Finite element analysis in

geotechnical engineering
Theory

David M. Potts and Lidija Zdravkovi

Imperia[ College of Science, Technology and Medicine

\ 1

ThomasTelford

------------------------Contents

Preface

l.

2.

Geotech nical analysis

Synopsis
1.1
!ntroduction
1.2
Design objectives
1.3
Design requirements
1.4
Theoretical considerations
1.5
Requirements for a generai solution
1.5. 1
Equilibrium
1.5.2
Compatibility
1.5.3
1.5.4
Equilibrium and compatibility equations
Constitutive
behaviour
1.5.5
1.6
Geometrie idealisation
Piane strain
1.6. 1
Axi-symmetry
1.6.2
Methods of analysis
1.7
Closed form solutions
1.8
1.9
Simple methods
Limit equilibrium
1.9.1
Stress field solution
1.9.2
Limit analysis
1.9.3
1.9.4
Comments
1.10 Numerica! analysis
1.1 0.1
Beam-spring approach
1.10.2
Full numerica! analysis
1.11 Summary
Finite
2.1
2 .2
2.3
2.4
2.5

element theory for Jinear materials

Synopsis
Introduction
Overview
Element discretisation
Displacement approximation

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ii l Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering: Theory

2.5.1
lsoparametric finite elements
29
2 .6
Element equaiions
31
2 .6.1
Numerica! integration
34
2.7
Global equations
36
The direct stiffness assembly method
36
2.7.1
2.8
Boundary conditions
39
2.9
Solution of global equations
39
2.9.1
Storage of global stiffness matrix
40
2 .9.2
Triangular decomposition of the global stiffness matrix41
2.9.3
Solution of the finite element equations
43
2.9.4
Modification due to displacement boundary conditions 45
2.1 O Calculation of stresses and strains
47
2 . 11 Example
47
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2 .12 Axi-symmetric finite element analysis
2.13 Summary
SO
Appendix Il. l
Triangular finite elements
51
II. 1.1
Derivation of area coordinates
51
Il. l.2
lsoparametric formulation
53

3.

Geotechnical considerations
Synopsis
3. 1
lntroduction
3.2
Total stress analysis
3.3
Pore pressure calculation
3.4
Finite elements to model structural components
3.5
lntroduction
3.5 .1
Strain definitions
3.5 .2
Constitutive equation
3.5.3
Fin ite element formulation
3.5.4
Membrane elements
3.5.5
Finite elements to mode l interfaces
3.6
lntroduction
3.6.1
Basic theory
3.6.2
Finite element formulation
3.6.3
Comments
3.6.4
Boundary conditions
3 .7
lntroduction
3.7.1
Local axes
3.7 .2
Prescribed displacements
3.7.3
Ti
ed degrees of freedom
3.7.4
Springs
3.7.5
Boundary stresses
3.7 .6
Point Joads
3.7.7
Body forces
3.7.8

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Contents l iii

3.8
4.

5.

3.7.9
Construction
3.7.10
Excavation
3.7. 11
Pere pressurcs
Surnmary

Real soil behaviour

4.1
Synopsis
4.2
l n troduction
4.3
Behaviour of clay soils
4.3. 1
Behaviour under one dimensionai compression
4 .3.2
Behaviour when sheared
4 .3 .3
Effect of stress path d irection
4. 3.4
Effect of the magn itude ofthe intermediate
principal stress
4.3.5
Anisotropy
4 .3.6
Behaviour at large strains
4.4
Behaviour o f sands
4 .4. 1
Behaviour under one dimensionai compression
4.4.2
Behaviour when sheared
4 .4.3
Effect ofthe magnitude of the intermediate
principal stress
4 .4.4
Anisotropy
4.4.5
Behaviour t large strains
4.5
Behaviour of soils containing both clay an d sand
4 .5. 1
Comparison of sedimentary sols
4 .5.2
Residua! soils
4. 5.3
Residua! strength
4.6
Concluding remarks
4.7
Summary
E1astic constitutive models
5. 1
Synopsis
5.2
lntroduction
5.3
lnvariants
5.4
Elastic behaviour
5.5
Lnear isotropic elasticity
5.6
Linear anisotropie elasticity
5.7
Nonlinear elasticity
5.7.1
lntroducton
5.7.2
Bi-linear mode!
5.7.3
K- G mode!
5.7.4
Hyperbolic mode!
5.7.5
Small strain stiffness mode!
5.7.6
Puzrin and Burland mode!

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iv l Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering: T heory

5.8
6.

7.

Summary

131

Elasto-plastic behaviour
6. l
Synopsis
6.2
lntroduction
6.3
Uniaxial behaviour of a Jinear elastic perfectly plastic
materia!
6.4
Uniaxial behaviour of a linear elastic strain hardening
plastic materia!
6.5
Uniaxial behaviour of a linear elasti c strain softening
plastic materia!
6.6
Relevance to geotechnical engineering
6.7
Extension to generai stress and strain space
6.8
Basic concepts
6.8.1
Coincidence of axes
6.8.2
A yield function
6.8.3
A plastic potential function
6.8.4
The hardening/softening rules
6.9
Two dimensionai behaviour ofa linear elastic perfectly
plastic materia!
6.1O Two dimensionai behaviour of a linear elastic hardening
plastic materia!
6.1 l Two dimensionai behaviour of a linear elastic softening
plastic materia!
6.12 Comparison with real soil behaviour
6.13 Formulation of the elasto-plastic constitutive matrix
6.14 Summary

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Simple elasto-plastic constitutive models

7.1
Synopsis
7.2
lntroduction
7.3
Tresca mode!
7.4
Von Mises mode!
7.5
Mohr-Coulomb mode!
7.6
Drucker-Prager mode!
7. 7
Comments on simple elastic perfectly plastic models
7.8
An elastic strain hardening/softening Mohr-Coulomb mode l
7.9
Development ofthe criticai state models
7 .9.1
Basic formulation in triaxial stress space
7.9.2
Extension to generai stress space
7.9.3
Undrained strength
7 .l O Modifications to the basic forrnulation of criticai state models
7 .l 0.1
Yield surface on the supercritical side
7. l O.2
Yield surface for Kn consolidated soils

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Contents l v

7.10.3
Elastic component ofthe mode!
7.10.4
Plastic behaviour inside the main yie ld surface
7.1 1 Alternative shapes for the yield and plastic potential
surfaces for criticai state models
7.11.1
lntroduction
7.11.2
Development of a new expression in triaxial
stress space
7.1 1.3
Generalisation ofthe expression
7.12 The eff~ct of the plastic potenti al in piane stra in deformation
7. 13 Summary
Appendix VII. l Derivati ves of stress invariants
Appendix VII.2 Analytical solutions for triaxial test on
modified Cam clay
VII.2. 1 Drained triaxial test
VII.2.2
Undrained triaxial test
Appendix VII.3 Derivatives for modified Cam clay mode!
Appendix VII.4 Undrained strength for criticai state models

8.

Advanced constitutive models

Synopsis
8.1
8.2
lntroduction
Modelling of so il as a limited tension materia!
8.3
lntroduction
8.3.1
8.3.2
Mode! fonnu lation
8.3.2. 1
Yield surface
8.3.2 .2
Plastic potential
8.3.2.3
Finite element implementation
Formulation ofthe elasto-plastic constitutive matrix when
8.4
two yield surfaces are simultaneously active
Lade's double hardening model
8.5
8.5.1
Introduction
Overview of mode l
8. 5.2
8.5.3
Elastic behaviour
8.5.4
Failure criterion
8.5.5
Conica! yield function
8.5.6
Conica! plastic potential function
Conica! hardening law
8.5.7
8.5.8
Cap yield function
8.5.9
Cap plastic potential function
8.5.1 0
Cap hardening law
8.5.11
Comments
Bounding surface fonnulation of soil plasticity
8.6
8.6.1
lntroduction
8.6.2
Bounding surface plasticity

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vi l Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering: Theory

8.7

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Finite element theory for nonlinear materials

9.1 Synopsis
lntroduction
9.2
Nonlinear finite element analysis
9.3
9.4 Tangent stiffness method
Introduction
9.4.1
Finite element implementation
9.4.2
Uniform compression of a Mohr-Coulomb so il
9.4.3
Uniform compression ofmodified Caro clay soil
9.4.4
Visco-plastic method
9.5
Introduction
9.5.1
Finite element application
9.5 .2
Choice of time step
9.5.3
Potential errors in the algorithm
9.5.4
Uniform compression of a Mohr-Coulomb so il
9.5.5
Uniform compression ofmodified Cam clay soil
9.5.6
Modified Newton-Raphson method
9.6
Jntroduction
9.6.1
Stress point algorithms
9.6.2
Introduction
9.6.2.1
Substepping
algorithm
9.6.2.2
Retum
algorithm
9.6.2.3
Fundamental comparison
9.6.2.4
Convergence
criteria
9.6.3
Uniform compression of Mohr-Coulomb and
9.6.4
modified Cam clay soils

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MJT so il models
lntroduction
8.7.1
Transformed variables
8.7.2
Hysteretic elasticity
8.7.3
Behaviour on the bounding surface
8.7.4
Behaviour within the bounding surface
8.7.5
Comments
8.7.6
8.8 Bubble models
lntroduction
8.8.1
Behaviour of a kinematic yield surface
8.8.2
AI-Tabbaa
and Wood mode)
8.9
Bounding surface and bubble
8.9.1
Movement ofbubble
8.9.2
Elasto-plastic behaviour
8.9.3
Comments
8.9.4
8.10 Summary
Appendix VIII. l Derivatives for Lade's double hardening model

9.

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Conte nts l vii

Comparison ofthe solution strategies
26 1
lntroduction
261
9.7.1
9.7.2
ldealised triaxial test
263
Footing problem
9.7.3
267
270
9.7.4
Excavation problem
9.7.5
Pile problem
273
Comments
9.7.6
275
Summary
276
9.8
Appendix IX. l Substepping stress point algorithm
277
Introduction
277
IX. l. l
278
IX.I.2
Overview
IX.J.3
Modified Euler integration scheme with
error contro!
280
IX.I.4
Runge-Kutta integration scheme
283
Correcting for yield surface drift in
IX.l.S
elasto-plastic finite element analysis
283
IX.l.6
Nonlinear elastic behaviour
286
Appendix IX.2 Retum stress point algorithm
286
IX.2.1
Introduction
286
286
IX.2.2
Overview
IX.2.3
Retum algorithm proposed by Ortiz & Si mo ( 1986) 287
290
IX.2.4
Retum algorithm proposed by Borja & Lee ( 1990)
Appendix IXJ Comparison of substepping and retum algorithms
296
!X.3.1
lntroduction
296
Fundamental comparison
296
!X.3.2
!X.3.2.1
Undrained triaxial test
296
IX.3.2.2
Drained triaxial test
299
301
lX.3.3
Pile problem
IX.3.4
Consistent tangent operators
303
lX.3.5
Conclusions
304
9.7

lO. Seepage and consolidation

IO. l
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6

Synopsis
lntroduction
Finite element fonnulation for coupled problems
Finite element implementation
Steady state seepage
Hydraulic boundary conditions
10.6.1
lntroduction
10.6.2
Prescribed pore fluid pressures
10.6.3
Tied degrees of freedom
10.6.4
Infi1tration
Sources and sinks
10.6.5
10.6.6
Precipitation

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viii l Finite e lement analysis in geotechncal engineering: Theory

Permeability models
10.7.1
Introduction
10.7.2
Linear isotropic permeability
I0 .7.3
Linear anisotropie permeability
10.7.4
Nonlinear permeabil ity related to void ratio
10.7.5
Nonlinear permeability related to mean effective
stress using a logarithmic relationship
I0.7.6
Nonlinear permeability related to mean effective
stress using a power law relationship
I0.8 Unconfined seepage now
I0.9 Validation example
IO. IO Summary
10.7

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Il. 3 D finite element analysis

Il. l Synopsis
I 1.2 l ntroduction
Il.3 Conventional 3D finite element analysis
11.4 lterative solutions
11.4.1
lntroduction
l 1.4.2
Generai iterative solution
The gradient method
l l .4.3
11.4.4
The conjugate gradient method
11.4.5
Comparison ofthe conjugate gradient and
banded solution techniques
11.4.6
Normalisation ofthe stiffness matrix
11.4.7
Comments
11.5 Summary

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12. Fourier series aided fin ite element method (FSAFEM)

12.1 Synopsis
12.2 l ntroduction
12.3 The continuous Fourier seri es aided finite element method
12.3 .1
Formulation for linear behaviour
Symmetrical loading conditions
12.3.2
12.3 .3
Existing forrnulations for nonlinear behaviour
12.3.4
New formulation for nonlinear behaviour
12.3.5
Formulation for interface elements
12.3.6
Bu lk pore tluid compressibility
12.3.7
Formulation for coupled consolidation
12.4 lmplementation ofthe CFSAFEM
12.4.1
lntroduction
12.4.2
Evaluating Fourier series harrnonic coefficients
12.4.2. 1
The stepwise linear method
12.4.2.2
The fitted method

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Contents l ix

12.4.3

The modified Newton- Raphson solution strategy

374
12.4.3.1
lntroduction
374
12.4.3 .2
Right hand side correction
375
12.4.4
Data storage
376
12.4.5
Boundary conditions
377
12.4.6
Stiffness matrices
377
12.4.7
Simplification due to symmetrical
boundary conditions
378
12.4.7.1
lntroduction
378
12.4. 7.2
Examples of problems associated with
parallel and orthogonal analysis
380
I2.5 The discrete Fourier series aided finite element method
385
12.5.1
lntroduction
385
12.5.2
Description of the discrete FSAFEM method
386
12.6 Comparison between the discrete and the continuous FSAFEM 391
12.7 Comparison ofCFSAFEM and the 3D analysis
396
12.8 Summary
398
Appendix Xli. l Harmonic coefticients offorce from harmonic
point Joads
399
Appendix Xll.2 Obtaining the harmonics of force from harmonic
boundary stresses
400
Appendix Xll.3 Obtaining the harmonics offorce from
element stresses
401
Appendix Xll.4 Resolving harmonic coefficients ofnodal force
403
Appendix Xl1.5 Fourier series solutions for integrating the product
ofthree Fourier series
404
Appendix Xll.6 Obtaining coefficients fora stepwise linear
distribution
405
Appendix Xll.7 Obtaining harmonic coefficients for the
fitted method
407
References
List ofsymbols
lndex

411

425
435