Compact Muon Solenoid

Coordinates:
6.07694E

461834N 6437E / 46.30944N

lider experiments hope to answer. These include uncertainties in the mathematical behaviour of the Standard
Model at high energies, tests of proposed theories of dark
matter (including supersymmetry), and the reasons for
the imbalance of matter and antimatter observed in the
Universe.

2 Physics goals
The main goals of the experiment are:
to explore physics at the TeV scale
to study the properties of the recently found Higgs
boson

View of the CMS endcap through the barrel sections. The ladder
to the lower right gives an impression of scale.

to look for evidence of physics beyond the standard

model, such as supersymmetry, or extra dimensions
The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment is one
of two large general-purpose particle physics detectors
to study aspects of heavy ion collisions.
built on the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in
Switzerland and France. The goal of CMS experiment
is to investigate a wide range of physics, including the The ATLAS experiment, at the other side of the LHC
search for the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, and parti- ring is designed with similar goals in mind, and the two
experiments are designed to complement each other both
cles that could make up dark matter.
to extend reach and to provide corroboration of ndings.
CMS is 21.6 metres long, 15 m in diameter, and weighs
CMS and ATLAS uses dierent technical solutions and
about 14,000 tonnes.[1] Approximately 3,800 people,
design of its detector magnet system to achieve the goals.
representing 199 scientic institutes and 43 countries,
form the CMS collaboration who built and now operate
the detector.[2] It is located in an underground cavern at
Cessy in France, just across the border from Geneva. In 3 Detector summary
July 2012, along with ATLAS, CMS tentatively discovered the Higgs boson.[3][4][5]
CMS is designed as a general-purpose detector, capable
of studying many aspects of proton collisions at 8TeV, the
center-of-mass energy of the LHC particle accelerator.

Background

The CMS detector is built around a huge solenoid magnet.

This takes the form of a cylindrical coil of superconducting cable that generates a magnetic eld of 4 teslas, about
100 000 times that of the Earth. The magnetic eld is
conned by a steel 'yoke' that forms the bulk of the detectors weight of 12 500 tonnes. An unusual feature of
the CMS detector is that instead of being built in-situ underground, like the other giant detectors of the LHC experiments, it was constructed on the surface, before being
lowered underground in 15 sections and reassembled.

Recent collider experiments such as the now-dismantled

Large Electron-Positron Collider and the newly renovated
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, as well as the (as
of October 2011) recently closed Tevatron at Fermilab
have provided remarkable insights into, and precision
tests of, the Standard Model of Particle Physics. A principle achievement of these experiments (specically of the
LHC) is the discovery of a particle consistent with the
Standard Model Higgs boson, the particle resulting from It contains subsystems which are designed to measure the
the Higgs mechanism, which provides an explanation for energy and momentum of photons, electrons, muons, and
the masses of elementary particles.[6]
other products of the collisions. The innermost layer is
However, there are still many questions that future col- a silicon-based tracker. Surrounding it is a scintillating
1

crystal electromagnetic calorimeter, which is itself surrounded with a sampling calorimeter for hadrons. The
tracker and the calorimetry are compact enough to t inside the CMS Solenoid which generates a powerful magnetic eld of 3.8 T. Outside the magnet are the large muon
detectors, which are inside the return yoke of the magnet.

CMS BY LAYERS

tracker records the paths taken by charged particles by

nding their positions at a number of key points.
The tracker can reconstruct the paths of high-energy
muons, electrons and hadrons (particles made up of
quarks) as well as see tracks coming from the decay of
very short-lived particles such as beauty or b quarks that
will be used to study the dierences between matter and
antimatter.

CMS by layers

The tracker needs to record particle paths accurately yet

be lightweight so as to disturb the particle as little as posFor full technical details about the CMS detector, please sible. It does this by taking position measurements so accurate that tracks can be reliably reconstructed using just
see the Technical Design Report.
a few measurement points. Each measurement is accurate to 10 m, a fraction of the width of a human hair. It
is also the inner most layer of the detector and so receives
4.1 The interaction point
the highest volume of particles: the construction materi[7]
This is the point in the centre of the detector at which als were therefore carefully chosen to resist radiation.
proton-proton collisions occur between the two counter- The CMS tracker is made entirely of silicon: the pixels,
rotating beams of the LHC. At each end of the detector at the very core of the detector and dealing with the highmagnets focus the beams into the interaction point. At est intensity of particles, and the silicon microstrip decollision each beam has a radius of 17 m and the cross- tectors that surround it. As particles travel through the
ing angle between the beams is 285 rad.
tracker the pixels and microstrips produce tiny electric
At full design luminosity each of the two LHC beams will signals that are amplied and detected. The tracker emcontain 2,808 bunches of 1.151011 protons. The inter- ploys sensors covering an area the size of a tennis court,
val between crossings is 25 ns, although the number of with 75 million separate electronic read-out channels: in
collisions per second is only 31.6 million due to gaps in the pixel detector there are some 6000 connections per
the beam as injector magnets are activated and deacti- square centimetre.
vated.
At full luminosity each collision will produce an average
of 20 proton-proton interactions. The collisions occur at
a centre of mass energy of 8 TeV. But, it is worth noting
that for studies of physics at the electroweak scale, the
scattering events are initiated by a single quark or gluon
from each proton, and so the actual energy involved in
each collision will be lower as the total centre of mass
energy is shared by these quarks and gluons (determined
by the parton distribution functions).
The rst test which ran in September 2008 was expected
to operate at a lower collision energy of 10 TeV but
this was prevented by the 19 September 2008 shutdown.
When at this target level, the LHC will have a significantly reduced luminosity, due to both fewer proton
bunches in each beam and fewer protons per bunch. The
reduced bunch frequency does allow the crossing angle
to be reduced to zero however, as bunches are far enough
spaced to prevent secondary collisions in the experimental beampipe.

4.2

Layer 1 The tracker

Momentum of particles is crucial in helping us to build

up a picture of events at the heart of the collision. One
method to calculate the momentum of a particle is to
track its path through a magnetic eld; the more curved
the path, the less momentum the particle had. The CMS

The CMS silicon tracker consists of 13 layers in the central region and 14 layers in the endcaps. The innermost
three layers (up to 11 cm radius) consist of 100150 m
pixels, 66 million in total.
The next four layers (up to 55 cm radius) consist of 10
cm 180 m silicon strips, followed by the remaining
six layers of 25 cm 180 m strips, out to a radius of 1.1
m. There are 9.6 million strip channels in total.
During full luminosity collisions the occupancy of the
pixel layers per event is expected to be 0.1%, and 1
2% in the strip layers. The expected SLHC upgrade will
increase the number of interactions to the point where
over-occupancy may signicantly reduce tracknding effectiveness.
This part of the detector is the worlds largest silicon
detector. It has 205 m2 of silicon sensors (approximately the area of a tennis court) comprising 76 million
channels.[8]

4.3 Layer 2
Calorimeter

The

Electromagnetic

The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is designed to

measure with high accuracy the energies of electrons and
photons.
The ECAL is constructed from crystals of lead tungstate,
PbWO4 . This is an extremely dense but optically clear

4.5

Layer 4 The magnet

material, ideal for stopping high energy particles. Lead

tungstate crystal is made primarily of metal and is heavier than stainless steel, but with a touch of oxygen in this
crystalline form it is highly transparent and scintillates
when electrons and photons pass through it. This means
it produces light in proportion to the particles energy.
These high-density crystals produce light in fast, short,
well-dened photon bursts that allow for a precise, fast
and fairly compact detector. It has a radiation length of
0 = 0.89 cm, and has a rapid light yield, with 80% of light
yield within one crossing time (25 ns). This is balanced
however by a relatively low light yield of 30 photons per
MeV of incident energy. The crystals used have a front
size of 22 mm 22 mm and a depth of 230 mm. They
are set in a matrix of carbon bre to keep them optically
isolated, and backed by silicon avalanche photodiodes for
readout.
The ECAL, made up of a barrel section and two endcaps, forms a layer between the tracker and the HCAL.
The cylindrical barrel consists of 61,200 crystals
formed into 36 supermodules, each weighing around
three tonnes and containing 1700 crystals. The at ECAL
endcaps seal o the barrel at either end and are made up
of almost 15,000 further crystals.
For extra spatial precision, the ECAL also contains
preshower detectors that sit in front of the endcaps. These
allow CMS to distinguish between single high-energy
photons (often signs of exciting physics) and the less interesting close pairs of low-energy photons.
At the endcaps the ECAL inner surface is covered by the
preshower subdetector, consisting of two layers of lead
interleaved with two layers of silicon strip detectors. Its
purpose is to aid in pion-photon discrimination.

4.4

Layer 3 The Hadronic Calorimeter

Half of the Hadron Calorimeter

3
it provides indirect measurement of the presence of noninteracting, uncharged particles such as neutrinos.
The HCAL consists of layers of dense material (brass or
steel) interleaved with tiles of plastic scintillators, read
out via wavelength-shifting bres by hybrid photodiodes.
This combination was determined to allow the maximum
amount of absorbing material inside of the magnet coil.
The high pseudorapidity region (3.0 < || < 5.0) is instrumented by the Hadronic Forward (HF) detector. Located 11 m either side of the interaction point, this uses a
slightly dierent technology of steel absorbers and quartz
bres for readout, designed to allow better separation of
particles in the congested forward region. The HF is also
used to measure the relative online luminosity system in
CMS.
About half of the brass used in the endcaps of the HCAL
used to be Russian artillery shells.[9]

4.5 Layer 4 The magnet

The CMS magnet is the central device around which the
experiment is built, with a 4 Tesla magnetic eld that is
100,000 times stronger than the Earths. CMS has a large
solenoid magnet. This allows the charge/mass ratio of
particles to be determined from the curved track that they
follow in the magnetic eld. It is 13 m long and 6 m in
diameter, and its refrigerated superconducting niobiumtitanium coils were originally intended to produce a 4 T
magnetic eld. The operating eld was scaled down to 3.8
T instead of the full design strength in order to maximize
longevity.[10]
The inductance of the magnet is 14 and the nominal
current for 4 T is 19,500 A, giving a total stored energy of
2.66 GJ, equivalent to about half-a-tonne of TNT. There
are dump circuits to safely dissipate this energy should
the magnet quench. The circuit resistance (essentially just
the cables from the power converter to the cryostat) has
a value of 0.1 m which leads to a circuit time constant
of nearly 39 hours. This is the longest time constant of
any circuit at CERN. The operating current for 3.8 T is
18,160 A, giving a stored energy of 2.3 GJ.
The job of the big magnet is to bend the paths of particles
emerging from high-energy collisions in the LHC. The
more momentum a particle has the less its path is curved
by the magnetic eld, so tracing its path gives a measure
of momentum. CMS began with the aim of having the
strongest magnet possible because a higher strength eld
bends paths more and, combined with high-precision position measurements in the tracker and muon detectors,
this allows accurate measurement of the momentum of
even high-energy particles.

The tracker and calorimeter detectors (ECAL and

The Hadron Calorimeter (HCAL) measures the energy HCAL) t snugly inside the magnet coil whilst the muon
of hadrons, particles made of quarks and gluons (for ex- detectors are interleaved with a 12-sided iron structure
ample protons, neutrons, pions and kaons). Additionally that surrounds the magnet coils and contains and guides

COLLECTING AND COLLATING THE DATA

the eld. Made up of three layers this return yoke

reaches out 14 metres in diameter and also acts as a lter, allowing through only muons and weakly interacting
particles such as neutrinos. The enormous magnet also
provides most of the experiments structural support, and
must be very strong itself to withstand the forces of its
own magnetic eld.

4.6

ock to the anode wires creating an avalanche of electrons. Positive ions move away from the wire and towards
the copper cathode, also inducing a charge pulse in the
strips, at right angles to the wire direction. Because the
strips and the wires are perpendicular, we get two position coordinates for each passing particle. In addition to
providing precise space and time information, the closely
spaced wires make the CSCs fast detectors suitable for
triggering. Each CSC module contains six layers making
Layer 5 The muon detectors and re- it able to accurately identify muons and match their tracks
turn yoke
to those in the tracker.

As the name Compact Muon Solenoid suggests, detecting muons is one of CMSs most important tasks.
Muons are charged particles that are just like electrons
and positrons, but are 200 times more massive. We expect them to be produced in the decay of a number of potential new particles; for instance, one of the clearest signatures of the Higgs Boson is its decay into four muons.
Because muons can penetrate several metres of iron without interacting, unlike most particles they are not stopped
by any of CMSs calorimeters. Therefore, chambers to
detect muons are placed at the very edge of the experiment where they are the only particles likely to register a
signal.
To identify muons and measure their momenta, CMS uses
three types of detector: drift tubes (DT), cathode strip
chambers (CSC) and resistive plate chambers (RPC). The
DTs are used for precise trajectory measurements in the
central barrel region, while the CSCs are used in the end
caps. The RPCs provide a fast signal when a muon passes
through the muon detector, and are installed in both the
barrel and the end caps.
The drift tube (DT) system measures muon positions in
the barrel part of the detector. Each 4-cm-wide tube
contains a stretched wire within a gas volume. When a
muon or any charged particle passes through the volume
it knocks electrons o the atoms of the gas. These follow the electric eld ending up at the positively charged
wire. By registering where along the wire electrons hit (in
the diagram, the wires are going into the page) as well as
by calculating the muons original distance away from the
wire (shown here as horizontal distance and calculated
by multiplying the speed of an electron in the tube by
the time taken) DTs give two coordinates for the muons
position. Each DT chamber, on average 2m x 2.5m in
size, consists of 12 aluminium layers, arranged in three
groups of four, each with up to 60 tubes: the middle group
measures the coordinate along the direction parallel to the
beam and the two outside groups measure the perpendicular coordinate.

Resistive plate chambers (RPC) are fast gaseous detectors

that provide a muon trigger system parallel with those of
the DTs and CSCs. RPCs consist of two parallel plates,
a positively charged anode and a negatively charged cathode, both made of a very high resistivity plastic material and separated by a gas volume. When a muon passes
through the chamber, electrons are knocked out of gas
atoms. These electrons in turn hit other atoms causing
an avalanche of electrons. The electrodes are transparent
to the signal (the electrons), which are instead picked up
by external metallic strips after a small but precise time
delay. The pattern of hit strips gives a quick measure of
the muon momentum, which is then used by the trigger
to make immediate decisions about whether the data are
worth keeping. RPCs combine a good spatial resolution
with a time resolution of just one nanosecond (one billionth of a second).

5 Collecting and collating the data

5.1 Pattern recognition
New particles discovered in CMS will be typically
unstable and rapidly transform into a cascade of lighter,
more stable and better understood particles. Particles
travelling through CMS leave behind characteristic patterns, or signatures, in the dierent layers, allowing them
to be identied. The presence (or not) of any new particles can then be inferred.

5.2 Trigger system

To have a good chance of producing a rare particle,
such as a Higgs boson, a very large number of collisions is required. Most collision events in the detector
are soft and do not produce interesting eects. The
amount of raw data from each crossing is approximately
1 megabytes, which at the 40 MHz crossing rate would result in 40 terabytes of data a second, an amount that the
experiment cannot hope to store, let alone process properly. The full trigger system reduces the rate of interesting
events down to a manageable 1000 per second.

Cathode strip chambers (CSC) are used in the endcap

disks where the magnetic eld is uneven and particle rates
are high. CSCs consist of arrays of positively charged
anode wires crossed with negatively charged copper
cathode strips within a gas volume. When muons pass To accomplish this, a series of trigger stages are emthrough, they knock electrons o the gas atoms, which ployed. All the data from each crossing is held in buers

5
within the detector while a small amount of key information is used to perform a fast, approximate calculation
to identify features of interest such as high energy jets,
muons or missing energy. This Level 1 calculation is
completed in around 1 s, and event rate is reduced by
a factor of about thousand down to 50 kHz. All these
calculations are done on fast, custom hardware using reprogrammable eld-programmable gate arrays (FPGA).

particle decays very rarely contain a large number

of particles, and those processes that do are well understood.

6 Milestones

Computer-generated event display of protons hitting

If an event is passed by the Level 1 trigger all the data still
a tungsten block just upstream of CMS on the rst
buered in the detector is sent over bre-optic links to the
beam day, September 2008
High Level trigger, which is software (mainly written in
C++) running on ordinary computer servers. The lower
event rate in the High Level trigger allows time for much 7 Etymology
more detailed analysis of the event to be done than in the
Level 1 trigger. The High Level trigger reduces the event
rate by a further factor of hundred down to 1000 events The term Compact Muon Solenoid comes from the relper second. These are then stored on tape for future anal- atively compact size of the detector, the fact that it detects muons, and the use of solenoids in the detector.[15]
ysis.
CMS is also a reference to the center-of-mass system,
an important concept in particle physics.

5.3

Data analysis

Data that has passed the triggering stages and been

stored on tape is duplicated using the Grid to additional
sites around the world for easier access and redundancy.
Physicists are then able to use the Grid to access and run
their analyses on the data.
There are a huge range of analyses performed at CMS,
including:

8 See also
9 Notes
[1] http://www.stfc.ac.uk/publications/PDF/CERN-CMS.
pdf
[2] http://cms.web.cern.ch/content/cms-collaboration

Performing precision measurements of Standard

Model particles, which allows both for furthering the
knowledge of these particles and also for the collaboration to calibrate the detector and measure the
performance of various components.
Searching for events with large amounts of missing transverse energy, which implies the presence of
particles that have passed through the detector without leaving a signature. In the Standard Model only
neutrinos would traverse the detector without being
detected but a wide range of Beyond the Standard
Model theories contain new particles that would also
result in missing transverse energy.
Studying the kinematics of pairs of particles produced by the decay of a parent, such as the Z boson
decaying to a pair of electrons or the Higgs boson
decaying to a pair of tau leptons or photons, to determine various properties and mass of the parent.
Looking at jets of particles to study the way the partons (quarks and gluons) in the collided protons have
interacted, or to search for evidence of new physics
that manifests in hadronic nal states.
Searching for high particle multiplicity nal states
(predicted by many new physics theories) is an important strategy because common Standard Model

[3] Biever, C. (6 July 2012). Its a boson! But we need to

know if its the Higgs. New Scientist. Retrieved 201301-09. 'As a layman, I would say, I think we have it,' said
Rolf-Dieter Heuer, director general of CERN at Wednesdays seminar announcing the results of the search for the
Higgs boson. But when pressed by journalists afterwards
on what exactly 'it' was, things got more complicated. 'We
have discovered a boson now we have to nd out what
boson it is
Q: 'If we don't know the new particle is a Higgs, what do
we know about it?' We know it is some kind of boson,
says Vivek Sharma of CMS [...]
Q: 'are the CERN scientists just being too cautious? What
would be enough evidence to call it a Higgs boson?' As
there could be many dierent kinds of Higgs bosons,
theres no straight answer.
[emphasis in original]
[4] Siegfried, T. (20 July 2012). Higgs Hysteria. Science
News. Retrieved 2012-12-09. In terms usually reserved
for athletic achievements, news reports described the nding as a monumental milestone in the history of science.
[5] Del Rosso, A. (19 November 2012). Higgs: The beginning of the exploration. CERN Bulletin. Retrieved 201301-09. Even in the most specialized circles, the new particle discovered in July is not yet being called the Higgs
boson. Physicists still hesitate to call it that before they
have determined that its properties t with those the Higgs
theory predicts the Higgs boson has.

11

[6] The Higgs Boson. CERN: Accelerating Science. CERN.

Retrieved 11 June 2015.
[7] http://cms.web.cern.ch/news/tracker-detector
[8] CMS installs the worlds largest silicon detector, CERN
Courier, Feb 15, 2008
[9] Using Russian navy shells - Lucas Taylor
[10] Precise mapping of the magnetic eld in the CMS barrel
yoke using cosmic rays
[11] First lead-ion collisions in the LHC. CERN. 2010. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[12] New world record - rst pp collisions at 8 TeV. CERN.
2012. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[13] LHC report: Run 1 - the nal urry. CERN. 2013. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[14] LHC experiments back in business at record energy.
CERN. 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
[15] Aczel, Ammir D. Present at the Creation: Discovering
the Higgs Boson. Random House, 2012

10

References

Della Negra, Michel; Petrilli, Achille; Herve, Alain;

Foa, Lorenzo (2006). CMS Physics Technical Design Report Volume I: Software and Detector Performance (PDF). CERN.

11

External links

CMS home page

CMS Outreach
CMS Times
CMS section from US/LHC Website
http://petermccready.com/portfolio/07041601.
html Panoramic view - click and drag to look
around the experiment under construction (with
sound!) (requires QuickTime)
The assembly of the CMS detector, step by step,
through a 3D animation
The CMS Collaboration, S Chatrchyan; et al.
(2008-08-14). The CMS experiment at the CERN
LHC. Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8): S08004.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8004T. doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08004. Retrieved 2008-08-26. (Full
design documentation)
Copeland, Ed. Inside the CMS Experiment. Sixty
Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

EXTERNAL LINKS

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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