FLUID MECHANICS - I EXPERIMENTS

INDEX
Expt.
No.

Name of The Experiment

Determination Of Coefficient Of Discharge For Venturimeter.

Determination Of Coefficient Of Discharge For Orificemeter.

Determination Of Friction Factor Of a Given Pipe Of Circular Cross Section.

Determination Of Loss Of Head Due To Sudden Enlargement Of Pipe.

Determination Of Loss Of Head Due To Sudden Contraction Of Pipe.

Determination Of Type Of Flow By Reynolds Number.

Verification Of Bernoullis Equation For An Incompressible Fluid Flow.

Determination Of Coefficient Of Discharge For Rectangular Notch.

Determination Of Coefficient Of Discharge For Triangular Notch.

10

Determination Of Coefficient Of Discharge Cd , Coefficient Of Contraction Cc

& Coefficient Of Velocity Cv For An Orifice.

11

Determination Of Force Exerted On Stationary Plate By Impact Of Jet.

Date :______________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine the coefficient of discharge ( Cd )
for Venturimeter.
Apparatus : Venturimeter fitted across a pipeline leading to a collecting tank,
Stop Watch, U-Tube manometer connected across entry and
throat sections etc.
Formula : Theoretical discharge through Venturimeter
Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 A22]1/2
Actual discharge through Venturimeter
Q ac = V / t = (A.H) / t
Where:
A1 : Cross section area of Venturimeter at entry section.
A2 : Cross section area of Venturimeter at throat section.
H : Pressure head difference in terms of fluid flowing through
pipeline system.
V : (A.H) i.e. Volume of water collected in collecting tank
A : Cross section area of collecting tank.
H : (H2 H1) i.e. Depth of water collected in collecting tank.
t : Time required to collect the water up to a height H in the
collecting tank.
Theory :
Venturimeter is a device consisting of a short length of gradual convergence
and a long length of gradual divergence. Pressure tapping is provided at the location
before the convergence commences and another pressure tapping is provided at the throat
section of a Venturimeter. The Difference in pressure head between the two tapping is
measured by means of a U-tube manometer. On applying the continuity equation &
Bernoullis equation between the two sections, the following relationship is obtained in
terms of governing variables.
Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 A22]1/2 -------------------------------------------------------- 1.
Where, H = H m [(m /w) 1]
m & w be the densities of manometric liquid & fluid (water) flowing through pipeline
system.
In order to take real flow effect into account, coefficient of discharge (Cd ) must be
introduced in equation 1 then,

Q ac = Cd.A.(2g.H)1/2
Therefore, Cd = Q ac / Q th

Theoretical discharge is calculated by using equation 1. Actual discharge is calculated by

collecting water in collecting tank & noting the time for collection.
Q ac = A.(H2 H1) / t = V / t = (A.H) / t
Procedure :
* Note the pipe diameter (d1) and throat diameter (d2) of Venturimeter.
* Note the density of manometric liquid i.e. mercury (m) and that of fluid flowing
through pipeline i.e. water (w ).
*

Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipeline for maximum discharge.

* Measure the pressure difference (Hm) across the Venturimeter by using U tube
manometer.
*

Measure flow rate i.e. actual discharge (Qac) through Venturimeter by means of
collecting tank.

Calculate the theoretical discharge (Qth) through Venturimeter by using the formula.

* Decrease the flow rate by adjusting the control valve and repeat the process for at least
five times.
*

Determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) for each flow rate and find the mean value
of coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean.

* Plot a graph of (Qac) on y-axis versus (Qth) on x- axis.

* Calculate the slope of graph of (Qac) versus (Qth), it gives the mean value of
coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean graphically.
Observation :
Diameter of pipe,

d1 = ______ m

Diameter of throat,

d2 = ______ m

Area of collecting tank, A = ______x______ = ________ m2

Area of pipe at entry, A1 = [(/4) d12] = [(/4) (

)2] = ________ m2.

Area of pipe at throat, A2 = [(/4) d22] = [(/4) (

)2] = ________ m2.

Density of mercury,

m =13600 kg / m3.

Density of water,

w =1000 kg / m3

Observation Table :
Manometric
Reading
Sr.
No
.

Tank
Reading

Pressure
Head Diff.

Left
Lim
b

Rig
ht
Lim
b

Diff
.
h2 h1

H=
Hm[(m/w
) -1]

Initi
al

Final

h1
m

h2
m

Hm
m

H1
m

H2
m

Diff.
H2 H1
H
m

Tim
e
t

sec

Actual
Dischar
ge
Q ac =
(A.H)
/t
m3 / sec

1
2
3
4
5

Sample Calculation : For Observation No. ___.

* Pressure head difference,
H = Hm [(m /w) 1]
= ______ [(13600 /1000) 1]
= ______ [12.6]
= ______ m.
* Actual discharge,
Qac = (A.H) / t
= (______ x ______) / ______
= _______ m3 / sec.
*

Theoretical discharge,
Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 A22]1/2
= [ ______ x ______(2 x 9.81 x ____ )1/2] / [( _____ )2 ( _____ )2]1/2
= _______ m3 / sec.

* Coefficient of discharge
Cd = Q ac / Q th
Cd = _____ / ______
Cd = ______.

Q th =
A1A2(2g
H)1/2
[A12
A22]1/2
m3 / sec

Cd
=
Q
ac

Q
th

Mean coefficient of discharge,

(Cd) mean= ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.

* From graph,
(Cd) mean = (Y) / (X)
= ______ / ______
= _______.
Result :

Coefficient of discharge ( Cd ) for Venturimeter is found to be

experimentally & _________ graphically.

________

Experimental Setup :

From Storage
Flow Control Valve
Convergent Cone
Throat
Divergent Cone
Pipeline

d1

h2

d2

Hm
h1
H

U -Tube Manometer

H2
H1
Collecting Tank

Experimental Setup To Determine

Coefficient Of Discharge ( Cd ) For Venturimeter

Date :______________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine the coefficient of discharge ( Cd )
for an Orificemeter.
Apparatus : An Orificemeter fitted across a pipeline leading to a collecting tank,
Stop Watch, U-Tube manometer etc.
Formula : Actual discharge through Orificemeter
Q ac = C.a1.a0(2g.h)1/2 / [a12 a02]1/2
Where:
C : Constant i.e. Coefficient of Orificemeter.
C = Cd .{1 (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2
Cd
a1
a0
h

:
:
:
:

Coefficient of discharge for Orificemeter.

Cross section area of pipe at inlet i.e. entry section.
Cross section area of Orifice.
Pressure head difference in terms of fluid flowing through
pipeline system.

Again,
Actual discharge through Orificemeter
Q ac = V / t = (A.H) / t
V : (A.H) i.e. Volume of water collected in collecting tank
A : Cross section area of collecting tank.
H : (H2 H1) i.e. Depth of water collected in collecting tank.
t : Time required to collect the water up to a height H in the
collecting tank.
Theory :
It works on Bernoullis principle and device use for measuring the rate of
fluid flowing through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It
consists of flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole called as orifice called
as which is concentric with pipe. The orifice diameter is generally kept lines the
diameter of pipe.
An Orificemeter is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. An Orificemeter in its
simplest form consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as an
orifice. The plate is fixed inside the pipe.
A mercury U-tube manometer is inserted to know the difference of pressure head between
the two tapping.
Orificemeter works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter i.e. by reducing the area
of flow passage a pressure difference is developed between the two section and the
measurement of pressure difference is used to find the discharge.
By applying Bernoullis equation between inlet of pipe & throat i.e. orifice section.
(p1 / w) + (v12 / 2g) + z1 = (p2 / w) + (v22 / 2g) + z2

When Orificemeter is connected in horizontal pipe, then z1 = z2

Therefore (p1 - p2) / w = (v22 / 2g) - (v12 / 2g)
h = (v22 / 2g) - (v12 / 2g) --------------------------------------------- 1.
Further if a1 & a2 be the cross section area of Pipe at inlet & that of jet respectively, then
by continuity equation
Q = a1v1 = a2v2
a2 = a1v1 / v2

------------------------------------------------------- a

If Cc = Coefficient of contraction = a2 / a0
Cc = Area of jet at vena contracta / Area of orifice
a2 = Cc a0
------------------------------------------------------- b
v1 = Cc v2 (a0 / a1)
From equation 1; v2 = ( 2gh + v12 )1/2 in this equation losses has not been
considered and gives theoretical velocity.
v2 = ( 2gh + v12 )1/2
If Cv= Coefficient of velocity = Actual velocity / Theorotical velocity
Actual velocity of jet at vena contracta i.e. at section 2
v2 = Cv ( 2gh + [Cc v2 (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2
v2 = Cv {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cc Cv (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }
But Coefficient of discharge Cd = Cc Cv
By continuity equation Q = a2v2
Q = Cc a0 v2
Q = Cc Cv a0 {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cc Cv (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }
Q = Cd a0 {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cd (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }
If C= Constant of orificemeter, then
C = Cd {1 (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2
Q ac = C.a0(2g.h)1/2 / {1 (a02 / a12)}1/2
Q ac = C.a1.a0(2g.h)1/2 / (a12 a02)1/2

Procedure :
*

Note the diameter at the inlet of pipe (d1) and the diameter of an orifice (do).

* Note the density of manometric liquid i.e. mercury (m) and that of fluid flowing
through pipeline i.e. water (w).
*

Connect the U-tube manometer to the pressure toppings of orificemeter, one end at the
inlet section and the other end at the section where jet of water leaves from orifice
forming a vena contracta.

* Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipeline to get the required discharge.
* Measure the pressure difference (Hm) between two sections of orificemeter by using U
- tube mercury manometer.

* Convert the pressure head difference in meters of fluid flowing through pipeline ( i.e.
water ) by using the equation h = Hm [(m / w) -1]
* Measure flow rate i.e. actual discharge (Qac) through Venturimeter by means
collecting the water in collecting tank for a specified period of time.
Q ac = V / t = (A.H) / t
* Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve and repeat the process or at least
five times.
*

Determine the constant (C) of orificemeter and then calculate coefficient of discharge
(Cd) for each flow rate and find the mean value of coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean.

Observation :
Diameter of pipe,

d1 = ______ m

Diameter of orifice,

do = ______ m

Area of collecting tank, A = ______x______ = ________ m2

Area of pipe at entry, a1 = [(/4) d12] = [(/4) (

)2] = ________ m2.

Area of orifice,

ao = [(/4) do2] = [(/4) (

)2] = ________ m2.

Density of mercury,

m =13600 kg / m3.

Density of water,

w =1000 kg / m3

Observation Table :

Manometric
Reading
Sr.
No
.

Le Rig Diff
h=
.
ht
ft
Hm[(m/w
Li Lim h2 ) -1]
b
mb
h1
h1
m

1
2
3
4
5

h2
m

Hm
m

Tank
Reading

Pressure
Head Diff.

Initi
al

Fin
al

Diff.
H2 H1

H1
m

H2
m

H
m

Tim
e
t

sec

Actual
Constant of
Discha
Orificemet Coeffi
rge
er
cient
of
C=
Disch
Q ac =
Qac [a12
arge
(A.H
a02]1/2
)/t
Cd
[a1.a0( 2g.h
m3 /
)1/2]
sec

Sample Calculation : For Observation No. ___.

* Pressure head difference,
h = Hm [(m /w) 1]
= ______ [(13600 /1000) 1]
= ______ [12.6]
= ______ m.
* Actual discharge,
Qac = (A.H) / t
= (______ x ______) / ______
= _______ m3 / sec.
*

Constant of Orificemeter,
C = Qac [a12 a02]1/2 / [a1.a0( 2g.h )1/2]
= ______ [ _____2 _____2 ]1/2 / [ _____ x _____( 2 x 9.81 x ______ )1/2]
= ___________ / __________
= __________

* To Find Coefficient of Discharge (Cd),

By Using Relation
C = Cd .{1 (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2
_______ = Cd .{1 ( _____2 / _____2)}1/2 / {1 Cd2(______2 / _______2)}1/2

Cd = _________
* Mean Constant of Orificemeter,
(C) mean = ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.
* Mean Coefficient of Discharge for Orificemeter,
(Cd) mean = ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.
Result :
*

Constant of orificemeter ( C ) is found to be ________

* Coefficient of discharge for orificemeter (Cd) is found to be ________

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine the Friction Factor F for a
pipe.
Apparatus : U tube manometer connected across a pipe line, Stop Watch,
Collecting tank etc.
Formula :

Head loss due to friction in pipe

4 f .l.V 2
F .l.V 2
hf =
OR hf =
2.g .d
2.g .d
Where :
F = friction factor = (4f)
l = length of pipe
V = Velocity of flow through pipe.
d = Diameter of pipe.
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
f = Coeff. of friction

Theory : The experimental set up consists of a large number of pipes of different

diameters. The pipes have tapping at certain distance so that a U Tube
manometer
is connected in between them.
The flow of water through a pipeline is regulated by operating a control valve which
is
provided in main supply line, for measuring the head loss. The length of the
pipe
is
considered as a distance between the two pressure tapping, to
which a U Tube mercury
manometer is fitted.
Actual discharge through pipeline is calculated by collecting the water in collecting
and by noting the time for collection.
Q ( A.H ) / t
Velocity of flow = V =
=
a
a
Where :
A = Area of tank.
H = Depth of water collected in tank.
t = Time required to collect the water up to a height H in the tank.
a = Area of pipe.
Q = Discharge through pipe.

Now applying Bernoullis equation between two pressure tapping, we have

h . .g
PA
P
+ z = B + ( z hm ) + m m
w
w
w
h . .g
PA
P
B = m m hm
w .g w .g
w .g

PA PB
= hm m 1
w .g
w

W = Weight of water
W = w .g
Z . w .g
Z=
w .g
Z hm =

( Z hm ). w .g
w .g

tank

h f = hm m 1
w

hf =

PA PB
w .g

Procedure :
* Note down the diameter of pipe (d).
* Note the density of manometric liquid ( m ) and that of fluid (water) flowing
through a pipe i.e. ( w ).
* Connect the U tube manometer to the pipe in between two pressure
tappings.
* Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipe line for required discharge.
* Measure the pressure difference at two points A & B of a pipe by means of a
U tube manometer.
* By collecting the water in collecting tank for a particular period of time.
* Determine the velocity of flow (V) and frictional head loss (hf) by using
appropriate equations.
* Determine the friction factor (f) in pipe by using Darcy Weisbach formula.
* Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve & repeat the process for at
least five times.
* Find out the mean friction factor (f) mean of the pipe.
* Plot a graph of velocity of flow (V) on y axis verses frictional head loss (hf)
on x axis which shows a straight line.

Observation :
l = Length of Pipe = ______ m
d = Dia of Pipe = cm
A = Area of collecting tank = _______ x _______ = _______ m2

m = Density of mercury = 13600 kg / m3

w = Density of water = 1000 kg / m3
Observation Table :
Sr.
No.

Manometic
Reading
Righ
Diff.
Left
t
(hB Lim
Lim
b
hA)
b
HA
HB
hm
m
m
m

Frictional Head
Loss

h f = hm m 1
w

P PB
hf = A
w .g

Meter
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.

Tank Reading
Initia
Diff
Final
l
Hheigh height 2
H1
t

H1
m

H2
m

H
m

Tim
e
t

Actual
Discharge

A.H
Qac =
t

Sec

m3/sec

Veloci
ty of
flow

V =

Qac
a

m/sec

friction
f
facto mean
rF

Sample Calculation :

1)

.d 2

* a = c/s area of pipe =

.(

)2
4

m2

* A = Area of tank = _______ x ________ = _________ m2

For Reading No. 1

Frictional head loss = h f = hm m 1

w

13600

h f =
1 = __________ m
1000

A.H
=
t
Qac = ______ m3 / Sec

Actual Discharge = Qac =

Velocity of flow = V =

Qac
=
a
V = _____ m / Sec

* Friction factor = F =

2h f .g .d
l.V 2

OR

* Coeff. of friction = f =

2.h f .g .d .
4.l.V 2

* Mean friction factor = fmean =

Result :

=
+

The friction factor F for the pipe is found to be ________.

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :
To determine loss of head & power Loss due to
Sudden Expansion.
Apparatus :

Pipe of smaller diameter connected to larger diameter, inlet,

outlet valves, collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Formula : Losses due to Sudden Expansion :

he =

(V1 V2 ) 2
2. g

Where : he = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.

V1 = Velocity of flow at smaller section.
V2 = Velocity of flow at larger Section.
Theory :
Loss of energy duet to change of velocity of the flowing fluid
in magnitude or direction is called as minor loss of energy.

Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe line which has sudden enlargement.
two section 1 1 and 2 2 before and after enlargement.

Consider

Let,
P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1 1.
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1 1.
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 1.
P2, V2 and A2 = Corresponding values of pressure, velocity & area at section 2 - 2.
Due to sudden change of diameter, the liquid flowing from smaller pipe is not able
to fallow abrupt change of boundary and turbulent eddies are formed, since the
flow separates from the boundary.
Let,
P1 = Pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on Area A2 A1,
he = Loss of head due to expansion.
Applying Bernoullis equation at section 1 1 and 2 2.
2

P V
P1 V1
+
+ Z 1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + he
w 2.g
w 2.g
But Z1 = Z2

2
2
V
P P V
he = 1 2 + 1 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.
w w 2.g 2.g

Consider the control volume of liquid between 2 sections.

Fx = P1 A1 + P1 (A2 - A1) P2 A2 = ( P1 - P2 ) A2 ----------------------------------------- 2.
Momentum of liquid / sec at section 1 1

= Mass x Velocity
= A1 V1V1

= A1 V12
Similarly Momentum of liquid / sec at section 2 2 = A2 V22
Change of momentum / Sec = A2 V22 A2 V2 x V1
= A2 (V22 V1 V2) ----------------------------------- 3.
Net force acting on the control vol. in the direction of flow
must be equal to the rate
of change of momentum per second. Hence equating equation 2 and 3..
( P1 - P2 ) A2 = A2 (V22 V1 V2)
P P2
= V22 V1 V2
1

Dividing throughout by g

P1 P2 V22 V1 .V2
=
.g
g

OR

P1 P2 V22 V1 .V2

=
w w
g

Substituting in equation 1.
V 2 V1 .V2 V12 V22

he = 2
+

2.g 2.g
g

On solving
he =

(V1 V2 ) 2
2. g

Procedure :

* Arrange and check the apparatus as shown in fig.

* Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank and record.
*

Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.

Connect the manometer to sudden fallings & to one of the pipes / pipe fittings

and check that there is no air bubble entrapped.

*

Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully open.

* Let the flow become constant and take the readings.

* Open both the valves, slightly about 2 minutes. Open the pressure tapping
wait till mercury surface in both limbs of the manometer becomes constant

and
or

still. Take readings of each limb, record and check.

*

Collect the discharge and measure the time require to fill up to 5 cm.

* Simultaneously take manometer reading. Repeat procedure up to 6 to7 times.

Observation :

A1 = Area of flow at section 1 -1 = ____________ cm2

V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1 - 1 = ________ cm / sec.
A2 = Area of flow at section 2 - 2 = __________ cm2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 - 2 = ________ cm / sec.
he = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.
Observation Table :
Manomete
r Reading
(cm)
hm
=
h h
h2
1
2
h1

Sr.
No
.

V
cm3

hw=12.
6 x hm

t
(Sec
)

Q
cm3/s

V1
cm/
s

V2
cm/
s

01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
Sample Calculation :
* hm = h2 h1 = _______-_______ = _______ cm
* hw = 12.6 x hm = _______ x ________ = _______ cm

V A.H
=
=
t
t
Q = ______ cm3 / Sec

* Actual Discharge = Q =

Inlet Velocity = V1 =
V1 =

4.Q

(d1 )2
=

cm / sec

Power
(V1 V2 ) 2
Lost
Mean
he =
P=.Q.g.h Power
2. g
Watt
w
cm
Watt

Outlet Velocity = V2 =

d12
V1 =
d 22

* Loss of head due to Sudden Expansion = he =

he =

cm / sec

(V1 V2 ) 2
2. g

cm

* Power Lost = P = .Q . g .hw =________________ = ____________ Watt

Result : Head loss due to sudden expansion was found to be ________

and corresponding power loss is found to be __________.

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :
To determine loss of head & power Loss due to
Sudden Contraction.
Apparatus :

Pipe of larger diameter connected to smaller diameter, inlet,

outlet valves, collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Formula : Losses due to Sudden Contraction :

hc =

0.5.V22
2.g

Where : hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction.

Theory :
Loss of energy duet to change of velocity of the flowing fluid
magnitude or direction is called as minor loss of energy.

Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe which has a sudden contraction in area.

tow section 1 1 and 2 2, before and after contraction.

in

Consider

As the fluid flows from larger pipe to smaller pipe, the area of flow goes on decreasing
and becomes minimum at section C C. This section is called venacontracta.
After
section C C sudden enlargement takes place. The loss of head duet
to
sudden
enlargement from Vena-contract to smaller pipe.
Let;
Ac = area of flow at Vena-contracta
Vc = Velocity of flow at Vena-contracta
A2 = area of flow at section 2 2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 2
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction
Now,
hc = actually loss of head due to enlargement from Vena - contracta to section 2 and is given by
hc = (Vc V2 )2
hc =

V 2 Vc
1
2. g V 2

From continuity equation; AC VC = A2 V2 i .e.

Vc
A
1
1
= c =
=
A
A2
Cc
A2
c
A2
Substituting in equation 1

hc =

V22 1

1
2. g C c

If valve of CC is not given, then the head loss due to contraction is given as
hc =

0.5.V22
2. g

Procedure :

* Arrange and check the apparatus as shown in fig.

* Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank and record.
* Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.
* Connect the manometer to sudden fallings & to one of the pipes / pipe fittings
and check that there is no air bubble entrapped.
* Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully open.
*

Let the flow become constant and take the readings.

* Open both the valves, slightly about 2 minutes. Open the pressure tapping
wait till mercury surface in both limbs of the manometer becomes constant

and
or

still. Take readings of each limb, record and check.

*

Collect the discharge and measure the time require to fill up to 5 cm.

* Simultaneously take manometer reading. Repeat procedure up to 6 to7 times.

Observation :

A2 = Area of flow at section 2 - 2 = __________ cm2

V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 - 2 = ________ cm / sec.
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction.

Observation Table :

Sr.
No
.

01.
02.
03.
04.
05.

Manomete
r Reading
(cm)
hm
=
h h
h2
1
2
h1

hw=12.
6 x hm

V
cm3

t
(Sec
)

Q
cm3/s

V2
cm/
s

0.5.V22
hc =
2. g
cm

Power
Lost
Mean
P=.Q.g.h Power
Watt
w
Watt

Sample Calculation :
* hm = h2 h1 = _______-_______ = _______ cm
* hw = 12.6 x hm = _______ x ________ = _______ cm

V A.H
=
=
t
t
Q = ______ cm3 / Sec

* Actual Discharge = Q =

Outlet Velocity = V2 =

4.Q

(d 2 )2

* Loss of head due to Sudden Contraction = hc =

hc =

cm / sec

0.5.V22
2. g

cm

* Power Lost = P = .Q . g .hw =________________ = ____________ Watt

Result : Head loss due to sudden contraction was found to be ________

and corresponding power loss is found to be __________.

Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :
Apparatus :

Formula : Re =

To determine the type of flow by using

Reynolds Number.

Reynolds experimental arrangement, Collecting tank, Stop

watch, Scale, colour dye ( Potassium Permagnet ) etc.

.V .D

Where :
Re = Reynolds number ( Dimensionless Parameter ).
V = Average velocity in cm / sec
D = Diameter of pipe in cm.
= Mass density of fluid ( Kg / m3 )
= Dynamic viscosity ( N - s / m2 or Kg / m. sec)

Theory :
The classification of flow is based mainly on viscosity of a fluid
liquid. The viscosity that is seen earlier depends upon velocity gradient
(dx,
dg)
considered through Reynolds Number defined as below.
.V .D
Re =

or
is

Reynolds carried out experiments to decide limiting values of Reynolds number to

quantifiably decide wheeler the flow is laminar, turbulent or transition. The flows
con
visualize by passing a streak of dye and observing its motion.
Laminar Flow : A flow is said to be laminar when the various fluid particles moves in
layer with one layer of fluid living smoothly over on adjacent layer.A
laminar flow is one
in which the fluid particles moves in layers or laminar with one
layer sliding over the
other. Therefore there is no exchange of fluid particles
from one layer to the other and
hence no transfer of later of momentum to be
adjacent layers. The particles, in the
layer having lower velocity, obstruct the fluid
particles in the layer with higher velocity.
This obstruction force is called viscous
resistance or viscosity. The laminar flow is one
in which fluid layers glide over
each another. It
has low velocity and high viscous
resistance.
Turbulent Flow : There is a continuous transfer of momentum to adjacent layers.
Fluid particles occupy different relative position at different places. It is one in
which, the particles get thoroughly mixed on (called turbulence). The turbulent
flow has higher velocity. The flow in canals, pipes and rivers is usually turbulent
flow.

Transition Flow : The transition flow has intermediate properties between the
laminar and turbulent flow. In laminar the forces should be considered to calculate the
friction loss and in the turbulent flow only the internal forces are considered
because the
effect of viscous force is negligible as compared to internal forces.
Reynolds carried
out experiments to decide limiting values of Reynolds number to quantifiably
decide
whether the flow is laminar, turbulent or transition. These limits are as below.
Sr. No.
01.
02.
03.

Type of Flow
Laminar Flow
Transition Flow
Turbulent

Reynolds Number
< 2100
2100 3000
> 3000

The flow can be visualized by passing a streak of dye and observing its motion.
In
the laminar, low velocity flow the streak line is only slightly zig zag. In the
turbulent
flow, the dye thoroughly mixes up in the flow. Thus passing through a
glass pipe and
observing the velocity at different mixing stages of the dye is the principle
on
which
Reynolds apparatus is based.
Procedure :

* Diameter of a pipe, size of measuring tank at room temperature was noted

down.
* The tank was filled to some height by opening inlet valve and closing control
valve.
* Colour dye was filled in dye tank.
* Control valve was open slightly and also the inlet valve such a way that the
water level in the tank remains constant. This happens when in coming
discharge is equal to the out going discharge.
* The discharge was measured.
* The whole procedure is repeated for 3 times.
Observation :

Diameter of pipe = D = _________ cm

2
)
.D 2 .(
=
=
cm2
Area of pipe = a =
4
4
Area of collecting Tank = A = ______ x ______ = ______ cm2
Dynamic viscosity = 10 6 N - s / m2 or Kg / m. sec

Observation Table :
Sr.
No.

H1
(cm)

H2
(cm)

H
(cm)

Time
t
(Sec)

Discharge
A.H
Q=
t

Velocity
Q
V =
a

Re =

.V .D

01.
02.
03.
04.

Sample Calculation :
* Depth of water collected in cillecteing tank = H = H2 - H1
H = _______ - _______
H = _______ cm
A.H
=
=
cm3 / sec
* Discharge = Q =
t
Q
=
cm / sec
* Velocity of flow in pipe = V = =
a
.V .D
* Reynolds number = Re =
=
=

Result :

For the first discharge the Reynolds number is found to be

______ therefore the flow will be ____________________
For second discharge the Reynolds number found to be
_______ therefore the flow will be ___________________
For third discharge the Reynolds number found to be
_______ therefore the flow will be ___________________

Type of
Flow

Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To verify Bernoullis Theorem .
Apparatus :
Bernoullis apparatus, Controlling valve at inlet and outlet,
Discharge Measuring Tank, Scale, Stopwatch etc.
Formula : Total Energy =

P V2
+
+ Z = Constant
w 2. g

Where,
P / w = Pressure energy
V2 / 2g = Kinetic energy
Z = Potential energy

Theory : The Bernoullis theorem states that the total energy of non Viscous
in
compressible fluid in a steady state of flow, remains constant along a stream line
Daniel Bernoullis enunciated in 1738 that is In any stream flowing steadily without
friction, the total energy contained in a given mass is some at energy
contained in a
given mass is some at energy point in its path of flow. This
statement
is
called
Bernoullis theorem with reference to section 1 1 and 2 2
along the length of steady
flow in the stream tube shown in fig. The total energy at
section 1 1 is equal to the total
energy - at section 2 2 as stated in Bernoullis theorem.
With usual notations, the expression for total energy contained in a unit wt of fluid
section 1 1 and 2 2 is given by

at

Total energy at Section 1 1 = P1 / W + V12 / 2g +Z1

Total energy at section 2 2 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g +Z2
Where,
P1 / W = pressure energy at section 1 1
V12 / 2g = Kinetic energy at section 1 1
Z1 = Potential energy at section 1 1
P2 / W = Pressure energy at section 2 2
V22 / 2g = Kinetic energy at section 2 2
Z2 = Potential energy at section 2 2
Thus applying Bernoullis theorem between section 1 1 and 2 2 we find

P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g + Z2
In MKS system the pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy measured in meter of fluid column per unit wt
fluid equation is modified by taking into loss of energy due
between section 1 1 and 2 2 is written as

to

P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g + Z2 + ( H )1 / 2
Where ( H ) 1 / 2 represents the loss of energy between section 1 1 and 2 2

of
friction

Procedure :
* Open the measuring tank valve fully, to keep the tank empty. Close the outlet
valve.
* Open the inlet valve and let water rise to some height h in the inlet tank.
Measure this height on the piezometer. Now open the outlet valve slightly. If
water
level in the tank falls, close the outlet valve slightly and vice-versa.
* Thus adjust the outlet valve fill the water level remains constant at h, and also
readings on each of the piezometer.
* Check if reading is correctly written. Close the measuring tank valve. Measure
the discharge, i.e. note rise in water level in 5 or 10 sec., write these and also
measure and note length and breath of the tank. This completes on run. Take
least three runs by changing the discharge.
*

at

Note down the area of the conduit at various gauge points.

* Open the supply valve and adjust the flow so that the water level in the inlet
tanks
remains constant.
* Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected suitable plane)
in different remains constant.
* Measure the discharge of the conduit with the help of measuring tank.
* Repeat steps 2 to 4 for two more discharges.
* Plot graph between total energy and distance of gauge points starting from u/s
side of conduit.

Observation :
Area of collecting tank = A = L x B = ______ x _______ = ________ cm2
Difference in water level in collecting tank = h = ________ cm
Time required for rise of water level by 10 cm = t = ________ sec.
Discharge = Qac =

Volume Of Water A.H

=
=
Time
t

m3/sec

Observation Table :

Sr.
No.

Piezometric
head
P
+Z
w
cm

Duct area
(a)
cm2.

Velocity Head
V2
2. g
cm

Velocity
Q
V =
a
cm/sec

Total Energy
P V2
+
+Z
w 2. g
cm

01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
Sample Calculation :
* Discharge = Qact = =

A.H
=
t

cm3/sec

* Duct area = a = 4 x L = _____ x _____ = _________ cm2

* Velocity = V =

Q
=
a

* Velocity head =
* Total head =

V2
=
2. g

P V2
+
+ Z =(
w 2. g

* Draw the graph :

cm/sec
=

cm

)=

a) No. of tubes to -

cm

P
+ Z cm
w

b) No. of tubes to -

V2
cm
2. g

c) No. of tubes to -

P V2
+
+ Z cm
w 2. g

Result : The total energy of a streamline, while the particle moves from one
point to another. Bernoullis theorem for an incompressible fluid flow is
verified.

Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :

To determine coefficient of discharge

for a Rectangular Notch.

Apparatus :
Channel with rectangular notch, Point gauge, Collecting
tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.
Qac =

Formula : 1.

V
A.H
=
t
t

2.

Qth =

3
2
b 2.g (H ) 2
3

3.

Cd =

Qac
Qth

Where :

V = Volume of water collected in tank.

b = Width of Notch.
H = Head of water over still.

Theory :
A Notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
liquid through a small channel or a tank. It may be defined as an opening in the
side
of a tank or a small channel in such a way treat the liquid surface edge of the
opening.
Consider a rectangular notch provided in channel or tank carrying water.
Let,
H = Head of water of still or crest.
b = width of notch.
For finding the discharge of water flowing over notch, consider an elementary
horizontal strip of water of thickness dh and length surface of water.
The area of strip = b x dh
Theoretical velocity = Vth = 2.g.H
Discharge through strip
aQ = Cd x Area of strip x Vth
dQ = Cd x L x dh x 2.g.H
Where Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
The total discharge Q :
H

Q = C d .b. 2.g . h.dh

0

Q = C d .b. 2.g . h.dh

0

Q = C d .b. 2.g

Qth =

(H )3 2
3

2
32
b 2.g (H )
3

Procedure :

* The tank dimensions were measured.

* The flow in the channel having rectangular notch was started.
* The flow was kept constant.
* The head of water in piezometer of constant time interval for collecting tank
was noted.
* Open slightly the valve without increase the rotation suddenly after fixed time
interval.
* Also note the head over the still after each interval.
Observation :

Area of tank = A = ______ x _______ = cm2

Width of rectangular Notch = b = _______ cm
Time required to collect water to a depth H = t = constant = _________ sec.
Observation Table :
Point Gauge
Reading
Sr.
Diff.
No. Initial Final
H
t
(H)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (sec)
(cm)
01.
02.
03.
04.
05

Discharge Measurement

V
A.H
Qac =
=
t
t
(cm3 / s)

Cd =

3
2
Qth = b 2.g (H ) 2
3
(cm3 / s)

Sample Calculation :
* Volume of water collected in tank.= V = A. H = _____ x _____ = _____ cm3

V
A.H
=
=
t
t
3
2
2
* Theoretical Discharge = Qth = b 2.g (H ) 2 = (
3
3
Qth = __________ cm3 / s

* Actual Discharge = Qac =

= ________ cm3 / s

2 981(

)2
3

Qac
Qth

* Coefficient of Discharge = C d =

Qac
=
Qth

* Mean Coefficient of Discharge = C d mean =

Result :

= _______
+

+
5

= _____

Coefficient of discharge (Cd ) for rectangular notch was found to

be _________

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :
To determine coefficient of discharge ( Cd )
for a triangular Notch.
Apparatus :
Channel with triangular Notch, Point gauge and Collecting
tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.
Formula : 1.

Qac =

2.
3.

V
A.H
=
t
t
5
8
tan 2.g (H ) 2

15 2
Q
C d = ac
Qth

Qth =

Where :

V = Volume of water collected in tank.

= Angle of Notch.
H = Head of water over the notch.

Theory :
In hydraulics engineering, notches are commonly used to regulate
flow in rivers and other open channels. The relation between water level up stream of the
discharge at any time may
notch and the discharge over it is generally known as that the
be found by observing the up stream water liquid. Notches usually have sharp edges so that
the water springs clear of the plate as it
passes through the notch. It is provided in the
side walls of a tank, near top edge. These have small dimensions. Notches are use for
emptying tank or for discharge
measurement. The discharge equation depends upon the
shape and thickness of
wall. A triangular weir is on ordinary weir is having a triangular
or V shaped opening or notch provided in its body so that water is discharged through this
opening only.

Let H be the head above the crest of the weir. Consider a horizontally
elementary
width of strip then,
strip of thickness h at a depth h below the water surface. It X is
X = 2 ( H +h ) tan( /2)
The area of strip is ( X w h ) or { 2 ( H +h ) tan( /2) } and the technical velocity of the
water flowing through the strip will be 2.g.H .

Thus if d is the discharge through the strip then,

d = Cd x 2 ( H +h ) tan( /2 )dh 2.g.H
The total discharge q for the entire triangular notch may be integration above
expression within limit O to H. Then,
H

Q = Cd . 2( Hh + H ) tan( 2)dh. 2.gh.

0

Assuming coefficient Cd to be constant for entire notch.

Q = C d 2( H + h) tan ( 2 ) h (dh ).
0

2
2

Q = C d 2( H + h) tan ( 2 ) H .h 3 2 h 5 2
5
3
0
5

8
Q = C d tan 2.g (H ) 2
15 2

If the vector angle equal to 900 then for (/2) = 450 and tan (/2) = 1
5
8
Q = C d 2. g ( H ) 2
15
For Cd assumed to be 0.6 then, Q = 1.418 (H) 5/2
For discharge it is simplified as Q = K(H) 5/2
Where K is constant for Notch
K=

8
C d tan 2.g
15 2

Procedure :

* Length and breadth of measuring tank is measured, also angle of triangular

Notch is measured.
* Waste valve of the opening is open, then the inlet valve is slightly open, were
the flow over the still just starts, the inflow is stop. When this overflow stops
fully, the initial gauge reading is measured.
* The inlet valve is slightly open with the jerk. When the constant level is a
acquired final gauge reading is recorded.
* The discharge is then measured in the collecting tank.
* The same procedure was repeated for at least 5 times.
Observation :

Area of tank = A = ______ x _______ = cm2

Angle of notch = = _______
Time required to collect water to a depth H = t = constant = _________ sec.

Observation Table :
Point Gauge
Reading

Discharge Measurement

Sr.
Diff.
No. Initial Final
H
t
(H)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (sec)
(cm)

V
A.H
=
t
t
(cm3 / s)

Qth =

Qac =

8
tan 2.g (H )
15 2
(cm3 / s)

Cd =
2

01.
02.
03.
04.
05

Sample Calculation :
* Volume of water collected in tank.= V = A. H = _____ x _____ = _____ cm3
* Actual Discharge = Qac =

V
A.H
=
=
t
t

* Theoretical Discharge = Qth =

Qth =

5
8
tan 2.g (H ) 2

15 2

tan
2. 981(

15 2
Qth = __________ cm3 / s

* Coefficient of Discharge = C d =

Qac
=
Qth

* Mean Coefficient of Discharge = C d mean =

Result :

= ________ cm3 / s

)2
5

= _______
+

= _____

Coefficient of discharge (Cd ) for triangular notch was found to

be _________

Qac
Qth

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment :
Determination of coefficient of discharge,
coefficient of contraction, coefficient of
velocity of orifice.
Apparatus :

Inlet tank which is fed from on overhead tank through a pipe

network sharp edge orifice, hook gauge attached to the inlet
tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.

Formula : Qth = a 2.g .H

V
A.H
Qac =
=
t
t
Where :
a = Area of orifice.
Q = Constant head of water in inlet tank.
V = Volume of water collected in tank.
A = C / S area of tank.
H = Depth of water collected in tank.
t = Time require to collect the water in collecting
tank.
Theory :
Orifice is a small opening of any cross section such as circular,
triangular, rectangular, on a side or on the bottom of the tank, through which a
fluid flows. Orifices are used for measuring he rate of flowing fluid.

The water is allowed to flow through an orifice fitted to tank and a constant head
H.
The water is collected in measuring tank for known time t . The height of
water in the
measuring tank is noted.
Then the actual discharge through the orifice.
V
A.H
Qac =
=
t
t
Q
Coefficient of discharge = C d = ac
Qth
Actual Velocity
Coefficient of velocity =
Theorotical Velocity
Consider a liquid particle which is at vena contract at any
time status the position along the jet at P. Jet
x = Horizontal distance traveled by particles
y = Vertical distance traveled by particle.
v = actual velocity of jet.
Horizontal distance, x = v. t ---------------------------------------------------------- 1.

1 2
g .t --------------------------------------------------------------- 2.
2
From equation 1 and 2.

Vertical distance y =

x2
2. y
(b)
( a ) & t 2 =
2
g
v
Equate (a) & (b)
t2 =

v2 =

g .x 2
2. y

v=

g .x 2
2. y

But, Theoretical velocity, Vth = 2.g .H

Coefficient of velocity = C v =
Cv =

v
=
Vth

1
g .x 2
x
2. y
2.g.H

x2
4. y.H

Coefficient of contraction = C c =

Cd
Cv

Procedure :

* The diameter of the orifice, dimension of measuring tank, and diameter of

pipeline were noted.
* The x and y movement of the pointer was checked to be jerk free and
smooth.
* The inlet controlled valve was opened. The inlet tank was allowed to fill the
over flow started. The inlet valve was from adjusted till the water level in the
becomes constant as checked by piezometer reading.
* After 3 to 5 min, when steady of flow acquired, it and valve of x and y
were measured open pointer was kept at center of jet.
* The discharge was measured and head h was calculated again. The
procedure was repeated for a set of 4 different reading.
Observation :

Diameter of orifice, d = ______ cm

Cross sectional area of an orifice = a =

.(d )2

= _______ = _______ cm2

4
Area of collecting tank = A = ______ x ______ = _______ cm2

tank

Observation Table :
Sr.
No.

H
(cm)

Qac =

t
(cm)

A.H
t

(cm3/s)

H
(cm)

Qth = a 2.g .H
3

(cm /s)

X
(cm)

Y
(cm)

Cd =

Qac
Qth

Mean
Cd

01.
02.
03.
04.
Sr.
No.

Cv =

x2
4. y.H

Mean
Cv

Cc =

Cd
Cv

Mean
Cc

01.
02.
03.
04.
Sample Calculation :

* Actual discharge = Qac =

*

V
A.H
=
=
t
t

= ________ cm3 /sec

Theoretical discharge = Qth = a 2.g .H = _________ = _______cm3 /sec

* Coefficient of discharge = C d =

Qac
=
Qth
v
= Cv =
Vth

Coefficient of velocity = C v =

Coefficient of contraction = C c =

Result :

Cd
=
Cv

= _________
x2
=
4. y.H

= _______

= __________

The mean values of hydraulic coefficients are as follows :

a)

Coefficient of discharge, Cd = _____

b)

Coefficient of velocity, Cv = _______

c)

Coefficient of contraction, Cc = _______

Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To study the Impact of Jet i.e. to verify the
momentum equation.
Apparatus :
Scale, Measuring weights, collecting tank, impact of jet
apparatus, (i.e. nozzle vane, transparent cylinder etc.)
.Q 2
Formula : Force Exerted = F =
a

Where : = Mass density of water.

Q = Discharge in tank.
a = Area of nozzle.
Theory :
Momentum equation is based one Newton second law of motion
which states that the algebraic sum of external force applied to central
volume of fluid in
any distance. The
external forces included the component of weights. of the fluid and
of forces exerted externally open the boundary surface
of the control volume.

If a vertical water jet moving with velocity V is made to strike a target which is
free
to move in vertical direction then the force will be exerted on the target by
the impact
of jet. According to momentum equation this force (which is also equal to the force required
to bring back the target in its original position) must
be equal to the rate of change of
momentum of the jet flow in the direction.
Applying momentum equation in x direction.

Fx = .Q. Vxout Vxin

Fx = .Q.(V .Cos. V )

Fx = .Q.V .(1 Cos. )

For flat plate = 90

Fx = .Q.V

For hemispherical cup, = 180

Fx = 2. .Q.V

Here is the mass density, Q is the discharge through nozzle, V is the velocity at
exists of nozzle and a is area of nozzle.
.Q 2
Fx =
a
2. .Q 2
While for curved hemispherical Vane the force, Fx =
a
Procedure :
* Note down the dimension as area of collecting tank, mass density of water and

diameter of nozzle.

* The flat plate is inserted.

* When the jet is not running, note down the reading of upper disc.
* The water supply is admitted to the nozzle and the flow rate adjusted to its
max valve.
* As the jet strikes the vane, position of upper disc is changed. Now place the
weights to bring back the upper disc to its original position.
* The procedure is repeated for each valve of flow by reducing water supply.
* The procedure is repeated for 4 to 5 reading.
Observation :

Diameter of nozzle = d = 10 mm = 0.01m

Mass density of water = = 1000 kg / m3.
Area of collecting tank = A = _______ x _______ = ______ cm2
Area of nozzle = Cross sectional area of pipe = a =

.(d )2
4
a = _______ = _______ cm2

Observation Table :

* For Horizontal Flat Vane :

* When jet is not running, position of upper disc = ________ cm

Discharge Measurement
Sr.
No.

01.
02.
03.
04.
05.

Intial
H1
cm

Final
H2
cm

Time
t
Sec

Q=

Balancing
A.H
t

cm3/s

W
(gm)

F
(N)

Practical
Force
.Q 2
F'=
a
(N)

% error
F F'
=
100
F

* For Curved Vane :

* When jet is not running, position of upper disc = ________ cm
Discharge Measurement
Sr.
No.

Intial
H1
cm

Final
H2
cm

Time
t
Sec

Q=

Balancing
A.H
t

cm3/s

W
(gm)

F
(N)

Practical
Force
F'=
2. .Q 2
(N)
a

% error
F F'
=
100
F

01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
Sample Calculation :

* Area of nozzle = Cross sectional area of pipe = a =

.(d )2

4
a = _______ = _______ cm2

* Depth of water collected in tank = H = H2 H1 = ___________= ______ cm

* Actual discharge = Q =

V
A.H
=
=
t
t

= ________ cm3 /sec

* Balancing weight = W = __________ gm.

* Force = F =

W
9.81 =
1000

9.81 = _________ N

2. .Q 2
* Practical Force ( For Horizontal Flat Vane) = F =
a
'

F'=

* Practical Force ( For Curved Vane) = F ' =

F'=

= ________ N

2. .Q 2
a
= ________ N

Result :
While verifying the law of momentum it is observed that
analytical and experimental values of force are approximately

equal.