DRILLING ENGINEERING I

(CGE577)
1

CHAPTER 3:
DRILLING FLUIDS

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CONTENTS
2

Definition of drilling fluid

Mud Circulation system
Functions of drilling fluid
Types of drilling mud
Drilling mud additives
Drilling Mud Testings
Solid Control
Drilling Mud Calculations

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Definition of Drilling Fluid

3

A drilling fluid, or drilling mud,

is any fluid that is used in a

drilling operation in which that
fluid is circulated or pumped
from the surface, down the drill
string, through the bit, and back
to the surface via the annulus.

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Mud Circulation System

4

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Mud is sucked and pumped from the

mud pits to the drilling apparatus.
Pipes and hoses, connects pump to
drilling apparatus.
Mud Return line, returns mud from
hole.
Shale shaker, shaker/sieve that
separates rock cuttings from mud.
Reserve pit, collects rock cutting
separated from the mud.
Mud pits, where drilling mud is mixed
and recycled.
Mud-mixing hopper, where new mud
is mixed and then sent to the mud
pits.
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FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING MUD

5

The main function of drilling mud is to

bring the drill cuttings from the wellbore
to the surface
The drilling mud must have suitable
density and viscosity to transport the
cuttings to the surface during its
circulation process
Enough gel strength is needed to suspend
the cuttings when it is in static condition
(not circulating)
Mud must be designed such that it can :
Carry cuttings to surface while
circulating
Suspend the cuttings while not
circulating
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FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING MUD

(CONT)
6

The drilling mud also prevent formation

fluid from entering the wellbore thus
preventing the influx

Enough density has to be determined to

prevent influx but not too high to break the
formation.
Formation breakdown will cause mud flow
into the formation and subsequent loss
circulation
The drilling mud tends to seep into
permeable sands and form filter cake on the
borehole wall
The mud filtrate will reduce productivity by
mean of clay hydration leads to permeability
reduction.
Filter cake which is too thick can cause stuck
pipe due to high differential pressures
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FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING MUD

(CONT)
7

Protect the wall of the wellbore

By creating pressure inside the hole that is

greater than the reservoir pressure, drilling mud
prevents the flow of reservoir fluids into the
borehole. Thus, prevent cave-in and collapse.
This is done by adjusting the density (mud
weight) of the liquid. The weight of the mud can
be increased by adding heavy minerals such as
barite.
The mud has to seal off the permeable
formations to avoid damages
It will form a thin impermeable mud cake (or
filter cake) at the borehole wall
The cake should not be too thick, otherwise, it
may cause stuck pipe
The mud cake also protects the borehole from
caving-in and collapse.

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FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING MUD

(CONT)
8

The drilling mud helps to maintain wellbore stability with correct

density
Borehole stability problems can occur in troublesome formation
such as instable shales, highly permeable zones, lost circulation
and overpressure zones
The most common problem is shale instability, due to:

The shale instability can be caused by the pressure differential in the

borehole and formation, and clay hydration
The interaction between clay and mud filtrate containing water during
hydration process will cause hydration stress and lead to borehole
instability.
The hydration of the clays can be overcome by using non-water based mud
or inhibited muds

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OTHER FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING MUD

(CONT)
9

The rotating process of drillbit will generate a lot of heat, which will

expedite the wear out, unless the bit is cooled.

The drilling mud helps to cool the bit down and lubricate the cutting process

Obtaining downhole information

Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit and allow maximum

penetration rate
Minimize torque and drag of the drillstring to decrease wear and
possible failure as well as stuck pipe

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Drilling Mud Design Exercise

10

Fresh water has a density of 62.3 lbm/ft3 which gives

a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft.

For 10 000 ft well, the bottom hole pressure due to a
full Column of water is .. psi.
At this depth normally pressured formation have a
pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft. Giving a formation
pressure at 10 000ft of psi.
If we used water as a drilling fluid at this depth,
formation fluid will the wall, causing a .

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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUID

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Drilling fluid can be classified into

liquid, gas-liquid mixture (foam) or

gas (air)
Liquid mud is further classified into

water based mud (WBM) or oil

based mud (OBM).
Both types of mud contains a few

percentages of solid composition

(clay, sand, barite)
Fresh water or salt water (sea water)

is used as continuous phase for

WBM
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Common Mud Additives

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Water Based Mud (WBM)

13

The typical composition of water based mud is water (the largest %),

active solids, low density inactive solids and high density inactive
solids.
The active solids are solids, which will react with water (e.g clays).

The inactive solids are solids, which do not react with water
(e.g sands, limestone and Barite. Sand and limestones is the low
density solids whereas barite is the high density solid)

Clay in the water based mud helps to increase viscosity to carry drill
cuttings and suspend Barite.
The other function of clay is to create impermeable mud cake.
Illite is the type of clay that is non-expandable while montmorillonite is
the type that is expandable or absorb water .

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WBM
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Additives are used in the WBM to control the viscosity, density, fluid

loss, pH and contaminants removal.

Viscosity

Example of viscosity control additive is Wyoming Bentonite clay.

The Wyoming bentonite has 100bbl/ton yield.
In order to reduce the viscosity of the mud, solid content, number of
particles per unit volume and attractive forces between the particles
should be reduced.
The additives used to reduce viscosity include phosphates, lignites,
lignosulphate and Tannins, those are called the thinners or dispersants.

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WBM
15

Density

Weighting material such as Barite that has higher denstity is normally used
to increase the mud density in high pressure zones.
The other weighting materials are calcium carbonate and lead sulphide.

Fluid loss control

The ideal filter cake is thin and impermeable.

Thick filter cake will lead to pipe sticking due to
differential pressures. Impermeable filter cake
will avoid filtrate from losing into the
formation. The filtrate invasion will lead to
formation damage and tight spot in the hole
due to permeability reduction.
Materials those are used to control the fluid
loss are clays (Bentonite), starch, CMC (sodium
caboxyl-methyl cellulose), polyacrylates,
lignosulphate and polyanoinic cellulose).
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WBM
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pH

Low pH will cause hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion to the

drillstring and casing.
Caustic soda (NaOH) and caustic potash (KOH) can be used to increase
the pH.

Contamination in drilling mud

The contaminants from cement could enter drilling mud and change its
properties.
Common contaminants are like calcium (treated with soda ash NaCO3),
carbon dioxide (treated with CaOH), hydrogen sulphide (treated with
NaOH), Oxygen (treated with sodium sulphite).

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WBM
17

WBM is less expensive compared to OBM due

to ready supply of water
The major disadvantage of WBM is it may lead
to shale instability from clay hydration
Several WBM added with salt and polymer
was introduced as inhibited mud to reduce the
clay hydration process.
Type of inhibited mud
Calcium treated mud
Saltwater mud
Lignosulphanate treated mud
Potassium Chloride (KCl) combined with
PHPA (partially-hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide)
Mixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) mud
Silicate fluids
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OBM
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Oil based mud consists of oil (50-80%), water (up to 30%), barite,

salt, clays, sand, etc.

The oil based mud could either be

Full oil (low water content of about 5%)

Invert oil emulsion (with water content up to 50%)
Or Synthetic based mud (pseudo oil)

Water Phase in the Oil-Based Mud

Water in an oil mud will increase the viscosity of the mud.

Since mud density is related to viscosity, as mud density is increased,
water content must be decreased to prevent excessive mud viscosity.
Water content will gradually increase during drilling as water from
formation will be absorbed by the mud and vice versa.
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OBM
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Viscosity Control in Oil-Based Muds

The viscosity of OBM is controlled by the amount of water and solid content
Mud viscosity can be increased with emulsified water and to a lesser extent
with soaps.
Mud viscosity can be further increased with the addition of solids to the mud
such as adding asphalts and amine-treated bentonite.

Filtration Control

Oil based muds have excellent filtration properties and rarely need filtration
control additives. Thus, oil muds are especially suitable for drilling in
formations easily damaged by water.
If necessary, fluid loss can be additionally controlled with asphalt, polymers,
manganese dioxide (MnO2) or amine-treated lignite.

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OBM
Density Control

20

Like water based mud, barite is the main density control additive for oilbased muds.

Alkalinity Control

Lime is used to control the pH of oil muds between 8.5 and 10, or even
higher values if CO2 and/or H2S are present.

Control of Solids and Water Content in Oil-Based Muds

There are a few methods that can be used to control the solids and water
content in oil based mud.
Screening is often the only economical method of solids control of oil
muds.
Hydrocyclones and centrifuges cannot normally be used on oil muds due
to the loss of oil.
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OBM
21

If screening cannot maintain the desired solids level, dilution is used

where part of the mud is discarded and water or oil are added as make-up.

Use of Oil Muds for Freeing Stuck Pipe

The differential pressure sticking problems happened when the drillstring

is held against the mud cake by wellbore pressure.
The oil based mud can be used to release the stuck pipe.
A volume of oil mud is displaced sufficient to fill the annular region where
the pipe is stuck and then compression, tension and torque are applied
until the pipe is free. Oil mud of equal density with the wells water-based
mud will prevent flow of the oil mud up the annulus.

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OBM
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Lost Circulation Problem

Lost circulation zone could occur when there is fracture or very high
permeability zone.
A mixture of diesel oil and bentonite or diesel oil-bentonite-cement is
sometimes used to seal off a fractured formation in which drilling fluid is
being lost.
The diesel oil slurry is pumped down the drillstring and water-based mud
is pumped down the annulus. When they meet in the formation they set to
a stiff paste and stop the loss of drilling fluid. About 2 parts of slurry to 1
part mud are required

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Composition of Muds
23

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OBM
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Advantages

Disadvantages

Not reactive with shale

Expensive

More lubricating effect

May create pollution

Reduce risk of differential sticking (thin mud

cake)

Required special logging tool

Higher temperature stability

Complex formulation

Low formation damage

Difficult to control mud rheology

Higher penetration rate

Good hole for better cementing
Reduces corrosion

Advantages and disadvantages of OBM

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Synthetic based mud (Ester Based drilling fluid)

25

Advantages:
Environmental Friendly
Biodegradable
Local Product Derived from Palm Oil
Disadvantages:
Suitability/Properties
High Cost
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DRILLING MUD TESTS

26

Mud has to be tested to determine the mud quality

and other rheological properties

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1. Density Test
27

Mud density is measured directly using mud balance

The density is reported as ppg (lbs per gallon), lbs/ft3,
psi/ft, psi/1000 ft, kg/l, and specific gravity (SG)

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2. Viscosity Test (Marsch Funnel)

28

Viscosity in simple word is the resistance to

flow
Marsh funnel only gives comparative
viscosity but not other rheological
properties.
The standard dimension for marsh funnel is
12 long, 6 diameter at the top and 2 long,
3/16 diameter tube at the bottom.
The viscosity is measured as time to flow one
quart (946 ml) of fluid into the beaker.
The standard time for fresh water at 75
degree F is 26 sec/quart

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3. Rheology Test (Viscometer)

29

Rheological properties are used to design and

evaluate the hydraulics and to assess the

functionality of the mud system.
The rheological properties of mud such as
Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point and Gel Strengths
are measured using rotational viscometer.
The shear stress at different rotational rates
are measured using viscometer
The Plastic Viscosity (PV) is measured as the
dial reading at 600 rpm minus the dial reading
at 300 rpm. The unit is centipoise
The Yield Point is given by the dial reading at
300 rpm minus the Plastic Viscosity and the
unit is lb/100 ft2.
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3. Rheology Test (PV & YP)

30

Plastic Viscosity (cP)

Yield Point (lbs/100 ft2)

Depends on the friction between solids

and liquid

A measure of the attractive forces

between active clay particles in the mud
under flowing conditions

Represent the shear rate viscosities

encountered at the drill bit

Used to evaluate the ability of a mud to

lift cuttings out of annulus

Low PV indicates that the mud is

capable to drill rapidly because of the
low viscosity of mud exiting at the bit

Higher YP indicates that drilling fluid

has ability to carry cuttings better than
a fluid similar density but lower YP

High PV is caused by a viscous base

fluid and by excess colloidal solids.

PV can be lowered by dilution to reduce

the solids content in the mud

YP can be lowered by adding

deflocculant and increased by adding
flocculant
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3. Rheology Test (PV & YP)

31

Muds behave with non Newtonian fluid

flow properties as their viscosity is not only
influenced by temperature and pressure but
is also strongly related to the velocity at
which the mud flows through the hydraulic
system.
The drilling fluid velocity and the resulting
rate of shear at the walls of the conduits play
an important role on the viscosity of the fluid
pumped.
For this reason, it is important to know the
viscosity in the full range of shear rate
usually considered for hydraulic calculations.
Traditionally, oil industry uses the Bingham
Plastic model to represent drilling fluid
behaviour.

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3. Rheology Test (Gel Strength)

32

Drilling fluid in static condition has its internal structure strength that

required pressure to initiate its flow called as gel strength.

This internal structure strength indicates the ability of the drilling fluid

to suspend cuttings when not circulating

The gel strength can also be determined using viscometer

The rotor speed is set low speed of 3 rpm after leaving at static condition for
specific time
If the mud is left in static condition for 10 secs then it is reported as the
initial or 10 second gel
The mud can be reported also as 10 minutes and 30 minutes gel
The unit for gel strength is the same as Yield Point, which is lbs/100ft2

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3. Rheology Test (Gel Strength)

33

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5 Drilling Fluid

WELL CONSTRUCTION

4. Filtrate Analysis

DRILLING FLUIDS PROPERTIES

34

Filtrate and Filter Cake

The filtrate analysis to determined

filter cake building properties of
drilling mud is measured using filter
press apparatus
Mud press

In the experiment, the rate of fluid

flow through filter under specific
pressure and temperature are
measured
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING SKG-10

Measured also the thickness of the

solid residue on the filter paper/
ceramic disc

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5. Liquid and solid content

35

Liquid and solid content of drilling mud is

determined using the water retort kit

The kit contains heater to heat up the

measured mud until it vaporized

The condensed fluid (water/oil) are collected

in a graduated tube and recorded as
percentage from total volume.

The volume of solid is found by subtracting

liquid content from 100%

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6. pH Test
36

pH is the term used to express the concentration of H+ ion in an

aqueous solution
Mud must always be treated to be alkaline ( pH 7 9.5)
If mud pH is below 7 (acidic)
Corrosion problem occurs (which can be caused by CO2 and H2S)
If mud pH is above 9.5 (too alkaline)
Mud viscosity increases
Shale instability occurs
pH is measured by pH paper or electronic pH meter
pH can be increased by adding lime or caustic soda

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7. Alkalinity Test
37

Alkalinity of filtrate or mud is determined by the amount

of acid needed to titrate the solution containing
phenolphthalein indicator.

The filtrate or mud is added with phenolphthalein. Acid is

titrated to the solution until the colour changes. The
number of ml of acid required is reported as the filtrate
or mud alkalinity

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8. Chloride Contest Test

38

The chloride content test is used to determine the salt contamination

from the formation

The filtrate or mud is added with phenolphthalein. Acid is titrated to

the solution until the color changes

25 to 50 ml of distilled water and a small amount of potassium

chromate solution is added.

The solution is stirred continuously while adding silver nitrate until

the color changes.

The chloride content is given by (ml of silver nitrate x 1000/ml of

filtrate sample)
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SOLID CONTROL
39

Solid control may be defined as the control of the

quantity and quality of suspended solids in the

drilling fluid so as to reduce the total well cost.
The equation to estimate the volume of solids
entering the mud system whilst drilling is:

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SOLID CONTROL (EXERCISE)

40

Calculate the amount of cuttings to be removed by

the solids control equipment if a well in East sea field

consists of the following conditions:

Average formation porosity, = 0.22

Hole diameter (in) = 24
Rate of penetration (ft/hr) = 58

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SOLID CONTROL (Cont)

41

Solid control is aimed at inert solids in the mud

These may include sand, silt, limestone and barite.
All of these solid (except barite) are considered to be

undesirable since:
1. They increase frictional resistance without improving lifting
capacity.
2. They cause damage to the mud pumps, leading to higher
maintenance costs.
3. The filter cake formed by these solid tends to be thick and
permeable. This leads to drilling problems (stuck pipe,
increase drag) and possible formation damage.
Therefore it is very important to remove all of these solids
However, solids like barite and bentonite should be retained
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SOLID CONTROL (Cont)

42

There are 3 basic methods used to control

solids content:
Screening
Settling
Dilution

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1. Screening of Solids
43

A shale shaker uses a vibrating

screen to separate solids

according to size.
Solids too large to pass through
a given mesh size will be
discarded while the finer
material undergo further
treatment.

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2. Settlings
44

The solids can be separated from

the mud by natural settling

mechanism.
Solids will settle out more readily
if:

The solid particle are large and heavy

The mud is light and has a low viscosity
The gravitational force can be increased
by mechanical means

Natural settling is far too slow, so

mechanical devices are introduced

(forced settling)
These devices include
hydrocyclones & centrifuges

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3. Dilution of Solids
45

After passing through all screening and settling

stages there will be a very fine solids content which

remains in the mud. These solids can either be
discarded or diluted.
Due to limited capacity of the active system some
mud usually discarded (together with desirable
solids and other chemicals) before remainder can be
diluted and conditioned for re-circulating)

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DRILLING FLUID DESIGN

46

Drilling fluids must be carefully designed while drilling a well

in order to satisfy various regulatory and environmental
standards, as well as achieve the highest performance

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

CONSIDERATION MUST BE GIVEN TO:

Impact of fluid on the formation or pay zone
Economics or cost of fluid/ additives
Logistics and availability of components/ additives
Environmental impact
Well design
Temperature
Refer: Article on Designing and Managing Drilling Fluid (April 1994) for further details
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Material Balance Equation

47

Used to calculate volume and densities of drilling

fluid when two or more insoluble materials are

mixed together.

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Density of Mud Additives

48

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Exercise 1
49

When 150 lbm of API barite, 40 lbm of bentonite and

1 bbl of water are mixed, what is the resulting

density?
Ans: 11.2 ppg

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Exercise 2
50

When 70 lbm of calcium chloride is mixed with 1 bbl

of water, what is the resulting density?

Ans: 9 ppg

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Exercise 3
51

Calculate how many sacks of barite are required to

increase the density of an 800 bbl mud system from

12.7 ppg to 14.5 ppg. Assume one sack contains of
100 lb of barite.
Given: 1 bbl of barite = 15 sacks
S.G. of barite = 4.25
Density of water = 1.0 g/cc = 8.33 ppg =
62.4lb/cuft
Ans: 1033 sacks
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