" allows for co.rect alignment of the cleai
with the roof panel; Once rhe cleat his Ueen rotteC
into
the panel seam, it wifl move with the r@f panel
by forcang the plastic tabs to break under movement
Oressure.
MOVABLE
HOOK
COVERING
LOu/
P|TCH
CLEAT
SEALANT
SEAM
ANO
PANEL
__lg- .'=m_.y_fu/Slor-:J'3|"3RD-oouBLe
NOTES
pa.n* secured at the eave expand up rhe slope
of
lool
the roof. Depending on the length of the roof
Danel. an
engineered distance should be left between the
end of
roof panels on each side of the ridge, thereby allowinq
lor expansion at the ridge. In cases of a very long
run oi
ml panels {usually in excess of 200 ttl, expansion joinrs
will b required at other points in a<tdition to the ridge.
Any.blocking at the ridge shoutd be cut at an
angle to
provrde a space fo. the panls to bend into
when ex_
panorng tas In ridge detail Al. Ridge coverings
can be
rormeo o, Dowed to move with the expansion of the
roof
panels (as in ridge details B and Cl. In addition,
the seams
can eithe..be flattened or left upright. Up.ight seams
requrre a ctostng gasket or panel between seams.
may be ;nsrailed on stopes as

:l1LdinS ::qm.looling
gentte
as 7. an./ft. Eecause ol the architectural appear_
ance ot the roof system, it is more commonly
used on
steeper roof slopes, allowing the panels to be seen
as
Pan Ot the overall desion
top, botrom, and sides of the individual sheets are

oreto allow tocking together at eacn eOge. SeJms
191T"9
at the top and bottom of each sheet are Called transverse
seams. In the roll melhod, a series ot long sheets aie
ioined together ar rhei. ends with double tfaitock ieims.
These field-formed seams can be executed either
man_
ually or with a seaming machine (a wheeled electronic
oevrce which runs along the sheet joint forming
rhe
seaml-
The spacing of seam" i.", u"r, withrn reasonable limits

tlre afch(ecturat sryte of a given buitding. pre_
19 :urt
rormed sheets (as used with preengineered metai
build.
rrgsl hav seam locations set by locations of p.epunched
noEs In the structural framing memoers.
lnithea method, cleats (spaced as recommended

by the
manutacturerl are formed into the standing seam. Seam
term,nations are usually solde.ed.
The lwo methods of forming a standing seam are

the
pao method and lhe roll method. In the pan
method, the
STANDTNG GEAM METHoos
AND-EE;FEs
CONTINUOUS
GABLE
CONTINUOUS
DETATLS
EAVE
DETATLA
LrMrrEo
avalLAsrLrry
VALLEY
OETATL
FasoGreaves,An ArchitectureCo.poration;Waco, Texas

)uauD AssocrateyArchitects:
lroy, Michigan
Emory r. Hrnket.Jr.; A. G Odelt.Jr. and Asseiates; Charlotte,
North Caroilna
SHEET
METALROOFING
436
BermudoType Metol Roofing

WDTH
OF SET
(rN.)
20
24
OR
GAUGES
RECOMMENDED
WIOTH
OF
PAN..D"
rN.)
COPPR
oz)
I-WOOO
PAI NTEO
40
TERNE
COATING
LB COATIN
o. ot5
tN
26
2A
o. or5 lN
r6
26
26
o.ol5
20
24
26
o.or78
lN
o.or7a
tN
2Ot/2
24
lN
FOOF
TYPES
AT HIP OR RIOGE
FRAMINO
CLEAT
DETAIL
\^/IDTHE
26
OETATT- Z.EEAM
OETAIL
PAN
sTA*Eg6
Sl'EEL
(CIAUGE )
tet/2
241/2
METAL
FOR
GALVANIZEO
STEEL
(6AUGE I
,61/z
zzt/2
EtERMUDA TYPE
\^/EIGHTG
a" o.c
3-CONSTRUCTION
DETAIL
AT BATTEN
4-CONSTRUCTTON
VALLEY
AT CLOSURE
AND
/-ROOF
r-1,-'JSk-saalgp
z/\ll
cuosuaE
\4.r=o.
II
\14
\coNTINUOUS
"r.'r,::T]^
DETAIL
5-EAVE
DETAIL
6-EXPANSION
.'OINT
DETAIL
?-CONSTRUCTION
NOTES
1. The Bermuda rool may be used for roofs havinga
slooe o.eaterthan 2'12 in./fi. Wood framing must
be ordvided as shown in detarl l. Dimension"D"
and gaugeof metal will dependon the sizeof shret
used. See chart. Consllt generalnotes on metal
roofs for rrcommendedsurfacepreparation.
2. Bermudaroof is appliedbeginningat the eave The
first pan is hooked over a continuouscleat asshown
in detail 5, The upper ponion of the first and each
succeedingpan is ittached as shown in detail 3'
Cleatsspeed on I in. centersare nailed to batten
as in A of detail 3. Joint is deetoped asshown in B

of detail 3 and malletedagainstbatten asshown in
C of detail 3. All crossseamsare singlelockedand
soldered except at expansionioints. Crossseams
should be staggered. Expansionioints should be
used at least uery 25 tt and formed as shown in
detail 6. Rooling is ioined at hip or ridgeby useot
a standingseam as shown in A of detail 2. Seam
may be malleteddown 6 shown in B of detail 2.
3. Detail 4 shoffi the method of forming valleys'
Vallev sstions are lapped8 in. in direction of flow'
Straub Assocrates/Arch'tects: Troy, Michigan

Emory E. Hinkel, Jr; A. G. Odell, Jr. and Associates; Charlotte, Nodh Carolina
METALROOFING
SHEET
AT RAKE
lndividual clcures for side of valley are formed as

shown in A of detail 4 and must be solderedas indi
cated in B of detail 4. A method of teminating the
roof at rake is shown in detail 7. The fee plate
(optional) is held in place by continuouscleatsat
Uotir top anObottom. The batten closureis formed
as a cleat to hold edqe of roof pan as shown In
sction A'A ot detail 7.
Se also Metal Roofs tor generalnot6.
lctten ond RibbedMetot Roof
oETATL r-ear-EI
EIATTEN
SEAM
METAL
LAP
DETAIL
2-
RIDGE
ALTERNATES
ROOF
AND
CONTRUCTtON
OETAIL
3-EATTEN
JOINT
CONSTRUCTION
,@
B
OETAIL
4-
LOW
BATTEN
CAP
CONSTRUCTION
OETAIL
PITCH
STEEP
5-TRANSVERSE
CAP
PITC)H
SEAM
OETAIL
6-
GAEILE
STAINLESS
STEEL
SCREW
WITH
NEOPRENE
GUT TE R
LINING
OETAIL
7-VALLEY
NOTES
l. gallel-sam roofing m_aybe apptied
on stopesof
J In-llt.Or greater. lf the surfaCeto rtreive
the
roorng.ts Other than wood, the battens
Should
botted inro ptace. Ail O"tt"n t"rtJne^-m,iii be
Countersunk anto batteos. Se general nOteS 6e
Metat Roofs for rrcommended surii"" pi"p"riiioi.'On
2. The spacingof the wood battensmay vary
wathin
reasnable limits to suit the architecturalsiyle
inJ
$ale of- the building, but the rtrommendedmaximum
.cttstanceis Z0 in. between battens. Ca.e
snoutdbe taken to spacethe bailensin such
a man.
ner tnat wasteol metal is held to a minimum.
Bat.
tens may b shapedas shown in A or B of detail
1.
C)ETAIL
8-
EAVES
A is preferred. since it automatically

makes allow
ance for expansion. When battens jhown
in B are
c1f" must be taken ro provide for expansion
:Td-,
oy Dendrng the- metal where it meets
the birten ar
greater than 90".
3, Sheets are formed into pans with eeh side
turned
up z'/B tn. A r/2 in. flange is turned toward
the
cenrer ot.the pan as shown in B of detail
3. Al
rower end ol_the pan, the sheet is notched
and a
nooK eoge rs tormed as in A or B
of detail 5. For
row prtched roofs the upper end
of the shet is
rormed as in A of detail 5. On steper
roofs rhe uoper end is formed as shown in
p"I"
B ot a"trf!.
Straub4ssocrates/Archrtects;
Troy, Michigan
Emory t Hrnket,Jr.; A. G. Odell,Jr. and AssGiates;
Charlone.North Carotrna
DETAIL
9-
PREFABRICATEO
gArrEIS'
sraningat rhe eave.and hetd in ptace

:1lJ.tl1lld,
wrrn
cteats spacednot over '12 in. on center as
snown A of detail 3. Each pan is hookedto the
_rn
rt and ctearedinro ptace. After pansare
:l:,o9to*
In prace,a cap is installedover the battenas
shown
in 8 and C of detail3_
4 A number of manufacluren have cleveloped
metal
roorrng^systems
usinggveral prefabricateddevices.
A and I. of detail 9 showtwo commonprefabricated
battensin us.
S. Se also StandingSeam Metal Boofing
for details
on combination barten and standing6r it"i*i.
roofing. SeealsoMetal Roofs for generalnoles.
SHEET
METALROOFING
437
FLASHING CONOITIONS
MINIMUM THICKNESS (GAUGES OR WEIGHT) FOR COMMON
CONDITIONS
!?r
z=
22
E2
u
o
uG
of
o<
J<
(u
<o
MATERIALS
l0 oz
1 0o z
<;
36
u
o
o<
oz
zi
<;
e<
)=
X,Z
F<
10oz
ii
<J
oE
16oz
rifr
eNi
;z
6<
!95
oxql
l6 oz
16 oz
UO
0 . 0 1 9 " 0.019" 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 "

26 GA
30 GA
26 GA
30 GA
30 GA
24 GA
26 GA
26 GA
26 GA
26 GA
26 GA
o.6' o.027" o.o27" o.027" 0.o27" 0.027"
3#
3#
21/z#
21la#
21lz#
3#
40#
2W
2W
40#
40#
40#
Zim alloy
Paintedterne
elastomericsheet;
fabric-coatedmetal
GENERAL NOTES
l. All sizs and weights of material given in chart are
minimum. Actuaa conditions may require greater
strength.
2. All galvanizedsteel must be painted.
3. With lead flashing u* 16 oz copper cleats. ll any
pan is exposed,use3# lead cleas.
4. C@t zinc with asphsltum paint wtren in contact
with redrcod or cedar. High mid content (in
thes mods onlv) dweloPsstains.
5. Type 302 stainlesssteel is an all purpose flashing
type.
6. Use only aluminum manufactured for the purpose
of flashing.
7. See manuJacturer'sliteEture for us and types of
flashingr
8. In general, cleats will be of the same material as
flashing, but heavier weight or thicker gauge.
metal tlashing, precaution must be
9. In *lcting
taken not to plae flashing in direct cont4t with
dissimilar metals that use elstrolysis'
the table are us not rec10. Spac markedElin
ommended tor that material.
iJF
YJF
E<)
u>(,
16 oz
u
z
u
z
Zz
I<
Uc
16oz
sI
go
o<
*y .bz
UJ
JE
9U
EG
16oz
1 6o z
'16
oz
EDGE
i sTR rP
20 oz
40#
U
F
u
J
U
o
z
16 oz
o.024"
24 GA
22GA 26 GA
0.04q'
3#
20#
2 2 G A Note 2
0.027"
3#
40#
Se Note 7
GALVANlccoRRos|oN(ELECTRoLYS|5)PoTENT|ALBETWEENcoMMoN
MATERIALS
FLASHING MATERIAL5 AND SELECTED CONSTRUCTION
u
q
F
o
z
o
FLASHING
MATERIALg
Copper
Aluminum
Stainlesssteel
Galvanizedst4l
Zinc alloy
Lead
a Galvanicction will acur, hence dirst contact should be aoided'

miy occui unoer certain circumstancesand/or over a period of time'
;iil
6 c;i;;;i;
is irisignificant, metals may come into dirtrt contact under normal circumstances.
;ii;;
6 c;i;;;i;
from one materislcomesin cont4t with a
GENERAL NOTE: Galvaniccorrosionis apt to ccur when water runoff
potential ly reactive material.
MATERIAL
VARIES
>
ere"O
zu oz
0.049'
24 GA
0.o27" o.027" 0.o27" 0.o27" o.o27" 0.032"

3#
3#
3#
3#
3#
3#
40#
8E
uo
0.032"
26 GA
o
U&
0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0.049'

26 GA
26 GA 30 GA
24 GA
24 GA
24 GA 26 GA
See Note 7
oO
I>E
C O P T N GW I D T H
-rt
CAP
LEAD
WEOGES
SEALANT
RECE IVER
WEOGES
SEALANT
CAP
FLASHING
EO6E
( HOLD
rcWN
METAL
AIN<'LE LOCK BEAM

NOTES
l. Field lold end of eeh adioiningshst in opp6ite
dirstion.
2. Hook folded edges togther and dres down ioint
with a mallet.
METAL
BEAM
NOTES
1. Double told end of eachadioiningsheetin opposite
direction with bar folder.
2. Stide edg6 together and drs dom ioint with a
mallet.
Michael Scott Rudden: The Stephens Assmiates
FLASHING
P.C.-Architects;
FLAEHING
OF CAP
DEVELOPMENT
NOTE
Hem in cap flashing reommended for niffnes; but
be omitted if heilier gauge material u*d.
AIbany, New York
CAST
REOLETE
IN PLACE
CAP
8TEP e
OOUBLE LOCK
F LASHING
;TRIP
SA\^/ED
REGLET
MATERIAL
TYPICAL
IN
REGLETg
NOTE
Various types of mtal regletsare eailableJor
cast in plac and msonry srork; se manutacturer's literature. Where mteri8l permits, req
lets may be sawn. Flashing is secured in.reglets
with le;d wedgs at nux. 12" o.c., fill reglet
with nonhardening water-fesi$ant compound.
Floshing:An Inlroduction
THROUGH
FLASHING
COPING
DEFINITIONS
EASE FLASHINGS are essentiallya continuation ot
the built-up rmfing membraneat the upturned edo6_
applied in an operationseparatefrom the application
of the root membraneitself.
WALL
AT
C A P F L A S H I N G S( C O U N T E R F L A S H T N G S
a r) e n o r mlly made of stret metal and shietd the exposd rop
ot the base_flashing.Some nonmetallic cap flashings
are made of felts. and are made water-resistantwith
flashingcement,
THRC'UGH
WALL
CAP
RECEIVER
CAP
THREE-WAY
FLASHING
SAWTOOTH
CONCEALED FLASHTNGSare invisiblefrom the exterior or. interior of the building. Metal sheetor foil,
rabfic, ptasttc,or variouscombinationsof thrc mate.
rials may be used,dependingon climate and structural
requtrements.
FLASHING
BUILT.UP
439
ROOF
CORRUGATEO
OR
CRIMPEO
EXPOSED FLASHINGS are exposed ro view and affect the aesthetic of the building. Metals are almosr
entirely used. Attention must be paid to the corrosive
potential between di$imilar metals.
TEXTUREO
/-\
R I BgEO
PLAIN
TYPICAL
PROFILES
OF THROUGH
r'1/ALL FLASHING
(pRopoRTtoNS
EXAGGERATEO )
CAST
IN
PLAC:E
REGLET
TO
RECEIVE
SNAPIN
FLASHING
SNAP-tN
CAP
FLASHING
BUILT_UP
STRUCTURE
VARIES
2'' TURNUP
NO FINISH
WHERE
USEO
THROUGH
FOUNOATION
FLASHING
WINO
UPLIFT
PREVENTION
CLIP
NAIL
TO
I"X 3':
BENO
METAL
TO FORM
CLIP
SPACE
AT 4'-o'O-C.
MAX.
WATER-RESISTANT
MEMBRANE
TYPICAL
FLAEHIN<'
THROUOH
AT WALL
BECTION
6NAP-IN
WINO
CONTINUOUS
ROOF
NOTES
l. Selet fldhing that is flexible tor molding to f lashIng supports and can withstand expEted thermal,
wind, and structurd mdement. provide exoansion
ioints in plee of flashingas requiredby condirions.
2. Consult manufaturer's literature for choice of
flahing materialsand detaits.
3. Avoid sharp bndsînbituminous ba* flashings.U*
6nt stripswith 45o maimum beno.
4, Provision for differmtial movement btween roof
drck and wall is rcommmded.
5. Ribbd or.embossd throuqh wall flashing is not
rrcommended for earthquake areu.
6. Base flashing sh@ld extend 8 to l2 in. above high6t anticipated waterline. Metal cqnterflahin'qs
should.lapb6e flashingat least4 in. minimum. Lip
all verticalioints.
7. At cavity walls with more than 3L,,space between
wythes, us flashing of type that provides me.
chanicalbond
FLASHING
PREVENTION
WITH
CLIP
RECEIVER
METAL
LEOGE
fuASHIre
@NTIN@US
CLEAT
SET
REGLET
LEDGE
CAP
FLASHING
MffAL
IN
FLASHING
FOR
THICK
WALL
METAL
OR
ROOF
CORNICE
MATERIAL
AND
DESIGN
CORNICE
METAL
FLAEHING
ROOF
CORNICE
WITH
CORNICE
FLASHTNG
CAP
FLAAHING
WITH
CORNICE
FUGHING
LEOOE
CAP
ANO RTC|EIVER
FLASHING
Michael Scott Rudden; The Stephens Ass@iates p.C.-Archilects:
Albanv. New york
FLASHING
Woll-lo-Roofond Woll-to-WollFloshing
440
{
o
RECEIVCR
SH I NGLE
MtN
,'t*'?;t::-
z
5
l.- rt\ -
t
AND
CAP
BASE
ASHI NG
WIT
SECURED
aTS. 12- O. C
APRON
FLASHINO
WHER
ROOF
BLOPEE
FROM
WALL
PITCHEO
ROOF
\MITH
vr/ALL
/ .'/" / t I
,.t
/
CLEATS
2'-O-
COMBINATION
ANO
COPING
SECURE
sTRrP
NEW
oLo
NEW
WALL
HIG|HER
\^/ALL
TO
rO
Mer^t coA2
O.C.
BASE
CLINCH
O.C.
NEW
OLO
THAN
OLO
FLA6HINO
BABE
coMBlNATloN
BASE
AND
, l;
i I=
RUNNER
OF
FLASHING
,/'
,.t
PIECES
6EPARATE
FLAEHINC]
BAEE
WALL
WALL
WALL
FLASHING
NOTE
Through mll flashing not rrcommended in eanhquake
ar6s.
Michael Scott Rudden;The StephensAssmaatesP.C.-Architects; Albany,New York
FLASHING
LOWER
THAN
COPING
FLASHINo
SHEATHI
i fts
ul3
NG
STRUdURE
VARIES
WALL
VARIES
FINISH
MATERIAL
THROUGH
WAU
CAP
RECEIVER
FLASHING
E(ff
r,Zj*
e4i*
EXTENO
UP
2"
BTHIND
SHEATHTNG
ON
SOLIO
ELOCKING
IF
BUILDING
APER
NOT
USEO
-(f,oE
THROUGH
WALL
CAP
RECEIVER
BASE
FLASH
CANT
ING
CAP
REC)EIVER
CAP
FLASHING
&SE
FLASHING
CANT
STRIP
1
:
STEP
FLASHING
SHOWN
DOTTED.
USEO
WHEN
FLASHING
tS
NOT
R IBBEO
OR
N
IS
eM ossto
SEAL
TOP
OF BASE
FLASHING
WITH
FABRIC:
AND
MASTIC.
FASTEN
STRIP
ILT - UP
BUILT-UP
ROOFI
NG
ROOFING
FLASHING
FLASHI
FIRE
WALL
vl/ALL
FRAME
MASONRY
COPING
NG
\^/ALL
VARIES
COPING
VARIES
DIMENSION
VARIES
MATERIAL
vaRtes
ELASTOMERI
SEALANT
T#IOUGH
WALL
CAP
RECEIVER
c:
METAL
STANOING
SEAM
PARAPET
LINER
ANGLE
CLAMPING
'
BAR
WITH
SLOTTED
ANCHOR
HOLES
CLEAT
AT
STANOING
SEAM
EXPANSION
CAP
FLASHING
EIASE
FLASHING
AAST
FLASHI NG
wooo
NAILERS
CAST
IN
PLACE
CONC.
r^/ALL
HIGH
PARAPET
FLASHTNG
pARApET
HIGH
wtrH
utNlNo-
COPINci
VARIES
THROUGH
WALL
CAP
RECEIVER
AP
CAP
FLASHING
ASPHALT
SURFAc)ES
BAS
WALL
FLASHING
PRIMER
MATERIAL
ALTERNATE
MEMBRANE.
SLIP
SHEET
I-O\^/
PARAPET
{CLIP
TO
PREVENT
WINO
UPLIFT)
FUSHING
Nc)NNAILA|LE
VARIES
TERMINATION
OF
ROOF
LEAVE
ORY
TO
PROVIC)E
BEHIND
BASE
FLASHING
4OPTIC)NAL
STRIffiNG
FLASHING
OVER
JOINTS
FLAAHING'
BUILTVARIES
GENERALNOTES
1. Select flashing rhat is llexible for molding to flashing
suppons and that can withstand expected thermal,
wind, and structural movement. provide exmnsion
joints in place oI flashing as requiredby conditions.
2. Consult manulacturer's literature for choice of flashrogmaterialsand details.
3. Avoid shafp beods in bituminous base flashings.Use
cant strips with 45o maximumbeno.
4. Provisiontor differentialmovementbetwem r@f deck
and wall is recommended.
5. A ribbed of embossedpattern should be used for all
through wall flashing. Through wall ftashing is not
recommendedfor earthquakesreas.
6. Baseflashing shouldextend I to 12 in. sbove highest
anticipated waterline. Metal counterllashing should
lap base tlashingby ar least 4 in. Lap all verticll pints.
c)N
UP
I
ROOF
COM
POSITION
( NUM}ER
OF
WOOO
FIBER
{ NUMER
BASE
PLIES
OF
BASE
OF
PLIES
FLASHING
VARIES
I
NAILER
OR
WOOO
CANT
STRIP
TYPICAL
BASE
FLASHING
MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssciates p.C._Architects;Albanv.

New york
FLASHING
442
Chimney Flqshing
--..
R-----
GIMNEY
'H"',iE5'?Fo"33I#'lJ-S'"'
- PAN
eTEPPEO
FLAEHING
RECOMMENDEO
RUBALE.
STdE,
MATERiAL.
FLASHING
WALL
THROUG)H
AT
FLAGHING
RIDGE
\/VITH CRICKET
LOCK
G
EUILT
POROUS
ANY
CHIMNCYS
FOR
ANO
ASHLAR,
TURNUP
SOLDER
ff-+
l-
SEAM
SOLDERD
SOLDER
CRICKET
ALTERNATE
ONE-PIECE
CRICKET
CRICKET
LINING-==
FLUE
4' MtN.
APRON
gECTION
A- A
NOTE
WHEN
@ DMENSTfl
(B) OIMENSION
EXCEEOS
12"
THAN
oniareR
m
6THROUGH
USE
STEPPED-PAN
FLASHING
WALL
SOLDER
CAP
TO
PAN
CHIMNEY
NOTE
MICK
SHOWN
N OTAIL. BUT
VARIES
MATERI4
FLASHING
CAP
FLASHTNG
COVERS
s%iSl#El:#S"
BASE
MrN
CLEATS
ALTERNATE
FLAAHING
ONE'PIECE
FLASHING
t2
4'
APRON
FLASHING
FLASHED
ARE
OF CHIMNEY
SIOES
FLASHING
PIECES
OF BAS
GING
COURSE
EACH
WITH
INSTALLED
ErcE
THE
UPPER
OF $INGLES.
FLASHING
G
PIECE
OF EACH
EACH
2"ABOVE
EXTEND
SrcULO
oHi.'?H"^
S.3''5.'\2P
F33E=8
FGMTNG
stNaEs
Ei,rrs
or rHE
0.c
FLSING
BAs
i-sl
Neir
cffisE.
VUST EXTENO UP THE WALL Arc
BAAE
FLAT
PAN
THROUGH
\^/ALL FLAHING)
THE
ROOF
MIN,
OF
4''
Floshingqt RoofPenetrotions
MIN.
LAP
2"
VENT
PIFE
INSIOE
PIPE
YENT
VARIES
DIAT'ETER
IN
SET
HAROENI
SEALANT
NON_
NG
r/4
t" x
BAND
DRAW
METAL
$LOEREO
SEAM
LAP
METAL
OAM
WEIGHT
MATERIAL
OF
SAME
AS
FOR
ROOF
PENETRATIONS
STRIPPING
STR
FASTEN
FLANGE
TO
OECK
METAL
VENT
PITCH
HOOO
WEIGHT
SAMI
MATERIAL
AS
FOR
ROOF
PENETRATION
OF
PITCH
IPPING
FASTEN
ruANGE
TO DECK
OAM
PIPE
PIPE
FLAGPOLEI
AND
TALL
SIZE
VARIES
P|PE6
ROOF
RELIEF
ATTAC;HMENTS
STRUCTURAL
WITH
WEATHERSEAL
WASHERS
METAL
NEOPRENE
COPING
STRUCTURAL
THROUGH
STR
STUB
COLUMN
ATTACHED
TO
STRUCTURAL
FUTURE
STRIP
WITH
ROOF
SECTION
OECK
WELD
PLATE
WATERTIGH
T
PAD
2 PLY
MEMBRANE
IN
FLASHING
CEMENT
TURNED
OOWN
OVER
CLINCH
24^
O.C.
WASHERS
\/ENT
2-
CURA
SEAL
TOP
OF BASE
FLASHING
WITH
FABRIC
TAPE
ANO
MASTIC
OR
FASTTNERS
WEATHERSEAL
&6T
FLASHING
IPPING
TREATEO
WOOD
NAILER
SURROUNOING
COLUMN
FRAMING
COLUMNS.
SIGN
SUPPORTS,
METAL
PAN
SET
BITUMEN
ANO
ANO
STEEL
AruCUES
IN
FILLED
STRAINER
WITH
Hc)T BITUMEN
OR PLASTIC
CEMENT
1"1
TWO
SET
FLASHING
CLAMP
ANO
GRAVEL
STOP
FELT
SHEETS
IN BITUMEN
3_ t-
t2
DI MENSTO
2'MIN
FELT
NS
OEVICE
STRIPPING.
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
FELT
STRIFING
STEEL
r'\
-A
DECK
FOR
WOOO
OECKS
FILL
WITH
CEMENT
MORTAR
POURING
BITUMEN
I" DEEP
BEFORE
OECK
CLAMP
{ OPTIONAL
}
NOTE
Whenwer posible iloid the us of pitch pakets in
filor of curbs with bce and cap flashing around the
penetrating member.
NOTE
To obtain proper drainage,roof drains should be lo,
cated at points of the lowest expcted deflction in
roof drck.
PITCH
ROOF
POCKET
CONCRETE
ox rc"
FLASHING
FLASHING
ROOF
LEAO
FLANGE
CEMENT
IN
DRAIN
Michael Scott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesp.C.-Architecrs; Albany,New york
FLASHING
443
Ridge ond Vqlley Floshing
444
CONTINUOUS
STR
DOWN
TO
BHIN6LEE
CONTINUOUS
DOWN
STRIP
HOLO
METAL
IN ROOF
AT CHANGE
FLAEHING
HOLD
IP
MATERIAL
FOR MIN
WT SEE
"ROOFrg
"ROOF
e,,
IN TABLE ON
AS AT
..RIOGESHtE'IN
TABLE
ON
ANOTHER
CLEATS
PAGE
,'*"" =r^,"/
SHINGLES
coNotTtoN
a
coNDtTtoN
coNolrlol
xore,:
Shingle material varies. Flashing nailed to sheating 8" o.c.
FLABHINO
OF
IN ALOPE
BREAK
OF
2'-O'O.C
PROVIOE
I,."V.,CRIMP
FOR
SLOPES
LESS
THAN
6/12
LLEY
ROOFE
AHINGLE
SCREW
PRENE
WIIH
NEOWASHER
MATERIAL
SHINGLE
VARIES
f"'v"cRrMP
TS2-OO.
CONCEALED
RIOOE
EXPOtEO
FLAIHING
RIDGE
NOTE
NOTE
Ridge tlashing lormed in l0' lengrhs and lapped

4". Flashing is nailed to sheathing after shingles
are installed. then flashing is covered with ridge
sfiingle!
Ridg flashing formed in

lapped 4".
FLAAHING
'10'
VALLEY
FLASHING
lengths and
UNEQUAL
OPEN
gLOPEE
VALLEY
FLAEHINO
1A..FOR
6/12
OR
SLOPES
MORE
SLOPES
24"FOR
THAN
LESS
6/12
VALLEY
FLAS H ING
PIECES
SEPARATE
FLAqING
G
AT
INSTTLEO
EACH
COURSE
OF gINEES
FOR
MIN.
,.VALLEY..
ON
6ECTION
ROOF
EDGE
FLAAHING
SEE
TA6LE
PAGE
cRogg
A-A
CONCEALEO
VALLEY
MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesP.C-Architects: Albanv,New York
FLASHING
WT
IN
ANOTHER
FLAAHING
eEcTroN
I/16' NEOPREM
t6 02. coPPER
.OI5 TO 40 LB. PAINTEO
TERNE
24 GA. GAL. IRON
A waler table is a ledge or slight prolection of masonry.

wooo or other construction on the outside of a toundatio;
wail, olust above. lt p.otects the toundation from
rain bv
rnrowrng thF waler awav from the wall. ln lhe architectur;l
nrerarcny ot a butldtng form, the water table forms
the transrronar xnebetween the base and middle secltons.
A water
ro as an oflst when the base plane
:1?g_l: jul9""d
pro,ects
out trom the upper Dlane.
SHEATHING
MASONRY
ANCHOR
SPECIAL
SHAPES
WATER
BRICK
TO FORM
TABLE
METAL
FUSHING
FILL WITH
MORTAR
WEEP
HOLES
BRICK ROWLOCK WATER TABLE
GRADE
BRICK STRETCHER WATER TABLE
BRICK WATER TABLE
BRICK VENEER
BRICX
METAL
FLASiHING
FkBFS
Eh"""J.",ilf5^"i3,1,"c LEs wIr H
BUILDING
PAPER -SHEATHING
STEEL SHELF
ANGLE
WITH
EXPANSION
8.1f,Ts"*a
SHAKE
SHINGLES
BLOCKED OUT
TO FORM
WATER TAAE
STONE
WATER TABLE
DISC ANO
ROO ANCHOR
FLOOR
JOTST _
BLOCKING
CROWN
MOLOING
CMU BACKUP
STONE
VENEER
METAL
FUSHING
CMU
FOUNDATION
WEEP HOLES
_
AT JOINTS
EXTERIOR
INSULATION
AND
FTNISH
SYSTEM
BRICK VENEER WITH STONE WATER TAALE
r/2" FURR|NG
FASTENEO
TO
SHEATHING
STONE
VENEER
BUILDING
CMU BACKUP
SHEATHING
RIGIO
INSULATION
BLOCKEO.OUT
SHAKE SHINGLES
OISC AND
ROD ANCHOR
MffAL
FGSHING
STONE
WATER TAELE
2X6WOOD
WATER TABLE
METAL
FUSHING
HOOK
ANCHOR
METAL
FUSHING
CMU
FOUNDATION
STUCCO
TROWELED
STONE VENEER WITH STONE WATER TABLE
EXTERIOR
VENEER
MASONRY VENEER
STRAIGHT
SIOTNG
FLUSH
WITH
FOUNDATION
WOOD SIDING
RichardJ. Vituilo,AtA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvilte.Maryland
FLASHING
BoseCourseond DoorThresholdFlos
M6
BASE COURSE
F LASHING
TURNUP
WHERE NO
FINISH USED
/:
EXT ERIOR
FACE OF WALL
t
N
PAVING
----{f -1
I
ASE
COURSE
FLASHING
MIN.WC)C'O
MAKE
BONO
WITH
WATERMATERIAL
EIAAE
I
r2.,
COURSE
RESISTANT
AT
PAVING
ANO
\NALL
FLC)OR
ANO
STRUCTURE
WALL
FOUrcA.l'R
CONC.
SiTRUCTURE
FLOC)R
M|N:WOo'D
WALL
FOUNOATION
MASONRY
COUReE
BASE
AT
FLOOR
ANO
CONSTRUCTION
ii::*;
MAKE
AOND
MAKE
WITH
BASE COURSE
FLASHING
BOND
WATER-
RESISTANT
MATERIAL
E|AEIE COUREE
AT
SILL
OF
MAsONRY
CONsTRUCTION
WATER RSISTAN
BASE
COUFIG|E AT
6ILL
OF
FRAME
WITH
AONO
MAKE
RESISTANT
WATERMATIRIAL
VARIES
FINISH
MASONRY
VENEIR
BUILOING
PAPER
HOLES
WEEP
PROVIOE
WYTHE
IN EXTERIOR
LC,C;ATEO
waLL
cavtTY
oF
AEOVE
TMMEt)TATELY
FLASHING'
ANO
LEOGES
2',- O' O. C,
SPACEO
COURSE
BASE
FLASHING
BASE
COURSE
STRUCTURE
FLOOR
A" MIN. WOOD
WALL
FOUNDATION
ANO
CONC.
STRUCTURE
FL@R
I2.' MIN- WOOD
WALL
FOUNDATION
MASONRY
AND
AT
BAEE COURSE
VENEER
MAsONRY
MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesP C.-Architects; Albany,New York
FLASHING
AT
BAEE
COURSE
BUILT- UP ROOF
SILL
CONsTRUCTION
Spqndrel Ponel Flqshing
HEAO
FLASHING
coNorTtoN
AT
EENING
No. I
coNotTtoN
No.2
coNorTroN
I
R
;l
SPANOREL
WATER
^t='=to*t
No. 3
M,
; \
>l
N,
\h-1
-+-|
I
(--
u______.1
Txnouox
/-REGLET
VARI
I
I
vanres
w+L
Nr
MIN.
FLASHING
:rrursx
Y
+--
TYPE
ES
o
I
F
l'
LI
L il-r,
./
tl
WEP
HOLES
ll
II
I
I
I
MAY tE EXTENOED
FOR
HEAO
FLASHING
AT
OPENING
coNotTtoN
ft
No- 4
WEEP
-\
FtNtsH
SPAN OREL
FLASHING
OPEN
JOIST
WE
vantrs
I
Nor E I O E T A I L S
AT
JUNCTIoN
FLA S H I N G
WITH
MULLIONS
M E N IBERS
AS
WELL
AS
FLA 3 H I N G
PROFILE
OEPNO
CUF TAIN
WALL
DESIGN
coNorTtoN
i2-o-
,Jn \----:,"*:n*
-ta
\
SPANOREL
FLASH
I NG
oF
ANO
FRAM
ING
ON
No.5
HOLES
o.c
OPENING
VARIES
| .*,=t
lrvaRlES\
HEAD
FLASHING
i)
L-J-
t
l
WEEP
SILL
FLASH
HOLES
I NG
0
,.o
x<
MATERIAL
VARI ES
OPENING
VAR IES
[,.FlNlSH
lvaRrES
IO
oz
n0
IO
FINISH
CONOITION
VARIES
NO.
"
Michaei Scoft Rudden; The Stephens Ass@iates P.C.-Architectsj
HEAO
FLAEHINO
gILL
FLAEHINO
Albany, New Yo.k
FLASHING
447
Roofond PoropetExponsionJoinls
M8
NUOS
RUN
SHOULO
CONTI
WATERSTOPS
TO
TOP
BUILDING.
OF
FROM
FOOTING
FLOW
4"
IN
LAP
JOINT
DIRECTION
OF
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
INTERSECTION
OF
\^/ALL
APET
AND
ONE
PIECE
VERTICAL
AT WALL
EXPANSION
JOINT
COMrcSITION
'
\
\
I'-6''
FASTENERS
WATERTIGHT
USE
O. C
PLAN
METAL
PLATE
AT
SECTION
PARAPET
SPLICE
EX PANSION
JOINT
METAL
STOP
EXPANSION
JOINT
TRANSITION
AT
COPER
FUSHING.
TO
$LOER
VERTICAL
WATERSTOPS
GR AVEL
ANO
FASCIA
EAVE
EXPANSION
JOINT
VERTICAL
COPING
SECTION
AT
PARAPET
FASTEN
I'-6'O.C.
USE
WATERTIGHT
WASHERS
COMPOSITION
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
INTERSECTTON
CTA Architects Engineers; Billings, Montana
FLASHING
OF
WALL
ANO
FLASHING
PARAPET
EXPANSION
AND
WALL
JOINT
AT
ROOF
NEOPRENE
BELLOWS
NAIL
WITH
NAILS
A"
O.C.
SPEC)IAL
PROVIDED
INSULATION
ROOFER'S
CEMENT
ROOF
INSULATION
cuRa
FLANGe
FASTEN
r.-6,. o.c.
USE WATERTIGHT
WASHERS
APPLY
RC)OFER'S
CEMENT
TO
BOTH
SIOES
OF
TOP
OF
BASE
FLASHING
BEFORE
INSTALLING
ROOF
expeF-sroll
OECK
TJ()INT
FACTC)RY
NEOPR ENE
BELLOWS
2-PLY
FELT
STRIPPING
W)4
NEOPRENE
SPLTCE
COVERS
METAL
FLANGE
NA|L 4'O.C.
PIT
ROOFER'S
UNDER
COMPOSITION
FLASH
I NG
FASTEN
t'-5.' o. c:
USE WATERTTGHT
WASHERS
CEMENT
METAL
SLOPEO
WOC'D
NAILEO TO ONE
SIDE OF JOINT
ORY
OR
2 X 6 NA'LER
SLOPEO
FELT
PITCH
ENVELOPE
OAM
JOI NT
I8" TAPERED
EOGE
STRTP
STRATGHT rlawEE
exprNsroN
uorFT
COVER
AT
PIECE
\^/ALL
NOTE: SLoPE
CURB
TO NAILER
AT
2-PLY
OVER
FELT
METAL
STRI
PPI NG
FLANGE
NATLS
FASCIA
STOP
4,,
O.C
GRAVEL
MIN.
GAUGE
16 OZ
COPPER
22
GAUGE
GA LVAN 'ZE O
rRoN, o.oso
IN.
ALUMINUM
ORY
TAPER EO
EDGE
STRIPS
2x6-NAILER
STRATGHT Fl-aNoE
ENVELoPE
,/
NOTE: ROC)FING
EXTENOS
UP
TAPEREO
EOGE
STRIPS
AND
BENEATH
FLANGE
ANO
ORY
ENVELoPE
AT-EEFEL-=?EF
CTAArchirectsngineers;Billings.Montana
cuRB
FLANGe
ar
cnlvel
sioe
BUrLoING
ex paNsJtoN_.lor NTs
FLASHING
Metql Coping ond GrovelS!gP!
450
MINIMUM GAUGES FOR GRAVEL STOP_FASCIA
RECOMMENDED
PLY'FEL]
9,. WIDE STRIP'IN
SET IN ROOF CEMENT
] 6'' WIDE ORGANIC

FELT ENVELOPE
6EDGE FUSHING
AEYONO END OF
EDGE, SET
TAPERED
IN HOT ASPHALT
D (MAX)
(tN.)
GALVANIZED
(GAUGE)
ZINC
STEEL
ALLOY
(rN.)
STAINLESS
(GAUGE)
STEEL
STOP.
GRAVEL
IN
SKT FLANGE
FULL BED OF
ROOF CEMENT
BUR
MEMBRANE
RECOMMENDED
WIDTH
flN.)
OF COPING
MINIMUM GAUGES FOR COPING

GALVANIZED
(GAUGE)
TOP
STEEL
STAINLESS
(GA,UGE)
STEEL
24
ALUMINUM
(tN.)
(oz.')
o.232
26
to
ROOF
DECK
CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
RIGID
INSULATION
PLY-FELT
TO
BELOW BLOCKING
ROUND OFF
WOOD BLOCKING
OFF EDGE
TAPERED
SELECTION
WOOO BLOCKING
EDGE FLASHING
BASE FLASHING
SET IN
PLY.FELT
ROOF CEMENT
SEALANT
FIBER
ruO-PIECE METAL
COUNTERFLASHING
BASE
CANT
FUSHING
PLY-FELT
STRIP.IN
SET IN ROOF
CEMENT
GALVANIZED
BUR MEMBRANE
BUR MEMBRANE
RIGID
INSULATION
ROOF DECK
GRAVEL
STOP
PARAPET
TRANSITION
SPLICE
GRAVEL
JOINT
STOP
-rySPLICE JOINT
CLEAT
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
GRAVEL
STOP TRANSITION
DETAIL
MrN.Tor/.
,/--rls"
MAX. TYP.
+-+
| |
TpARApETCAp
!r,
,/
SECTION THROUGH
NAIL SPLICE JOINT

CLEAT
AS SHOWT
DO NOT NAIL GRAVEL
STOP ONTO SPLICE
SPLICE
SHOWN
EDGE
coNTfNUoUS BsD
oF SEALANT AT
CENTER-\
SPLICE
SHOWN
JOINT CLEAT
IN PUCE
AT SPLICE
JOINT
l/e" MtN To
CONTINUOUS CLAT
GRAVEL
STOP SPLICE
JOINT
SPLIC JOINT CLAT AT

EACH PARAPET CAP
SECTION, IO' MAX.
PARAPET
CAP SPLICE
VARIES WITH
ROOF SLOPE
STEEL
Stainless steel retains manY of the advantages of other

steel products and yet is generally corrosion resistant. In
addition to resisting corrosion, stainless steel can be lield
soldered so as to accommodate difficult transition and teF
mination conditions- lf the mill finish appearance is not
acceptable. the stainless steel may be field painted atter
installation by using a primer followed by finish painting.
CO PPE R
TYP.
PARAPET CAP
SPLICE JOINT CLEAT AT EACH

GRAVEL STOP SECTION, I O, MAX
STEEL
Galvanized stel flashings should be a minimum ot 24

gauge with a G-90 galvanized coating. Of commonly used
llashing mtals, galvanized stel probably is the most common ahd least expensiv. Although galvanized flashing
metal may be left exposed, generally it is painted to further
orotect the steel from corrosion. Be{ore it is painted, galva
nized metal must bg prepared. Plain galvanized material
chemically etched in the tield is prefe(ed lor surfaces to be
painted. Factory etching, in which the metal is dipped in an
acid bath, tches it on all sides. As a result. exposed edges
often rust. Field etching is prefetred because only the surfacs to be Dainted are etched. After etching, the surface
should be primed and finish painted. prelerably with two
coars.
STAINLESS
'/a" MlN. To
llo'unx
METAL
Galvanized steel is 6asv to solder, low in cost. and easy to

work. All flashing metal transitions and terminations should
be soldered fully for permanent installation; however. this
should not be don at metal flashing joints where movement caused by thermal expansion is expected or at building expansion joints.
/
\colttruuous
CLEAT
SPLICE JOINT
NAIL SPLICE JOINT CLEAT

AS SHOWN- OO NOT NAIL
PARAPET
CAP ONTO
SPLICE JOINT CLEAT
JOINT CLEAT
IN PUCE
AT
OF FLASHING
Each commonly used flashing metal has distinctive characteristics. uses, and limitations. Thickness ol materials is a
function o{ material size, aesthetic consideralibn {preven
tion of oil{anning), and wind uplift due to metal movement
during violent storms.
JOINT
GRAVEL STOP STT IN

FULL BED OF SEALANT
Copper is also among the lifetime materials that are considered maintenance free. It can be soldered and molds very
easily, which makes it adaptable to complicated transitaons
and changes of plane. Since copper can be soldered in the
field, it should be terminated with fully soldred conditions.
The designr should be aware, however. that th runolt
from the metal can stain adioining building materials. CoP
per is generally found to be a softer material than other
flashing metals. Copper has a moderate coafficient oI
expansion in that it is higher than steel and yet less than
alumrnum.
PRIMED METAL FUNGE

ALUMINUM
FUSHING
BASE
CHAMFER
FIBER
CANT
PLY,FELT
Sil
ROOF CEMENT
BUR
IN
MEMBRANE
RIGIO INSUSTION
(AS
SOLDERNELD
PER METAL TYPE)
GRAVEL
STOP
FABRICATION
OUTSIDE
CORNER
ROOF
EDGE DETAIL
Joseph J. Williams. AIA; A"/R/C Associates lnc.; Orlando, Florida
AND ACCESSORIES
ROOFSPECIALTIES
DECK
Aluminum rs among the permanent materials.because lt

corrodes at a slow rate. Aluminum will, however. oxidize
and pit over time, depending on the exposure. Since alumi
num can only be connected by welding, field conditions are
more difticult to accommodate. Although corner conditions
can very often be orelabricated, unusual or difficult changes
of plane may be difficult to properly accommodate in alumr
num. Aluminum also has a high coefficient of expansion
and contraction compared with other flashing metals and
field welding is difficult. Due to the limitations of in-field
tabrications, aluminum is best used on roots oI simple conIigurations and {ew transitions.
Roof,Eove,Attic, qnd Crqwlspoce Ventilqtion

CONTNUOUS
RIDGE
VENT (OPTIONAL) =,--
VENTILATION
GABLE LOUVER
AT EACH END _=---=
SPACE
REQUIREMENTS
TO PREVENT CONDENSATION
TOTAL NET AREA OF
(A)
VENTILATION
DESCRIPTION
REMARKS
a = lVZbU.Unrrormly
distrabuted
ventsat eaves
cerlrngattached to
underside of jojsts)
EXHAUST DUCT
(MUST,NOT
EXHAUST INTO
AnC:
EXTEND
TO OUTSIDE)
451
Vent each joist space at

both ends. Maintain 1 14 in
mrnrmum clear path above
insulation for ventilatron.
a = A./150.Uniformly
distributedvents at eaves
with a continuousridge
venI.
EAW
Attrc
WNT
GAE}LE
ROOF
WITH
UNOCCTJPIED
a = Ar/lb0. At leasttwo
louverson oppositesides
near radgeor one continuous ridge vent. Uniformly
distributedvents at eaves.
ATTIC
CONTINUOUS
RIDGE WM.
Any combination of
gable/hip louvers and/or
ndge vents may be used to
achieve required ventilation
Vent area may be reduced
by anclusionof wind-driven
or mechanical ventilators.
Consult mechanical engineer.
GABLE LOUWR
AT EACH END Hip
VENT SPACE
(MA|MAIN r,A' tN
CLEAR PATH
ABOW
NSUUTION
FROM EAW TO
-- ------7
RDGE,-
space/
INSULANON
a=2V100+4800
Provrde at least one opening

per side, as high as
possible in wall.
Where
L = crawl space/basement
perimeter(linearfeet)
EAW
WNT
GAE}LE
UNDER
WITH
OCCUPIED
ROOF
SPACE
FINISH
FLOOR
VrcR
BARRIER
(1.O PERM. OR LESS)
NOTES
1. A = areaof spaceto be ventilated,in squarefeet.
2. The openingsin insect screeningshould not exced
rA in. (6 mm). The effective net area of ventilationis
OMONAL
CORING
INSUUTION
SHINGLE
ON WM
reduced by screening; consult manufacturers of

screeningmaterialsfor percentageof "free air" flow
reducedby the amount of solid materialin screening.
PRESSURE-TRAED
STOPS, FASENED
VAPOR
BARRIER
(1.O ERM.
OR GSS)
2X WOOD INSUUTION
TO DECK
SHINGLES
ON ROOF
ROOF
SHEAHING
CW
BACK
Tc)
PROVDE
AR
PASSAGE
ON 15+ BUILDING
SHEATHING
,,ir,p'
';Y
.
VArcR BARRTER
Wffi
SLIP-RESTSTANT
SURFACE
RIGID
INSUUTION
MH
SPACE
ABOVE
(1 '/2' MtN.)
Attics andcrawl spacesmust be ventilatedto removemoisture and water vaporthat has enteredthe spacesJromsurrounding air or soil or that has been created by human
activity.Generally,crawl spaces (andbasements)requirea
greater amount of ventilation than an equivalent area ol
attic. The quantityof water vapq dependson the building
type (e.9.,residenca,sch@|. etc.). activity{e.9., bathr@m,
kitchen,etc.), air temperature.and relativehumidity. lf the
temperatureof th wntilated space falls below the dew
point temperature,@ndensationwill mcur wtrich will deteriorate insulation.framing, etc. This can be avoided by
proper dtailingto limit moistur infiltration and increase
ventilationto remv it if it d6s enter the soace.
W@D
TRIM
CONTINUOUS
SCREEN
INSEO
NOTE S
1. Provide ridge vent to complete cavity ventilation detail.
2. Fasteners should be carefully selected and located to
secure insulation, stops, sleepers. sheathing, etc. to
structural tongueandroove deck.
INSULATED TONGUE.AND.GROOVE
ROOF VENTILATION
DETAIL
BARRIER
1%' MlN. CLARNG

AIR PASSAGE
RIDGE VENTS
4'LONG
(AT EACH
2X BLKING
MAERIAL
RA|+R
LOCANON)
R@F
BACK
SHEATHING
FOR
WMNG
TO
BAFFG
BEMEEN
CLJT
2X LEDGER
METAL
ALLOvv
MAY BE NECESSARY
ON LOW.SLOPED
ROOFS
METAL COUMRFUSHING
WtrH PTRFORANC)NS
AT
LOW HGZOMAL
FACE
STOP
BLOCKING
|uSHING
INSU4NON
WIH
1 IA' AIR SPACE
ABOW
VAPOR
BARRIER
VArcR
BARRIER
UNDER
INSUUTION
\EAW
INSULATION
VENT
SLEEPERS,
AT EACH
LOUWRED
EAVE VENT
TONGUE.AND,
GROOE
WOOD DECK
AIR
2X4BLCKINGAT
EACH
RAffER
INSUUTTON
2X W@D
LMATED
AL RIDGE VEM
VENT APPLICATIONS
GENERAL
PAPER
SELF.ADHERING
FOR SHED ROOF AT V\/ALL
1' TO
3- DIA
N OTE
BLOCKING
Insect screenmust be added

to backof tile.
ROVIDE
DIRECTLY
VENT
AND BAFFLE
TNSECT
BEHIND
SCREEN
VtrNT
SLO]
PLW@D
LOUVER
N OTE
Most vents for crawl spaces are set inlo unit masonry (and
are sized accordingly) or conqete. Consult manufacturers.
Metal louvers and vents have integral insect screens.
CRAWL SPACE VENTILATION

MATERIALS
GAE}LE
LOUVER
ROOF LOUVER
CUPOLA
TYPES
DORMER
CIRCUIAR
VENTS
EAVE VENTILATION
STAMPED
E)<TRUC)EC)
STRtpS
OR
VENT
TYPES
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsville.Maryland

Erik K. Beach;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
ROOFSPECIALTIES
AND ACCESSORIES
Metol RoofinqRetrofitfor ProblemoticFlotRoof
452
GENERAL
Structurai metal panels are used in roofing applicalions

when removal of the existing root membrane is too costly
or undesirable. tvletal panel roofs are durable, have g@d
wind and {ire resistance ratings, and require little maintenance. The panels are manufactured erther from steel or
aluminum and are mechanically seamed on the iob site.
Sealants in tape or gel form are used as a gasket between
metal connectjons. The sealant, applied in the female corrugation to make the roof more weathertrght, allows the panels to expand and contract independently ol the insulation
and slructural svstems.
FLAT
ROOF
REMOVAL
EXPENSE
OF REMOVAL
DISrcSAL
OF EXISTING
VIS1BLE
HIGHLY
OVERFLOW
CLOGGED
DRAIN
_.
IMMEDIATELY
EVIDENT
REOUIRES
AND
LEAVE
EXISTING
ROOF
MEMBRANE
IN PLACE
.-.
/_
I
\
PROBLEMATIC
DRANAGE
(FREZING
LEAKS
INTERNAL
DRAINS.
Z-
VR^NS)
Twofan
clips concealed inside the standing seams accommodate thermal exDansion and eliminate the need for tasteners in the tlat pans oI the panel. The top part of the clip
holds the metal panel, while the base of the clip is fastened
to ths structural member. A slot between the two parts of
the clios allows indeoendent movement. The concealed
clip also provides the attachment necessary for wind uplift
ratings.
Z;
ffi^
Structural metal r@fs can be used with slopes as low as r/.

in. per ft but may also be used in a steep slope configuration. The panels are available in a wide variety of colors and
typically have corrosion{esistant coatings.
Before adding the weight of structural metal roof panels to
a building, it is important to verify the load-bearing capacity
of th6 existing roof structure.
EXISTING
REPUCEMENT
ROOFING -
TRAPEZOIDAL
VERTICAL
FULLY
PARTIALLY
CLOSED
FLAT ROOF
RETROFIT
WITH
METAL
PANEL
ROOF
MSAL
NEW GUfrER
INTEGRAL TO
METAL ROOF
SYSTEM
CLOSED
SEAM TYPES FOR METAL

PANELS
MANUFACTURER'S
STANDARD GABLE
PROBLEMATIC
'-
ROOFING
eavE
vENTtuTtoN
EXISTING CAP FUSHING

RAKE
EXISTING
CAVIW
WALL
NOTE
Design sleeper to distribute r@J load adequatelyover the
roof surface.Considercompressibilityof insulationand conBUILDING
SECTION THROUGH
dition of membrane. Provide bearing plates and holddown

clios as necessary.
ROOF SYSTEM
GABLE END
VENTIUNN
IN
PROECTED
SGFT
ADDEO BAE
INSUUTION
TRAPEZOIOAL
TOP
PANEL
END
STRAP
tAP
WITH
EXISTING
VERTICAL
THE
LEG END
LAP WITH
PANEL
FI,ATS
S\ /AGED
SO UPPER
PANEL
FITS INTO
LOWER
GABLE
END WALL
RIDGE CAP FOR METAL ROOFING

PANELS
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC: Washington,D.C.
PaulNimitz:PDNAssociates;BlueSprings,Montana
ROOFSPECIALTIES
AND ACCESSORIES
END LAPS FOR METAL

PANELS
ROOFING
Roofond PoropetExponsionJoinls
. -'
STANDING
z'
,/
./
,./
FASTENER
ENURGED
.r"'..r"r',,r)
,./
/
../
NEOPRENE,
UPPED
AND
SEALED
WITH
WATERPROOF
\loxestw
-\
\
.//
t..,"
SEAM
453
WIft
HOLE
WASHER
BOLT A'
oc
THROUGH
CONTINUOUS
METAL
RECEIVER
COMrcSTION
FUSHING
./
,rt
COUMERFUSHING
METAL
COUNTERFUSHING
LOOSE
LOCK
SEAM
s_-t\
FASENER
WITH WASHER
THROUGH
ENURGED
HOLES
wooD
NAILER
GRAVEL
COVER
CONCRETE
STOP
FORM
LENGG,
PLATE
EXPANSION
JOINT AT GRAVEL
IN
1O'
UP
AND SAL
aaT
STOP
METAL
COMPOSITION
FUSHING
1' LOCK
SEAM
SEE
CLAT
OETAIL
WOOD
NAILER
ri|
LiLr
MtN. 8"
OVE
ROOF
ll
=t
I I
:=----:'L]------i
METAL
COVER
NOTES
1.The minimum recommendedgaugelor the expansion
. joint shown is 24{auge stainlesssteel, 16 oz copper,22gaugegalvanizedsteel, or 0.050 in. aluminum.
2. Expansionjoints allow independent movement of the
root structure.
ROOF EXPANSION
@NCRETE
JOINT
WALL
COUMERFUSHING
OWR
UPANSION
EXPANSION
JOINT
COER
EfENDS
COUMERFUSHTNG
PAST
FOR ROOF
MOVEMEM
EXPANSION
JOINT
UP ANO
SAL
JOIM
AT PARAPET
COUNTERFUSHING
NAILED COMrcSINON
BASE
OWR
FUSiHING
TOP
OF
CONCRETE
MASONRY
WALL
FUSHING
RECEIVER
EXPANSION
COWR,
UP
SEAL
JOINTS
NOTCH
ANO
UP
CURB
CURB
JOINT
AND
-
COUNTERFUSHING.
COMNUOUS
CLEAT
NAILED
TO W@DCOMrcSIION
BASE
FUSHING
W@D
CURB
N OTES
l.The minimum recommended gauge for the expansion
ioint shown is 24{auge stainless steel, 16 oz coppet.22gauge galvanized steel, or 0.050 in. aluminum.
2. Expansion joints allow independent
rool structure.
EXPANSION
JOINT INTERSECTION
ROOF.TO-WALL
EXPANSION
movement
JOINT
SMACNA,Inc.,from the SMACNAArchitecturat

SheetMetatManuat,5th ed..with permission
ValerieEickelberger;RippEteauArchitects, pC; Washington.D.C.
ROOFSPECIALTIES
ANDACCESSORIES
of the
Flqt RoofDroinoge
454
:
,/
--
FGSHING
SOLDERED
CONNECTION
OR
GENERAL
SEALED
The size and number of scuppers should be ca.efully deter

mined to control ponding on roofs- Rectangular shapes con
vev more water (per inch of water depth on the roo{) than
round shapes. The performance of rectangular shape:
aooroxrmates that of a broad{rested weir Standard eqtri
tions for channel fiow are based on test models larger thari
tvprcal roof scuppers. While downspout slzes nolmally are
based on draining a grven area of roof, that flow rate mav
not pass through a scupper that has been sized to have a
cross sectional area equal to the downspout area
CLOSURE
FLANGE
AND
SEAMED
SOLDERED
TO SCUPER
SCUPPER sIZING PROCEDURES

1 Determine the head (H) in inches of water {tYpically 1 in
minimum bv code) at a point 6 tt back from the scupper
opening.
2. Determine the roof drainage area in sq ft {SF).
3. Using .aintall intensity in inches per hour (lPH) trom a
rainfall data table, determine discharge capacrty rn ga
lons oer minute (GPM). GPM = SF of room area x IPH x
0.0104. The'constant is 7.48 gallons per cubic fool
divided by 12 inches per foot divided by 60 manutes per
SEAMED JOINT
BETWEEN
AND
FUNGE
SCUPPER BELOW
MASONRY
FASTENER
ftq
#\
L@K
LOOSE
CONNEfrION
SOLDERED
OR SEALED
CONNECTION
hour:
GPM = {0.0104) IPH x SF
4. Using H and the GPM. find the aggregate scupper lenglh
{L} in rhe scupper capacity table {below).
5. Select enough individual scuppers to satisty the total
GPM requirement and locate them proportionately
LOCK
CONNECTION
FUSHING
SCUPPER
DETAIL
AT PARAPET
WALL
(CONDUCTOR
HEAD SIDE)
CAP FUSHING
FUSHING
FGNGE
AND
SCUPPER
SALED
CLOSURE
FUNGE
SEAMED
AND
4'
HAN
MlN.
MASONRY
FASTENER
(MAY E}E
OMTTED IF
URGEST
S'cUFER
DiMENSION
.
t
/
,./
HEIGfr
DEPENDS
caeacw
ON
or
RMF
DRAINAGE
MOWDED
12')
CONDUCTOR
N OTE
Scupperassembliqs{rom top to bottom (flashingto scup

oer outlet to conductor head) should be overlappedto
ensurethat water will be dkectedaway from the wall.
CANT
STRIP
SCUPPER ASSEMBLY
ELEVATION
NOTES
l.Us overflow scuppers when roof is completely surroundedby parapetsand drainagedependson scuppers
or internaldamage.
O\/ERFLOW
SCUPPER
DETAIL
AT PARAPET
2. Prest concrete panelswith scupprsdo not ned closure flangeson face; all penetrationsshouldbe seated'
WALL
SCUPPER CAPACITY IN GPM*
NOTE
'Basedon the Francisformula:O = 3.33(L'0.2H) Hr5.in which

Q = Flow rate, cubic ft per socond
L = Lengthof scupperopening,ft (shouldbe 4 to 8 times H)
H = Headon scupper.lt {measured6 ft back from openingi
1 GPM = 448.8 CFS
SMACNA, Inc.,from the SMACNA ArchitecturalSheet Metal Manual. sth ed.. with permassron
GraceS. Le;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington.D.C.
ANDACCESSORIES
ROOFSPECIALTIES
Scuppers that empty into a gutter may be integrated with a

roof edge- The scuppers are soldered into a fo.med gravel
stop-fascia system. The suggesled maxrmum scupper
interval is l0 ft. The front rim o.f the gutter must be I In
below the back edge, and it should be below the nailers
used to elevate the roof edge. The drip dge on the fascia
should lap the back edge of the gutter a minimum of 1 in.
The gutter must be free to move behind the fascia.
fing Detoits
BIRD
SCREEN.
4S5
-W|DTHOF
DISCHARGE
OPENiNG
SHOULO
BE
25%
URGER
THAN
ROOF
OPENING
tF ,/..
MESH
SCREEN
IS USED
TNSECT
SCREEN
//SHINGLES
.-
--
ROOF
EXTERNAL
BRACKET
{INTERNAL
BRACKET
MAY BE
USED
IF
THROAT
DIAMETER
ts 12" OR
LESS)
aLuvlNuu
earvaNago
STEEL, OR
PLASTIC ENT
COVER AND
VENT STACK
-METAL
GMSENECK
VNT
ROOF
CURB
BELOW
SHINGLES
/
I
BOLT
NAILER
TO
METAL
N OTE
ROOF VENT IN SLOPED ROOF
Ihis ventilator may be used on a sloped rool
BIRD SCREEN
WIOTH
OF ROOF
OPENING
2"
APPROX
METAL ROOF
CURB. SPOT
MLDED
TO
METAL DECK
RAIN CAP
WND
METAL
DECK
NOTE
GOOSENECK
sKtff
(BEYOND)
21h'
APPROX
GRAVITY VENTILATOR
STRUCTURAL
EOUIPMEM
SUPPORT
BAND
INNER CONE
This ventilator may be used for either intake or exhaust

with gravityflow.
VENTILATOR
2' TO 6.
METAL
RAIN
CAP
SCREEN
WNT
LOOSE
INSUUTION
STACK
AP TO BE
LOWER
THAN TOP
OF ENT
\ STACK
BUCE
(4
REOUIRED)
WATERTIGffi
UMBREtg
WTH SEAUNT
AND DRAW
BAND AT TOP
SHEil
R@F
ROTATING
Mff[
JACK
CLEARANCE
TO UMBREIu
Sff
FUNGE
IN MASTIC:
STRIP
IN WG
NOTE
All sloped partial or full conical shapes should be based on
the same angle (generally30o).
STATIONARY
VENTILATOR
ruO
FLIES OF
FELT: PRIME
FUNGE
BEFORE
NOTE
GRAVITY ROOF
RGID
INSUGTION
VAPOR
OVER
BARRIER
DECK
This detail allows moisture due to leaks. fauttv vaDor barriers, or constructton work to escape lrom the roof svstem.
ROOF RELIEF VENT
. ROOFING
. MATERIAL
IN SUUNT
FLUE
OR OTHER
HIGH
TEMPERATURE
STACK
FASTENERS.
24' O.C.
EUSTOMERIC
SEAUNT
DRAW
OR WELD
UMARELU
STACK
L@SE
BAND
TO
INSUUrcN
SEEL
|uTE,
FASTENED
PPE COLUMN AND BEAM
BELOW AS REOUIRED
N OTES
TO
TAL
1. This detail en be adapled to. other uses. such as siqn

supports.
2. Many roofing manufacturersoffer prefabricatedflashing
p,eces or permit the use of materials other than thos;
shown here for flashing.Spifitions on these oroori_
etarydesignsvary;consultthe manulacturers.
3. Foraccessto areasunderneathequipment,varypjpe column heightas shown in the accompanyingchart.
COLUMN
PIPE
EQUIPMENT
COLUMN
EQUIPMENT
(lN.)
\,r/IDTH
UMBRELU
FASTENERS.
a' o.c.
\-emctNe
MAERIAL
SUPPORT
HEIGHT
COLUMN
(tN.)
HEIGHT
up to
to 36
to
NOTE
BASE
FUSHING,
AS RECOMMENDED
FY MANI 'FAM
JRER
This detail allows tor roof maintenancearoundthe equip

ment or sign. The continuoussuppon, in contrast to the
pornt load of a pipe column support, is preferredfor lighiweight roof systems. Clearancemust be provided for
removaland replacementof roofing and flashingbetwen
parailet
suooorts.
CONTINUOUS
EQUIPMENT
SUPPORT
'P
INSUUTE
VOID FOR
COLD STACKS
SEAL
TOP
G
FUSHTNG
WITH
FABRIC
TAPE
ANO
MASTIC
METAL
WHERE
SLEEW
REOUTRED
N OTE
BASE
FLASHING
FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
a' o.c.
This detail allows the opening to be completed before the

stack as placed. The metal sleeve and lhe clearance necessary will depend on the temperature of the materiat han_
dled by the stack.
FLUE STACK
ROOF PENETRATION
RichardJ. Vtullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville.

Maryland
ROOFSPECIALTIES
AND ACCESSORIES
Speciol RoofingDetoils
456
SHAKES
. MODIFIED BITUMEN
WATERPROOF
SHEET
SIDING
..-
OR
..,- SH]NGLES
PAVERS TO SURROUND
EOUIPMENT FOR
SERVICE ACCESS
MATERIAL
'
ROOF
SURFACE
FASTENtrFS. A5 Ntr'ISSAP,
-..
METAL
METAL
FUSHING
FUSHING
--eawns
.- MECHANIGL
EOUIPMENT
STAIRWAY
N OTE
Root pavers provide a stable walking service on any tlat

roof surfaceand orotect the roof membranefrom wear and
lear. Servicewalkways should follow the most direct route
10equipmentto arcid shortcutsby mainlenancepersonnel.
Consult mechanical engineer about access needed to
mechanicalequiprent.
NOTES
SERVICE
WATERPROOFING
\,YALK\^/AYS
ON ROOFS
ALLOWS
DRANAGE
-
STRIP
WL*EDROOF
ES'
/
DECK-
1. Modifiedbitumen sheet spcifiedto provide self-sealing

aroundfastener.
2. Height of flashing and waterproof sheet depends on local

snow probabilities and codes and on the roof slope.
AT ROOF TRANSITIONS
ADJACENT
BEruEEN
PAWRS
ROOF
CANT
ROOFING
MAERIAL
FOR
30 LB
UPED
2" TO 3'. WP.

(1%'. MtN. tF
FOR
BALLAST
ONL'
RGING
OVER
COMINUOUS
STRIP
OWR
FELT,
12'. MIN
SAL
FASTENERS
rcLYETHYLNE
OR MEMBRANE
PROECTION
SHEET
UNDER
PAWRS
1A'TO
36'. WP
DRAINAGE
UNDER
PAER
BY
INEGRAL
PEDESTALS
'
,
./
PAVER
WTTH
INTEGRAL
POLYETHYLENE
OR MEMB%NE
PROTECTIoN
SHEET
UNDER
PAVERS
PEDESTAL
7' HIGH,
ryP
.
HIGB-DENSIR
POLYETHYLENE
PEDESTALS
WITH
DRAINAGE
SLOTS
UNDERNEATH
,
--
,/
POLYETHYLENE
AR MEMBRANE
PROTECTTON
SAEET
UNDER
PEDEST{S
PAVER
ON
SUPPORT
PEDESTALS
R@F
COMINUOUS
INSIDE
FACE
FUT OR
STANDING
SEAM METAL
ROOF AT
EDGE
DECK
CLilT
OF
GUTER
WALL
HEIGHT
OF
WATERPROOF
A (MrN.)
FRONT
PART
LOCATE
OF
GUfrER
BELOW
RANGE
ICEISNOW
OF SLIDING
2X
SHEET
FASCIA
N OTE
Provide gutters where required to protect building; if not
required, avoid gutters where icing is common.
ICE DAM DETAILING
AT EAVE WITH
GUTTER
NOTE
Ballast pavers arg typically made from
with a norskid toxture on the surface.
BALLAST
ROOF
precast concrete
PROJECTION
SNOMRIfl
SURCHARGE
R@F
PAVERS.
SNOW
ROOF
BUILT{P
RC)ESION
SHEETS
STAGGERED TO CRATE
LEWL WALKING
SURFACE ON DRAINABLE ROOF DECK
2X PRESSURE-MEATED
OR NAruRALLY
DECAY
RESISTANT WOOD DECK
BOffiDS
AND SLEEPERS
ROOF
PROJECTION
W()()D
FLAT
DRIffING
ROOF
METAL
FRAME
RESTS
ON
RAISID
PORTION
OF
R@FING
TEXTURED
METAL GRID
WDTH
VARIES
METAL
MISCELLANEOUS
SURFACES
ON
RMF
SNOWDRIfl
SURCHARGE
ROOF
SNOW
INTERSECTING
FI,AT
ROOF
ADJACENT
Tc)
SLC)PED
BUILDING
PI-ANES
ROOF
NOTES
1. Consult codes for projected local snow heights.
ROOF
ROOF WALKING
SNOW
SLIDING
SURCHARGE
FROM
UPPER
R@F
NONCORROSIVE
FASTENERS
AfrACHED
FROM BELOW,
AS NTCESSARY
PALLET.TYPE
W.ALKWAY
/DECK
LENGTH
TO SUT
ROOF
SNOWDRIffS
SNOW
SLOED
SIZ
OF PALLET
DEFENOS
ON
WEIGHT
OF UNIT
(SHOULD
BE LIGHT
ENOUGH
TO LIil
FOR
REPAIR,
ETC.)
SLOE
MWN
TO
DRAIN
ON
SNOW
SNOW TENDENCIES
RichardJ. Vilullo,AIA: Oak LeafSrudio;Crownsville.

Marvtand
ROOFSPECIALTIES
ANDACCESSORIES
ON BUILDING SURFACES
2. Snow accumulation on roofs is generally unequal due to

wind action. The resulting unequal load distribution might
be aggravated by unequal melting of accumulated snow.
RoofRepoirStrotegies
fu?{1
ff6b
iA
L)c.U
BITUMFN
-'-
457
MOpptNC
_-
PREPARATION
MEMBRANE
ROOF REPAIR
ROOFING
NAILS
WITH
ROOFING
PREPARATION
ASPHALT
COMPLETION
SHINGLE
REPAIR
AREA
OF
REMOVED
souND
suE
C:OVERED
CEMENT
SH|NGLES
PREPARATION
SLATE SHINGLE
MISSING
SUTE
OR
SHINGLE
COMPLETION
REPAIR
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects.pCj Washington.D.C
ROOFSPECIALTIES
AND ACCESSORIES
458
WindUplitt
-
TOP
CHORD
BRACING
(HORTZONTAL
BRACING
OF
TRUSSES
ALSO
USED.
NOT
SHOWN)
2 X 4
RIDGE
LOCATE
BRACE,
WITHIN
6"
OF
RIDGE
e:- 10 .r''
Ms,/_
a '1o. Y
MAX /
/_a
ADHLS.VI
A1 HFAD
BLfrfR
NAIL COWF
HtrP,
TO ? Y 4 NAILeP
Bf I OW
RI COVVT\DID
TOP
UP
ADHESION
TILE
COWR
/-T|LE
2 X 4 NAILER
ON EDGE
)tMETAL
HURRICANE
SMAP
30-LA
AIR
WHIRLING
FLOWS.
OR
VORTICES.
ACCUMUGTE
AT THE
CORNERS
OF
AND
EDGES
PUNES
BUILDING
(REINFORCMENT
AND
OF FRAMING
BUILDING
MATERIALS
HERE)
NECESSARY
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMEM
TIE 8EN
ANACHMEM
OF MATERI{S
IS CRTCAL
AT EAW
TO ROOFING
INTEGRIfr
IN
HIGH WINDS
1O' MASON
TROWEL
FULL OF
WPE M
MORTAR
re'PLW@D
SHEATHING
-
HIP ROOF DESIGN IS

MORE AERODYNAMIC,
REDUCING
DIRECT WND FORCES
PERPENDICUCR
TO WINDWARD
OF BUILDING
PUNES
V\/OOD
RECOMMENDED
FRAME
ROOF
NAILS
SPACED
--______\.
12'O.C.
ROOF
%.
(OR
TRUSS
MIN.
NAILS SPACED
PANEL ENDS
-
SHEATHING
/t
- ------
CODE-RATED
WtrH
GIVNED
OWRUY
BELOW
AND
rcINT
WTH
MORTAR
AND
FINISH TO
MATCH
TILE
SHINGL-ES
NAILS)
EAVE CLOSURE
WITH WEEP HOLE
STRIP.
STARTER
.....-..-
NALED
AND
DETAIL-COMPOSITION
AND ASPHALT
HEAD
ROOFING
HEX
WITH
URGE
SCREW
WASHER
AND
NEOPRENE
GASKET
FASTEN
AT EACH
Eii \
2X ruRLIN
NAILED
To SHEAHTNG
(2'O'
O.C )
IST
After tile roofs are laid up completely, traffic should not be

allowed on roof and no work that creates vibration in fram
ing or roof sheathing should be allowed for 72 hours, mini
mum (24 hours is needed to ensure proper set).
SHINGLES
t-.ji*
$)
EffiUDED
./
CONCRETE
-.1O"
rurr
,/
,/
-//
NAILS:
SEAUNT
APPLIED
AT HOLE
/,
TRIM
2X WMD
NAILED
TO
SHATHING
%" reROR
RW@D
GRADE
SHEATHING
2X BLOCKING AT ACH
PLWOOD
EDGE
-
HIGH v\/IND RESISTANCE
DETAIL-G,A,LVANIZED
GENERAL
Roofingmaterialsare particularlysusceptibleto damage
from wind uplift and debris borne by h gh winds. Contributing to this problem is the use ot inferior rooJingmaterials
and lasteners, substandard workmanship practices, and
poor designchoicgstor areasknown for frequentor potentially severehigh winds. Use of design practicesthat resist
wind uplift and lateral torces can protect the total bui,ding
system from damagedue to high winds and/orhurricanes.
Anchoring framing members to the foundation system,
tying together all traming, and bracing members, particularly roof trusses. are practices that strengthenand brace
the entire building.Only when that has been accomplished
are g@d roofingdesignand details relevant.
WOOD
METAL
30-LA
ROOFING
FELT
rs'PLWOOD
SHEATHING
MORTAR
IS
COMACT
MADE WtrH 3
TILES: HEAD OF
LOWER TILE,
UNDERL@K
SIDE OF DST
TILE UID, AND
UNDERSIDE OF
TILE BEING UID
ROOFING TURNED
OWR RAKE EDGE
SGEWED
THROUGH
TRIM IMO ruRLIN
HANGER
TILE
MASON
TROWEL
lPtr
M MoRlaR
or
,tti
/
,,/
DETAIL_
HIGH WIND RESISTANCE

S TYPE TILE ROOFING
'rtii
,--/
.-'-
GLUED
wH
vrtaL
DRIP, NAIL 4'o.c.
NAILS
GALVNZED
R@FING
Staplesare not recommendedfor any structuralor rooling

fastenings.
SCREW
R@FING
TROWEL
1O' MASON
FULL
OF WPE
M
MORTAR
NAIL HEREj
NAIL
AULK
HOLE
WIH
ASPHALT
SEALER
\--
RmFING
TILE
HOT MOMD
UYER OF ASPHALT
COATING NOT NECESSARY BUT
IN AASENCE OF
RECOMMENDD
HIGH WIND CODE-RATED SHINGLES
HIGH
WIND
(FASTENED
eonldGarl-oNivirn
3OL8
FELT
INSTALLED
6' OC, AT
3O'LB FELT UNDERUYMENT

STARTER STRIP (T s.LB NOT
RECOMMENDED)
GALVANIZED R@FING
AfrACHED
TO ruRLIN
AT EERY
OTHER
DETAIL-
S WPE
RAflER)
RWOOO
DRIP
AT
BED
FOR
MORTAR
POINT
CORAGEi
TO FINISH
ENDS
(PROVIDE
HOLE)
WEEP
WTH LONG DIMENSION ACROSS

JOINTS
SUPPORTS| WRTIAL
METAL
NAILED
4" O.C.
r,./IND RESISTANCE
HIGH
BARREL
TILE ROOFING
DESIGN
ROOFTNG
FELT
/.
THICK BUfr
IILE STACKER
\
METAL
NAILED
DRIP,
AT 4'
O.C
RAffERfRUSS
ROOFING

EXTRUOED CONCRETE
DETAIL-
ROOFING FAILURES IN HIGH

WIND
Some of the main reasons for roofing material failure
caused by high winds are described here:
1. Roof sheathing-lnadequate reinforcement at the edges
causes sheathing to separate from the roof truss or
.after. Wafer b@rd, composite board. oriented strand
board. or structural particleboard used as sheathang does
not provide sufficient wind resistance.
2. Composition shingle and felt underlayment-Use of shingles, attachment adhesives, and/or fasteners not rated
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville, Marvland
ROOFSPECIALTIES
AND ACCESSORIES
numbers,
for highwindsor fastenersusedin insufticient
locations,and/ororientationcan leadto wind damage.
3. Extrudedconcreteor claytile-Poor nailingand/ormortar
connectionsand underlaymentfailure due to lack of
and mortaror mortar
bondingbetweenthe underlayment
and tile can causefailureol the roof. As well, clay tile
may shatterwhen hit with flyingdebris.
4. Sheetmetal-lnadeouatelvadheredand fastenedeave
flashing,drips,and metalgravelstopscancausefailure.
Gutterond DownspoutSizing
GUTTER DESIGN
Designfor guttersanddownspouts
for buildings
depends
NOTES
1. Most gutters are run level for appearance. However, a
slope of r/16 in. per foot is desirable as a minimum for
drarnage.
on the following factors:

1. Design area of the roof (total rool area x pitch factorl.'
2. Rainfallintensity for the geographic area.
3. Length of guter and roof area per downspout.
For rectangular gutters, use the rectangular gutter sizing
graph on this page to determine size. Choose the depth/
width ratio based on the proportions of the gutter desired.
st@k availability, or other relevant tactors. The ratio ot
depth ro width must be known before the actual design
width can be determined. For semicircular gutters, first size
the downspout from the downspout tables, then size the
gutter one inch larger in diameter. For irregularly shaped
gutters. determine an equivalent rectangular size and use
the rectangular gutter sizing method
il
459
2. For residential work, allow 100 sq ft ot design roof area

per one sq in. of downspout.
'leader'
'conductor'
3. The terms
and
have the same meaning as doMspout.
DOWNSPOUT
"1j-,r.
CAPACITY
il It
--1
tl
fl-
.II
1
ti f1
/r
9\'
o{
NOTE
NOTE
This map shows hourly rainfall

intensity in inches per hour for fiveflinute
periods to be expected once in '10years.
Ntrmally, this is adequate for design, but
some storms have b@n twice as intense in
some areas-See lmal r4ords.
A roof that is level up to a 3 in. per foot slope is considered

'flat'
a
roof and has a pitch factor of 1.0. When a rool is
sloped greater than 3 in. per foot, neither a'plan area'nor
'actual
an
ara' should be used to siz6 drainaoe since the
pitch affects the area in two ways, by increasi;g the actual
area and by affecting the speed ol the runoff. Instead. multiply the plan area (A x B) by the tactor shown in the chart
above to obtain the design area.
RAINFALL INTENSITY MAP

WIDTH OF RECTANGULAR
RAINFALL INTENSITIES
GUTTERS FOR GIVEN ROOF AREAS AND
DESIGN
AREAS
DOWNSPOUT
FOR PITCHEO
ROOFS
SIZES
o.50
".6'
t'-
Drs
-u
o.rc
o.ao
z4a
o.ao
t-:t)
6./ |
t.o
t
F
I
F
I
q
1.25
l
l_$
.C
1.75
2.@
td
7
aoQooo9e9PSohoooo
oodoFdsoî-:
ON
lA
= RAINFALL
INTENSITY
SAMPLE
GUTTER
PROBLEM
8g
2.25
2.50
X AREA
L = LENGTH
OF
GUTTER
IN
FEET
SIZING
A New York City buildingwith a tootprint of 120 ft x 30 ft

needs a gutter system. The buildinghas a flat roof with a
raisedr@f edge on thr@ sides;a gutter is to be locatedon
one of the 12Gft sides. So each gutter section will be no
more than 50 ft, three doMsoouts will be used with two
gutter expansionjoints. The area to be drainedby each4G
ft section gutter is 1200 sq ft. The rainfallintensityaccording to lhe map is 6 in.. and the ratioof gutter depthto width
is 0.75. On the chart above.find the venical line representing L = 40. Proceedverticallyalong this line to its intersection with the oblique line representingM = 0.75. Movo
horizontallyto the left to intersect the vrtil line repre-
senting lA = 7200. The point of intersection occurs

between the oblique line representinggutter widths of 5
and 6 in. With a requiredgutter width of 6 in. and a depthtqwidth {M) ratio oI 0.75, calculatethe depth of the gutter
by multiplyingthe width {6 in.) by M (0.75)to calculatethe
gutter depth at 4 |4 in.
Lawence W. Cobb; Columbia,South Carolina
GUTTERS
AND DOWNSPOUTS
Guttersqnd Downspouts
460
/-/
|
I
4" TO lO'
AASKET
STRAINER
--ji',, 1
i*''
|
3"roro
TYP
| "i
-_=.t_
|r
t____l
ffiflv
*V
OUILET
ELBOWS
AX
\.>
SCREEN
I\_-/ rl
r
l __/
CONDUCTOR
HEAD
(PROVIOE
ONE IF
DOWNSPOUT
IS OVER
40,LONG)
GUNER
HANGER
;\
WALL BRACKf
(5'O" O.C.. MAX )
[l
(ALSO
DOWNSPOUT
LEADER .oR
coNoucToR)
l=l;
t/tl
WALL BRACKET
L____f
TYPICAL
t_-__i
stzEs
GUTTER
Fil
tt
OR SHOE
SPLASH
BLOCX
ll
1/2"r cLEARANcE,
GUTTER PLACEMENT
HANGER
IN SNOW ZONES
N OTES
1. Formedand extrudeddownspout sizesare 3 x 4 to 6 x 6:

roundsizesare 3, 4, or 5 inin diameter.(Extrudeddownspoutsare for heaw traffic.)
2. Generally.space downspouts a minimum of 20 ft and a
maximumot 50 ft apart.
3. A downspoulof 7 sq in. minimum should be used,
exceptfor canopiesor small porches.
4. Corrugatedshapesresist breakagedue to freezingbetler
than straightprofiles.
5. Elbows are available in 4G, 6U, 1+, and godegree
angles.
DOWNSPOUT
SHAPES
l.Gutter hangers are normally spaced 3 ft on center

Reduce spacing to 1 tt 6 in. o.c. where snow and ice are
orevalent.
2. Spike and terrule hangers are not recommended if girth
'l
is greater than 5 in.
3. Hangers are available in many sizes, shapes, and materi
als and are matched to the design of the gutter used
Consult manulaclurers' design manuals.
GUTTER HANGERS
NOTES
LEAF GUARD
AND
METAL
STRAPS
aT 30" o.c
^
\
SNOW GUARD
BONOM
SHINGLE
UPPING
GUARD
EDGE OF
OVER.
SNOW
SNOW GUARO
N OTES
1. Gutters should be placed below the slope line so snow
and ice can slide clear. A steeper pitch requires less
clearance.
SUPPORT
BRACKET
SUPPORT
BRACKET
CONCEALED
ORAINAGE
(OPTIONAL)
CONCEALED
BRACKET
ICE PLANE
N OTES
TYPICAL
stzEs
'.7
GUTTER BRACKET
oR STRAP STZES (lN.)
.
K
l<^x
PARTS OF A GUTTER/DOWNSPOUT
SYSTEM
___il
n
CORRUGATEO
ELBOW
FASTENERS
(TOP AND
BOnOM)
GUTTER
2. Snow guards are installed on roofs to protect gutters

from snow slides and snow overloading. They hold the
snow in place evenly over the entire roo{, allowing it to
melt gradually jnto lhe gutter system. They also help prevent snow from collecting over the eaves, where it may
thaw and refreeze, potentially causing damage.
3. Snow guard placement depends on the root slope, local
snow conditions, the insulation at the roof below, and
the length of the rafters. Snow guards typically are staggered on the roof, with the first row starting 2 ft lrom the
eave.
GUTTER
Jones/Richards and Associates; Ogden, Utah

Lawrence W. Cobb: Columbia, South Carolina
GUTTERS
AND DOWNSPOUTS
PROTECTION
1. Continuousgutters may be formed at the installationsite

with cold lorming equipment,thus eliminatingjoints in
long runs of gutter.
2. Guttersand downspoutsare availablein aluminum,galvanizedsteel, copper,and stainlsssteel. Consultmanufacturersfor custom materials.
3. Girth is the width of the sheet metal from which a gutter
is fabricated.
4. Although all joining methods are applicableto most gutter shapes,lap ioints are more commonly used. Seal all
,oints with mastic or by soldering.Lock, slip, or lap joints
do not orovidefor exDansion.
jointsshouldbe usedon all straightruns over
5. Expansion
40 ft. In a 1o-ft sectionof gutterthat will undergoa 100degreetemperaturechange,Iinearexpansionwill follow
thesecoefficientsof expansion
{CE)andmovements:
Aluminumr
CE-.00128;movement-.15in.
Copper
CE-.00093: movement-.1'l in
Galvanized steel: CE-.0065; movement-.08 in.
6. Always keep the front of the gutter ,{ in. lower than the
back.
7. Use a minimum width oI 4 in. except for canopies and
small porches. The minimum ratio of depth to width
should be 3 to 4.
8. Many custom shapes for gutters and downspouts are
available; consult manufacturers' design manuals. See
the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
(SMACNA) Architectural
National Association
Sheet
Metal Manual to( gutter sizing and details.
Scuppersond ConductorHeods
CAP
WINO UPLIN
PREVENTION
CLIP AT 4'
O'' O C. MAX
OPTIONAL
CAP FUSHING
OVER FUSHING
FUNGE
(USE IF SCUPPER
FUNGE
IS AAOVE PARAPET
---_---\
WALL CAP FUSHING)
PROVIDE SEAUNT OR LET

TOP INTO MASONRY JOINT
FUSHING
461
CONTINUOUS
PARAPET
WALL CAP FUSHING

THROUGH WALL
CAP
RECEIVER
GRAVEL STOP
MASONRY
FASTENER
SEAMED
JOINT
BEruEEN
FUNGE ANO
SCUPPER
BELOW
CANT
CONDUCTOR
HEAO
SRIP
GRAVEL
SCUPPER FUNGE SEAMEO

ANO SOLDERED (WELDED
IF ALUMINUM} TO SCUPPER
GRAVEL STOP FASTENED

TO FLOOR OF SCUPPER
SEALANT AT JOINT
MEMBRANE
BASE
(SEAL TOP
FLASHING
WITH FABRIC ANO MASTIC
AND FASTEN
TO WALL)
ROOF MEMBRANE
SCUPPER DETAIL AT PARAPET WALL (CONDUCTOR

Sfl TOP OF
CONDUCTOR
HEAO I " BELOW
SCUPPER
OPENING LEVEL
IF OVERFLOW
OPENING IS
NOT USEO
OPTIONAL
REMOVABLE
SCREEN
OPTIONAL
OVERFLOW
OPENING
HEAD SIDE)
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT PARAPET
WALL
(ROOF
SIDE)
N OTES
PROVIDE
SEAUNT
l.Overflow openings are recommended in hea\ry icing

areas and for drains that may become plugged with
leavesor other debris.Checkl@al @des tor elevationof
overflow opening.
2. Conductorheads and downspouts should be fabricated
of the same material.Rommended minimum for construction of conductor heads is 24 gauge galwnized
steel, 0.032 in. aluminum. 16 oz. coppr, or 26 gauge
stainlesssteel.
3. Edgesof conductorheadmust be suitablystiff, basedon
dimensional
characteristics.
OR
Lfl rNTo
\ MASoNRY
JOINT
FUNGE
SEAMED AND
SOLDERED TO
SCUPPER
SCUPPER
CONDUCTOR HEAD TOP TILTED

OOWN FOR MAXIMUM OVERFLOW
CAPACITY {CHECK LOCAL COOES
DIVERTER
NOTE
I
I
7
SHEET
SPOUT
OF
ul
=9z
- -)..^
z
1 9I
-:
This detail may be

used as pflmary
roof drain or as
overflow.
MSAL
EXTENSION
RAINSPOUT
DETAIL
OVERFLO\^/
GUTTER
SCUPPER
Q} F
FO o
oO
r/-
OOWNSPOUT
LEAOER OR
CONDUCTOR
TYPICAL
TYPICAL
CONDUCTOR
GRAVEL
HEAD
STOPS
CONDUCTOR
OVERFLO\/v
H EAD.MAXIMUM
AT BUTLT-IN
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LealStudio;Crownsvilte,

Marytand
GUNERS
AND DOWNSPOUTS
Scuppers
462
CLOSURE FUNGE
SEAMED AND
SOLDERED TO
SCUPPER (MAY BE
OMIfrED IF URGEST
SCUPPERDIMENSION
IS LESS THAN
PROVIDE SEAUNT OR LET

INTO MASONRY JOINT
CAP FLASBING
I2-
SCUPPER FUNGE
SEALED AND
SOLDERED
TO SCUPPER
WINO UPLIFT
OPTIONAL
CAP FUSHING
OVER FUSHING
FSNGE
(USE IF SCUPPER FUNGE
WALL
IS ABOVE PARAPET
CAP FUSHING)
cLrPAT4 -O
PREVENTION
O.C.MAX
CONTINUOUS PARAPET
WALL CAP FUSHING
THROUGH.WALL
CAP RECEIVER
PROVIDE SEAUNT
AT FUNGE TO
waLL JotNT - -
HEIGHT OEPENDS
ON CAPACITY OF
ROOF DRAINAGE
PROVIDED
GRAVEL
CANT STRIP
CANT STRIP
NOTES
1.Use overflow $uppers when r@f is completely surrounded by parapets and drainage
dependson scuppersor internaldrainage.
2. Precastconcretepanelswith scuppersdo not need closureflangeson face: all penetrations
shouldbe sealed.
OVERFLOW
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT PARAPET
SCUPPER FLANGE
(SEAMED AND
SOLDEREO TO SCUPPER)
ROOF
SCUPPER
DETAIL
OPTIONAL
EXTENSION
SCUPPER FUSHING
AT JOINT
MEMBRANE
BASE
(SEAL TOP
FLASHING
WITH FABRIC ANO MASTIC
ANO FASTEN
TO WALL)
MEMBRANE
OVERFLOW
WALL
SEAUNT
AT PARAPET
WALL
(ROOF
SIDE)
CAP FASCIA
OVER SCUPPER
FUNGE
EXTRUDEO
GRAVEL STOP
TAPERED EDGE STRIP
SHEET METAL
SPOUT EXTENSION
RAINSPOUT
MEMBRANE
ROOF
DETAIL
FUSHING
MEMARANE
N
CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
CONDUCTOR HEAD
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT GRAVEL
STOP (CONDUCTOR
HEAD
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA;Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,

Marvland
GUTTERS
AND DOWNSPOUTS
SIDE)
SCUPPER
DETATL AT RAISED CURB
CHAPTER
EIGHT
DOORSAND
WINDOWS
Fire Rating and Security
464
Door and Windornr Openings
Entrances and Storefronts

467
Windornrs
486
Metal Doors and Frames
469
Skylights
498
Wood and Plastic Doors
473
Hardrruare
5O3
Specialty Doors
478
Glazing
512
442
Fire-Roted
Openings
464
GENERAL
Fire-rated
assembliesfor door and windowopenings,used
to protectagainstthe spreadof fire andsmoke.consistof a
lire-rateddoor or window with frame. hardware,and accessories.includinggasketing.Each componentis crucialto
the overallperformanceof the assemblyBs a fire barrier
Choicesto be made regarding
the enclosureof openingsin
fire-rated
wallsincludethe following:
1. Fire{atedwall requirements
2. Sizeof opening
3. Means of egress
a. Requiredsize per occupanry
b. Ouantityand location
c. Directionof egress flow and operationof enclosure
d. Hardwarerequirements
e. Window egress requirements
4. Materialsand finishes
5. Security
6. Visibility
andglazing
FIRE
PROTECTTON
CRITERIA
NFPA 80. Standardfor Fire Doors and Fire Windows, is a

consensusslandard that establishesminimum criteria lor
installingand maintaining
assembliesand devicesused to
protect openings in walls, ceilings, and floors from the
spreadof tire and smoke. The degre of fire protection{in
hours) required for a given opening is rofrenced in the
model buildingcodes (BOCA,SBCCI.and UBC)and the Life
SafetyCode {NFPA101).Fire doors are classifiedby hourly
referencesdetermined by testing done in a@rdance with
NFPA252. StandardMethod of Fir Tests of Door Assemblies (also known as UL 108). Furthrinformationis avaif
able in chapter 6. section 6 of the NFPA'SFire Protection
Handbook.
TYPES
OF
FIRE RESISTANCE: the property of materials or their

assembles that prevents or retards the passage ot excessrve heat, hot gas, or tlames under conditrons of use.
.FII
LAEELED: equioment or materials marked with the label,

symbol, or other identifying mark ol an organization concerned with product evaluation and acceptable to the local
jurisdiction. This organization must periodically inspect production ot labeled equipment, and the manufacturer. by
labeling the product, indicates compliance in a specified
manner with appropriate standards or performance.
NONCOMBUSTIBLE: a mate.ial that, in the fo.m in which it
is used and under the conditions anticioated. will not aid
combustion or add appreciable heat to an ambient fire.
SELF-CLOSING:as applied to a fire door or other protective
opening, selfrlosing means the door is normally closed and
is equipped with an approved device that will ensure closure after the door has been opened.
SMOKE BARRIER: a continuous membrane, either vertical
or horizontal. such as a wall, floor, or ceiling assembly, that
is designed and constructed to restrict the movement of
smoke- A smoke barrier may or may not have a fire{esistance rating.
FULL MITRE
CONTINUOUS
,.
OPENINGS
I ru - xxxxxxxI
n;aadilary;'
%-HB AND 2GM|N. OPENINGS(formerlyclass C, E):

located in walls or partitionsbetween rooms and corridors
with a lire-resistanceratingof one hour or less.
The hourly protection rating for openingsdepends on the
use of the barrier,as in exit enclosures,venil openingsin
buildings,buildingseparationwalls. corridorwalls,smoke
barriers.
andhazardous
locations.In most codes,classdesignationshave been .eplacedby hour classifications.
OF FRAMES
LABEL
I
t:
r;';.
FRAME UBEL
N OTE
Various agencies test and rate fire door and window units
and assemblies Manufacturers locate metal labels in
accessible but concealed locations (the hinge edge oi
doors, lor example); these labels must remain in place,
unpainted, uncovered, and unaltered.
TESTING
LABELS
40sotr
'-
OPENING
.a-.
6"-a"
MlN.
MAX.)
i10 -o
CLEARANCE
BONOM OF
FRAME TO
FLooR, 3/a" MAX
CLEAR
WIDTH
(4'-O" MAX.)
NOTE
|,,
Fireiated doorframescan be assembledat the iactorv or in

the field. Frames must be adquately anchored at the
jambs and fl@r accordingto the manufacturer'sspecifications. Codes reouire d@rs to be installedin ac@rdance
with NFPA80. Section 2-5, Frames,indicatsonly labeled
trames are tg be used.
â
.z
tt
tl
tl
ll
ll
II
tl
tl
ll
tl
1yr-HR AND 1-HR OPENINGS(formerlyclass D and B.

respectively):located in multistory vertiGl communication
enclosures.andin 2-hr rated panitions providinghorizontal
trre separatrons.
LIGHT-GAUGEMETAL FRAME: head and iamb members

with or without transom panel made from aluminum (45min. maximumrating)or lightgauge steel (1rl2trrmaximum
rating);installed
overtinishedwall.
DOOR
rso
4-HR AND 3-HR OPENINGS(formerlyclass A): located in

fire walls or in walls that divide a single building into fire
areas.
TYPES
smoveo
ANO
WELD
DOUBLE FRAME WITH

FIXEO MULLION
(oPTroNAL) ->n
<!Y
FIRE'RESISTANCERATING: the time. in minutes o. hours.

that materials or assemblies have withstood fire exposure
in accordance with the test procedure of NFPA 252.
HEAVY FLOOR
FOR FRAME
_l'
CLIP
The minimum width of each door opening must be suffi

cient for the @cupant load it serves. Verify the following
gereral guidelines tor door width with local codes:
1. Dwelling units that are nol required to be accessible or
adaptable:293/oin.
2. Hospital and other medical facililies: 36 in.
3. Standard openings: 32 in.
SECURITY FRAME REINFORCING

FIRE-RATED OPENINGS
PRESSED
STEEL{HOLLOWMETAL):hoadandiamb members with or without solid or glazedtransomsor sidelights
made from 18-gaugeor heavier steel (3+rr.maximum rating);requiledfor most metaldoors.
FOR
DOOR OPENINGS
EGRESS
FOR MEANS OF
soLto PANEL (3-. I '/2-. 1-.

ANO 3/4,HR) WIRE GUSS
OPTIONAL
MULLION
DEFINITIONS
The followingdefinitionsare typicallyused in relationto fireraleoopenrngs:
AUTOMATIC:providinga function without the necessityof
humanintetuention.
.q
o
4'-O"
FIREBARRIER:
a continuousmembrane-eitherverticalor
horizontal{tor example.a wall, tloor. or ceiling assembly),
that is designedand constructedwith a specifiedfire-resis
tance ratingto limit the spreadof fire and restrictthe movement of smoke.
4 -O'
MAX
PAIR \A/ITH
TRANSOM BAR
FIRE.RATED
NationalFire ProtectionAssciation; Ouincv.Massachusetts
DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA; Washington,D.C.
FIRERATINGAND SECURIry
STEEL
FRAME
ELEVATIONS
SINGLE
TRANSOM
FLUSH
Fire-RotedOpenings
465
FLUSH
METAL
DOOR
GLASS
LIGHT
t 296 SO tN.
THICK WIRE
GLASS IN
3/.-HouR,
NO GUSS
PERMINED
NO LOUVERS
PERMIfrED
I@ SO IN MAX
oF '/." THtcK
WIRE GUSS
UNLIMITED
AREA IN
20-MtN. DOOR
LOUVERS]
576 SO IN. MAX
LOUVERS:
576 SO IN MAX
TYPICAL CLEARANCES:
r/"" MAx- AT JAMBS3/;" AT NoNcoMBUsrtBLE
FLOOR; 3/s" AT Top
4 . H O U R / 3 - H O U RC L A S S I F I C A T I O N
NOTES
1.All hinges or pivots must be steel. Two hinges are
requiredon d@rs up to 5 ft in highu an additionalhinge
is requiredtor each additional2 fr 6 in. of d@r height or
fractionlhereot. The same requirementholdsfor pivots.
FIRE.RATED
| 1 / r - H o u R / t- H o u R c L A s s t F t c A T l o N
. 4 - H O U R / 2 O - M t NC. U S S t F t C A T T O N
2. While wired glassr/. in. thick is the mosr common material used for glasslights,other matrialshave been listed
and approvedfor installation.Reter to the UL fire Drotection directory.
3. Consultall authoritieswith iurisdictionbetore installation

of glasslightsand louvers.
4. Fusible-linldautomatic
closing louvers are permitted in
fire-rateddoors with restrictions;they are not permitted
in smoke$arrierdoors.
DOOR CLASSIFICATIONS
FIRE.RATED
WALL ASSEMBLY
CONSTRUCTION
SWINGING
FIRE
OF
DOORS
Outlined hre are different types of swinging fire doors and

notes about the hardware used with them.
OPERABLE
SASH
TYPES OF DOORS
l.Composite fire doors: wood, steel, or plastic sheets
bonded to and supponed by a solid core material.
2. Hollow metal tire doors: flush or panel design with a
steel face of not less than 20gauge steel.
3. Metal{lad firedoors: flush or panel design consisting ol
metal{overed wood cores or stiles and.ails and insulated panels that are covered with steel of 24auge or
lighler4. Sheet metal fire doors:22auge
or lighter steel of corrugated, flush sheet, or panel design.
5. Tin{lad fire d@rs: wood core with a terne plate or galvanized steel facing (3G or 24gauge).
6. Wood core doors: w@d, hardboard, or Dlastic face
shets bonded to a wood block or w@d panicleboard
core material with untreated wmd edqes.
DOOR
N OTE
NOTE
When requiredfor egress,such as in sleepingareasin residences,windows must meet the followingcriteria:
OPERATION
1. Doors that swing in the direction of egress are preferred

for fire{ated doors.
Glazedpanelassembliesin fire{ated walls must @nform to

the sazelimitationsindi@ted below and to wire glass and
other approvedmaterialrequirements.Muhiplo panelsare
permitted, but the aggregatearea of all panels and openings must not exceed 25yo ol the wall surface. Reter to
specificcodeslor details.
GLAZED PANEL REQUIREMENTS
1. Clearopeningper sashmust be a minimumof 5.7 sq ft.

2. Bars, grilles. or screens must be releasablefrom inside
without use of tools or key.
3. Windows opening onto fire escapes have additional
requirements;refer to codes.
4. Check with runufacturers for integral releasehardware
optionsfor aming. casement,pivot, or other windows.
5. Double-hungwindow units with fully removable sash
that do not requirespecialtoots, force. or knowldgeto
operate may offer greater flexibility in unit selectionto
mret size requirerents for egress openings;verify with
manufacturersand code otlicials.
MAXIMUM DOOR SIZES

(HOLLOVV METAL, ALL CLASSES*)
\/vINDOW EGRESS REQUIREMENTS
*W@d door size requirementsare similar
singlefoint or 3toint latchingdevice
2. Horizontal sliding and revolving doors are permined with

restflctrons.
HAROWARE
1. Door hardware is provided by the builder independent of
the assembly or furnished by the manufacturer with the
door assembly. In either case, the manufacturer prepares
the door and frame to receive hardware to ensure the
integrity of the fire{ated assembly.
2. Fire d@rs are hung on steel ball-bearinghinges and must
be self{losing. Labeled automatic latches and door closers can be self{perated or controlled by faifsafe devices
that activate in a lire.
3. Pairs of doors require c@rdinators with astragals to
ensure that both doors close4. Heads and jambs should be sealed with gaskets when
smoke control is required.
5. Panic hardware may be required when space occupancy
'100
people.
is greater than
NationalFire ProtectionAssociation;Ouincv,Massachusetts
Doorqnd WindowSecuritY
466
GUIDE
METAL
SPECIFICATIONS
MANUFACTURERS
ga.
18 ga.
l4 ga
u ga.
16ga.
l4 ga
ace Sheets Interol

exteflor
4 at 12 ga.
o( 12 ga
2"
z2 9a
weld
Continuous
1 89 a
weld
Contrnuous
ulosed wrth I b ga. continuous recessed steel

channel, spot welded to
face sheets
Closedwith 12 ga.continuousrecessedsteel
channel,spot welded to
lace sheets
Reinforced wrth conttnuous steel channel, 10 ga

spot welded to face
sheets 4 0n center
Frxedmolotngsweloeo
to dooron securty side
loose stops, 20 ga.
Fixed moldings welded

to door on security side;
loose stops,20 ga.
l-rxed moldrngs welded

to door on security side;
all stops, 16 ga.
l-lxedmoldrngs,I2 ga.
spot weldedto tace
sheets5" o.c.:removableglassstops,14 9a
pressedsteelchannel
lb ga. {lu ga.lor wood

doors,20 ga. for hollow
core wood doors)
tbga.: 14ga_roropenings over 4'- 0" in widlh
1 29 a
ga
1 2g a
ga
2 2g a .
uontrnuousweld or lnterlockingseam welded at
top and bottom ot door
Closedwrth I 6 ga.continuousrecessedsteel
channel
edges
Iop and bottom

:dges
ga
LEVER BOL"T
PROVIOE
AT TOP AND BOTTOM
WITH I,, MIN. THROW
INTERLOCKING
MEETING
STILE
DUTY LOCK
WITH HOOK TYPE
HARDENED DEAD BOL]
GROUT FRAME FULL
OR BRACE SOLID FROM
FLOOR TO t2 ABOVE
LOCK
SLIDING
'I
xtenor opentngs
tron
anchors
b ga.
4 ga.
Welded units with

integralstop and trim
Welded units with

jntegral stop and trim
'1b
ga. welded
inside jambs
l4 ga. welded
inside iambs
l4 ga. welded
inside jambs
Same ga. as lrame,

welded inside jambs
with at least 4 spot
welds per anchor
In masonrywalls 16 ga.
steelor 0.156" diameter
steel wire. For stud partitions,18 ga. steel
anchorswelded inside
aambs
In masonrywalls 16 ga.
steelor 0.156" diametr
steel wire. For stud panitions,18 ga.steel
lamos
In masonrywalls14 ga.
steelor 0.156"diameter
steel wire. For stud partitions,16 ga.steel
lambs
z0 ga. cold-roileo sleel
lb ga. cold-rolled steel
ga. as
ga.
NOTS
1. HMMA 860: For use in buildingprcjectsrhere traflic is relativelylight and hard usagois not anticipated.
2. HMMA 861: For use in commercialand industrialapplicationswhere rigoroususe is anticipated.such as schools,hospitals,
industrialbuildings,office buildings,hotels.nursinghomes, airports,and conventioncenters.
3. HMMA 862: For use in applicationswhere security is paramountdue to high susceptibilityto vandalism,break-in.and theft,
such as entrances and back doors of businesses,storerooms, warehouses, strip stores, apartments,and condominiums.
HMMA 862 incorporatestesting proceduresand performancerequirementspromulqatedby NILECJ{or ClasslV doors (ASTM
F476-84)includingjamb/wall stiffness tesl, jamb/wall stiffness performance,door impact test, door and glazingpanel impact
resistanceperformance.
4.HMMA 863:Forapplications
in jails,prisons,detentioncenters,andsecuredareasin hospitals
or counhousesHMMA 863
requiresfive tests: static loadtest, racktest, impact load test, removableglazingstop test, and bullet resistancetest.
5. Reorintedwith Dermission
trom lhe HollowMetal Manulacturers
Association.
divisionof NAAMM.
PERFORMANCE
SECURITY
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
SLIDING
GLASS
DOOR
UNIT
REOUIREMENTS
PARAM ETER
CLASS
I UNIT
UNIT
No entry
Latch loidang resistance
device stability
Venical- 50 lbf (222 N)

plus weight of panel (10 cycles)
panel removal resistance
nuilluntdt
- tuu tDI I+4c f
Vertical- 300 lbf ( l 335 N)
GLASS
\^/INDOW
CRITERIA
welded or knocked{own welded unr$ wrm

with inlegralstop and
integral stop and trim
lrim
srops zu ga. cold{olled steel
UNITS
Sliding glass doors are a pantcular concern rn secunng a

building. The locking devices should include vertical rod. or
lever bolts, at top and bottom; the frame should be solid or
reinforced at the locking points; the stile must also be rein
forced at the lockrng points. The operating panels should be
designed so that they cannot be lifted out of their tracks
when in the locked position. Glazing and other components
should be installed from the inside so that entry cannot be
gained by disassembly.
I'ietntorcedby 10 ga. continuoussteelchannel,

weld
continuous
FRAM E5
openrngs
DOOR
SLIDING
FROM THE HOLLOW

(HMMA)
ASSOCIATION
Vertical- 50 lbf (222 N)

plus weight of panel {'l0 cycles)
Hoflzontal -
Venical- 600 lbf (2670N)

plusweightof panel
DOOR
SECURITY
DESIGN
The followingitems shouldbe consideredwhen designing

and selectingwindows:
1. ll accessible (residential:12 ft vertical, 6 ft horizontal;
and hidden
commercial:18 ft venical,10 ft horizontal)
from publicview, a highergrade is required.
2. lI windows-areprotcted by a detection device {such as
shutters, security screens, or bars), the window grade
could be irrelevant.lf security screens,bars, or shutters
are used, rquirementsfor tire exiting must be met.
The
3.
existenceof windbreaksnear a buildingmay provide
cover for intruders.
4. The use of shades and window coverings may deter
intruders, depnding on the ease of removal of these
devicesor the noise from breakage.The use of lockable
shutters or rolldown blindsis very effective.
5. Window units should at least comply with ASTM F58885 StandardTest Methods for Resistanceof Window
Assembliesto ForcedEntryfor a minimum gradeperforPhysicalSecurityof Win
mance and with NIJ-STD-o316,
dow Units, for highergradeperformance.
FRAME DESIGN ELEMENTS
1. A rigidframe and sash is imponantto resistpryingand
shouldbe removabletrom the insideonlv.
2. The quality of the hardware and its placement and
anchorage are critical to security. Exposed removable
hingesshouldnot be used.
3. Specialattention must be given to the use of weather
stripping. since this can permit insertion of wires to
unlockwindows.
GLAZING DESIGN ELEMENTS
l.Multiple glazingsystems provide a greaterhazardto
entry/exitthrough brokemut windows.
2. Reflectiveglazingimpedesoutsidedaytimesurueillance
MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR vv!NOOWS
1. Class lV. Very heaw fixed irames with laminatedglass
overr/a in. thick socurity screen. bars, or shuners with
speciallockingdevice.
2. Class lll. Heavy duty sash with laminatedglass over '/.
in. thick or polycarbonateglazing'/a in. thick. Lock should
includeat least two heavyduty dead lockingbolts.
3. Classll. Heavyduty sashwith laminatedglassor polycarbonate glazing; if wood, sash must be reinforced or
heaw; double locks required.
4. ClassL Regularglazingin commercialsash with double
locks;can be w@d frame.
Lockrng devrce strength
strength
strength
300 lbf (1335N)
GROUT
SOLID TO REINFORCE
WALL AND ANCHORS
AT
BOTH SIDES OF WINDOW
NOTES
EXTEND
3" MIN,
1 . Table from the National lnstitute of Jusrice (NlJ) Standard 031 8.00, Physical Security ol Sliding Glass Door Units.
2. Class I sliding door units provide a minimum level ol physical security. Class ll sliding door units provide a moderate level oI
physical security.
3. Loiding is a method of manipulating a locking device trom the exterior of a sliding glass door unit by means of a thin, flal obiect
or a thin stitl wire that is inserted between the locking stile and the strike so as to torce the locking device toward the unl&ked
posrtron-
WINDOW
McCain McMu(ay, Architect: Washington, D.C.
JAMB
DETAIL
FASTENER
Doorond WindowOpenings
467
DEFINITIONS
BUCK: a subframe of wood or metal set in a wall or panition to support the linish frame of a dmr or window; also
called door buck or rough buck.
DOUBLE STUD.
WOOD OR METAL
CASING: the finished, often decorative lramework around a

door or window opening, especially that which is parallel to
the surrounding surface and at right angles to the iamb;
also called trim.
SUBCASING: finish frame components
guide the door or sash.
STUD
T R I M M E RS T U D
FINISH
--.-..-..-WALL
MATERIAL
that support and
HEAD: horizontal members at top of door or window.

JAMB: venical members at sides of door or window.
STOP: integral or applied member that prevents a door or
window from swinging past its closed position, or members that guide horizontal or vertical sliding movement.
n
o
o
o
SILL: horizonlal members at bottom of door or window,
THRESHOLD:
appliedwood, stone,or metalplate,usually
weatherproof-
o
z
2
U
@
@
SADDLE:part oi a threshold,usuallybridgingdissimilar
llooring materials.
117777777)
V7777777V
t/ / / /\{\4/ / /t
l/ / // / //_1__1)
t\\\\\l
STOP
PUNTED
(OR DOUBLE
RABEETED STOP)
-\
\\
\
o
E
ROUGH
oPENTNG//
Y--/--Z--l-l--1-)
RABBETED STOP
-,.
,/
>"
JAMB
BUNK
(FOR CASEO OPENING)
FRAME
ROUGH
OPEN ING
AND STOP TYPES

----------
|
ll
FRAMEWITHOUT
sroPs. oooR,
oR wrNDow -\
==-=N
il
II
N
M
-....E
---.-t
ll
NN
MN
:
CASED
REVEAL
OPENING
SUBCASING
N OTE
Weatherproofingfor exterior dmr openings is similar to
window weatherprooting.
DOOR OPENING
TYPES
COMPONENTS
;P o" vtn.
*""'Y
TRANSOM
(FANLIGHT
sHowN)
MOISTURE BARRIER OVERUPPED

TO DIRECT MOISTURE AWAY FROM
STRUCTURgFRAMING
CAP/BRICK MOLD
CASINGtrRIM
HEAD
TRANSOM
BAR
CASING[RIM
FOLDED
OR SOLDEREO
HEAD FLASHING
WITH DRIP EDGE
FOLDEO OR
SOLDEREO
SILL FLASHING
DOORFRAME
MIN
6
MIN
SIDELIGHT
MIN.
GUSS
LIGHT
MIN.
wrNoow
NOTE
JAMB CASING/TRIM
1. Caulking.sealant.adhesive.or gasket
seals window lraming and wall joints
to torm air barrier.
APRON
ACCESSORIES
WINDOW
WEATHERPROOFING
\\
SILL (SLOPED
TOP)
OVERHANGS
APRON
1"
APPROXIMATELY
2. These principles are also applicable to

d@r weatherproofing.
DOOR
UNIT
PRINCIPLES
Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D.C.
DOORANDWINDOWOPENINGS
468
Wood DoorfromeInstollotionDetqils
WOOD SIDING
OVER PLYWOOD
SHEATHING
FLASHING
(TURN UP
6 . MlN.)
GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
DRIP CAP
OVER TRIM
(TURN
FUSHING
UP6
ON
INSIDE FRAME)
SLIDING
FRAME
DOOR
DOOR
TRIM
GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
SEAUNT
SHIM
TRIM
SPACE
ROUGH
BUCK
VINYL.CLAD
WOOD FRAMES
ALUMINUM
SCREEN ANO
FRAME
FRAME
DOOR
WEATHER
STRIPPING
DOOR WITH
WEATHER
STRIPPING
FLUSH
METAL
TRACK
oooR
SEAUNT
METAL
SAODLE
SAOOLE
(OPTIONAL)
FUSHING
BLOCKING UNDER
JOINT AffWEEN
SILL AND
SUBFLOOR
BLOCKING UNDER
JOINT BETWEEN
SILL AND
SUBFLOOR
FINISH
FLOORING
UNOERCUT
AS REOUIRED
HEAOER
FUSHING UNDER
wooD stLL
SI LL
SLIOING DOOR IN WOOD FRAME
DOORFRAME
DETAILS
INTERIOR SWING OOOR IN WOOD FRAME
IN WOOD
WALL
CONSTRUCTION
SHEATHING
CMU
LINTEL
GYPSUM
WALLBOARO
FLASHING
wooD
BUCK
SHIM
EXTERIOR SWING DOOR IN

WOOD FRAME
STEEL
FLASHING
LINTEL
SEAUNT
SPACE
WOOD FRAME
WITH APPLIED
STOP
SHIM SPACE
(FILL REMAINING
VOIDS WITH
INSULATION)
DOOR
DOORFRAME
BRICK
ARCH
SEAUNT
DOORFRAME
DOOR
CMU
GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
OF FURRING
CHANNELS
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
SHIM SPACE
SHIM
SPACE
DOORFRAME
TRIM
WOOO
OOORFRAME
DOOR
FRAME
JAMB
JAMB
SADDLE
REQUIREO
IF TRANSITION
AETWEEN
DIFFERENT
FLOOR MATERIALS
NEEDED
METAL
SADDLE
METAL
SADDLE
WOOD SILL
FUSH ING
CARPET
ON
UNDERUYMENT
PLYWOOD
SUBFLOOR
SEAUNT
MASONRY
SILL
BLOCKING
SI LL
INTERIOR
SWING
OOORFRAME
DOOR
IN
MASONRY
SILL
WALL
SWING
DOOR
DETATLS IN MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTTON
Danrel F. C Hayes, AlA, Washington, D.C.

Rrchard J. Vrtullo, AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsulle. Maryland
DOOR AND WINDOWOPENINGS
IN
MASONRY
VENEER
SWING
DOOR
IN
SOLIO
MASONRY
HollowMetol Doorfromes
MATERIALS
Hollow refal doorframesare avatlablern valous steel
gauges according to where and how they will be used.
Localcodes and governingauthoritiesestablishminimum
gauges.which shouldalwaysbe consulted.Some manulacturersmake cuslom moldingsfor a specificdesign.as
longas a sufficientquantityis required.
For security.the exteriormoldingson exteriordoors should
be welded into the trame and exposedfastenersshouldbe
ramoeroroor.
TYPES
OF
-T- . t) T- -
=
-
9'
JJ
STANOARD
DOUBLE
RABBET
/TYPICAL
SINGLE
RABBETS
CLIP
DOUBLE
EGRESS
BACKBENDS
FACE
PROFILES
rq:". l_\
TRIM
FRAMES
469
Doorframescan be factory or tield assembled.All frames

musl be adequately anchored at lhe iambs and floor
accordingto the manufacturer's
specifications.
t\
t-
Ftnt-
PROFILES
VARIOUS STANDARD
PROFILES
LIGHT-GAUGE
METALFRAME:headand iamb members.
with or withouta Iransompanel,of aluminum{45 min.max
imum rating)or light-gauge
steel (1.5hr maximumrating).
Frameis installedoverfrnrshed
wall.
PRESSED
STEEL(HOLLOWMETAL):headandiambmembers,wirh o. withoutsold or glazedtransomsoi sidelights,
of l8{auge or heavier steel (3 hr maximum rating}.This
frame is requiredfor most metal doors.
* Omit stopsfor casedopeningframes.
FINISHES
Hollow metal frames shouldreceiveat least one shoo coat
of rustinhibitive primer betore delivery to the iob site. In
very corrosiveatmospheres,such as saltwaterbeachlocations, is it advisableto hav doors and frares hot dipped
galvanizedfor additionalprotection.
paint tinishesin Erious colors
Frameswith tactory-applied
are availablfrm severalmnutacturers.
NOTES
S T A N D A R DO O U B L E R A B B E T
NOTE
Maximm gauge is l0: consult manufacturersfor tighter
gau9es.
HOLLOW
METAL FRAME
PROFILES
1. Many other profilesare availabl;mnsult manufacturers'

listslor dimensionsandoptions.
2. Depthsvaryin 1/sin. incrementsto '12%in. maximum.
3. Standardstops are sla in. lllz in. minimum); standard
facesare 2 in. (1 in. minimum).
AND COMPONENTS
CEILING STRUT
ANCHOREO TO
STRUCTURE
ABOVE (AS
REOUIRED)
ANCHOR
18" 20-, OR 22.

GAUGE
FRAME
TRIM
(CASING)
wooo
SNAP-ON
ANCHOR
WITH
sTUos
METAL STUDS WITH

GYPSUM BOARD
PLASTER
wooD
oR
METAL STUD
LIGHT.GAUGE
FRAME
FRAME
GAUGEs
JAME
ANCHOR
MASONRY WITH GYPSUM BOARD

BUTTED TO FRAME
METAL FRAME
I NSTALLATIONS
(OPTIONAL)
MPo NENrs
rn.-"di=.
;:
EW&W
,,-
,o""JL-#\r.o*",
HEAD
(JAMA STMtLAR)
WEATHER
)4:F
HEAO
(JAMB SIMILAR}
PROOF I NSTALLATIONS
B U T T F R A M E / F L U S HF R A M E
N OTES
WRAPAROUND FRAME
1. Use ancho.s appropriatefor the type of wall construction;a minimumof threepr iamb is required.
2. Groutframe with mortar or plasteras used in wall.
3. Caulkframeat wall.
4. DimensionA is minimum3 in. in area ol pull or knob
naroware.
5. Trim may be used to coverjoint at wall line.
6. CheckdimensionB on hinge side for door swing greater
than90".
FRAME CONDITION
N OTES
1. Easic wall dimension is less than throat opening dimension.
2. Use anchors appropriate for the type of wall construc
tion; a manimum of three per jamb is required.
3. Fill frame with mortar or plaster as used in the wall.
4. Grout frame at masonry wall.
5. Backbend may vary as selected.
AT WALL
James W. G. Watson,AIA; RonaldA. Spahnand Assmiates Cleveland

Heights.Ohio
DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA;Washinglon,
D.C.
METALDOORSAND FRAMES
HollowMetqlFrqmes
470
O@R
PANIL
CORNER
EQUAL
xaEeuraEo
EXCEPT
CONSTRUCTION
ETANOARO
CO
: ORRNI E R
VAR
RIIIA B L E
\^/ITH
FACE6
METHOO
ANO
TYPE
OF CONSTRUCTION
VARIES
BETWEEN
MANUFACTURERS.
MECH.
FASTENING
TO
Be
J
SPECIFIEO
TO
ASSURE
TIGHT
CORNER
TAB A N D
T
lN oRywaLL
6TEEL
WITH
FACES
OR
SHOWN
RABAET
INEERT
u/IOTH
PANEL
SHOWN
STOPPEc)IN gERT
IN
ALTERNATE
TRANSOM
CONTINUOUS,
ASTRAGAL /
FRAME
?lFilEE'""*
KNOCT<
OOWN
FRAME
CORNER
CONETR
FLU6H
6URFAc;E
OOOR ANO
TRAN6OM
SPECIAL
sEcTroNs
STDSECTIS
AOJUsTAALE
FRAME
T\^/O-PIECE
FRAME
| |il l],
\Llv
EXT
FACE
\^/ELOEO
OR
ORIVEN MULLION
_il
Wruru
B
GIY6TEM
Vnl
TRANSOM
5Ht"*T.-.t,o*
THIS
SYSTEM
USES
CERTAIN
STO. PROFILES
IN
ANY
VARIE:TY
OF
LINEAR
ARRANGEMENTS;
FABRICATES
EASILY ANO
QUICKLY.
JOINTERY
VARIES
BETWEE:N
MANU.
FACTURERS
f,
a
ETICK
=ffi
STANOARO
HEAO
WITH
FRAME
SIOELIGHT
GILL
'I
6IOE LIGHT
EILL
'3
MULLION
OF 2 ATD.
'ECTIONe
WITH
SPLINE
REMOVAgLE
(HEAO'
MULLION
SAOOLE
REM OVAgLE
MULLION (gILL}
TF*
1re.-"ll
6toELIGHT
SIOI.
LIGHT
ANCHOR
EXTERIOR
FACE
MAY
BE EXTENDEO
AS
ORIP
SIOELIGHT
SILL*2
BORROW
LIGHT
MAY TRACE
OUT
FULL
STOP
WIRE
AREA
GL.-MAX.
PER
LT:
FASTEN
TO
CLIP
STRUCT
SMOKE
6CREENS
5/.HR
WrTH
WIRE
GL
CUT-OFF
SL
FRAME
James W. G. Watson, AIA; Ronatd A. Spahn and Associates; Cleveland Heights, Ohio
HO;PITAL
STOP
m
ffi
qr)
qf)
'"""ffi
ffi
ffi9
ffi)
"""fuH
."RBEE"*'"'
HollowMetol Fromes,Anchors,ond Accessories
ru&
::T/W
WEDGE
^l^^:
:::.:_./
FRAME
"-'[ffi
OETAIL
'z'cuP
LABEL
CEILING
REMOVABLE
STRUT
BUCK
#I
ROUGH
BUCK
CONTINUOU6
OA6KET
REEILIENT
#2
ll-.-l
| | -.t
\,.
THROUGH
EOLT
FRAME
ANCHOR
FIEi.-o"tt""*t'
APPLIEO
GAGKET
ffi
Us STC' rated door w/

automatic door bottom &
frare Vadiustable stops;
lilled & installed in com.
p.tible wall construction.
's.T.c.
= sound Transmission Class.
I l'--l
:Y:l^ "*'"o{-,,',
CORE
BOARD
ANCHOR
ADJUSTABLE
6OUNO
STOP
PANIC
HEAOER
REINFc)RCING
FIOUCH
N.
WEDGE
ANCHOR
CLIP
dL
lill'sllllll
FLOOR
4CK
ADJ, CLG
ANCHOR
&11
lrfill ll
STANOARO
KNEE
14 GA.
FRAME <_+[
INTffiSEcT
=
WALL
il
LINING II
wfrH
eP-il{lll
FRAME
I
IllllF-l
L--!YL---l
ttA' x tt/2" x r'C: BE|NF. \
ANGLE, ANO Vd Z.
J
oooR
LNt rG MUsr/
NTERSECT
LINE OF
SIGHT ACROSS
FRAME LINNG
LINEO FF'AME
LEAO
NOTE
wr,l
wELDEo oR
STOP
OR
SCREW
ROUGH
WELDEDOFT
SNAP-N
ANCHOR
471
-l
---rLJfr
FINISHED
*,*..(PI't
i,vJ;?xg-yJ3Ei5"
W/REINECUT-OUT.
AND PLASTER GUARO
ROUGH
LAE|EL
rrNrsxgo
st'
\
I
,I *Jh
,/
aUcK-
BUC'<
AVAIL.
guc</
Sf
STRIKE
AOJUeTAALE
KNEE
FLOOR
FRAME
EXTENOO
\ //BAEE
ANCHOR
cuT ouT ry
BL
NK
COVER
HEAOLEE6
OOOR FRAME
LAEIEL AVAIL.
ROUGH
LABEL
BUCK
AVAIL.
James W. G. Watson, AIA; RonaldA. Spahnand Associates;ClevelandHeights,Ohio
:+
HollowMetol DoorTypes
472
NOMI
NAL
1
!o
j:
WIOTH
c^
tz
_^c
r
I
U]
eF;
si?
oo
zu
ul
I
c
0
0
o
F
ul
t
l
aJ
o<
\g
a9
=)
OOOR
ANO
OOOR
FLUSH
G
RECESSED
PANEL
EOTTOM
RAIL-
CONETRUCTION
Relativelywidecenterpanelconnectedto hingeand lock stile by

interlocking and/or weldingforming two exposed vertical
seamson door face.
Invertedchannelclosestop and
bottom.
Exteriordoor is furnished with
cap.
CENTER
PANEL
END
CHANNEL
STILE
ANO
PANEL
Pan type or enclosed

siruction.
7i
CONSTRUCTION
grid con-
No seams visible on face.

Exposed seams may be on vertical edges where two pans join.
Top and/or bottom of door may
be tlush or recessed.
t/2c2
,/2G
A recessedpanel door, generally

considered an industrial type
door, mav be used lor decofalive
purposes,
RAIL
zu
t/2G3
CLEARANCE
A flush or recessedoanel is held

in place by stiles and ,ails.
ANO
OOOR
FLUgH
REINF
CLOER
-Tt U
r
Jn
SH ED FLOOR
SPECIFIED
Tubularstilsand rails compose

structural elements.
ATILE
o4
iz
NVERTED
AS
ETANOARO
i0
r:-l
ll
tt
r.:-]
ll
tl
lI u l
l_l
ll
ll
lt
T-]
ll
il
lul
l-l
T:::]
lt--lJl
l-l
tr_J_Jt l-l
l-l
l:l
ll"Hl r
ANO PANEL
6TILE
DOOR TOP \^/ITH
GLAZED
OPENINO
6TILE
JOINT
ANO
PANEL
gTILE
oooR
ANO
1 lq- r-l r l
IlF_]_-]ll:l
ll"_--lJl
T--l
l-l
l-ll
t-|-|-|-|-l
G}LAES / LOUVERED
t/2GlL,
P(L)
FG(L)
F(Ll
P(L)
[-] lT-lt--l r-Fr

ulr--ir
I Lrl
lrl lllllllll
HINOE
REINFORCEMENT
HL!_t
r_!l
LllE_l
"i:i'*.-:"
IL
t-nI i!-l tml tffi] l-ffi]
l=
ll!!l lil-lll*llffil
lffil
In lllnl ll Hl t
uElt!!]L__t
trl
"1,"oo""t'";
FG6
,zGe
STILE
ANO
CORNER
IL
FG24
mIWt*r
t+r
t]r]t | |ll I
t
|]
| *i;:" |
?:J,:: F(Dl
|"1
"'::"
b"^:![-
FLUBH
OOOR
CORE
LOC)K
REI N FORCE
M E'N T
NOTES
Ooo. types may be imposed on anv door construclion.
Delined areas are filled with glass, screning, louvers, or
recessed or tlush panels unless otherwise noted.
Stiles and rails or muntins make divisions.
FINISHES
SAMLESS
FLUSH
FULL
FLUSH
CON6TRUCTION
Standard: primed and/or galvanized

Paint: baked enamel
Applied: vinyl clad
Textured, embossed: stainless steel, aluminum
Polished: stainless steel
James W. G. Walson, AIA; Ronald A. Spahn and Ass@iates; Cleveland Heights, Ohio
FLUSH
OOOR
ANO
BOTTOM
coN6T.
EOCIE
STILE ANO RAIL

OOOR BOTTOM
CONST.
FlushDoors
METAL DOORS
HOLLOW
Hollow metal doors are available in steel gauges ranging

from 20 to 12; which gauge to use depends on where and
how a door will be used. Consult local codes and gcvernrng
authorities for minimum gauges that may have been established. Sore manu{acturers will custom make doors to a
specific design if an order is large enough.
Hollow metal doors should receive at least one shop coat of

rust-inhibitive primer bfore delivery to the iob site. In very
corrosive atmospheres, such as saltwater beach locations,
the doors and trames should be hotdipped galvanized for
additional protectaon.
Doors can be ourchased from the manufacturer
tory-applied painr linishes in various @lors.
FLUSH
ALTERNATE
VISION PANEL
LOCATION
HINGES (2 OR 3,
AS NECESSARY)
I
'a
FINISHES
b9
_trF-
UTCH Sff
LOCATION
UTCH
Sfr
LOCATION
FLAT
WITH
SURFACE
NO TRIM
LOUVER
LOCATION
q.9
'@@
SWING
DIRECTION
SYMBOL
with tac-
HINGES (2 OR 3,
AS NECESSARY)
I/VOOD DOORS
NOTE
Louversare sized per mechanicalrequirements-Fireiesisrequireclosablelouversor precludeinstaltanceregulations
lationin smoke-barrierdoors and certainfire-rateddoors.
MATERIAL
SOLID COBE: wood block, single specie, maximum 2rl, in.

width. surfaced two sides, no spaces or defects impairing
strength or visible through hardwood veneer facing.
TYPICAL FLUSH DOOR

CHARACTERISTICS
HOLLOW CORE: w@d. wood derivative, or class A insulation board.

SPECIAL
VISION PANEL
SIZED PER
FIRE.RESISTANCE
REOUIREMENTS
'ig;'.,:h:..
For security, exterior moldings on exterior doors should be

welded into the door and all exposed fasteners should be
tamoerDr@f .
CORE
VISION OR LOUVERED
SIZES AND
OPEN TOP/
INVERTED
CHANNEL
CORES
't3lo
and 2tla
CORE: thicknesses ol
SOUNDINSULATING
in.; sound transmission class rating of 36 for 13/{in. and 42
or
dampang
lor 21L in. barrier faces separated by a void
compound to keep faces from vibrating in unison. Special
stops, gaskets, and threshold devices may be required.
PERIMffER
CHANNEL OR
TUBUUR
FRAME
'c" oR "2"
CHANNEL, OR
TRUSS MEMBER
LEAD-LINED CORE:r/rr in.101/, in. continuous lead sheeting from edge to edge inside door construction; may be
reinforced with lead bolts or glued. (See UL requirements.)
HONEYCOMB
FIBER, FOAM, OR
STRUCTURAL
MINERAL CORE
GROUNDED CORE: wire mesh at center of core, grounded

with copper wire through hinges to frame.
UTCH RAIL
REINFORCING.
FACE
TYPES
TOP RAIL
HINGE STILE
LOCK STILE
CENTER
PANEL.
HONEYCOMB
CORE
M ETAL
FACE PLY
UMINATEO
TO CORE
'/'u in. to1/:z

Standard thickness face veneers range from
in.; they are bonded to hardwood with a crossband (1/'o in.
to116 in.) and are the most economi@l and widely used
veneer type. Face ven@rs inhibir checking in the finish but
are difficult to refinish or repair. They can be used on all
cores.
Bonded to a crossband.r/6 in. sawn veneers are easily retin
ished and repaired.
LOUVER
HOLLO\iv METAL DOOR WITH

STIFFENED CORE
DOOR V\/ITH STILE

WOOD EDGE
BANDING
FRAME
EXPANDABLE
CELLUUR OR
HONEYCOMB
FIBER,
INTERLOCKED
STRIPS OR
IMPLANTED
BLANK CORE
BONDED,
BLOCKS,
EITHER
VERTICAL OR
HORIZONTALT
BONDED TO
FACE PANET-S
ANO FRAME
OPENINGS
UTCH
HAROBOARO
CROSSBANO
PLY (EACH SIDE)
In hollowrore d@rs. the cutout aroa can be at most half

the height of the d@r. Doors with openings greater than
4096 are not guaranteed. Weatherpr@fing of exterior doors
is required to prevent moisture from leaking into the core.
FINISHING
HARDBOARD
CROSSBAND
PLIES (EACH SIDE)
FACE PLY/
VENEER;
FINISH FACE
FACING
For opaque finishes only, high or medium-low density overlav faces ol ohenolic resins and cellulose fibers can be
fused to the inner faces of a hardwood door to setue as a
base for the final tinish.
Laminated plastic ('/,6 in. thick. minimum) can be bonded to
a wood back of two or more plies ('/16 in., minimum).
Hardboard, '/s in. thick and smooth on one or both sides.
can be used as a facing.
DOORS
cENERAL
NOTES: wooD
'1.
Kilniried w@d: moisture content at 6-12yo.
2. Type I dors: lully waterproof bond, exterior and interior.
3. Tvpe ll doors: water-resistant bond, interior only.
RAIL
CROSS RAIU
REINFORCING
FACE PLY OR
VENEER
(FINISH FACE
OF DOOR)
Partial finishing ii availabte, with sealing coats in place but

the tinal finish applied on the job. Complete factory tinish'
ing requires the door to be prelit and premachined.
SPECIAL
HOLLOW METAL
AND RAIL
WOOD EDGE
BANDING
FRAME
Custom rude to speitications, this type of door has wood

beads and slats that match the face veneer. Space
betlveen th opening in the d@r and the edge of the door
n be no less than 5 in.
FACTORY
SEAMLESS
EDGE,
CONTINUOUS
WELO FILL
AND GRIND
SMOOTH
SPOT-WELDEO,
MECHANICAL
INTERLOCKING
OR HEMMED
SEAM
'/" an. sawn

Staved-bl@k and stile-and-rail solid cores take
veneers. These are the same asr/s in. sawn veneers but do
not have a crossband on stile-and-rail solid cores with hori
zontal blocks. Faces can be cut with decoratave grooves.
LIGHT AND
DOOR
CLOSURE
CHANNEL OR
OPTIONAL
CAP
METAL FACE
u/OOO
473
NOTE
For bonded blocks, stave core is the most economical and
widely used. Other materials include particleboard (heavier,
more soundproof, economical) and mineral compositjon
(lighter, difficult cutouts
and detailing. lower screw
strength).
Acoustical materials may be used to cut sound transmlssion.
\MOOD SOLID CORE DOOR
WOOD
4. Tolerances:height, width, thickness, squareness,and

warp per NWWDA standards;vary with solid vs. builtup
construction.
5. Prefit: d@rs at 3/join. less than width and'/s in. less in
height than nominalsize, t1132in. tolerance,with vertical
eoges easeo.
6. Premachining:doors monised lor lmks and cut out for

hingeswhen so specified.
7. Premium: fo. transparentlinish; good/custom:lor paint
or transparentfinish; sound: for paint. with two coats
completelycoveringdefects.
N OTE
HOLLO\^/ CORE
DOOR
Daniel F. C. Hayes. AIA; Washington, D.C.
DOORS
WOOD AND PLASTIC
Stileond RqilDoors
474
GENERAL
BUILTUP MEMBERS
Panel doors consist oJ a framework of vertical (stile) and

horizontal (rail) members that hold solid wood or plywood
nanels. glass lights. or louvers rn place.
The core and edge and end strip material is simrlar to the
mate.ial used in flush doors. Face veneer is typically hardwood at'/s in. minimum thickness.
CONSTRUCTION
sTtcKlNG, GLASS STOPS.

AND MUNTINS
Doors are made of solid or builtup stiles, rails, and venical

members {muntins), doweled as in NWWDA standards.
Stock material includes ponderosa pine or other Western
pine, fir, heml@k, or spruce and hardwood veneers. Hardboard, metal, and plastic facings are available in patterns
simulating panel doors.
TUBUUR
METAL
PERIMETER
Typical profiles used are cove, bead, or ovolo.
OR
PANELS
Premium (selectl grade is used for natural, clear, or stained

finishes. Exposed wood is free of defects that affect
appearance
RAIL
(VERTICAL
STILE
HINGE
DOOR
STILE AND
MEMAERS)
GLAZING, EITHER
SINGLE.GUZEO PANEL
WITH REMOVABLE
MUNTINS OR
INOIVIDUALLY GUZED
PANES WITH TRUE
DIVIDEO LIGHT
MUNTINS
MEMBERS)
STILE
LOCK
EDGE
CHANNEL
HOLLOW METAL
RAIL DETAIL
All glazing in doors must be salety glazing Insulated glazing

is available.
RAIL
FtNtsH
METAL
F A CE
STRUCTURAL
FACE PLY
Door projections, such as Dutch door shelves, may be no

more than 4 in. if more than 27 in. above linished floor.
Thresholds and saddles must be no lrigher thanl/, in. with
beveled edges. Kickplates are recommended
outdoors
along accessible routes.
GLAZING
TOP
ADA ACCESSIBILITY GUIDELINES

Foropening
widthcompliance,
usedoors3 ft 0 in.wide.
Standard grade is used for opaque Iinishes. Defects, discof

oration. mixed species, and finger joints are permitted if
undetectable aller linishing.
(HORIZONTAL
./
Flat panels are typically 3{ly

hardwood or softwood.
Raised panels are constructed of solid hardwood or soft
wood built uo ol two or more olies. Doors 1 ft 6 in. wide or
less are one panel wide.
GRADES
RAIL
CORE
MATERIAL
STILE
MEETING
STILE (PASSIVE/
STATIONARY
LEAF}
o
o
LOCK (CROSS) RAIL

PANEL (DISTINCT
SECTION
ENCLOSED
BY FRAMEWORK)
c
o
GUZING
oz
OU
zu
FUT
PANEL
PANEL
FULL LOUVERED PANEL
15
O
RAISED
PANEL
MUNTIN (NONSTRUCTURAL
MEMBER WITHIN FRAME
OF DOOR)
r:
;9
;0
BONOM
<1'---
Lrt
RAIL
":;+":,e+i"','|.
iroer;oa
EXTERIOR:2-6",2'-e",3-O"
t, .,V
| -.zi-ntERroR
r 3/e". r3ro'
E X T E R I o R 1 3 t 4 " .? ' t a '
)t
SToRM/SCREEN DOOR I ,/6
Tempered or laminated safety

should be used in glazed panels.
--t'/
TYPICAL
STILE
SIZES
AND
AND
RAIL
I J/s''
FRENCH DOOR
CHARACTERISTICS
DOOR
GLAZED/LOUVEREO
TYPES
//
MOLDTNG
MOLDED MUNTIN
SOLID
MOLDED
FRAME
WITH
FLAT
VENEEREO
PANEL
I/".'MIRRoR
A5
VENEER/
FINISH
APPLIEO
HARDWOOD
FINISH
TYPICAL BEVELED
DOOR
WOOD
BANDING
VENEERED
FUT PANEL
PLY
VENEERED
BUILTUP FRAME
CORE
EDGE
RAISEO PANEL
PUTTY STOP FOR

E X T E R I O RU S E -
MOLDING
EACH SIDE
STILE
OR RAIL
CROSS
(TEMPERED
REoUIRED)
MIRROREO
PANEL
STILE ANO RAIL DOOR DETAILS
Jeftrey R. Vandevoort, Talbott Wilson Associates, lnc.; Houston Texas

Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D C.
WOODAND PLASTIC
DOORS
GUZEO
DOOR
DOOR
Door LeofChorocteristics
GENERAL
DEFINITIONS
Consider the following wheo designrng a door: aesthetics

{the design and look of the door}, operation (how the door
moves), fire-resistance ratings/egress requirements, accessibility for people with disabilitres,size and weight, location,
materials/method of conslruction, glazing requirements,
special requirements (sound transmission, containment of
harmtul material such as x-rays or prcjecliles), security
issues, energy consetuation, electrostatic grounding, hardware, and weatherprmting.
ACTIVE LEAF: the primary operating leaf oJ a door pair
SPACE
475
REQUIREMENTS
(vARlous DooR wlDTHs-lN.
AIR CURTAIN: a mechanically produced downward st.eam

ot air across a door opening intended to prevent transmission of heat and weatherAUTOMATIC DOOR: a door fully or panially operated with
an externai mechanism (door opener) triggered by sensor
or switch/button, as opposed to manual operation; refer to
accessibility and fire code requirements.
Refer to local, state. and federal codes and trade association and manufacturers' specifications and recommendations for additional informaton and re?uirements.
HAND: denoles direction of door movement.

LEAF: a door panel.
DOOR SWING
OIRECTION
SYMBOL
LEFT-HINGED DOOR: a door with hinges mounted on the

left stile of the active panel.
PASSIVEiINACTIVE DOOR: a door that operates independently of and secondarily to the active leat of a door pair;
normally held closed with floor and head bolts; the strike
plate of this door receives the latch of the aclive leaf.
HINGE
SIDE
PREHUNG DOOR: door and frame combination fabricated

and assembled by the manufacturer and shipped to the
site.
LATCH OR
STRIKE
STATIONARY {FIXED) DOOR: a nonoperational leaf.
LOCKSTT
BALANCED
DOOR
STOPS PERMIT SWING

IN ONE DIRECTION
ONLY
AND SEAL OPENING
THERMALLY
AND
ACOUSTICALLY
DOOR
SWING
ROUTE OF
TRAVEL
-;\R
PIVOT POINT (PIVOT

HARDWARE IN
FLOOR AND HEAD
OR DOUBLE-ACTING
DOOR LEAF
-.',
Doors that swing. the most common typ of door opera,

tion, rotate aroundan axisdeterminedby hingesor pivots.
,i,'
DOOR AND OPENING

CHARACTERISTICS
-e
lTfmr
PARALLEL
A balanceddoor is a single-actionswinging door mounted

on offset pivots. The leaf operates independentlyol the
jamb, and the ellipticaltrajectoryof the leaf requires less
clearfloorspacelhan a conventional
swingingdoor.
RIGHT-HINGED DOOR: a door with hinges mounled on the

right stile of the active panel.
BEVEL
DOOR SWING
ROUTE OF
/TRAVEL -
lTIIl].N
"illTlTl
DOUBLE.ACTING
lT|[r]T]1|ltfftflr
The single-acting door, the most common door type. has a

leaf that operates in a swinging or sliding motion in only
one qtrecton.
STRAIGHT
MEETING EDGE TYPES FOR DOUBLE

DOOR LEAVES
SINGLE
DOOR
NO STOP
-/
DOOR
Double-actingdoors have a leaf that opratesin two directions-Thereis usuallyno stop presentto rest.ict the motion
of the door, but when the door can be stopped, it can be
releasedmechanically
to permrtaccessin an emergency.
LEAF TYPES
MEETING EDGES
ACTIVE LEAF
--I
DooR swrNc
ROUTE OF
TRAVEL TYP
.?
,t-
- ,/
\\ /
_.\
<)\/_
DOUBLE-EGRESsi DOORS
OOUBLE
OR
PAIRED
/ '
OOORS
N OTE
Doublegress doors have a pair of swinging leaves that
operate in opposite directions, permitting equal access to
two or more means of passage.
DOUBLE
DOOR
Double or paired doors have two leaves (of equal or

unequal size). that operate either together or indepen-
dently. They create a doorway wilh variable widths suitable

lor differing occupancy/egress requirements.
LEAF TYPES
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsvilte,

Maryland
DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA;Washington,
D.C.
WOODAND PLASTIC
DOORS
476
Swinging ond Sliding Doors
SWINGING
DOOR
\
s,
. \N\
'-z
stLL oR
DOOR
SWING
"-- J:1'::'.jy:'-- --
SURFACE-MOUNTED
NOTE
Swingingdoors rotateon hingesor pivots,requireadequate
floor space to accommodate outswing, and are used for
egressopenings.Seecodesfor requirements.
SWINGING
DOORS
s',-O",6aO"
,3-t",
Wood, metal, or glass d@rs that slide horizontallyor vertically on tracks create totally clear openings without the
SLIDING DOORS
TOP LEAF MAY
2 -a',2'-9"
----T
swlNc
SWINGING
DOOR SIZES
METAL TRACK
OR CONCEALED J \.
cLoSER --------]--l
SPECIAL
CONCEALED
ADJUSTABLE
TROLLEY (2 PER
DOOR)
SLIDING
DOOR TRACK
BOLT TO
ENABL
BOTH HALVES
ON TRIM TO
PERMIT OPERATION
DUTCH OOOR
floor space requirementsof swinging doors. See codes for

egressrequirements.
METAL CLIPS,
AS NECESSARY,
FASTENEO TO
WALL STRUCTURE
r 80"
8',O", 9'-O"
il|m|
mmm
|mml
ll\il]zlll
tiL,rllt\llL_ril
:J [lJ
=-1_l 1_[
DOOR
NOTE
DOOR
Sv\/INGING DOORS
WOOD
FRAME
DOOR
.*"N,,.
HARDWARE
FOR BYPASS DOORS
HEADER
STRUCTURE
METAL TRACK
METAL TRACK
ADJUSTABLE
TROLLEY
BYPASSING
DOORS
SEAUNT AND
AACKER ROD
WOOD CASING
CONCEALS
SHIM AS
REOUIRED
ABOVE
2X STUDS
TURNED
SIDEWAYS
AT t6 0C.
RETRACTABLE
DOOR PULL
IN DOOR EDGE
SCREEN DOOR
AND FRAME
UNIT
THRESHOLD
rrilh-T-
li ll+f1f-
JKJLJ+#-
Z|*N--------.-.--.-.
SHIM
uu-----
L?\\\\\I\SL\SJLI\IN\\ID'
JAMB CASING
WITH OPTIONAL
IrlL
JAMB
FLOOR GUIDE
CLIPS, AS
NECESSARY
SLIDING DOOR
OPTIONAL
ROLLER AND
TRACK FOR
HEAVY OR
URGE DOORS
SILL
DETAIL-EXTERIOR
SWINGTNG DOOR
DETAIL-SLIDING
Daniel F C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D C
WOOD AND PLASTIC

DOORS
POCKET
SPACE
DETAIL-BYPASS
DOOR

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ARCHITECTURAL

tJCHN WILEY 6. SONS

THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS

DIIlIlIl LYNN DAVIS

New Media Director

AGS TASI( hlR( I

JOHN RAY HOKE, JR., FAIA

This book is printed on acid-free paper. @

library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

A Vievv of Architectural Graphic

GENERAL PLANNING AND

Masonry Mortar 210

Metal Materials 260

Concrete Forms and Accessories

WOOD AND PLASTICS

Subsurface Investigation 144

Fireplaces and Stoves 570

THERMAL AND MOISTURE

DOORS AND WINDOWS

Fire Rating and Security 464

Specialty Doors 478

Plaster and Gypsum Board 516

Security and Vault Equipment 588

Air-Supported Structures 644

Compartments and Cubicles 564

Historic Storefronts 857

Mechanical Insulation 678

Residential Room Planning 864

Basic Electrical Materials and Methods 738

SPORTS AND GAME

Ice and Snow Sports 791 I

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

BUILDING TYPES AND

Graphic Symbols 978

hroughout most of the twentieth century, publication of

be a professional. To that list, I would like to add the many

n behalf of The American Institute of Architects (AlA),

NORMAN L. KOONCE, FAIA

he American Institute of Architects and John Wiley &

president/COO, for his many years of service in the care of

of the new millennium, prepared for service for the next

he tenth edition of Architectural' Graphic Standards

arrives on the cusp of change, as both a century and a

ROBERT IVY, FAIA

Architectural Graphic Standards

Pennsylvania Station, New York

Sixth edition published: first edition edited by The

AlA Headquarters, Washington, DC

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, DC

J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California

1,000,000th copy sold

PHILIP C. JOHNSON, FAIA

Edward Allen, AlA

Robert Prouse. IALD, IES

Trucks, Trains, and Boats

Anthropometric Data: Adult

rate, differences are small when compared with size

The following anthropometric drawings show three

Pivot point and link systems make it easy to construct

female S1anding heights (including shoes)

70.4 large ~ 97.5 percen.tile } includes

For Men Or Women. C.G. Is Within Pelvic link.

Maximum safe temperature of metal handles is 50C