απειροστικος 1

1
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:
(i) ( log x =
x 1
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1 t
, (ii) ( )
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,
x 1 (iii)
( arctan x = 0 t2 +1 dt) (iv)
( )
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6. Riemann
Darboux. .
Darboux
Riemann
.
7. .

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8. . ,
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9. ii
2007 - 08
2008 - 09
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2009.
iii
iv
2
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( ).
. limx (x6=) ,
x ,
limx , x .
.

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2010.
3
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. .

2011.
vi

Calculus , , , T. Apostol.
Dierential and Integral Calculus, R. Courant.
Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, R. Courant - F. John.
A Course of Pure Mathematics, G. Hardy.
A Course of Higher Mathematics, V. Smirnov.
Advanced Calculus (Schaums Outline Series), M. Spiegel.
The Calculus A Genetic Approach, O. Toeplitz.
vii
viii

1 .
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 , , , . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 R. . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 . .
1.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 . . . . . . . . . .
2 .
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 . . . . .
2.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 . . . . . .
2.4.3 . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 . . . .
2.5 . e, .
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1
1
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2
3
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6
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9
10
11
14
16
16
18
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23
23
28
33
38
38
38
46
48
53
3 .
3.1 . . . . . .
3.2 , , . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 , , . . . . .
3.4.2 .
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 . . . . . . .
3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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61
61
63
66
67
67
76
79
83
85
ix
3.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 .
3.10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.2 . . . . . . . .
3.11 . . . . .
3.11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.2 . . . . . . . . . .
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
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4.3.1 . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 . . .
4.3.3 . . . . . . .
4.3.4 . . . . . . .
4.3.5 .
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5 .
5.1 , . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 . . .
5.5 . . . . . . . .
5.6 .
5.7 . . . . . . . . .
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6 .
6.1 . . .
6.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 , . . . . . . . . .
6.4 . . . . .
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 . . . .
6.5.3 . .
6.5.4 . . .
6.5.5 .
6.6 , . . . . . . . . .
6.7 . . . . . . .
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87
89
90
90
93
96
96
97
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101
101
115
119
119
120
127
128
130
134
136
139
141
144
148
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151
151
155
160
163
165
171
176
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181
181
181
182
183
186
188
192
192
193
193
195
196
201
203
6.8 . . . . . . . . .
6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9.1 . . . . . . . .
6.9.2 . , . . . . . . . . .
6.10 . . . . . .
6.10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10.2 . . . . .
6.10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 . . . . .
6.11.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.12 , . . . . .
6.12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.12.2 .
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7 Riemann.
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Riemann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Riemann. . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 . . . .
7.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 .
7.3.4 . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Riemann. . . . . . . .
7.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 . . . . .
7.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.4 . . . . . . . .
7.4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Riemann.
8.1 Riemann. . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Riemann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 . . . .
8.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.4 . . . . . . . . .
8.3.5 . . . . . . .
8.4 Riemann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 .
8.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xi
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208
215
215
218
224
225
225
228
229
231
237
237
240
244
244
246
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251
251
257
262
262
264
265
267
269
274
274
275
280
284
286
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291
291
291
293
297
304
304
305
306
312
317
325
329
331
332
8.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 , . . . .
8.6.1 . . . .
8.6.2 .
9 .
9.1 Taylor. . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 . . .
9.3 Riemann.
9.3.1 . .
9.3.2 . . .
9.3.3 . .
9.3.4 Simpson. . . .
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10 .
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 p- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 p- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 p-
10.3.3 p- - . . . . . . .
10.3.4 p- . . .
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Taylor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 , . .
10.7.1 . . .
10.7.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
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335
340
340
342
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347
347
350
352
353
354
354
355
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
[0, 1).
. . . .
. . . .
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357
357
360
366
366
369
373
374
377
381
388
394
394
396
398
.
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.
1
.
. . .
, , , .
. .
1.1
.
, , .
x + y, x y, xy xy (y 6= 0) x, y
. (, .)
.
1.1.1
, , , .
1, 2, 3, . . . , 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, . . .
, m
, m, n n 6= 0.
n
: m
, 2m
, 3m
, .
n
2n
3n
m
n m n ,
4
. , 3
4
4
43 .
3
3

, m m1 ,
.
. ,
. , , , .
.
; ,
.
R . , N, Z Q
, , . :
0, N 0, 1, 2, . . . N
1, 2, . . . .
1.1.2
, .
. .
1.1. (1) x y y z, x z.
, .
(2) x y, x + z y + z x z y z.
(3) x y z w, x + z y + w.
, .
(4) x y z > 0, xz yz xz yz .
(5) x y z < 0, xz yz xz yz .
(6) 0 < x y 0 < z w, 0 < xz yw.
, .
x |x|
{
x,
x 0
|x| =
x, x 0
, - .
1.2. (1) |xy| = |x||y|.

(2) . |x| |y| |x y| |x| + |y|.

(3) y 6= 0, xy = |x|
.
|y|
(4) |x| a a x a.
(5) |x| < a a < x < a.
x, y max{x, y} min{x, y}.
: max{x1 , . . . , xn }
min{x1 , . . . , xn }. A R , A
A, maximum
A max A. , A ,
minimum A min A.
1.1.3
R.
.
, 0,
, 1.
. , x

, x > 0, , x < 0,
|x|. ,
.
.
1.1: .
x . x
x. , .
2

x 0 |x|. , ,
x, y |x y|.
,
: x < y x, y
0, 1, . , 1
0, : x < y y x.
1 0, : x < y
y x.
:
1 0. , ,
1 0.
1.1.4
R. a < b, (a, b) = {x :
a < x < b}, (a, b] = {x : a < x b} [a, b) = {x : a x < b}. a b,
[a, b] = {x : a x b}. a, b.
(a, b) [a, b] .
(a, +) = {x : x > a}, (, b) = {x : x < b}, [a, +) = {x : x a}
(, b] = {x : x b}. - ( )
( )
( ). , - (, +) = R,
.
+, ;
. +

.
< > ,
x
< x,
x < +,
< +.
, , +
.
.
1.1.5
1 b, ,
,
. . .
, ,
. .
: b > 0 n n 1 > b.
b 0 , :
1.1. b n > b.
1.2: n > b.
1.1 . n
b, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, . . . b. :
, .
b =
1
a
, a > 0, 1.1 :
1.3. . a > 0 n
1.3: n
1
n
1
n
< a.
< a.
, n1 a,
1
1
1
n+1
, n+2
, n+3
, . . . a.
.
,
.
1.1
.
1.4. x k k x < k + 1.
x
[k, k + 1), k . . . . , [3, 2),
[2, 1), [1, 0), [0, 1), [1, 2), [2, 3), . . .
(, +).
k k x < k + 1 x
[x].
. [3] = 3, [4] = 4, [ 85 ] = 1, [ 23 ] = 0, [ 85 ] = 2.
1.1 1.3 1.4 .
.
. , .
1. r a , r + a .
r 6= 0 a , ra .
4
2. a , p, q, r, s p + qa = r + sa, p = r
q = s.
. , .
1. x y < 0 z w < 0, 0 < yw xz.
2. x y, z w, t s x + z + t = y + w + s, x = y, z = w t = s.
0 < x y, 0 < z w, 0 < t s xzt = yws, x = y, z = w t = s.
3. |x + y| = |x| + |y| x, y 0 x, y 0.
|x + y + z| |x| + |y| + |z|. , |x + y + z| = |x| + |y| + |z|
x, y, z 0 x, y, z 0.
4. t x t y t min{x, y}.
t x t y t max{x, y}.
5. max{x, y} =
x+y+|xy|
2
min{x, y} =
x+y|xy|
2
6. ;
{1
}
[a, b], (a, b), [a, b), N, Z, Q,
: n .
n
. .
1. 1.1
1.2;
2. .
a x b a y b, |x y| b a.
.
3. , x, y, x + y, x y, xy xy .
( xy : x, y > 0.
0
. , 1, y,
. , .
, ;)
. .
1. x .
|x + 1| > 2,
|x 1| < |x + 1|,
|x2 7x| > x2 7x,
x+3
x
>
,
x+2
3x + 1
(x 1)(x + 4)
> 0,
(x 7)(x + 5)
5
(x 2)2 4,
(x 1)(x 3)
0.
(x 2)2
2. x
x .
(, 3],
(2, +),
[2, 4] [6, +),
(, 2) (1, 4) (7, +),
(3, 7),
[1, 4) (4, 8],
(, 2] [1, 4) [7, +).
. .
1. x [x] = [x] ;
2. k , [x + k] = [x] + k.
(: [y] = m m
m y < m + 1.)
3. [x + y] = [x] + [y] [x + y] = [x] + [y] + 1
.
[x + y + z].
4. , 0 < x 1, n
n x.
1
n+1
<x
1
n
5. b n > b.
n b;
b n b;
a > 0. n
n a;
1
n
< a.
6. [x] + [x + 12 ] = [2x], [x] + [x + 13 ] + [x + 32 ] = [3x] , ,

[x] + [x + n1 ] + + [x + n2
] + [x + n1
] = [nx] n 2.
n
n
1.2
1.2.1
an ( ) n
an = a
a} ,
| {z
n
n a. a 6= 0, a0
an n
a0 = 1,
an =
1
an
1
.
a
a}
| {z
n
(a)n = an ,
n , (a)n = an , n . , ,
, n , an > 0 a 6= 0 , n ,
(i) an > 0 a > 0 (ii) an < 0 a < 0.
1.5
.
6
1.5. n 2,
xn y n = (x y)(xn1 + xn2 y + + xy n2 + y n1 ).
, n 3,
xn + y n = (x + y)(xn1 xn2 y + xy n2 + y n1 ).
n 1 2 (n 1) n
n! .
n! = 1 2 (n 1) n.
. 1! = 1, 2! = 1 2 = 2, 3! = 1 2 3 = 6, 4! = 1 2 3 4 = 24.
,
0! = 1
n
n! = (n 1)! n.
(n)
m
m, n
0 m n
( )
n
n!
=
.
m
m!(n m)!
( ) ( )
( ) ( n )
( ) ( n ) n(n1)
. n0 = nn = 1, n1 = n1
= n, n2 = n2
= 2 .
1 m n, , ,
( )
n
n(n 1) (n m + 1)
=
.
m
m!
1.6. Newton. x, y n
( )
( )
(
)
( )
n n
n n1
n
n n
n
n1
(x + y) =
x +
x y + +
xy
+
y .
0
1
n1
n
.
( )
( ) ( Newton
) ( ) . n = 1
(x + y)1 = 10 x1 + 11 y 1 , 10 = 11 = 1.
n x + y.
( )
( )
( )
(x + y)n+1 = n0 xn+1 + n1 xn y + + nn xy n
( )
( n ) n (n) n+1
+ n0 xn y + + n1
xy + n y
.
( )
(
)
( )
(
)
n0 = 1 = n+1
nn = 1 = n+1

0
n+1 . ,
( n ) nm+1 m ( n ) nm+1 m
m- (1 m n) m
x
y + m1 x
y =
(n+1) nm+1 m
y ( 4 ) , ,
m x
(x + y)n+1 =
(n+1)
0
xn+1 +
(n+1)
1
xn y + +
n + 1 n.
(n+1)
n
xy n +
(n+1)
n+1
y n+1 .
.
(x + y)1 = x + y ,
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ,
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 ,
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4 ,
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y 2 + 10x2 y 3 + 5xy 4 + y 5
Newton.
1.7
.
1.7. (1) .
ax bx = (ab)x ,
ax ay = ax+y ,
(ax )y = (ay )x = axy .
(2) 0 < a < b, (i) ax < bx , x > 0, (ii) a0 = b0 = 1 (iii) ax > bx , x < 0.
(3) x < y, (i) ax < ay , a > 1, (ii) 1x = 1y = 1 (iii) ax > ay , 0 < a < 1.
. 1.7 ; ! ,
.
(1) : x > 0, ax bx = |a {z
a} b| {z
}b = (ab) (ab) = (ab)x .
{z
}
|
x
1
x < 0, a, b 6= 0 ax bx = a 1 a 1 =
= (ab)x .
}b
(ab) (ab)
| {z } b| {z
{z
}
|
x
x
x
x = 0, a, b 6= 0 ax bx = 1 1 = 1 = (ab)x .
a} = a
a} = ax+y .
: x, y > 0, ax ay = |a {z
a} a
| {z
| {z
x
x+y
x < 0 < y x+y > 0, 0 < x < y, ay = a

a} = a
a} a
a} a
a} = a
a} = a
a} ax+y
| {z
| {z
| {z
| {z
| {z
| {z
x
y(x)
x+y
, , ax ay = a 1 a ay = ax+y .
| {z }
x
a} a
a} = ay a
a} , ,
x < 0 < y x + y < 0, 0 < y < x, |a {z
a} = a
| {z
| {z
| {z
x
(x+y)
(x)y
ax ay = a 1 a ay = a 1 a = ax+y .
| {z }
| {z }
x
(x+y)
1
x < 0 < y x + y = 0, y = x, ax ay = ax
ay = a1y ay = 1 = ax+y .
y < 0 < x x < 0 < y.
x, y < 0, ax ay = a 1 a a 1 a = a 1 a = a 1 a = ax+y .
| {z } | {z }
| {z }
| {z }
x
(x+y)
(x)+(y)
x = 0, ax ay = 1 ay = a0+y = ax+y . y = 0 x = 0.
x
: x, y > 0, (ax )y = a
ax} = |a {z
a} a
a} = a
a} = axy .
| {z
| {z
| {z
y
{z
xy
: x < 0 < y, y < 0 < x, x, y < 0, x = 0 y = 0.

}b = bx . (iii)
(2) (i) a bx
= bx . (ii) .
(i): ax = ax
(3) (i) y x > 0, , 1 < a y x , ax =
a
a} 1| {z
1} < a
a} |a {z
a} = ay . (iii) (ii) .
| {z
| {z
x
yx
yx
1.7
. ,
;
.
8
1.2.2
1.2 ,
; , . 1.2.
1.2. n a 0, xn = a x
0.
1.2 xn = a a 0
- . 1.8, ,
. , 1.2, .
1.8. (1) n , xn = a (i) ,
, a > 0, (ii) , 0, a = 0, (iii)
, a < 0.
(2) n , xn = a (i) , , a > 0, (ii)
, 0, a = 0, (iii) , , a < 0.
n , a 0 - xn = a
n- a
n
a.
, , n 0 = 0
n n a > 0 a > 0 n. ,
a < 0
n a n 2.
n =2, 3, 4, . . . , n a
, , , . . . a.
2
n = 2 a a , , a.
n = 3 3 a a.
. (1) x4 = 16 , 4 16 = 2 4 16 = 2.
, x4 = 16 .
(2) x5 = 32 , 5 32 = 2. x5 = 32 , 5 32 = 2.
.
1.9. n, k. n k k n-
.
. .
k n- , m
k = mn . n k = n mn = m , , .
, r = n k r = ml , m, l > 1.
l > 1, p l.
n
l, m > 1, p m. k = rn = mln ,
ln k = mn . p l, ln k , , mn . ,
, . ,
p mn = m m, m .
l = 1, r = m , , k = rn = mn n- .
. (1) 2 , ,
m
m2 = 2. : 12 < 2 22 > 2. , 3 5 m
m3 = 5.

(2) 2 + 3 . , r, ( 2 + 3)2 = r2 ,
2
6 = r 25 , , 6 .
m m2 = 6.
9
1.2.3
ar r .
= kl . ( n a)m = ( l a)k .
1.1. a > 0, m, k n, l m
n
.
(( n a)m )nl = ( n a)mnl = (( n a)n )ml = aml ,

(( l a)k )nl = ( l a)knl = (( l a)l )kn = akn .
ml =
kn,
aml = akn , (( n a)m )nl = (( l a)k )nl . , ( n a)m > 0 ( l a)k > 0,
( n a)m = ( l a)k .
, a > 0 r. m n
r= m
. , 1.1, ( n a)m .
n
,
ar = ( n a)m .
, r > 0
0r = 0.
, 0r , 0r = ( n 0)m r =
. , n
1
an =
m
n
> 0 , m, n
a 0. , ar , ar > 0 a > 0
r.
, a < 0, ar r
r , 1.2.1.
:
ar (i) a > 0, (ii) a = 0 r > 0 (iii) a < 0 r .
ar (i) a = 0 r 0 (ii) a < 0 r .
3
6
3
6
2
1
2 = (
. (1) 2 4 = ( 4 2)3 , 2 8 = ( 8 2)6 = ( 4 2)3 , 2 4 = ( 4 2)3 = (
,
2
2)6 =
4
3
2)
6
1
23 = 8 2 2 = ( 2 2)6 = (
= 81 .
2
2)6
(2) 0 4 = 0 0 5 = 0. 0 4 , 0 5 00 .
3
10
(3) (2)0 = 1 2 2 = 25 = 32. (2) 3 (2) 2 .

, 1.7, .
1.7 . 1.7
, .
k
x = m
(ax )n = am
n y =l .
m n
n m
x n
n
n
: (a ) = (( a) ) = (( a) ) = am .
(1) : a, b > 0. (ax bx )n = (ax )n (bx )n = am bm = (ab)m = ((ab)x )n ,
ax bx , (ab)x > 0, ax bx = (ab)x .
a = 0, x > 0 ax bx = 0 bx = 0 = 0x = (ab)x . b = 0 .
: x + y = pq , p = ml + kn q = nl. a > 0, (ax ay )nl = (ax )nl (ay )nl =
((ax )n )l ((ay )l )n = (am )l (ak )n = aml akn = aml+kn = (( q a)q )ml+kn = ( q a)q(ml+kn) = ( q a)pnl = (( q a)p )nl =
(ax+y )nl , ax ay , ax+y > 0, ax ay = ax+y .
10
a = 0, x, y > 0 ax ay = 0 0 = 0 = ax+y .
(
)n
: xy = pq , p = mk q = nl. a > 0, ((ax )y )nl = ((ax )y )l = ((ax )k )n =
((ax )n )k = (am )k = amk = (( q a)q )mk = ( q a)qmk = ( q a)pnl = (( q a)p )nl = (axy )nl , (ax )y , axy > 0,
(ax )y = axy . (ay )x = axy .
a = 0, x, y > 0 (ax )y = 0y = 0 = axy . (ay )x = axy .
(2) (i) x > 0, m > 0. (ax )n = am < bm = (bx )n , ax , bx > 0, ax < bx .
(iii) (ii) .
(3) (i) x < y n, l > 0, ml < kn. (ax )nl = ((ax )n )l = (am )l = aml < akn = (ak )n =
((ay )l )n = (ay )nl . ax , ay > 0, ax > ay .
(iii) (ii) .
1.2.4
, ax a 0 x .
a > 1.
, s, r, t s < r < t, , ,
as < ar < at . ,
, ,
s, t x s < x < t, as < ax < at . ,
as , at ax . ,
ax :
as < ax < at s, t s < x < t.
.
s < x t > x.
s, t , , s < t a > 1, as < at . , ,
, as , , at ,

.
1.4: ax .
. , ,
as at :
as < < at
s, t s < x < t.
, 0 6= as < 0 < at s, t s < x < t.
, , .
1.3. (1) a > 1 x. as < < at
s, t s < x < t.
(2) a > 1 x. as < < at
s, t s < x < t ( ) ax .
a > 1 x , ax
1.3. , , ax
as < ax < at
11
s, t s < x < t .
1.3,
x .
a = 1 x , :
1x = 1.
, 0 < a < 1 x ,
( a1 )x :
( 1 )x
ax =
.
a
, x ,
1
a
> 1 x .
0x = 0.
, , , x , ax (i) a > 0 (ii)
a = 0 x > 0. ax (i) a < 0 x (ii)
a = 0 x < 0.
,
ax (i) a > 0 x , (ii) a = 0 x > 0 (iii)
a < 0 x .
ax (i) a = 0 x 0 (ii) a < 0 x .
ax : x a > 0 (
a < 0), , ax , ax > as s < x, ,
as > 0, ax > 0.
, ,
1.7, . ,
.
.
. .
1. n .
n , xn < y n x < y.
n , xn < y n |x| < |y|.
2. x, y 0, x2 +xy+y 2 > 0 x4 +x3 y+x2 y 2 +xy 3 +y 4 >
0. ;
x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 > 0 x5 + x4 y + x3 y 2 +
x2 y 3 + xy 4 + y 5 > 0; ;
3. n
(i) 1 + 2 + + n = 12 n(n + 1),
(ii) 12 + 22 + + n2 = 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 1),
(iii) 13 + 23 + + n3 = 14 n2 (n + 1)2 .
12
4. Newton
Pascal;
1
1 1
1 2
1
1 4
1
10
1
3
1
4
10
( ) (n) ( n )
1 m n, n+1
= m + m1 .
m
Pascal;
(n)
5. m
n m ;
(n)
m m 0 n;
Pascal;
6. n .
( ) ( )
(
) ( )
n
n
n
n
+
+ +
+
= 2n ,
0
1
n1
n
( ) ( )
(
)
( )
n
n
n
n1
n n
+ + (1)
+ (1)
= 0.
0
1
n1
n
. .
1. n a 0, n an = a.
n , n an = |a|.
2. a + b a + b a, b 0. a + b = a + b
a = 0 b = 0.
3. :
n
n
n
m
n
m
n
a b = ab ,
a=
a = nm a
4.
5.
6.
7.
n, m. ;
n 0 a < b, n a < n b .
105 105 106 106 .
7 129 , 3 5 + 2 3 2 + 5 .

a
a > 0,
a a a a = 2n

a
n .
13
8.
a.
(: 1 < a. ,
0, 1 a,
. x
, x2 = a.)
4 a 8 a .
. .
1. (2)0 , 00 , (3) 3 , (2) 4 , (2) 12 ;
16
10
(
)5
5
2. (1)2 2 = (1)2 2 ; ;
1.7;
3. r (2)r < 0;
. .
1. 2
, (2)
, 0
2. ( 17 3)24 < 3 2
3. 2
,0 2;
< ( 17 3)25 .
2
5
4. [10 2 2 ] [100 2 2 ].
(
)3
= (1)2 3 ; 1.7;
(
)3
x
x (1)
= (1)x 3 ;
5. (1)
1.3
a > 0 6= 1. : y ax = y (
x) ;
x ax > 0, , ax = y,
y > 0. 1.4, , , ,
y.
1.4. a > 0 a 6= 1. y > 0 x
ax = y.
1.4 ax = y.
. ,
x1 , x2 ax = y ( y) 1.7 , x1 6= x2 ,
ax1 6= ax2 .
a = 1, ax = y, . ,
1x = 1 x, y 1
: .
a = 0 . 0x = y y = 0
14
: . a < 0
ax x .
ax = y y a
loga y.
, :
x = loga y
ax = y.
1.10. a > 0 a 6= 1.
(1) loga (yz) = loga y + loga z y, z > 0.
(2) loga yz = loga y loga z y, z > 0.
(3) loga (y z ) = z loga y y > 0 z.
(4) loga 1 = 0 loga a = 1.
(5) 0 < y < z. (i) loga y < loga z, a > 1, (ii) loga y > loga z, 0 < a < 1.
. (1) x = loga y w = loga z, ax = y aw = z. ax+w = ax aw = yz,
loga (yz) = x + w = loga y + loga z.
(2) loga yz + loga z = loga ( yz z) = loga y loga yz = loga y loga z.
(3) x = loga y, ax = y. azx = (ax )z = y z , , loga (y z ) = zx = z loga y.
(4) loga 1 = 0 a0 = 1 loga a = 1 a1 = a.
(5) 0 < y < z. x = loga y w = loga z, y = ax z = aw . ax < aw , a > 1,
x < w , 0 < a < 1, x > w.
1.11. a, b > 0 a, b 6= 1.
logb y =
1
log y
loga b a
y > 0.
. a, b > 0 a, b 6= 1. x = logb y w = loga b, bx = y aw = b.
awx = (aw )x = bx = y. loga y = wx = loga b logb y.
.
1. log2 4, log 1 2, log 1 4.
2
2. log2 3 log3 4.
3. log2 3 log3 5 log5 7 log7 10 log10 8.
4. a > 0, a 6= 1. aloga y = y y > 0.
5. log2 3 ;
6. a > 0, a 6= 1. log 1 y = loga y y > 0.
a
7. a > 0, a 6= 1. logaz (y z ) = loga y y > 0 z 6= 0.
15
1.4 . .
1.4.1
1 ,
( ) ( ).
x |x|,
, x > 0,
( ) x < 0. x
, : x ,
.
1. , 2 B, , 3
2
2 . x [0, 2]

x 2
. x [k2, (k + 1)2],
k : 2.
, x,
x ( ) 2.
1.5: .

.
x , ,
1. .
cos x =
+ , , , .
2. .
sin x =
16
+ , , , .
3. o .
tan x =
+ , , , .
4. o .
cot x =
+ , , , .
tan x , ,
x = 2 + k (k Z). , cot x
, , x = k (k Z).
(cos x, sin x)

. cos x, sin x, tan x cot x , ,
, , x.
x. ,
.
. (1) cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0, tan 0 = 0. cot 0.
(2) cos 2 = 0, sin 2 = 1, cot 2 = 0. tan 2 .
(3) cos = 1, sin = 0, tan = 0. cot .
(4) cos 3
= 0, sin 3
= 1, cot 3
= 0. tan 3
.
2
2
2
2
cos x > 0, x
( 2 +k2, 2 +k2) (k Z), cos x < 0, x ( 2 +k2, 3
+k2) (k Z).
2
, sin x > 0, x (k2, + k2) (k Z), sin x < 0, x
( + k2, 2 + k2) (k Z).
, ,
1 cos x 1,
1 sin x 1
x. 1.12 ;
.
1.12. (1) (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1.
x
sin x
, cot x = cos
.
(2) tan x = cos
x
sin x
(3) cos(x) = cos x, sin(x) = sin x, tan(x) = tan x, cot(x) = cot x.
(4) cos( 2 x) = sin x, sin( 2 x) = cos x, tan( 2 x) = cot x, cot( 2 x) = tan x.
(5) cos(x + ) = cos x, sin(x + ) = sin x, tan(x + ) = tan x, cot(x + ) = cot x.
(6) cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y, sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y.
sin x+y
, sin x sin y = 2 sin xy
cos x+y
.
(7) cos x cos y = 2 sin xy
2
2
2
2
(8) k . (i) cos x > cos x0 , k2 x < x0 + k2, (ii) cos x < cos x0 ,
+ k2 x < x0 2 + k2.
(9) k . (i) sin x < sin x0 , 2 +k2 x < x0 2 +k2, (ii) sin x > sin x0 ,
+ k2.
2 + k2 x < x0 3
2
17
. 1.12 .
(1) .
= , , tan x = sin x . ,
(2) ,
cos x

cos x
, = , , cot x = sin x .
(3) x, x
.
(4) x, 2 x
.
(5) x, x +
.
(6) , x, y x + y. (
) ( ) . , ,
(cos(x + y) 1)2 + (sin(x + y) 0)2 = (cos x cos(y))2 + (sin x sin(y))2 .

, (1) (3), (6).
, (3) (4):
(
)
((
)
)
(
)
(
)
sin(x + y) = cos 2 (x + y) = cos 2 x + (y) = cos 2 x cos(y) sin 2 x sin(y)
= sin x cos y + cos x sin y.
(7)
cos x = cos
cos y = cos
( x+y
2
( x+y
2
xy
2
xy
2
xy
x+y
xy
= cos x+y
2 cos 2 sin 2 sin 2
xy
x+y
xy
= cos x+y
2 cos 2 + sin 2 sin 2 .
,
xy
cos x cos y = 2 sin x+y
2 sin 2 .
(7).
(8) k2 x < x0 + k2, , x, x0
, cos x > cos x0 . + k2 x < x0 2 + k2, ,
, cos x < cos x0 .
(9) 2 + k2 x < x0 2 + k2, , x, x0
, sin x < sin x0 . 2 + k2 x < x0 3
2 + k2, ,
, sin x > sin x0
1.4.2
.
.

.
1. y [1, 1].
y
.
arccos y
[0, ] , .
2. y [1, 1]. y

.
arcsin y
[ 2 , 2 ] .
18
3. y. o y.
.
arctan y
( 2 , 2 ) .
4. y. o y.
.
arccot y
(0, ) .
. (1) arccos 1 = 0, arccos 0 =

(2) arcsin 1 =
, arcsin 0 = 0, arcsin(1) =
(3) arctan 0 = 0 arccot 0 =
, arccos(1) = .
.
arccos y, arcsin y, arctan y arccot y , , -, , - - y.

y.
y [1, 1] arccos y [0, ]
cos x = y.
x = arccos y
cos x = y 0 x .
cos x = y [, 0], arccos y.

cos x = y R arccos y + k2 (k Z) arccos y + k2 (k Z).
, , y [1, 1] arcsin y
[ 2 , 2 ] sin x = y.
x = arcsin y
sin x = y
x .
2
2
], arcsin y.
sin x = y [ 2 , 3
2
sin x = y R arcsin y + k2 (k Z) arcsin y + k2 (k Z).
y arctan y ( 2 , 2 )
tan x = y.
x = arctan y
tan x = y
<x< .
2
2
tan x = y R arctan y + k (k Z).

y arccot y (0, )
cot x = y.
x = arccot y
cot x = y 0 < x < .
cot x = y R arccot y + k (k Z).

1.13. (1) 1 y < y 0 1. arccos y > arccos y 0 arcsin y < arcsin y 0 .
(2) y < y 0 . arctan y < arctan y 0 arccot y > arccot y 0 .
19
. (1) , y, y 0 ,
. , M , ,
arccos y > arccos y 0 .
, , y, y 0 ,
. , , , arcsin y < arcsin y 0 .
(2) , y, y 0 ,
. , , , arctan y < arctan y 0 .
, y, y 0 ,
. , , , arccot y > arccot y 0 .

. ( )
. , , .
,
.
. : cos x sin x
8 10.
,
,
.
.
1. 2
.
8 10.
.
. .
1.
6 , 4 3 .
2. .
1
cos x = ,
2
1
sin x = ,
2
cot x = 1,
3. |a cos x + b sin x| a2 + b2 .
tan x = 0,
1
3
cos x = , sin x =
,
2
2
tan x = 3 , cot x = 3 .
4. a, b
a2 + b2 = 1 q [0, 2)
cos q = a
sin q = b.
5. a, b 0.
, p > 0 q
a cos x + b sin x = p cos(x q)
x.
(: a cos x + b sin x =
(
a2 + b2 a2a+b2 cos x +
20
b
a2 +b2
)
sin x .)
6.
(i) cos y = cos x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 (k Z),
(ii) sin y = sin x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 (k Z),
(iii) tan y = tan x y = x + k (k Z),
(iv) cot y = cot x y = x + k (k Z).
7.
1 + (tan x)2 =
1
,
(cos x)2
1 + (cot x)2 =
1
.
(sin x)2
8.
tan(x + y) =
tan x + tan y
,
1 tan x tan y
cot(x + y) =
cot x cot y 1
.
cot x + cot y
9.
cos(2x) = (cos x)2 (sin x)2 = 2(cos x)2 1 = 1 2(sin x)2 ,
tan(2x) =
2 tan x
,
1 (tan x)2
cot(2x) =
sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x,
(cot x)2 1
.
2 cot x
10.
cos x =
1 (tan x2 )2
,
1 + (tan x2 )2
sin x =
2 tan x2
,
1 + (tan x2 )2
tan x =
2 tan x2
,
1 (tan x2 )2
cot x =
1 (tan x2 )2
.
2 tan x2
11.
2 sin x sin y = cos(x y) cos(x + y),
2 cos x cos y = cos(x y) + cos(x + y),
2 sin x cos y = sin(x y) + sin(x + y).

12. ,
cos x + cos(2x) + cos(3x) + + cos(nx) =
sin x + sin(2x) + sin(3x) + + sin(nx) =
sin( nx
) cos( (n+1)x
)
2
2
,
x
sin 2
sin( nx
) sin( (n+1)x
)
2
2
.
x
sin 2
(: sin x2 .)
. .
1.

2
3
1
0, 2 , 2 , 2 1.
2.
arccos y + arcsin y =
(1 y 1),
21
arctan y + arccot y =
.
2
3. y y = cos(arccos y) y = sin(arcsin y);

y y = tan(arctan y) y = cot( arccot y);
4. arccos(cos x) = x x [0, ].
, arccos(cos x), x [k, (k + 1)],
k ;
arcsin(sin x), arctan(tan x)
arccot(cot x);
22
2
.
(). , . :
n0 , . .
. . . .
e .
2.1
( )
: , , .

; 1, 2,
3 . :
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . ,
y 1 , y2 , . . . , yn , . . . ,
z1 , z 2 , . . . , z n , . . . .

(xn ),
(yn ),
(zn ).
n (, ) , :
, .
xn+1 xn xn1 xn .
. (1) ( n1 ), 1, 12 , 13 , . . . , n1 , . . . .
(2) (n), 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, . . . .
(3) (1), 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, . . . .
)
(
(4) (1)n1 , 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . .
( )
1
(5) 101n , 10
, 1012 , 1013 , . . . , 101n , . . . .
(6) n- n,
1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 2, . . . .

.
: ,
23
. ,
:
n-
.
(,
) . , ,
( ,
).
,
. {1} . , , ; 1, 1, 1, . . . .
, , (, , )
( ).
(xn ) xn+1 xn n. (xn )
xn+1 > xn n. (xn ) xn+1 xn
n. , (xn ) xn+1 < xn n.

. :
,

.
(xn ) ,
c xn = c n.
. .
(xn ) ,
u xn u n. , (xn )
, l l xn n.
(xn ) ,
l, u l xn u n , ,
[l, u].
. (1) (c) , , .
[c, c].
(2) ( n1 ) [0, 1].
(
n1 )
(3) (1)n
[ 21 , 1].
(4) ( n1
) [0, 1].
n
(
)
(5) (1)n1 [1, 1].
(
n1 )n )
(6) (1+(1)
, 1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . ,
2
. 0 . ,
, u .
(1+(1)n1 )n
u n, , n = 2k 1,
2
2k 1 u k. , k u+1
k,
2
1.1.
(7) 1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . , ,
24
; l ,
l,
l, .
(
)
(8) (1)n1 n , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ,
. u l (1)n1 n u
n l (1)n1 n n, ,
n, .
(xn ) , xn [l, u].
(xn )
0. [M, M ]
[l, u], M = max{u, l}.
, (xn ) , M |xn | M
n.
u (xn ), > u
(xn ). , ,
. , l (xn ), < l
(xn ). , ,
.
.
. (xn ) , , n , xn
. , (xn ) , xn .
2.1: .
2.2: .
(xn )
, , 0.
n xn .
(n, xn ) (xn ).
25
, xn , (n, xn )
. ,
: n , (n, xn ) . ,
(xn ) , , n , (n, xn ) (
). , (xn ) , (n, xn )
( ). , (xn ) , (n, xn )
.
.
. .
1. .
( 2n 1 ) ( n ) ( 1 (1)n ) ( 1 1 1
1)
,
,
,
+ + + + n ,
3n + 2
n+1
n3
2 4 8
2
(1)n1 ) ( n2 3n + 1 )
,
,
n!
2 4 6 2n
2n n!
( (2x)n1 ) ( (1)n1 x2n1 ) (
)
(1)n x2n1
,
,
.
(2n 1)5
(2n 1)!
1 3 5 (2n 1)
(2n! ),
( (1)n+1 )
2. :
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36.
,
; (i) 49. (ii) 24. (iii)
.
3. .
(n),
(n),
)
(1)n1 ,
( 1 + (1)n1 )
2
(a + b
2
+ (1)n1
a b)
.
2
(: .)
(
) (
)
(
)
n
4. n2[ n2 ] , n3[ n3 ]
n4[
]
. ,
4)
(
n
m , n m[ m
] .
5. . a, b, p, q, p, q 0.
(xn )
:
x1 = a, x2 = b xn+2 = pxn+1 + qxn (n 1).
n- xn .
1: p 6= 0, q = 0. xn = bpn2
n 2.
2: p = 0, q 6= 0. xn = aq
n .
26
n1
2
, n , xn = bq
n2
2
3: p 6= 0, q 6= 0.
x2 = px + q.
(i)
= p2 + 4q > 0, () , 1 = p+2
2 = p2 . , + = a 1 +2 = b
.
xn = 1 n1 + 2 n1
n 1.
(ii) = p2 + 4q = 0, , = p2 .
, = a + = b .
xn = n1 + (n 1)n1
n 1.
(iii) = p2 + 4q < 0 ( q < 0), ()
p+i
pi
,
=
.
=
q > 0
1 =
2
2
2
( p )2 ( )2
2 + 2
= 1, [0, 2)
cos = 2
sin = 2
. 1 = (cos + i sin ) 2 = (cos i sin ).
2
cos(2) = p cos + q 2 sin(2) = p sin .
, = a ( cos + sin ) = b . ,

(
)
xn = n1 cos((n 1)) + sin((n 1))
n 1.
n-
( )
x1 = x2 = 1
.
xn+2 = 3xn (n 1),
xn+2 = xn+1 + xn (n 1),
xn+2 = 2xn+1 xn (n 1),
xn+2 = xn+1 xn (n 1).
, x1 = x2 = 1
xn+2 = xn+1 + xn (n 1), Fibonnaci
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13.
. .
1. (xn ) , .
2. (xn ) (xn )
, .
27
3. ; ;
, ,
; .
(
) ( (1)n1 ) ( n ) ( 1 )
) (
,
,
(n),
(1)n1 ,
(1)n1 n ,
2 ,
n
2n
( 8n 1 ) ((n + 15)) ( 8n ) ( [ n ]) (
[ n ])
,
,
,
2
,
n
3
.
n2 + n + 1
16
n!
2
3
. .
1. ; ;
;
2.

.
3. (xn ) (xn )
, .
2.2 .
. (1) ( n1 ).
1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1, , , , , . . . ,
,
, ... ,
, ... ,
, ... .
2 3 4 5
100 101
100000
100000000
, n , n1
. , ,
, , n , n1
0.
.
(2) , , ( n1
):
n
0,
1 2 3 4
99 100
99999
99999999
, , , , ... ,
,
, ... ,
, ... ,
, ... .
2 3 4 5
100 101
100000
100000000
n , n1

n
n1
1 . , n 1
| n1
1| = 1 n1
= n1 , , n ,
n
n
n1 . ,
, , n ,
1.
n1
n
(xn ) :
n , xn x
.

, /
28
. ,
(
) . , ,
( )
,
.
xn x
|xn x| . n
n . , ,
:
|xn x| n
.
. :
. ( n1 ). n1 0 | n1 0| = n1
, , n
. ;
, 0, 000132.
1
0, 000132 n ;
n
, : n n1
0, 000132; : n1 < 0, 000132
n > 1000000
. n > 1000000
; 7576
132
132
1000000
1000000
> 132 ( 7575 132 ) , , n 7576,
n1 < 0, 000132. ,
0, 0000000000132. , n 75757575758,
n1 < 0, 0000000000132. , ,
: (
0, 000132 0, 0000000000132) (
7576 75757575758). , , .
.
, ,
.
, ,
, n0 , ,
n n0 , n1 < . , ,
: > 0, , n0
n10 , n01+1 , n01+2 , . . . < . (
) n0 .
n0 ( ) n1 < ; ,
. n1 < n > 1 (,
n) :
> a n0 = [a] + 1, a 0, n0 = 1, a < 0.
: > 1 1,
> 38 ( 2 < 83 < 3) 3 = [ 83 ] + 1 > 2
3 = 2 + 1 = [2] + 1.
29
( 1 0) n0 n0 = [ 1 ] + 1.
, ( )
n0 ,
n0 .
. (xn ) x x x
(xn ) |xn x| > 0
n n0 , , > 0
n0 |xn x| < n n0 . (xn ) x
xn x
lim xn = x
lim xn = x.
n+
.
(xn ) x > 0 n0 |xn x| <
n n0 , , > 0 n0 n n0 |xn x| <
, , > 0 n0 n n0 |xn x| < .
2.3: x < xn < x + n n0 .

(xn ) , (xn ) .
xn x ;
n, n (, ),
xn x xn , ,
x n .
. (1) ,
(
)
(2) (1)n1 .
1
n
n1
n
1.
1, 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . .
n , (1)n1 1 1

1 .
)
(
, (1)n1 .
(, , ) 1
(, , ) 1.
(
)
(1)n1 .
(
)
, , ( (1)n1) .
, , (1)n1 x.
> 0 n0 |(1)n1 x| <
n n0 . n0 n n0 n n0 . ,
n n0 | 1 x| < n n0
|1 x| < . > 0 | 1 x| < |1 x| < . ,
| 1 x| < 21 |1 x| < 12 . , ,
30
(
)
x. (1)n1
x 2.6
1 1.
(
n1 )
(3) (1)n
, 1, 12 , 13 , 14 , . . . . n-
(1)n1

0 n 0 = n1 , , , > 0 n0

n1
n1
(1)n 0 = n1 < n n0 . , (1)n 0.
(4) (c), c, c, c, c, . . . .
c c.
, c |cc| = 0. ,
> 0 n0 = 1 |c c| = 0 <
n n0 = 1.
(5) ( n1 ). a > 0 ( n1a ),
1, 21a , 31a , 41a , . . . .
1
0
na
(a > 0).
> 0 n0 | n1a 0| <

n n0 . | n1a 0| < n1a <
1
1
1
na > 1 n > ( 1 ) a . ( 1 ) a 0, n0 = [( 1 ) a ] + 1,
1
n n0 n > ( 1 ) a , , | n1a 0| < .
1
: n12 0, 1n 0,
3 n 0.
xn x ,
. > 0 ,
|xn x| < n > a
. :
1 2 , , 1 = 2 .
n > a n0 = [a] + 1, a 0, n0 = 1,
a < 0, n n0 n > a ,
, |xn x| < .
. (1) n21+n 0.
> 0 n0 | n21+n 0| <
n n0 . | n21+n 0| < n21+n < n2 + n 1 > 0
1
1
4
1
1
n > 2 + 2 1 + n < 2 2 1 + 4 (:
n ) n > 21 + 12 1 + 4 .
[
]
12 + 12 1 + 4 0. , , n0 = 21 + 12 1 + 4 + 1,
n n0 n > 12 + 21 1 + 4 , , | n21+n 0| < .

.
| n21+n 0| < n21+n < ( n21+n n1 ) n1 <
n > 1 . 1 0, n0 = [ 1 ] + 1, n n0 n > 1
, , | n21+n 0| < .
31
{
(2) (xn ), xn =
3+(1)n
2n
2
n
1
n
,
,
n

n
1, 1, 13 , 12 , 15 , 13 , 17 , 14 , . . . .
xn 0. > 0. |xn 0| <
( xn 0) xn < ( xn n2 ) n2 < n > 2 .
2
0, n0 = [ 2 ] + 1, n n0 n > 2 , ,

|xn 0| < .
(xn ) , > 0
0; 1 .
(3) sinnn 0.
> 0. | sinnn 0| < | sinnn| <
( | sinnn| n1 ) n1 < n > 1 . 1 0,
n0 = [ 1 ] + 1, n n0 n > 1 , , | sinnn 0| < .
(4) . (an ), a, a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .
. a.
a = 1, (1) 1. , a = 0,
(0) 0.
a 1 ( : a = 1 ), a 1,
a2 1, a3 1, a4 1, . . . . , 1
1 , 2.6, .
0 < |a| < 1, 0. a = 21
1
1
a = 10
. a = 12 , 12 , 212 , 213 , 214 , . . . , a = 10
,
1
10
, 1012 , 1013 , 1014 , . . . .
, 0.
, , 0 < |a| < 1 > 0. |an 0| <
|a|n < n > log|a| . , log|a| 0, 0 < 1, log|a| < 0,
> 1. , n0 = [log|a| ] + 1, 1, n0 = 1,
> 1, n n0 n > log|a| , , |an 0| < .
a > 1. .
.
n
, 1. (xn ), xn = 3+(1)
2n
. xn > xn+1 n xn < xn+1
n 3.
2. .
n0 .
3
,
n+ 4
lim
lim n 3 ,
8
n+
1
,
n+ n n
lim
3n
,
n+ 4n
lim
(1)n 8n
.
n+
32n
lim
3. :
1
n2
,
3n + 4
3
3n
2,
n+3
n
0.
n+1
; ,
n-
32
n .
, ,

n
( , n = 1000, 10000 ). n0 .
4. (, > 0
n0 , ),
.
( 1 )n
1
1
1
1
3n 1
3
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
,
5
n
n
10
3
n+1
4n + 5
4
n
1
1
n2 n + 1
1
2 n+3
2
,
0,
0,
,
2
2
n +1
3n + 2
3
3
n+1
23 n
cos n
cos(2n) + n
1
0,
1,
0.
n
2 + 3n
n n
n
5. xn x, (xn ) x, :
> 0 n0 n n0
|xn x| .
;
2.3
. (1) (n2 )
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, . . . .
n- n2 n
. ,
n2 n .
(2) (n)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . .
n- n n
.
(xn ) :
xn n .
,
, ,
. :
xn n
.
33
. (n2 ) : n2
n .
; ,
, 35000.
n2 35000 n
; , : n n2
35000; :
n2 > 35000 n> 35000 .
n > 35000 ; 188 > 35000 (

187 35000), , n 188, n2 > 35000.
, , 35000000000. ,
n 187083, n2 > 35000000000. ,
( 35000 35000000000)
( 188 187083),
.

, M ,
, n0 , , n n0 ,
n2 > M . n2 > M n > M . , ,
1.1:
M > 0 n0
n0 , n0 + 1, n0 + 2, . . . > M . (
M ) n0
M.
n0 (
M ) n > M ;
: M 0, n0 n0 = [ M ] + 1.
. (xn ) + +
+ (xn ) xn M > 0 n
n0 , , M > 0
n0 xn > M n n0 . (xn ) +
xn +
lim xn = +
lim xn = +.
n+
. (xn )
+ M > 0 n0 xn > M n n0 ,
, M > 0 n0 n n0 xn > M ,
, M > 0 n0 n n0 xn > M .
2.4: xn > M n n0 .
, (xn )
(xn ) xn M < 0 n
n0 , , M > 0 n0
xn < M n n0 . (xn )
xn
lim xn =
34
lim xn = .
n+
xn + xn ; xn +
xn , ,
, , n .
. (1) , n2 + n +.
(2) n < M n > M . ,
M > 0 n0 n < M
n n0 M > 0 n0 n2 < M
n n0 . n2 n .
{
(
)
n, n
3(1)n1 n
(3) (xn ), xn =
=
, 2
2n, n
, 1, 4, 3, 8, 5, 12, 7, 16, . . . .
xn +. M > 0. xn > M
( xn n) n > M . , n0 = [M ] + 1,
n n0 n > M , , xn > M .
(xn ) +.
1 .
(
)
(4) (1)n1 .
2.6, + ;
1 () 1. , , ,
, (1)n1 +. M > 0 n0
(1)n1 > M n n0 . , n0
(1)n1 > 1 n (n0 . ,
) , !
n1
( (1)
.
)
, (1)n1 ; , +, .
lim (1)n1 .
n+
(5) (n) (n2 ). a > 0

(na ), 1, 2a , 3a , 4a , . . . . :
na +
(a > 0).
M > 0 n0 n n0
1
na > M . na > M n > M a . ,
1
1
n n0 n > M a , , na > M .
n0 = [M a ] + 1,
: n2 +, 5 n +.
(6) a > 1 (loga n), loga 1 = 0, loga 2, loga 3, loga 4, . . . .
:
loga n +
(a > 1).
M > 0 loga n > M

n > aM . n0 = [aM ] + 1, n n0 n > aM ,
, loga n > M .
(7) . a > 1
(an ). +.
35
2, 22 , 23 , 24 , . . . 10, 102 , 103 , 104 . . . .

+.
, , M > 0 an > M
n > loga M . , loga M 0, M 1, loga M < 0, M < 1. ,
n0 = [loga M ] + 1, M 1, n0 = 1, M < 1, n n0
n > loga M , , an > M .
, 2.6, a 1, (an )
; 1 1. ,
+ , , .
:
+,
1,
an
0,
a>1
a=1
1 < a < 1
a 1
(
)
(8) (1)n1 n , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . , ;
( a 1), 1
1.
2
+n
(9) nn+3
+.
2 +n
M > 0. nn+3
> M n2 + n > M n + 3M
n2 + (1 M )n 3M > 0 n > M21 + 12 (M 1)2 + 12M n <
M 1
1
(M 1)2 + 12M (:
2
2
) n > M21 + 21 (M 1)2 + 12M . M21 + 12 (M 1)2 + 12M
[
]
0. , n0 = M21 + 12 (M 1)2 + 12M + 1, n n0
2 +n
n > M21 + 21 (M 1)2 + 12M , , nn+3
> M.
2 +n
. nn+3
> M
n2 +n
n2
n
n
( n+3 n+3n = 4 ) 4 > M n > 4M .
2 +n
n0 = [4M ] + 1, n n0 n > 4M , , nn+3
> M.
(10) n7 + 2n2 n +.
M > 0. n7 + 2n2 n > M ( n7[+
2n2] n n7 )
7
7
n7 > M n > M . n0 =
M + 1,
7
7
2
n n0 n > M , , n + 2n n > M .
7
2
7
.
2n2 n 2n2 )
n + 2n n > M ( n +[
]
M
2n2 > M n > M2 . n0 =
+ 1,
2
n n0 n > M2 , , n7 + 2n2 n > M .

, lim, limn+
.
:
, .
+ (-)
(-)
. -,
36
+ . ,
, , .
+, .
+
. ,
. ,
(!!), x
x
. ,
. ,
.
.
n1 )n
1. (xn ) xn = (3(1)
2
n xn < xn+1 n.
. xn > xn+1
2. , , .
M n0 .
n2
lim ,
n+
n
lim log3 n,
n+
22n
,
n+ 3n
lim
lim (3)2n ,
n+
3. x 6= 1 , , limn+
(1x)n
(1+x)n
lim (3)3n .
n+
4. M n0 ,
+ .
( )
(;)
n.
(
) ( 1 n ) ( n2 + 1 )
1 2) (
n
2
,
(n 18n 4),
7n n ,
,
.
30
n + 100
30 n + 1
1+ n
5. (, M > 0
n0 M , ),
.
(1)
n4 +, 3 n , 3n +, log2
, n2 2n +,
n
n2 5
+, n + (1)n1 +, 2n5 + n3 ,
2n + 1
n + 2n +, n(2 + sin n) +.
6. xn +, (xn ) +,
: M > 0 n0 n n0
xn M .
;
xn , (xn ) ,
: M > 0 n0 n n0
xn M .
;
37
2.4 .
2.4.1
1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , . . . , 2, 5, 41 , 15 , 16 , . . . .
( n1 ) 0.

0.
2.1.
, .
. (xn )
xn n ,
, . , ,

( , ),
.
. (xn ) (yn ) . ,
N, M xN = yM , xN +1 = yM +1 , xN +2 = yM +2 . , , xn .
yn .
> 0, n0 0 |xn | < n n0 0 .
n0 00 = max{n0 0 , N }, n0 00 n0 0 n0 00 N . , n0 = n0 00 N +M .
n0 n0 00 N - M . , n n0 ,
n M 0, yn = yM +(nM ) = xN +(nM ) N + (n M ) N + (n0 M ) = n0 00 n0 0 ,
, |yn | = |xN +(nM ) | < . n0 |yn | < n n0 .
yn .
, xn + , yn + , .
. (xn ) x + .
(xn ) x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . . x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . , (xn+1 ).
, x + .
x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , . . . , (xn+2 ). , , k
,
lim xn+k = lim xn .
n+
:
2.4.2
1
n+3
1
n
n+
0, log2 (n + 8) + log2 n +
1
2n+1
1
2n
0.
:
(+) = ,
() = + .
+ ,
(+) ,
. (+) .
() +.
(xn ) (xn ), n-
n- .
. (xn ) , (xn )
lim (xn ) = lim xn .
n+
n+
38
. xn x. > 0, n0 |xn x| <

n n0 . |(xn ) (x)| = |x xn | = |xn x|. |(xn ) (x)| <
n n0 , , xn x.
xn +. M > 0, n0 xn > M
n n0 . xn < M n n0 , , xn = (+) .
, , xn , xn + = ().

:
(+) + x = +,
x + (+) = +,
(+) + (+) = +,
() + x = ,
x + () = ,
() + () = .
,
(+) + (),
() + (+)
.
(+) + (+) + :
, ,
. (+) + x
+ :
x (, x) , ,
.
.
(+) + () . ,

;
. : (i) 250
, 249 250 + (249 ) = 249
, (ii) 249 , 250
249 + (250 ) = 249 , (iii) 250
, 250 250 + (250 ) = 0 .
(xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) n-
n- .
. (xn ), (yn ) limn+ xn + limn+ yn
, (xn + yn )
lim (xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn .
n+
n+
n+
. xn x yn y. > 0, n0 0
|xn x| < 2 n n0 0 n0 00 |yn y| < 2 n n0 00 .
n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 }, n0 n0 0 n0 n0 00 . |xn x| < 2 |yn y| < 2 n n0 .
|(xn + yn ) (x + y)| = |(xn x) + (yn y)| |xn x| + |yn y|.
|(xn + yn ) (x + y)| < 2 + 2 = n n0 , , xn + yn x + y.
xn + yn +. M > 0, n0 0
0
00
00
yn > M
xn > M
2 n n0 n0
2 n n0 .
M
0
00
0
00
n0 = max{n0 , n0 }, n0 n0 n0 n0 . xn > 2 yn > M
2 n n0 .
M
xn + yn > M
+
=
M
n
,
,
x
+
y
+
=
(+)
+ (+).
0
n
n
2
2
xn + yn y. M > 0, n0 0 xn >
M y + 1 n n0 0 n0 00 |yn y| < 1 n n0 00 . |yn y| < 1
yn > y 1 n n0 00 . n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 },
n0 n0 0 n0 n0 00 . xn > M y + 1 yn > y 1 n n0 .
xn + yn > (M y + 1) + (y 1) = M n n0 , , xn + yn + = (+) + y.
.
39
. (1)
(2) n +
1
n
n
(1)n
0. n1 + (1)
n
n
n + n1 (+) + 0 = +.
0 + 0 = 0.
0.
(3) n n . n n () + () = .
1
n
+,
:
. (1) n + 3 (+) + 3 = +, n (n + 3) + (n) = 3 3.
, 3 .
(2) 2n +, n 2n + (n) = n +.
(3) n +, 2n n + (2n) = n .
(4) n + (1)n1 n 1 n n 1 +.
2.4.3 (
2.3), n +(1)n1 +. , n
( n1
)
n + (1)
+ (n) = (1)n1 .

(+) x = +,
x () = +,
(+) () = +,
() x = ,
x (+) = ,
() (+) = ,
.

(+) (+),
() ()
.
+ () () () x
x (, x).
(xn ), (yn ), (xn yn ),
, , ,
xn yn = xn + (yn ).
. (xn ), (yn ) limn+ xn limn+ yn
, (xn yn )
lim (xn yn ) = lim xn lim yn .
n+
n+
n+

.
() x = , x () =
(x > 0),
() x = ,
x () =
() () = + ,
(x < 0),
() () = .

() 0,
0 ()
.
(+) (+) + :
, ,
40
. (+) x = + ( x > 0) :

x (, x) , ,
. .
(+) 0

(, 0);
.
: (i) 2100 , 2150
1
2100 2150 = 250 , (ii) 250 , 2100
1
1
50
100
2 2100 = 250 , (iii) 2

1
1
, 2100
2100 2100
= 1
.
(xn ), (yn ) (xn yn ) n-
n- .
. (xn ), (yn ) limn+ xn limn+ yn
, (xn yn )
lim xn yn = lim xn lim yn .
n+
n+
n+
. xn x yn y. > 0, n0 0

|xn x| < 3|y|+1
n n0 0 n0 00 |yn y| < min{ 3|x|+1
, 13 } n n0 00 .

0
00
0
00
n0 = max{n0 , n0 }, n0 n0 n0 n0 . |xn x| < 3|y|+1

1
|yn y| < min{ 3|x|+1 , 3 } n n0 . |xn yn xy| = |(xn x)(yn y)+x(yn y)+y(xn x)|

1

|xn x||yn y| + |x||yn y| + |y||xn x|. |xn yn xy| 3|y|+1
3 + |x| 3|x|+1 + |y| 3|y|+1 <

3 + 3 + 3 = n n0 , , xn yn xy.

xn + yn +. M > 0, n0 0
00
xn > M n n0 0 n0 00 yn > M
n n0.
n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 },
n0 n0 0 n0 n0 00 . xn > M yn > M n n0 .
xn yn > M M = M n n0 , , xn yn + = (+)(+).
xn + yn y > 0. M > 0, n0 0
y
0
00
00
xn > 2M
y n n0 n0 |yn y| < 2 n n0 .
2M
0
00
0
00
n0 = max{n0 , n0 }, n0 n0 n0 n0 . xn > y |yn y| < y2 n n0 .
y
|yn y| < y2 yn > y y2 = y2 n n0 . xn yn > 2M
y 2 = M
n n0 , , xn yn + = (+)y.
.
.
. (1)
(2)
n1
n
1
n
1
n
n
n
(1)n
0. (1)
= n1 (1)
n
n2
n
n1
1
= n1
1 0 = 0.
n2
n n
0.
0 0 = 0.
(3) n + 1n . nn2 = n(1n) (+)() = .

n n2 .
(4) . (xn )
c. limn+ xn c limn+ xn ,
lim cxn = c lim xn
n+
n+
(c 6= 0
lim xn = ).
n+
(xn ) (c)
c.
41
(5) a > 0.
c > 0, cna c (+) = +.
c < 0, cna c (+) = .
(6) a > 0, cna c 0 = 0.
(7) n. a0 + a1 x + + aN xN
( aN 6= 0 N 1).
{
+, aN > 0
a0 + a1 n + + aN nN aN (+) =
, aN < 0
aN nN ,
(
)
a1 1
aN 1 1
N
N a0 1
a0 + a1 n + + aN n = aN n
+
+ +
+1 ,
aN nN
aN nN 1
aN n
1, 0.
limn+ (a0 + a1 n + + aN nN ) = limn+ aN nN 1 = aN (+).
n .
(
)
lim a0 + a1 n + + aN nN = lim aN nN .
n+
n+
: 3n2 5n + 2 + 12 n5 + 4n4 n3 .
(8) . a
(1 + a + a2 + + an1 + an ), 1 + a, 1 + a + a2 , 1 + a + a2 + a3 , . . . .
:
a 1
+,
2
n
1
1 + a + a + + a
1a ,
1 < a < 1
, a 1
.
n+1
a > 1, 1 + a + a2 + + an = a a11 (+)1
= +.
a1
2
n
a = 1, 1 + a + a + + a = n + 1 +.
n+1
10
1
1 < a < 1, 1 + a + a2 + + an = 1a
1a
= 1a
.
1a
2
n
, a 1. xn = 1 + a + a + + a an+1 1 = (a 1)(1 + a +
a2 + + an ) an+1 = (a 1)xn + 1. limn+ (1 + a + a2 + + an ) =
limn+ xn , limn+ an+1 = (a 1) limn+ xn + 1. , limn+ an+1
, limn+ (1 + a + a2 + + an ) .
,
()k k :
(+)k = (+) (+) = +,
|
{z
}
()k = () () = .
|
{z
}
()k = +, k , , k .

2.2. limn+ xn k ,
42
lim xn k = ( lim xn )k .
n+
n+
, limn+ xn k = limn+ (xn xn ) = limn+ xn limn+ xn = (limn+ xn )k .

| {z }
|
{z
}
k
. (1)
n1
n
1. ( n1
)3 13 = 1.
n
(2) n5 2n2 + n 7 +. (n5 2n2 + n 7)8 (+)8 = +.

(3) 2n3 + n2 + 2n 7 . (2n3 + n2 + 2n 7)4 ()4 = +.
(4) n3 + 2n 1 . (n3 + 2n 1)5 ()5 = .
+, 0,
.
. (1) n +, n7 0 n n7 = 7 7.
, 7.
(2) n2 +,
0 n2
= n +.
0 n
(3) n +,
1
n
1
n2
(4) n +,
(1)n1
n
1
n
1
n2
0.
1
n
0 n
(1)n1
n
= (1)n1 .

1
= 0,
+
1
= 0.

1
0
.
1

0 :
,
, ( 0)
(, 0).
10 .
0 (, 0)
.
, , ,

. , ,
.
(xn ) ( x1n ) , , xn 6= 0
n.
1
, . xn 6= 0 n. (xn ) limn+
xn
(1)
(, limn+ xn 6= 0), xn
1
1
=
.
n+ xn
limn+ xn
lim
43
. xn x > 0. > 0, n0
2
2
|xn x| < min{ x2 , x2 } n n0 . |xn x| < x2 |xn x| < x2 n n0 .

x2
2
|xn x| < x2 xn > x x2 = x2 n n0 . , x1n x1 = |xxnnx|
<
x
x
x =
2
n n0 , x1n x1 .
xn +.
n0 xn > 1 n n0 .
1 > 0,

1
1
1
0 < xn < , , xn 0 = xn < n n0 . x1n 0 = +
.
.
. (1) a > 1, loga n +,

(2) xn 0.
(1)n1
n
0,
1
loga n
n
(1)n1
1
+
= 0.
= (1)n1 n .
.
, .
, ;
, .
, . (1) limn+ xn = 0 (xn ) ,
limn+ x1n = +.
(2) limn+ xn = 0 (xn ) , limn+ x1n = .
. (1) xn 0 xn > 0 n. M > 0, n0
1
0 < xn < M
n n0 . x1n > M n n0 , , x1n +.
(2) (1).
=
x
=
x
(x > 0),
(x < 0),
x
= 0.
x
,
0
,
0
. x0 = x 10
1
10 .
= () 10 10 .
= ()
= () 0
0
.
+ ()
() () x
x (, x).
(xn ) (yn ), ( xynn ),

, xynn = xn y1n .
. yn 6= 0 n. (xn ), (yn )
( )
, xynn
xn
limn+ xn
=
.
n+ yn
limn+ yn
lim
44
limn+ xn
limn+ yn
a0 +a1 x++aN xN
b0 +b1 x++bM xM
. (1) n.
aN 6= 0, bM 6= 0.
a
N
bM (+),
baMN ,
0,
a0 + a1 n + + aN nN
b0 + b1 n + + bM nM
N > M
N = M
N < M
,
a0 + a1 n + + aN nN
aN N M
=
n
M
b0 + b1 n + + bM n
bM
a0 1
aN nN
b0 1
bM nM
+
+
+ +
a1
1
aN nN 1
b1
1
bM nM 1
+ +
aN 1 1
+1
aN n
bM 1 1
+1
bM n
, , 1.
aN
+a1 n++aN nN
limn+ ab00+b
limn+ nN M 11 = baMN limn+ nN M
M = b
1 n++bM n
M
. , ,
n
.
a0 + a1 n + + aN nN
aN nN
=
lim
.
n+ b0 + b1 n + + bM nM
n+ bM nM
lim
+n+1
, : n 2n2n
+,
2 3n1
( 3 +n2 +n+1 )7
(2) 2n 2n+3
()7 = .
( n3 +n+7 )3
1
(3) 3n
( 13 )3 = 27
.
3 +n2 +1
3
n2 +n
n+2
n4 n3 7
n4 +n+1
0
0
1,
+
+
n2 +n+4
n3 +n2 +5n+6
0.
. (1) 2
0, n1 0 n1 = 2 2.
n
n
2 .
(2)
1
n
(3)
1
n2
0,
0,
1
n2
1
n
1
n2
= n +.
1
n
1
n2
1
n
0.
1
n
(4) 5n +, n + 5n
= 5 5.
n
5 .
(5) n2 +, n +
(6) n +, n2 +
n2
n
n
n2
= n +.
=
1
n
0.

| + | = +,
| | = +.
| | = + : , ,
.
, , (|xn |) (xn ).
45
. (xn ) , (|xn |)

lim |xn | = lim xn .
n+
n+
. xn x.

> 0, n 0 |xn x| <
n n0 . |xn | |x| |xn x|, |xn | |x| < n n0 .
|xn | |x|.
xn + xn . M > 0, n0 xn > M
xn < M , , n n0 . |xn | > M n n0 ,
, |xn | + = | |.
. (1) (5n) 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . 5n .
(|5 n|) 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . |5 n| | | = +.

(2) . (1)n1 = 1 1. ,
limn+ (1)n1 .
2.4.3
2.3. xn yn n.
(1) xn +, yn +.
(2) yn , xn .
. (1) M > 0. xn +, n0 xn > M
n n0 , yn xn , yn > M n n0 . , yn +.
(2) (1).
. (1) n+(1)n1 n1 n1 +
n + (1)n1 +.
2
(2) n +2n+1
n n + n +2n+1
+.
n+2
n+2
(3) [ n] > n 1 n 1 + [ n] +.
2.4. xn yn n. xn x yn y, x y.
. ( ) x > y. = xy
2 > 0, xn x
xy
0
yn y n0 |xn x| < 2 n n0 0
n0 00 |yn y| < xy
n n0 00 . n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 }, n0 n0 0
2
x+y
00
n0 n0 . |xn x| < xy
|yn y| < xy
n n0 . xn > x xy
2
2
2 = 2
xy
x+y
x+y
yn < y + 2 = 2 n n0 . xn > 2 > yn n n0
xn yn n.
. (1) xn a n xn x, x a. ,
(a) , a xn n a a xn x,
a x.
(2) xn b n xn x, x b.
(1).
(3) (xn ) [a, b] xn x,
x [a, b]. (1) (2).
xn < yn n xn x, yn y,
x < y. xn < yn xn yn n,
2.4 x y. , , x = y.
46
. n1 <
1
n
n, n1 0
1
n
0.
. xn yn zn n. xn zn , yn .
. > 0, n0 0 |xn | < n n0 0
n0 00 |zn | < n n0 00 . n0 = max{n0 0 , n0 00 }, n0 n0 0
n0 n0 00 . |xn | < |zn | < n n0 . xn > zn < +
n n0 . < xn yn zn < + , , |yn | < n n0 .
yn .
. (1) n1
(1)n1
0.
n
(2) n1
(3)
sin n
n
n1
<
1

n
[ n]
n
n
n
(1)n1
n
1
n
, n1 0
n. n1 0
1,
n1
1
n
1
n
0,
0
sin n
n
0.
= 1 1n 1 1 1
[ n]
1.

.
.
2.5. (1) limn+ xn < u, xn l, xn > l .
. (1) limn+ xn 0, n0 |xn x| 0 u.
, M = u, u < 0, M = 1, u 0. n0
xn < M u n n0 .
(2) (1), xn x > l xn +.
17n +135
1
. (1) 24n n+323n
< 1000

8 n6 +2n3 1
24n7 +323n5 17n2 +135
1
n,
0 , 0 < 1000 ,
n8 n6 +2n3 1
n n
. , , n0
n n0 .
n0 .
, , !
7
2n+37
(2) : n 4n
23 n;
3 +1
3 2n+37
3
2n+37
14 . 14 < 23 , n 4n
< 23
n 4n
3 +1
3 +1
n .
n.
3
2.6, 2.5, , ,
.
2.6. l, u .
(1) (xn ) u limn+ xn , limn+ xn u.
(2) (xn ) l limn+ xn , limn+ xn l.
(3) l l, xn > l ,
, (xn ) l. , (3) ,
limn+ xn u l , l < u, .
47
. (1) a 1, (an ) ,
1 1.
(
)
(2) (1)n1 n , 1 1.
(
)
(3) n 3[ n3 ] , n 3[ n3 ] = 0 n = 3k (k Z) n 3[ n3 ] = 1
n = 3k + 1 (k Z).
2.4.4
.
(
n1 )
( n1 ), (1)n
( n1
) , , n
. 2.7.
2.7. , .
. xn x. = 1, n0
|xn x| < 1 n n0 . |xn x| < 1 |xn | = |(xn x)+x| |xn x|+|x| < 1+|x|.
|xn | < 1 + |x| n n0 . M = max{|x1 |, . . . , |xn0 1 |, 1 + |x|}, |xn | M
n.
(
)
. 2.7. H (1)n1
.
2.8. (1) +,
.
(2) , .
. (1) xn +. M = 1, n0
xn > 1 n n0 . l = min{x1 , . . . , xn0 1 , 1} xn l
n. , u, n0 xn > u n n0
, , u (xn ). (xn ) .
(2) , , (1).
. (1) (1) 2.8 .

(
n1 )n )
(1+(1)
, 1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . , .
2
, + 0.
(2) 1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ,
.
.
. . .
1. (xn ) . i

xn+1 = xn + 2,
xn+3 = xn 3,
xn+1 = xn 2 + 3,
xn+1 = xn 2 3,
xn+2 = xn 2 + 3,
xn+2 = xn+1 + xn 3 .
(: ,
.)
48
2. , , , , .
(
lim
n+
2n3 + 3n +
(
1+
lim
n+
lim
1)
,
n
1 )3
,
n
n+
(
n+
1
n2
(1)n1
n
n+
lim
1 + 2 10n
,
n+ 5 + 3 10n
1
(1)n1 )
+2
,
n
n
(1)n1 )9
,
n
n +
n+
n + (1)n n
lim
,
n+
2 + (1)n
lim
n+
n+
lim
1 +
2+
(
lim
2+
n+ 1
n
(n + 1)27 (n + 3)79
,
n+
(2n + 1)106
lim
n1
1
n
(1)n1
n
lim
n2 n + 3
,
n+
n
lim
1 + (1)n
,
lim
n+ n + 3 log n
10
1
,
+ n12
lim
n+ 1
n
3n + (2)n
,
n+ 3n+1 + 2n+1
(1)n1
n2
log2 n + 3
.
n+ 2 log n + 15
10
lim
lim
3. n.
(
)
lim (3n2 4n + 5),
lim (n2 4n5 + 1),
lim (1 n)5 + n4 ,
n+
n+
n+
2n5 + 4n2
3n2 + 4n
3n2 5n
,
lim
,
lim
,
n+ 3n7 + n3 10
n+ 2n 1
n+ 5n2 + 2n 6
( 2n 3 )4
( n2 + n + 1 )3
( n2 + n + 1 )4
lim
,
lim
,
lim
,
n+ 3n + 7
n+
n+
3n + 1
3n + 1
( n2
( n(n + 1)
)
4n3 )
.
lim
n1 ,
lim
2
n+ n + 1
n+
n+4
4n + 1
lim
4. , , .
lim (1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n ),
n+
lim
n+
)
1 2 + 22 + + (1)n 2n ,
(
1
1
1)
lim 1 1 + 1 1 + + (1) ,
lim 1 + + 2 + + n ,
n+
n+
2 2
2
( 27 28
(
n+6 )
n
n+1
2n )
2
2
2
2
lim
+
+
+
,
lim
+
+
+
,
n+ 37
n+ 3n
38
3n+6
3n+1
32n
1 + 2 + + 2n
1 3 + + (1)n 3n
lim
,
lim
.
n+ 1 + 3 + + 3n
n+ 1 2 + + (1)n 2n
(
5. ;
(
lim
n+
(1)n1 +
lim (1)n1
n+
10 )
,
n3
n
,
n+1
1 + (1)n1 n
,
n+
n
lim
lim
n+
1
(1)n1 +
(: .)
49
1
log3 n
lim
(2
n+
lim
n+
)
+ (1)n1 n ,
1
(1)n1
n
1
n2
6. xn 6= 1 n x 6= 1. xn x
(: , yn =
xn
1+xn
y =
x
1+x
xn
1+xn
x
1+x
.)
7. (xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) .

(xn ), (yn ) (xn yn ) .
8. (xn + yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , ,
, .
(xn yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , ,
, .
9. (xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn +
(xn yn ) .
10. |xn | 0, xn 0.
(: n0 .)
11. ;
(
lim
n+
(1
1)
1)
= lim
+ +
= 0| + {z
+ 0} = 0.
n+
n
|n {z n}
n
n
(
lim
n+
1+
(
1)
1 )n
1) (
1 +
= lim 1 +
= 1 1 = 1.
n+
n
n {z
n } | {z }
|
n
n
12. :
s. ,
,
12 . , ( )
,
48 . ,

(i) .
(ii) .
13.
v km
. ,
hr
d km, vd hr. , ,

:
< , , . , ,
.
. , , (
) , >.

.
50
. .
1. 2.2, 2.4 .
2. limn+ xn .
(i) 1 < xn
(ii)
log10 n2
2 log10 n+4
n2 +3n
n2 +1
n.
< xn <
3+n
1+2n
n.
(iii) xn 15n + 6n2 n3 n.
(
)
3. limn+ 2n + (1)n1 n .
, 2n + (1)n1 n +.
2n + n sin n +.
+ ,
[nx] 0 ,
4.
x > 0
x = 0
x < 0
(: [a] a < [a] + 1.)
+,
[nx] [ny] 0,
x > y
x = y
x < y
5. xn + (yn ) . xn + yn +.
(: l (yn ). . . . .)
xn (yn ) . xn + yn .
6. xn 0 (yn ) . xn yn 0.
(: |yn | M n, M |xn | xn yn M |xn | n.)
7. xn + (yn ) .
xn yn + , .
xn + (yn ) .
xn yn +, .
8. .
( 1 (1)n1 )n
n1
+
0.
22n+(1) n 0,
2
4
9.
1
1
1
1
+
+ +
+
1.
n2 + n 1
n2 + 1
n2 + 2
n2 + n
(:
1
n2 +n
1
n2 +k
1
n2 +1
k 1 k n.)
1
n12 +1 + n12 +2 + + n2 +n1
+ n12 +n
0.
0 1. 11.
51
10. Fibonnaci (xn ),

x1 = x2 = 1 xn+2 = xn+1 + xn (n 1).
xn n2 n. (xn );
11. 0 a < 1 (xn ) : |xn+1 | a|xn | n.
xn 0.
(: |x2 | a|x1 |, |x3 | a2 |x1 |, |x4 | a3 |x1 | .)
a > 1 (xn ) : xn+1 axn n x1 > 0.
xn +.
12. , (xn ) [a, b] xn x,
x [a, b]. x (xn ),
(a, b);
(: (0, 2) ( n1 )
(2 n1 ).)
x (xn )
(a, b);
13. 2.5 2.6.
14. , .
n5 + 4n3 < 100 n ;
n7 35n6 + n3 47n < 84 n;
3
2
<
7n3 n+5
4n3 +n2 +35
2n4 n3 +7
n3 +n2 +3
< 2 n ;
78 n ;
2n3 n2 +7n+1
n3 +n2 +3
1 n;
15. 2.6, :
(i) (1) 6= 1.
(ii) ( n1 ) 6= 0.
(iii) (n) 6= +.
16. 2.6, .
(
(1)n1 )n
n1
n1
lim 2(1) ,
lim 2(1) n ,
lim 1 +
.
n+
n+
n+
2
5.
. .
1. 2.7 2.8.
2. ,
.
( 2n ) (
1
1
1 ) ( 2n+1 + 3n+1 )
,
1
+
+
+
+
,
,
(log3 n), (2n ),
3n
2 22
2n
2n + 3n
( 4n3 2n 1 ) (
)
3 (log2 n)3
,
.
7n4 + n3 + 5n2 + 2
1 + log2 n + (log2 n)2
52
3. .
(
2.5
3)
(2)
,
2n + 1
3
nn
)
2n + 3n (1)n1 ,
)
(2n + n)(1)n1 + 2n n .
. e, .
(xn ) , , n , xn
. .
(xn ) , (n) (n2 )
xn . (xn )
, ( n1
) xn , , ,
n
. (xn ) +.
, , xn
(xn ). (xn ).
2.5: .
2.6: .
(xn ). , n ,
xn .
(xn ) , xn ,
(xn ) , xn ,
. (xn )
xn
(xn ) (xn ).
:
2.1. . :
(1) , (i) , +,
(ii) ,
.
(2) , (i) ,
, (ii) ,
.
2.1 . x
(xn ), xn x , , (xn )
, < x. x
(xn ) , (xn ),
53
:
, . ,
, .
2.1 .
2.1 . :
. :
,
. : , ,
( )
n-
( ) .
2.1
(, ).
2.1 . ,
,
( ) .
1 .
. (xn )
:
x1 = 1,
xn+1 = 2xn (n 1).

(xn ) 1, 2 , 2 2 , 2 2 2 , . . . .
. ,
x1 x2 n xn xn+1 .
- 1
.
, ,
: xn xn+1 2xn 2xn+1 2xn 2xn+1
xn+1 xn+2 . xn xn+1 n,
, , .
xn xn+1 xn 2xn , xn 2 n.
(xn ) , , .
x (xn ). xn+1 2 =
2xn , x2 = 2x, x = 0 x = 2. x = 0
1, 1 , ,
1. xn 2.

(xn ) .
xn xn+1 xn 2xn (
xn 0 n) xn 2. ,
xn 2 n (xn ) , ,
2. .
x1 2
. xn 2 n. xn+1 = 2xn 2 2 = 2
, , xn 2 n.
!
. K.
( !) ,
(1 + 1)K = 2K.
,
54
, (1 + 12 )(1 + 21 )K = (1 + 21 )2 K.
100

3
,
.
(1 + 13 )(1 + 13 )(1 + 13 )K = (1 + 13 )3 K.
, n- n 1
(1 + n1 )n K.
,
. ,
xn = (1 + n1 )n . ,
K, .
, (xn ) , ,
4. , ,
.
(xn ) . .
2.1. n x 1 (1 + x)n 1 + nx.
(1 + x)n 1 + nx Bernoulli
n.
1
n+2 n+1
n
n
n+1
)n+1 ( n+1
n+1
( n+1
, (1 + n1 )n (1 + n+1
n ) ( n+1 )
n )
n+2 n+1
n
n2 +2n n+1
n
1
n+1
( n+1 )
n+1 ( n2 +2n+1 )
n+1 (1 n2 +2n+1 )

1
n+1
1
n
2.1. , (1 n2 +2n+1
)n+1 1 n2 +2n+1
= 1 n+1
= n+1
.
.
( n )n
( n )n
(1 + n1 )n < 4 , 12 < n+1
. 2.1 n+1
=
n
n+1
n
n+1
n
n+1
n
n
n
1
1 n+1
= 1 n( n + 1 n) = 1 n+1+n > 1 2n = 2 .
1 n n+1 > 1 n
n
(
)
e (1 + n1 )n .
(
e = lim
n+
1+
1 )n
.
n
e, ,
.
e , , . , a0 + a1 x + + aN xN = 0
. : m
(
n
m, n) , , m + (n)x = 0 .

. , 2
(2) + 1x2 = 0.
- . , e
. , 10, e .
e
y > 0
log y ln y
loge y. 1.10 1.11.
2.9. (1) log(yz) = log y + log z y, z > 0.
(2) log yz = log y log z y, z > 0.
55
(3) log(y z ) = z log y y > 0 z.

(4) log 1 = 0 log e = 1.
(5) 0 < y < z, log y < log z.
2.10. a > 0, a 6= 1.
loga y =
log y
log a
y > 0.
. .

1.
, 2,
.
, 1,
P4 , P8 , P16 , . . . 4, 8, 16, . . . . ,
P2n 2n .
P2n P2n+1 : P2n+1 2n
P2n 2n
P2n , 2n +2n = 2n+1 . pn
P2n , p2 = 4 2.
pn+1 pn .
pn+1 =
2pn
2+ 4
pn 2
4n
.
, , Q4 , Q8 , Q16 , . . .
4, 8, 16, . . . . , Q2n
2n , P2n .
qn Q2n , , , q2 = 8
qn pn
pn
qn =
.
2
n
1 4pn+1
,
qn+1 =
4q
n
2+ 4+
.
qn 2
4n
(pn )
2pn
(qn ) . , pn+1 =
> 2pn = pn
2+
qn+1 =
4qn
2
2+ 4+ q4nn
<
4q
n
2+ 4
2+ 4
4 p4nn
= qn . qn >
pn
, :
p2 < p3 < < pn < pn+1 < < qn+1 < qn < < q3 < q2 .
56
= pn . ,
(pn ) , , ( q2 ,
), . ,

2n . , ,
2n .
, n , , ,
.
, ,
1, (pn ). ,
=
, limn+ qn = limn+
1
lim pn .
2 n+
pn
n2
1 pn+1
2
14 2 0
= 2. (pn )
(qn ) , ,

=
1
lim qn .
2 n+
, ,
p2 < p3 < < pn < < 2 < < qn < < q3 < q2 .
(
) e
(1 + n1 )n .
, . ,
, , , . , , .
(qn ) q2 = 8
qn+1 = 4qn q 2 (n 2),
2+
4+
n
4n
.
,
0. (qn )
(qn ): = 12 limn+ qn .
(pn ) (qn ) (qn ) .
.
n
1. a > 1. ( an ) .
n
(i) ( an )
n+1
an an
an+1 = n+1
n. , ,
n
an
( n ).
(ii) b 1 1. ( n a)
( )2
2n a = n a n. ( n a).
a = 1 0 < a < 1;
3. 0 a b. ,
(: b = n bn n an + bn n 2bn = b n 2 .)
n
an + bn b.
. e.
1. .
(
(
1 )n
1 )n+3
,
lim 1 +
,
lim 1 +
n+
n+
n
n+2
(
(
1 )n
2 )n
lim 1
,
lim 1 +
,
n+
n+
n
n
(: 1 n1 =
(
)(
)
n+1 n+2
1
1
1 + n2 = n+2
=
=
1
+
1
+
.)
n
n n+1
n
n+1
n1
n
1 )3n+5
lim 1 +
,
n+
n+2
(
2 )n
lim 1
.
n+
n
=
n
n1
1
1
1+ n1
(
)n2
2. 1 + n1
+.
(: (1 + n1 )n (1 + 11 )1 = 2 n.)
. .
1. x1 = 1 xn+1 = xn + xn1 2 n. (xn )
.
(: .
.)
2. 7xn+1 = xn 3 + 6 n. , x1 , (xn )
.
(: (xn ),
.
x1 ,
.
.)
3. 4xn+1 = xn 2 + 3 n. , x1 , (xn )
.
4. 0 < x1 < 1 xn+1 = 1 1 xn n. (xn )

.
5. > 0, x1 > 0 xn+1 = + xn n. ,

x1 , (xn ) .
n
n. , x1 ,
6. x1 > 0 xn+1 = 6+6x
7+xn
(xn ) .
58
(
)
7. a, x1 > 0 xn+1 = 12 xn + xan n. (xn ) ,
, .
a,
1.2 n = 2.
1
1
= xn+1
+ x1n n. (xn )
8. x1 = x2 = 1 xn+2
.
9. (xn ) (yn ) :
0 < x1 y1 ,
xn+1 =
xn yn ,
yn+1 =
xn + yn
2
(n 1).
(xn ) , (yn ) xn yn n.
(xn ) (yn ) .
10. (xn ) (yn ) :
0 < x1 y1 ,
xn+1 =
2xn yn
,
x n + yn
yn+1 =
x n yn
(n 1).
(xn ) , (yn ) xn yn n.
(xn ) (yn ) .
59
60
3
.
. , . . . . . . .
. . . . .
3.1
. (1) ,
, p V
pV = c ,
c .
, Boyle
p V . , p
V , , V p :
V =
c
,
p
p=
c
.
V
V p p
V . p ,
( )
, V ,

. .
(2) o C, l

l = (1 + )l0 ,
l0 0o C , ,
. l
, l
l .
61
l

)
1( l
1 .
=
l0
(3) ,

= 2 + 2 2 cos .
. 0
| | + . , 1 cos 1,
2 + 2 2 cos 2 + 2 + 2 = ( + )2 2 + 2 2 cos 2 + 2 2 = ( )2 .
, | | + .

= arccos
2 + 2 2
.
2
, .
0 ,

, . , = 2 + 2 2 cos
cos | | +

2 + 2 2
cos =
,
2
| | + 2 + 2 2 2 2 + 2 + 2
2 +2 2
1
1. [0, ]
2
2
2
2
+
cos =
. ,
2
: 0 ( ) ,
, 0
2.
(4)
( )
. , s r
s = 2r,
r=
1
s.
2

2n . , , pn
1, , 1, 2
1. , , r
2n , , ,
rpn . r limn+ (rpn ) = r limn+ pn = r2.
s r, r
s, , , r s, s
r.
62
(5) A r , A r

A = r2 .
V r , V
r
4
V = r3 .
3
(6) : t
( k
) q
. q
t :
q = ekt q0 ,
q0 0.
, 8.5.2.
, , q
t .

1
q0
t = log ,
k
q
q t.
3.2
, , .
x
, x,
x
y
, y,
y x
y = f (x)
y = F (x)
y = g(x)
. f
, , f
y = f (x). x y .
y = f (x) , ,
y
x. ,
.
.
y = x3 + sin(e2x + log2 (x + 3))
y x,

f (x)
x3 + sin(e2x + log2 (x + 3)),

63
f
y = f (x)
, , y = x3 + sin(e2x + log2 (x + 3)) .
, , f y = f (x)
y = f (x). .
x y
. , , .
, ,
.
: u = f (v), t = f (x), y = f (t) .

.
, ,
.
.
. ,
.

( ) .

.
.
:
.
. V = pc . p
,
(0, +).
,
.
, , V = pc , ,
y = xc ,
, 0 (p
x), (, 0) (0, +).
,

.
, y = xc , x

x, (, 0) (0, +).
.
y = f (x) . ,
. b
( ) a
64
f (a) = b. ,
y = f (x) y
f (x) = y x .
. y = 3x 1. (, +)
.
3x 1 = y x y
. y
x = y+1
. y ,
3
(, +).
,
. ,

. ,
.
. (1) y = 3x 1. (, +)
[2, 5) (, +).
3x 1 = y x y
[2, 5).
x = y+1
y [2, 5),
3
y+1
2 3 < 5 , , 7 y < 14. y [7, 14)
[2, 5) , ,
[2, 5) [7, 14).
x
(2) y = x1
(, 1) (1, +).
x
x1 = y x y
x
. x1
= y (y 1)x = y, , y = 1,
y
, y 6= 1, x = y1
. , ,
y
, y1
6= 1. ,
, y 6= y 1.
y 6= 1 , ,
(, 1) (1, +).
, , (, 1)
(1, +) .
x
(1, +) x1
= y x
y (1, +). ,
y
(1, +),
y = 1, x = y1
y
1
y1 > 1. y1 > 0 y > 1. y > 1
(1, +) , ,
(1, +) (1, +).
(, 1) (, 1).
(3) y = e2x (, +).

y e2x = y x .
y 0 e2x = y y > 0
x = 21 log y. y > 0 ,
(0, +).
65

(4) y = 1 + x1 . x
1+ x1 0 , , x 1 x > 0. (, 1](0, +).
y 1 + x1 = y x
. , 1 + x1 = y , y < 0. y 0, 1 + x1 = y
(y 2 1)x = 1. y = 1, , y 0 y 6= 1,
x = y211 . ,
1
1 y211 > 0. , y 0, y 6= 1
y 2 1
. , [0, 1) (1, +).

(0, +) .
1+
1
x
= y x
(0, +). , y < 0 y = 1, x = y211

(0, +), y211 > 0.
y 2 > 1, y > 1. (0, +)
(1, +).
, y
1 + x1 = y x
(, 1], (, 1]
[0, 1).
.
1. .
2
y = x 4,
3
y = 2x ,
2x 1
,
x+4
y=
x2 1
,
x2 + 1
y = e2x 2ex + 3,
y=
ex + 1
ex 1
y = x2 4x + 3,
y = log10 x + 4,
y=
y=
x2 + 1
,
x2 1
x
y=
.
x1
2.
.
(i) y = x2 4x + 3 (, 1], (1, 3], (3, +), (, 2], [2, +).
(ii) y =
2x1
x+4
x2 +1
x2 1
x +1
(iv) y = eex 1
x
(v) y = x1
(iii) y =
3.3
(, 4), (4, +).

(, 1), (1, 1), (1, +).
(, 0), (0, +).
[0, 1), (1, +).
y x . , ,
:
y = x2 ,
y = sin x,
xy = 2,
y 2 x3 = 0.
y
x ; y x .
66
y x ;
xy = 2 y y
y x. ; y
x
2
y= .
x
y
x. , . y 2 x3 = 0
y, . x < 0
y. x = 0
y, y = 0. x > 0
3
3
y : y = x3 = x 2 y = x3 = x 2 .
y 2 x3 = 0
,
3
3
y = x2 ,
y = x 2
[0, +).
.
, :
.
:
. y 2 x3 = 0
() , ,
3
y = x 2 .
.
1. . x y;
; ;
.
x + y = 1,
x2 2yx + 1 = 0,
(xy)2 = 1,
e(x1)y = x,
3.4
3.4.1
, , .
yx
= 2,
y+x
x3 + y 3 = 0,
y 4 2xy 2 + x2 = 1,
x2 y 2 = 0,
sin(x + y) = 1.
y = f (x),
,
.
,
, 0 .
x
y = f (x) y
( x y
). x- y-. ,
67
x y = f (x)
(x, y) = (x, f (x)). ,
x y = f (x),
(x, y) = (x, f (x)) . (x, y) = (x, f (x))
.
f = {(x, f (x)) : x f }.
, .
x,
, .
(x1 , f (x1 )), (x2 , f (x2 )), . . . , (xn , f (xn ))
n x
. ,

.
3.1: .
y = f (x),
.
y = f (x).
(x, f (x)) .
x- x y-
y = f (x) . ,
y = f (x) x-
y-.
.
y = ax + b,
a, b , (, +).
(0, b). (x, y)
y = ax + b , , y b = a(x 0). (0, b)
68
3.2: .
yb
(x, y) x0
= a. , (x, y) l
(0, b) a. .
yb
(x, y) l x0
(0, b) (x, y)
yb
a, x0 = a, y = ax + b , , (x, y)
. , , l.
a > 0, l l
3.3: y = ax + b. : a > 0 a < 0.
, a < 0, l l
. a = 0, l l .
(, a 6= 0) l y-
y-, (, +). (
, y = 3x 1 3.2.)
(, a = 0) l , y-
b, {b}.
y = f (x) I
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 ). x1 < x2
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), I.
, y = f (x) I
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 ). x1 < x2
69
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), I.

.

.
. ,

.
3.4: .
y y = f (x)
x (
). f (x) = y x
y (
).
. y = ax + b (, +), a > 0,
, a < 0. a = 0, (, +),
x y b.
y = f (x) A
u f (x) u x A.
u A. y = f (x)
A l f (x) l
x A l A. ,
y = f (x) A
A, u l l f (x) u
x A.
u y = f (x) A, u0 u
A. , l y = f (x) A,
l0 l A.
u y = f (x) A
A
y = u. , l y = f (x) A
A
y = l. , , u l , ,
70
y = f (x) A,
A y = u y = l.
, , u y = f (x) A
A (, u] l
y = f (x) A
A [l, +). , u l
y = f (x) A, , A
[l, u].
.
y = x2
(, +).
y = x2 [0, +) (, 0].
[0, +)
(, 0] .
y x2 = y x
[0, +). : y < 0, , y 0,
x = y [0, +). [0, +) [0, +).
, x2 = y x , y < 0, x = y
(, 0], y 0. (, 0] [0, +).
y = x2 (, +) 0
3.5: y = x2 .
[0, +). , y = x2
(, +) (, 0], [0, +),
[0, +)
(, u].
[0, +)
. (0, 0)
(0, 0), ( 21 , 14 ), (1, 1), (2, 4).
x- [0, +)
71
y-
[0, +), [0, +).
. , x ,
(x, x2 ), y = x2 , .
, (, 0]
. ,
(0, 0) (0, 0), (2, 4), (1, 1), ( 21 , 14 ).
x- (, 0]
y- (, 0], [0, +).
. ,
x , (x, x2 ),
y = x2 , .
y = x2 () .
.
y = f (x) f (x) = f (x) x
. (a, b) , b = f (a),
b = f (a), (a, b) . (a, b)
(a, b) y-. , ,
, y-
.
y = f (x) y-.
3.6: .
y = x2 ,
y-.
.
y = x3
(, +).
(, +).

(2, 8), (1, 1), ( 21 , 18 ), (0, 0), ( 21 , 81 ), (1, 1), (2, 8).
72
3.7: y = x3 .
y = x3 , x3 = y x.
y 0 , x = 3 y, y < 0 , x = 3 y .
, y (, +).
y = x3 (, +),
(, +).
x- ,
(, +), y- ,
(, +).
. , x ,
(x, x3 ) ,
x , (x, x3 )
.
y = x3 .
y = f (x) f (x) = f (x) x
. (a, b) y = f (x), b = f (a),
b = f (a), (a, b) y = f (x). (a, b)
(a, b) (0, 0). ,
, (0, 0)
.
y = f (x) (0, 0).
y = x3 ,
(0, 0).
.
y=
1
x
(, 0) (0, +).
y = x1 (, 0), (0, +).
73
.
x1 = y x. y 0,
(0, +) , y > 0, x = y1 (0, +).
(0, +) (0, +).
, x1 = y x (, 0), y 0,
x = y1 (, 0), y < 0. (, 0)
(, 0).
y = x1 (0, +) , , 0
(0, +). (, 0) ,
, 0 (, 0).
(0, +) .
3.8: y =
1
x

( 12 , 2), (1, 1), (2, 12 ). x-
(0, +) y-
(0, +), (0, +). , x
, (x, x1 ) ( y = x1 )
, x ,
(x, x1 ) . ,
y-
x-.
, (, 0)
.
(2, 21 ), (1, 1), ( 21 , 2).
x- (, 0) y-
(, 0), (, 0). , x
, (x, x1 )
, x , (x, x1 )
. ,
x- y-.
y = x1 , ,
74
.
y = x1 , (0, 0):
(0, 0).
. (a, b) ,
b = a1 , a = 1b , (b, a) . (a, b) (b, a)
y = x, . ,
,
. , ,
.

.
, - .
y = x1
. y = x1
: (, 0) (0, +). 0
.
. . . , - . -.
-
.
6.7.
,

. ,
.
3.9: y = [x].
.
y = [x],
x, (, +) .
y = [x] [k, k + 1), k :
y = k x [k, k + 1).
75
[k, k + 1) . ,
y = [x] [k, k +1),
.
, y = [x] ( (, +) )
-
.
3.4.2
.
. ,
, .
y = f (x) ,
, .
y = f (x)
, , .

. ,
x-
y- .
.
.
,
[0, +).
y-

(0, 0).
. y = f (x).
y = f (x).
(1) (x, f (x)) y = f (x) x-
(x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
y = f (x) x- y = f (x).
3.10: y = f (x) y = f (x).
76
(2) (x, f (x)) = (x0 , f (x0 )) y = f (x)

y- (x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
y = f (x) y- y = f (x).
3.11: y = f (x) + y = f (x ).
(3) . (a, b)
(a, b + ).
(x, f (x) + ) y = f (x) +
(x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
y = f (x) + y = f (x).
(4) . (a, b)
(a + , b).
(x + , f (x)) = (x0 , f (x0 )) y = f (x )
(x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
y = f (x ) y = f (x).
(5) .
3.12: y = f (x) y = f ( x ).
(a, b) (a, b).
(x, f (x)) y = f (x)
(x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
77
y = f (x) y = f (x).
(6) . (a, b)
(a, b).
(
( 0 ))
( )
(x, f (x)) = x0 , f x y = f x
(x, f (x)) y = f (x). :
y = f ( x ) y = f (x).
.
1. .
y = |x|,
y=
y = (1)[x] ,
x > 0
1 ,
y = 0,
x = 0
1 , x < 0
|x|
,
x
y = x [x],
y = (1)[ x ] ,
y = x(1)[x] ,
y = x(1)[ x ] .
;
;
; . ;
;
2. y = x2 y = x2 1 .
3. y = x2 , :
y = 3x2 ,
y = x2 4,
y = (x + 4)2 ,
y = (3x + 4)2 ,
y = 4 (3x + 4)2 .
,
, . ,
, ( ) (, +).
4. a 6= 0 b, c. y = x2 ,

y = ax2 + bx + c.
(: ax2 + bx + c = a(x +
b 2
)
2a
4acb2
4a
.)

(, +);
5. y =
y=
1
+ 2,
x
1
x
y=
, :
1
,
x+2
y=
1
,
3x + 2
y=
3
.
x+2
6. a, b, c, d c 6= 0. y =

ax + b
.
y=
cx + d
78
1
x
(:
y=
ax+b
cx+d
ax+b
cx+d
a
(cx+d)+b ad
c
c
cx+d
bcad 1
c2 x+ d
c
+ ac .)
y = 2x+3
.
3x1
, ,
.
7. > 0. y = f (x) ,
y = f (x), y = f (x), y = f (x) + , y = f (x ), y = f (x)
y = f ( x );
8. y = x2 3x +2 , , y = |x2 3x +2|
y = |x|2 3|x| + 2. ;
:
(i) y = f (x) y = |f (x)|.
(ii) y = f (x) y = f (|x|).
3.5
y = f (x) , ,
, y x ,
, x y. , ,
y y = f (x)
x . , y
f (x) = y x .
,
f , f 1
x = f 1 (y) .
:
y = f (x)
x = f 1 (y)
x y f .

.
f (x) = y x.
y x, y = f (x1 ) =
f (x2 ) x1 = x2 , --
.
-- , , .
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y) :
(x, y) y = f (x) (y, x)
x = f 1 (y). , (x, y) (y, x) ,
y = x, :
.
79
3.13: x = f 1 (y).
x = f 1 (y) y = f (x), .
, x = f 1 (y)
y- x-.

; ,
x = f 1 (y) y = f (x),
x- y-
.
x
y, y = f 1 (x),
x = f 1 (y) y = f (x). ,
, : x-
y- .
:
,
, .
, y = f (x) y1 , y2
x = f 1 (y) y1 < y2 . x1 = f 1 (y1 ),
x2 = f 1 (y2 ) x = f 1 (y) f (x1 ) = y1 , f (x2 ) = y2 .
x1 = x2 , , , y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y2 .
x1 > x2 , , y = f (x) , y1 = f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) = y2
. , x1 < x2 , , f 1 (y1 ) < f 1 (y2 ).
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y).
y = f (x) ,
x = f 1 (y), ,
.
.
,
80
.
, y = f (x) ,
x = f 1 (y), ,
.
3.14: x =
y.
. y = x3 .
y = x3 , (, +),{
3 y ,
y 0
(, +). , x =
3
y , y < 0
(, +) (, +).
. ,
.
, , {

3
x,
x 0
y =
3
x , x < 0
y = f (x) --, . ,
I
y = f (x) , x I, y = f (x)
--: x1 , x2 I f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 .
y = f (x) I (
) (
) I.
y = f (x) -- , ,
. , ,
I .
. y = x2 (, +).
y = x2 -- y > 0 x2 = y :
x = y x = y .
, [0, +) y = x2 ,
81
3.15: x =
y.
, -- [0, +).
x = y , [0, +) [0, +)
. ( ) ,
.
, (, 0] y = x2 ,
3.16: x = y .
, -- [0, +).
x = y , [0, +) (, 0]
. ( ) ,
.
3.3
y = x2 (, +) [0, +)
x = y [0, +)
(, +).
.
1. y =
1
3x+1
.
82
,
.
, ,
.

2. a, b, c, d c 6= 0 y = ax+b
cx+d
6 . ,
.
y =
2x+3
3x1
3. y = x2 + 4x + 1.
,
.
;
,
. ,
.
y = x2 + 4x + 1 ;
3.6
3.17: y = xn .

y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN .
83
aN 6= 0, N .
, , (, +).

y = xn
(, ) n.
y = x3 , n , y = xn ,
(, +). ,
(0, 0), (1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1)
.
, y = x2 , n , y = xn ,
[0, +) [0, +) (, 0]
[0, +). , y-,
(1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) .
, y = xn (0, 0), (1, 1).
(0, 1) y = x , y = x2 , y = x3 , . . .
(1, +) . , ,
x (0, 1) x
x- : x > x2 > x3 > . x (1, +)
x : x < x2 < x3 < .

y=
a0 + a1 x + + aN xN
.
b0 + b1 x + + bM xM
x
, M .
.
,
y=
1
= xn
n
x
(, ) n. (, 0) (0, +)
n , y = x1n , (, 0)
(, 0) (0, +)
(0, +). (, 0)
(1, 1) x-
y-. , (0, +)
(1, 1)
y- x-.
(0, 0).
n , y = x1n , (, 0)
(0, +) (0, +)
(0, +). (, 0)
(1, 1) x-
y-. , (0, +)
(1, 1)
y- x-.
y-.
84
3.18: y =
1
x2
.
1
x (x2)
x1
1. y = x+1
y = (x1)
1
1
2 (x+1) ;
+ x2
x
; ;
2. y =
3. y =
.
y=
1
,
(x 1)2
y=
1
x2
1
xn
,y=
n;
1
x3
y =
1
+ 4,
(2 3x)3
1
x4
y=
3
+ 2.
(2x + 1)4
, , .
3.7
. (1) n. y = xn
(,
{ +) (, +), x =
n y ,
y 0

n
y , y < 0
{
n
x,
y=
n x ,
x 0
x < 0
(n )
(, +)
(, +). (1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1)
x- (, +)
y- (, +).
.
(2) n. y = xn [0, +)
85
[0, +), x =
y = n x,
x0
n y
[0, +) [0, +).

y = n x (0, 0), (1, 1)
x- [0, +) y-
[0, +). (0, 0) .
, n , y = n x
{
n
x,
x 0
y=
.
n
x , x < 0
3.19: y =
x . : n, n.
y = n x
. , ,

. :
x
3 x + 1 +
4
y = x+
.
x1
, .

p0 (x) + p1 (x)y + + pN (x)y N = 0
y, p0 (x), p1 (x), . . . , pN (x) , N 1 pN (x)
. , , y = g(x)
, ,
p0 (x) + p1 (x)g(x) + + pN (x)g(x)N = 0
x y = g(x). y = g(x) .
y = g(x) : .
5. , ,
y = g(x) .
86
. (1) y = p(x) (, +). , y = p(x) p(x) + 1y = 0,

p(x), 1 .
(2) y =
p(x)
q(x)
, p(x), q(x) , -
. y =
p(x) + q(x)y = 0, p(x),
q(x) .
p(x)
q(x)
. y = n x (, +), n ,
[0, +),
n . . ,
y = n x x + 1y n = 0, x, 0, . . . , 0, 1
.

. .
, , ,
, ,
.
.
1. y = x , y = 4 x , y = 3 x , y = 5 x ,
. ;
y = x 1 , y = 4 2 3x + 3, y = 2 + 3 2x + 1 , y = 5 3 x .
2. ,
. ;
x
x+2
3
y=
+ x + 1, y = x + x, y =
x1
3x + 1 4
3. n p(x), q(x). y =
p(x)
q(x)
4. n 2, y =
(: y = n x = p(x)
, .)
q(x)
3.8
n
x .

y = xa
[0, +), a > 0, (0, +), a < 0.
a. y = xa
a . , , , a , y = xa
x, y = xa (, 0).
87
, , a ,
,
y = xa .
y = xa , xa = y x.
y < 0, . y = 0, x = 0
, a > 0, , a < 0. y > 0,
1
x = y a . , a > 0,
y = xa [0, +) , a < 0,
(0, +).
3.20: y = xa .
y = xa [0, +), a > 0, (0, +),
a < 0. a > 0, y = xa (0, 0),
(1, 1) x- [0, +)
y- [0, +) .
(0, 0) . , a < 0,
y = xa (1, 1)
x- (0, +) y- (0, +).
y-
x-.
y = xa y = xb a < b,
(1, 1), (0, 1) y = xa
y = xb (1, +) y = xa
y = xb .
1
y = xa x = y a . a
a1 > 0 < 0.
.
1. ;
y = x0 ,
y = x3 ,
6
y = x4 ,
y = x3 ,
y = x 4 ,
6
.
88
y = x6 ,
y=x
y = x 6 ,
4
y = x
2. y = x
.
y = (2x 3)
, y = x
y = 2 (2 3x) 2 ,
y = (1 x) 2 ,
y = 3 + (2x + 1) 2 .
3.9
a > 0
y = ax
(, +) a.
a = 1, , y = 1x = 1, {1}.
3.21: y = ax x = loga y a > 1.
3.22: y = ax x = loga y 0 < a < 1.

a > 1 0 < a < 1, y = ax (0, +). ,
ax = y x , y 0, x = loga y,
y > 0. , , a > 1, ,
0 < a < 1.
89
y = ax (0, 1), (1, a). a > 1,

x- (, +)
y- (0, +) .
x-
. , 0 < a < 1,
x-.
a = 1, y = ax , , , ,
.
0 < a < 1 a > 1, y = ax ,
. xa = y x
x = loga y . ,

y = loga x .
y = loga x, y = ax ,
a. (0, +) (, +).
a > 1, y = loga x , 0 < a < 1, .
y = loga x (1, 0), (a, 1). a > 1,
y-
, 0 < a < 1, y-
.
.
1. .
y = 3ex 2 ,
y = log(x),
y = 1 + 23x ,
y = log |x|,
y = e|x| ,
y = log 1 (2 x),
2
y = e|x| ,
y = log10 (2x 1).
2. . , ,

.
x1
1x
y = log
, y = log
, y = log(1 x2 ), y = log(x2 1).
x+1
1+x
;
,
.
;

;
3.10 .
3.10.1
y = f (x) T > 0
f (x T ) = f (x)
90
x . , , , x
y = f (x), x T
. T y = f (x).
. (1) y = cos x y = sin x 2,
cos(x 2) = cos x sin(x 2) = sin x.
(2) y = tan x y = cot x , tan(x ) =
tan x cot(x ) = cot x.
y = f (x) T . f (xT ) = f (x)
y = f (xT ) y = f (x) , , .
, , y = f (x + T ) y = f (x).
T f f .
. y = f (x) T .
a y = f (x) [a, a + T ].
k y = f (x)
[a + kT, a + (k + 1)T ] kT
[a, a + T ]. ,
y = f (x) T .
[a, a + T ]
T .

.
1.
y = cos x.
3.23: y = cos x.
(, +) [1, 1].
2 . [, 0]
[0, ].
[1, 1]. [, ]:
(, 1) (0, 1) (0, 1) (, 1)
( 2 , 0), ( 2 , 0).
91
2.
y = sin x.
(, +) [1, 1].
2 . [ 2 , 2 ]
[ 2 , 3
].
2
[1, 1]. [ 2 , 3
]:
2
( 2 , 1) ( 2 , 1) ( 2 , 1) ( 3
, 1)
2
(0, 0), (, 0).
3.24: y = sin x.
3.
y = tan x.
( 2 +k, 2 +k) (k Z).
(, +). .
( 2 , 2 ) (, +).
( 2 , 2 ): (0, 0)
x = 2
x = 2 .
4.
y = cot x.
(k, (k + 1)) (k Z).
(, +). .
(0, ) (, +).
(0, ): ( 2 , 0)
x = 0
x = .
y = cos x y = sin x (, +)
1 1.
92
3.25: y = tan x y = cot x.
3.10.2 .
,
. .
y = cos x [0, ] [1, 1].
, x = arccos y, [1, 1]
[0, ].
y = sin x [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1].
x = arcsin y, [1, 1]
[ 2 , 2 ].
y = tan x ( 2 , 2 ) (, +).
x = arctan y, (, +)
( 2 , 2 ).
y = cot x (0, ) (, +).
x = arccot y, (, +)
(0, ).
, , , ,
x y, :
1. -
y = arccos x.
[1, 1] [0, ]. [1, 1]
(1, )
(1, 0) (0, 2 ).
2. -
y = arcsin x.
[1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ].
[1, 1] (1, 2 )
(1, 2 ) (0, 0).
93
3.26: y = arccos x y = arcsin x.
3. -
y = arctan x.
(, +) ( 2 , 2 ).
(, +)
y = 2
y = 2 (0, 0).
3.27: y = arctan x y = arccot x.
4. -
y = arccot x.
(, +) (0, ).
(, +)
y =
y = 0 (0, 2 ).
.
1. .
(x
)
y = cos(2x), y = tan
1 , y = 1 + 2 sin(1 3x), y = cot(1 x),
2
(y + 1)
x = 2 arccos(2y + 1), x = + arctan(1 y), x = arctan

.
2
2
94
2. 5 1.4

y = a cos x + b sin x.

y = cos x + sin x,
y=
3 cos x + sin x,
y=
3 cos x sin x.
3. .
y=
sin x ,
y=
1
,
1 + sin x
y = log(sin x),
y = arcsin
x
.
x1
4. y = arcsin x y = arctan x;
;
(: x = sin y x = tan y.)
5.
y = arccos(cos x), y = arcsin(sin x), y = arctan(tan x), y = arccot(cot x).
6. y = x sin x [0, +). ,
x x sin x x, y = x sin x y = x
y = x sin x = 1, x = 2 + k2 (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ),
y = x sin x y = x
sin x = 1, x = 3
+ k2 (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ), y = x sin x
2
y = x. y = x sin x
x-;
y = x sin x [0, +) ,
y = x sin x , (, 0].
7. y = sin x1 (0, +). y = sin x1
y = 1 y = 1.
sin x1 = 1 sin x1 = 1 (0, +).
(0, +) 0 y = sin x1
. sin x1 = 1 y = sin x1
y = 1 sin x1 = 1 y = 1.
y = sin x1 x-;
y = sin x1 (0, +) ,
y = sin x1 , (, 0).
8. ,
.
1
1
y = sin .
y = x2 sin x,
y = x sin x,
x
x
95
3.11
3.11.1 .
x
cosh x =
ex + ex
,
2
sinh x =
ex ex
,
2
ex ex
ex + ex
,
coth
x
=
.
ex + ex
ex ex
, , x, .
tanh x =
3.1. (1) (cosh x)2 (sinh x)2 = 1.

sinh x
x
(2) tanh x = cosh
, coth x = cosh
.
x
sinh x
(3) cosh(x) = cosh x, sinh(x) = sinh x, tanh(x) = tanh x, coth(x) = coth x.
(4) cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y, sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.
(5) cosh x cosh y = 2 sinh xy
sinh x+y
, sinh x sinh y = 2 sinh xy
cosh x+y
.
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
(6) (i) 1 cosh x < cosh x , 0 x < x (ii) 1 cosh x < cosh x , x < x 0.
(7) sinh x < sinh x0 , x < x0 .
3.1 .
3.1
1.12. cosh x =
x
x
ex +ex
sinh x = e e
.
2
2
cos x =
eix + eix
,
2
sin x =
eix eix
2i
eix = cos x + i sin x eix = cos x i sin x.

.

y = cosh x =
ex + ex
2
(, +). .
3.1 y = cosh x
[0, +) (, 0].
x
x
y = cosh x e +e
= y
2
x e2x 2yex +1 = 0. t = ex , t2 2yt+1 = 0
= 4y 2 4. .
(i) y 2 < 1. t2 2yt + 1 = 0 .
(ii) y 2 = 1. y = 1, t2 2yt + 1 = 0 ex = t = 1 , ,
. y = 1, t2 2yt + 1 = 0 ex = t = 1 x = 0
cosh x = 1.
(iii) y 2 > 1. t2 2yt + 1 = 0 () 2y
1. y < 1, ,
. , y > 1, t2 2yt + 1 = 0
, . 1,
1 0 1.
96
t = y y 2 1 0 < y y 2 1 < 1 < y + y 2 1 .

2

, x
= log(y y 1) , .
, log(y y 2 1) < 0 < log(y + y 2 1).
, , y = cosh x, y
cosh x = y , [1, +). ,
y [1, +)
cosh x = y (, 0] [0, +). [1, +)
(, 0] [0, +)
.
, y = cosh x ,
(0, 1) (0, 1)
. y-.

y = sinh x =
ex ex
2
(, +). . y = sinh x
(, +).
x
x
y = sinh x e e
= y
2
x e2x 2yex 1 = 0. t = ex t2 2yt 1 = 0
= 4y 2 + 4. , t2 2yt 1 = 0 ()
2y
.
1,

t = y y 2 + 1 y y 2 + 1 < 0 < y + y 2 + 1 .
,
2
, x = log(y + y + 1)
sinh x = y.
, , y = sinh x, y
sinh x = y , (, +).
y = sinh x
. (0, 0)
(0, 0).
3.11.2 .
y = cosh x y = sinh x.
y = cosh x -- (, +); y > 1
() cosh x = y. , [0, +)
[1, +).
[1, +) [0, +).
y [1, +) cosh x = y
[0, +).
, x = log(y + y 2 1).
, x y,
y = log(x + x2 1).

y = cos x, y = arccos x -, log(x + x2 1)
arccosh x - x,

97
y = arc cosh x.
y = arc cosh x
x- [1, +)
y- [0, +). (1, 0)
.
, y = cosh x (, 0]
[1, +),

[1, +)
2
2
(, 0]
y = log(x x 1). , log(x x 1) =
log(x + x2 1) = arc cosh x,
y = arc cosh x.
y = sinh x (, +)
(, +). (, +)
(, +) , ,
y = log(x + x2 + 1).
, log(x +
x2 + 1) arcsinh x - x,

y = arc sinh x.
y = arc sinh x
(0, 0).
.
1.
y = tanh x,
y = coth x.
,
.
,
.
2.
1 (tanh x)2 =
1
,
(cosh x)2
(coth x)2 1 =
1
.
(sinh x)2
3.
tanh(x + y) =
tanh x + tanh y
,
1 + tanh x tanh y
coth(x + y) =
coth x coth y + 1
.
coth x + coth y
4.
cosh(2x) = (cosh x)2 +(sinh x)2 = 2(cosh x)2 1 = 1+2(sinh x)2 ,
tanh(2x) =
2 tanh x
,
1 + (tanh x)2
98
coth(2x) =
sinh(2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x,
(coth x)2 + 1
.
2 coth x
5.
1 + (tanh x2 )2
cosh x =
,
1 (tanh x2 )2
tanh x =
2 tanh x2
,
1 + (tanh x2 )2
99
2 tanh x2
sinh x =
,
1 (tanh x2 )2
coth x =
1 + (tanh x2 )2
.
2 tanh x2
100
4
.
: , . . . . . .
. . , , .
.
4.1 , .
1. y = f (x) (a, )(, b)
. y = f (x)
, , .
1 : = .
. (1)
y=
3x2 x 2
x1
(, 1) (1, +). x 6= 1

y = 3x + 2.
x2
: y = 3x x1
y = 3x + 2.
(, 1) (1, +) (, +).
, (, 1) (1, +).
, x 1 ,
, 1,
2 x2
= 3x + 2 5.
y = 3x x1
. , x = 1, 00023, y = 5, 00069 , x =
1, 000000035, y = 5, 000000105 , x = 0, 9999999999913, y = 4, 9999999999739.
2
(2) , y = 3x + 2.
, , , x
1 1,
y = 3x + 2 5.
. , ,
2 x2
, x
. y = 3x x1
101
1 1. y = 3x + 2,
x 1 1. , ,
x 1 1.
y = f (x) , ,
, (a, ) (, b)
:
,
f (x) .

,
,
. .
f (x) , |f (x) |
. x
6= , |x |
. :
|f (x) | > 0 x
|x | > 0 6= 0.
, ,
> 0 > 0 , 0 < |x | < x
, |f (x) | < .
x2
. (1) y = 3x x1
.
( ) > 0 > 0 ,
2 x2
0 < |x1| < x , | 3x x1
5| < .
, 0 < |x 1| < , x
, 1 x
x. > 0 ,
2 x2
0 < |x 1| < , | 3x x1
5| < . , x 6= 1,
3x2 x2
| x1 5| < |(3x + 2) 5| < 3|x 1| <
|x 1| < 3 . , = 3
, 0 < |x 1| < |x 1| < 3
2 x2
| 3x x1
5| < .
2
(2) y = x2 + 3. (, +) , ,
0. , x
0 0, y = x2 + 3
3. , x = 0, 004, y = 3, 000016 , x = 0, 000005,
y = 3, 000000000025. , > 0
> 0 , 0 < |x 0| < x ,
|(x2 + 3) 3| < . , , 0 <
|x| < , x2 <. ,
x2 < |x| < . , =
, 0 < |x| < |x| <
|(x2 + 3) 3| < .
102
, .
> 0 > 0 , 0 < |x | <
x , |f (x) | < . :
> 0 > 0 0 < |x | < x
|f (x) | < . : > 0
> 0 |f (x) | < x
0 < |x | < .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
limx f (x) = x
6= . .
limn+ xn = x.
|xn x| < |xn x|
n n0 n0 n
|xn x| < . limx f (x) = , |f (x) | <
|f (x) |
0 < |x | < |x |
|f (x) | < .
.
limx f (x) = ,
, (
). > 0 ( )
, |f (x) | < 0 < |x | < ,
x
. ,
: 1 2 , , 1 = 2 .
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < ,
, |f (x) | < .
, |f (x) | <
0 < |x | < , x > a ( a).
> a . ,
a, = a > 0, x > a 0 < |x | <
, , x 0 < |x | < x > a, ,
, |f (x) | < .
, , |f (x) | < , x 0, x < b
0 < |x | < , , x 0 < |x | <
x < b, , , |f (x) | < .
, |f (x) | < a < x 0 x c
c |c c| = 0. , ,
> 0 ( , = 1) x (
x) 0 < |x | < |c c| = 0 < .
(2) a > 0. y = |x |a (, +),
.
( , a = 1 a = 2
a = 12 ) , x 6= ,
y = |x |a 0. , ,
limx |x |a = 0 .
> 0 > 0 x

( x) 0 < |x| < |x|a 0 < .

1
|x |a 0 < |x |a < |x | < a .
1
, = a ,
x 0 < |x | <

1
|x | < a , , |x |a 0 < . :
lim |x |a = 0
(a > 0).
: limx |x | = 0, limx (x )2 = 0, limx
|x | = 0.
(3) y = x2 + 3 (, +),
1. x 1
y = x2 + 3 4.
limx1 (x2 + 3) = 4 .
> 0 > 0 x
( x) 0 < |x1| < |(x2 +3)4| < .
|(x2 + 3) 4| < |x2 1| < 1 < x2 < 1 + .
,
1 .
2
2
2

> 1 1< x < 1+
( x 0) x < 1+

|x| < 1 +
1 + < x < 1 + . 1
1 + 1 + , ,

1} = 1 + 1,
1 , = min{1 + 1 + , 1 +
x 0 < |x 1| < 1 + < x < 1 + , (
) 1 < x2 < 1 + .
2
1

<
|x|
<
1+
0< 1
1

<
x
<
1
+

1 + < x < 1 1 < x < 1 + (:

x
1,

1) 1
< x
< 1 + . 1 1 1 + , ,
= min{1 1 , 1 + 1} = 1 + 1, x
0 < |x 1| < 1 < x < 1 + , ( ) 1 < x2 < 1 + .
, , = 1 + 1 > 0 x
104
( x) 0 < |x 1| <
1 < x2 < 1 + , ( ) |(x2 + 3) 4| < .
limx1 (x2 + 3) = 4.
1
(4) y = x+1
(, 1) (1, +), 1 ; , (1, 1) (1, +).
1
x 1 y = x+1
1
12 . , limx1 x+1
= 12
.
> 0 > 0 x

1
1

(
1
x 6= 1) 11 01< |x 1| < x+1 2 < .
1

x+1 2 < 2 < x+1 < 2 + .
, 21 ,
.
1
2
2
0 < < 21 , 12 < x+1
< 12 + 1+2
< x + 1 < 12

1+2
12
1+2
12
< x < 12 . 1 1+2 12 , ,
1+2
{
}
{ 4
}
1+2
4
4
= min 1 12
,
1
=
min
,
= 1+2
, x
1+2 12
1+2 12
1+2
1
12
< 12 + .
0 < |x 1| < 1+2 < x < 12 , , 12 < x+1
1
1
2
= 12 , 12 < x+1
< 12 + 0 < x+1
< 12 + 1+2
< x+1
12
12
12
4
x > 1+2 . 1 > 1+2 , = 1 1+2 = 1+2 ,
1
x 0 < |x 1| < x > 12
, 12 < x+1
< 12 + .
1+2
1
2
2
< 12 + x + 1 < 12
x + 1 > 1+2
, > 12 , 12 < x+1

1+2
12
x < 12 x > 1+2 (: x 1,
12
. 1 > 12
, ,
1) x > 1+2
1+2
12
4
= 1 1+2 = 1+2 , x 0 < |x 1| <
1
x > 12
, , 21 < x+1
< 12 + .
1+2
4
> 0 x 6= 1
, = 1+2
1
1
1
|x 1| < 2 < x+1 < 2 + , ( )
0 <
1 1 < .
x+1
2
1
limx1 x+1
= 21 .
1 : = +.
1
. y = (x1)
2 (, 1)(1, +). ,
1
x 1 6= 1, y = (x1)
2
. : x = 1, 0003, y = 11111111, 11 . . .
, x = 0, 9999997, y = 11111111111111, 11 . . . .
y = f (x) , ,
, (a, ) (, b)
:
,
f (x) .
f (x) , f (x)
. x
6= , |x |
. :
105
f (x) M > 0 x
|x | > 0 6= 0.
, ,
M > 0 > 0 , 0 < |x | < x
, f (x) > M .
1
. y = (x1)
2 . (
) M > 0 > 0 , 0 <
1
|x 1| < x , (x1)
2 > M.
, 0 < |x 1| < , x
, 1 x
x. > 0 ,
1
1
0 < |x 1| < , (x1)
2 > M . (x1)2 > M
(x 1)2 < M1 |x 1| < 1M . , = 1M
, 0 < |x 1| <
1
|x 1| < 1M (x1)
2 > M.
, .
M > 0 > 0 , 0 < |x | <
x , f (x) > M . : M > 0
> 0 0 < |x | < x
f (x) > M . : M > 0 > 0
f (x) > M x
0 < |x | < .
lim f (x) = +
y = f (x) + + + x
.
1
. (1) a > 0. y = |x |a = |x|
a
(, ) (, +), .
, a = 1, a = 2 ( ) a = 12 , , x 6= ,
y = |x |a . ,
limx |x |a = +. , .
M > 0 > 0 |x |a > M
x ( x 6= ) 0 < |x | < .
1
1
|x |a > M 0 < |x | < M a , , = M a , x
1
0 < |x | < 0 < |x | < M a , , |x |a > M .
:
lim |x |a = +
: limx
1
|x|
= +, limx
(2) y =
x+2
(x+1)2
1
(x)2
(a > 0).
= +, limx 1
|x|
= +.
(, 1) (1, +)
106
1. x
x+2
1 6= 1, y = (x+1)
2
x+2
, , limx1 (x+1)2 = +.
.
x+2
M > 0 > 0 (x+1)
2 > M x
( x 6= 1) 0 < |x + 1| < .
x+2
2
x2 + (2
x 6= 1, (x+1)
< x+2
2 > M (x + 1)
M
1+4M
1+4M
+ (1 M2 ) < 0
12M
< x < 12M +
. 1
2M
2M
{
12M + 1+4M
12M 1+4M
2M , , = min 1

2M }
{
}
12M 1+4M 12M + 1+4M
1
1+4M +1
1
,
+ 1 = min 1+4M
,
= 1+4M
, x
2M
2M
2M
2M
2M
12M 1+4M
12M + 1+4M
0 < |x + 1| <
<x<
. x
2M
2M
x+2
0 < |x + 1| < ( ) (x+1)
2 > M.
x+2
limx1 (x+1)2 = +.
1
)x
M
1 : = .
. y = f (x)
( ). .
M > 0 > 0 , 0 < |x | <
x , f (x) < M . :
M > 0 > 0 0 < |x | < x
f (x) < M . : M > 0
> 0 f (x) < M x
0 < |x | < .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
f (x) < M f (x) > M
( , ) ,
limx f (x) = limx f (x) = +.
.
1 1 .
(
)
x+2
. (1) limx1 (x+1)
= .
2
(
)
(2) limx |x |a = (a > 0).
2. y = f (x) (a, )(, b)
. ,
, , . , , x
, < > .
.

. , , .
2 : = .
> 0 > 0 |f (x) | < x
< x < + .
lim f (x) =
x+
107
y = f (x) x
.
, > 0 > 0 |f (x) | <
x < x < .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
2 : = +.
M > 0 > 0 f (x) > M x
< x < + .
lim f (x) = +
x+
y = f (x) + + + x
.
, M > 0 > 0 f (x) > M x
< x < .
lim f (x) = +
y = f (x) + + + x
.
2 : = .
M > 0 > 0 f (x) < M x
< x < + .
lim f (x) =
x+
y = f (x) x
.
, M > 0 > 0 f (x) < M
x < x < .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
2 limx+ f (x) limx f (x) y = f (x) , .
limx f (x) limx+ f (x) limx f (x).
4.1.
4.1. y = f (x) () (a, ) (, b)
.
108
limx f (x), limx+ f (x) limx f (x)

:
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x).
x
x+
, limx+ f (x) limx f (x) ,

limx f (x) .
. .
+ .
limx f (x) = . > 0, > 0 |f (x) | <
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < , ,
< x < < x < + . |f (x) | < x y = f (x)
< x < |f (x) | < x y = f (x)
< x < + . limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = .
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = > 0. limx f (x) = , 0 > 0
|f (x) | < x y = f (x) 0 < x < . ,
limx+ f (x) = , 00 > 0 |f (x) | < x y = f (x)
< x < + 00 . = min{ 0 , 00 }, 0 00 . |f (x) | <
x y = f (x) < x < < x < + .
|f (x) | < x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < , ,
limx f (x) = .
. (1) a > 0. y = |x |a (, +) ,
, limx |x |a = 0. limx+ |x |a = 0 limx |x |a = 0.
(2) a > 0. y = |x |a (, ) (, +)
limx |x |a = +. , limx+ |x |a = + limx |x |a = +.
{
2x + 1, x > 0
(3) y = f (x) =
(, +). y = f (x)
x2 + 1, x 0
0
0. , limx0 f (x) = 1 limx0+ f (x) = 1,
limx0 f (x) = 1.
> 0 (, 0). |f (x) 1| <
(
x < 0) |(x2 + 1) 1| <
x2 < ( x < 0)
< x < 0. , , =
, x (
x) < x < 0 < x < 0 , , |f (x) 1| < .
limx0 f (x) = 1.
> 0 (0, +).
|f (x) 1| < ( x > 0) |(2x + 1) 1| < 2|x| < (
x > 0) 0 < x < 2 . = 2 , x (
x) 0 < x < 0 < x < 2 , , |f (x) 1| < .
limx0+ f (x) = 1.
4.1 .
y = f (x) () (a, ) (, b).
limx+ f (x) limx f (x) ,
limx f (x) .
. (1) y = |x|
(, 0) (0, +).
x
|x|
(0, +) x = 1. > 0. 1

(0, +), > 0 |x|
1 = |1 1| = 0 <
x
109
x ( x 6= 0) 0 < x < . limx0+ |x|

x
, (, 0) |x|
=
1.

>
0.
(,
0),
> 0

|x|
(1) = |(1) (1)| = 0 < x ( x 6= 0)
x
< x < 0. limx0 |x|
= 1.
x
|x|
= 1,
x0 x
= 1.
|x|
= 1.
x0+ x
lim
lim
, , . , limx0
|x|
x
1
1
1
(, )(, +). limx+ x
= + limx x
=
(2) y = x
1
, limx x .
1
M > 0 (, +). x
> M
1
1
( x > ) < x < + M . = M , x
( x 6= ) < x < + < x < + M1 , ,
1
1
x
> M . limx+ x
= +.
1
M > 0 (, ). x
< M
1
1
( x < ) M < x < . = M , x
( x 6= ) < x < M1 < x < ,
1
1
, x
< M . limx x
= .
1
= ,
x x
1
= +.
x+ x
lim
lim
3. y = f (x) (, b)
(a, ). y = f (x)
, , . x
y = f (x), x
6= x > .
, : x x + .
o limx f (x)
limx+ f (x), 2,
lim f (x) = lim f (x).
x+
y = f (x) (a, )
(, b).
y = f (x) , , . ,
x y = f (x), x x .
o limx f (x)
limx f (x)
lim f (x) = lim f (x).
. a > 0 .
(1) y = (x )a [, +) (x )a = |x |a
. limx+ |x |a = 0. limx (x )a =
110
limx+ (x )a = limx+ |x |a = 0.
(2) y = (x)a (, +) (x)a = |x|a .
limx+ |x |a = +. limx (x )a =
limx+ (x )a = limx+ |x |a = +.
(3) y = ( x)a (, ] ( x)a = |x |a (, ].
limx |x |a = 0. limx ( x)a = limx ( x)a = limx |x |a = 0.
(4) y = ( x)a (, ) ( x)a = |x|a (, ).
limx |x |a = +, limx ( x)a = limx ( x)a = limx |x |a = +.
4. y = f (x) (a, +),
. x

f (x).
4 : = .
> 0 N > 0 |f (x) | < x
x > N .
lim f (x) =
x+
y = f (x) x
+.
4 : = +.
M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M x
x > N .
lim f (x) = +
x+
y = f (x) + + + x
+.
4 : = .
, M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x x > N .
lim f (x) =
x+
y = f (x) x
+.
. (1) y = x+1
(, 3)(3, +),
x+3
+. , , x
x+1

, y = x+3
x+1
1. , , limx+ x+3 = 1.
.

<
1
> 0 N > 0 x+1
x+3
x
(
x 6= 3) x > N .

< 2 < |x + 3| > 2
1
x+1
x+3
|x+3|

111
x < 3 2 x > 3 + 2 (: x
) x > 3 + 2 . N > 0
3 + 2 . 3 + 2 > 0 , , < 23 , N = 3 + 2
, 3 + 2 0 , , 23 , N
= 1.

x+1

2
2

x > N ( N 3 + ) x > 3 + , , x+3 1 < .
= 1.
limx+ x+1
x+3
(2) y = x x7 (, 0) (0, +),
+. x, (
)
y = x x7 . limx+ x x7 = +
.
M > 0 N > 0 x x7 > M
x ( x 6= 0) x > N .
2
x7
x x7 > M xM
> 0 x(x2 M x 7) > 0
x
2
2
+28
+28
M M
< x < 0 x > M+ M
(: x
2
2
2 +28
M + M 2 +28
) x >
. N = M + M
> 0,
2
2
x ( x 6= 0) x > N
2 +28
7
x > M+ M
2
( ,7 ), x x > M .
limx+ x x = +.
(3) y = c. > 0
N > 0 |y c| = |cc| = 0 < x
( x) x > N . :
lim c = c.
x+
(4) a > 0. y = xa [0, +).

limx+ xa = +.
M > 0 N > 0 xa > M x
x > N .
1
1
x > 0, xa > M x > M a , , N = M a > 0,
1
x > N x > M a , , xa > M . :
lim xa = +
(a > 0).
x+
: limx+ x = +, limx+ x2 = +, limx+
x = +, limx+ 5 x = +.
(5) a > 0. y = xa (0, +).

limx+ xa = 0.
> 0 N > 0 |xa 0| < x
x > N .
1
1
x > 0, |xa 0| < x > a , , N = a > 0,
1
x x > N x > a , ,
|xa 0| < . :
lim xa = 0
x+
: limx+
1
x
= 0, limx+
1
x
(a > 0).
= 0, limx+
112
x3x
= 0.
5. y = f (x) (, b),
. x

f (x).
5 : = .
> 0 N > 0 |f (x) | < x
x < N .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
5 : = +.
M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M x
x < N .
lim f (x) = +
y = f (x) + + + x
.
5 : = .
, M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x x < N .
lim f (x) =
y = f (x) x
.
. (1) y = c. > 0 N > 0 |y c| = |c c| = 0 < x
( x) x < N . :
lim c = c.
(2) y = 3x
(, 7) (7, +),
7+x
. x,
3x
y = 7+x
1, limx 3x
= 1.
7+x
.

3x
(1) <
> 0 N > 0 7+x
x
x 6= 7) x < N .
3x (
10
(1) < |7+x|
< |x + 7| > 10
7+x
x < 7 10 x > 7 + 10 (: x
) x < 7 10 . N = 7 + 10 > 0, x
(
x 6= 7) x < N x < 7 10 , ,
3x

(1) < .
7+x
limx 3x
= 1.
7+x
113
.
1. ;
1
,
lim
2
x1
x 2x
lim
x1+
lim
x0
x2 ,
lim log(x 1),
x1
1
,
x+ log(3 x)
1 x2 ,
lim
lim
4 + 3x x2 .
2. ;

.
x
.
x+2
1
1
1
lim (x2 + 1), lim
, lim
,
lim 2
,
lim 2
,
2
x2
x1 x + 1
x1 (x 1)
x1 x 1
x1+ x 1
1
1
1
lim 3 ,
lim
,
lim
,
lim
x2 3 .
x+ x
x+
x
x
x+5
x2 + 5
3. .
lim 3x = 3,
x1
lim
(x
2
x2
)
7 = 6,
lim ex = 1,
lim log x = 0,
x1
lim
( x + 1 )2
x3
x+3
x
= 0,
x0 x + 1
lim log x = ,
lim e = 0,
1x
= ,
x2 (x 2)2
lim (3x 2) = 5,
lim
3
= ,
x1+ x 1
x0+
x
x0
= +,
lim
1
x+1
= 1, lim x2 = 1, lim
= 3,
x1 x
x1
x2 x 1
x

lim x = 2 , lim
= +,
x2
x1 x 1
lim
x
= ,
x2+ 2 x
lim
lim
lim ex = +,
lim log x = +,
x+
2
lim (3x + x) = +,
x1+
x+
2 x2
lim
= ,
x+ x + 1
lim x2 = 4,
x2+
x+2
= +,
x1 1 x
x3
1
lim
= ,
x 2x + 1
2
lim
2 x2
lim
= +.
x x + 1
4. 1.
.
x 1 , , ;
{
{
2x 1, x > 1
2x + 3, x > 1
y=
y=
x
,
x < 1
1 2x, x < 1
x1
{
x,
y=
2
x,
x 1
x < 1
y=
114
2x
x1
,
(x 1)2 ,
x > 1
x < 1
4.1: limx f (x) = .
4.2 .

.
y = f (x) (a, ) (, b) x
(a, ) (, b). x x-
f (x) y- , ,
(x, f (x)) . f (x)
(x, f (x)) . , f (x)
x 6= , , limx f (x) =
(x, f (x)) (, )
x = . , f (x) x
6= , , limx f (x) = + (x, f (x))
x = .
: limx f (x) = (x, f (x))
x = .
4.2: limx f (x) = +. .

, limx f (x) = , x =
y = f (x).

115
4.3: limx f (x) = . .
limx f (x). limx+ f (x)

(x, f (x)) x =
limx f (x) (x, f (x)) x = .
x = y = f (x)
limx f (x) = .
, , limx+ f (x)
limx f (x) , limx f (x).
4.4: limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) limx f (x) 6= limx+ f (x).

y = f (x) (a, +) x
x-. f (x) y-
(x, y) = (x, f (x)) . , f (x)
, , limx+ f (x) = (x, f (x))
y = .
y = ( +) y = f (x). :
limx+ f (x) = + (x, f (x))
. : limx+ f (x) = (x, f (x))
.
, y = f (x) (, b),
limx f (x) = (x, f (x))
y = . y =
( ) y = f (x). : limx f (x) = +
(x, f (x)) . :
116
4.5: limx+ f (x) = , limx+ f (x) = + limx+ f (x) = .
4.6: limx f (x) = , limx f (x) = + limx f (x) = .
limx f (x) = (x, f (x))

.
4.7: < f (x) < + x < x < < x < + .

limx f (x) = y = f (x) .
> 0 > 0 x
( , ) (, + ) f (x) (x, f (x)),
+ , ,
117
( , ) (, + )
y = y = + .
. ,
limx+ f (x) = M > 0
N > 0 y = f (x) (N, +)
y = M .
. l
y = x + () + y = f (x)
y = f (x) (a, +)
(
)
lim f (x) x = 0.
x+
(x, f (x)) y = f (x)

(x, x + ) l
. : l
+.
4.8: + .
()
y = f (x) (, b). l
y = x +
(
)
lim f (x) x = 0.
x
4.3.2 , ,
.
y = f (x)
. ,
0 ( = 0).
.
{
x2 1 ,
1. y = f (x) = 1
,
x
limx2 f (x), limx0 f (x) limx f (x) ;
{
x2 ,
y = f (x) = 1
,
x
118
x < 2

x 2
x 2
x < 2, x 6= 0
2. :
y = ax+b,
y = xn (n ),
y = sin x,
y = tan x,
y = arc cot x,
y = xa ,
y = cot x,
y = cosh x,
y = ax ,
y = arccos x,
y = sinh x,
y = loga x,
y = [x],
y = arcsin x,
y = arc cosh x,
y = cos x,
y = arctan x,
y = arc sinh x.
,
( ) .
;
4.3
4.3.1
y = f (x) , ,
f (x) x 6= . ,
, y = g(x)
(a, )(, b), g(x) = f (x) x (a, )(, b). (a, ), (, b)
, ,
x .
y = f (x) x , y = g(x) .
, y = g(x) y = f (x)
y = f (x) ,
(a, ) (, b), a b
.
4.9: limx f (x) = limx g(x) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x).
, g(x) = f (x) x
(, b) y = f (x) x + , y = g(x) .
, g(x) = f (x) x (a, ) y = f (x)
x , y = g(x) . , g(x) = f (x)
x (a, +) y = f (x) x +,
y = g(x) . x .
:
119
4.2. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, ) (, b) (, b)

(a, ) (a, +) (, b). ,
, x x + x x + x ,
.
. y = f (x) y = g(x)
(a, ) (, b) limx f (x) = . .
> 0. limx f (x) = , 0 > 0 |f (x) | < x
y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0 . = min{ 0 , a, b }, x
0 < |x | < (a, ) (, b) , , x g(x) = f (x).
, 0 , x 0 < |x | < |g(x) | = |f (x) | < .
limx g(x) = .
.
(1) limx0 |x| 2 = +. y = f (x) =
{
1
1
|x| 2 , 0 < |x| < 10
1
limx0 f (x) = + y = |x| 2 y = f (x) 1
x,
x = 0 |x| 10
1
1
( 10
, 0) (0, 10
).
1
1
(,
, , limx0 f (x) : f (x) = |x| 2 0 < |x| < 10
1
1
12
, ( 10 , 0) (0, 10 )), limx0 f (x) = limx0 |x| = +.
{
x,
0 x 1
(2) y = f (x) =
f (x) = x 0 < x < 1,
1
x , x > 1 x < 0
limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ x = 0. f (x) = x1 x < 0, limx0 f (x) = limx0 x1 =
.
{
x1 , x > 100
(3) y = f (x) =
f (x) = x1 (100, +), x,
x 100
limx+ f (x) = limx+ x1 = 0. f (x) = x (, 100),
limx f (x) = limx x = .
1
4.3.2
.
lim limx limx
limx .
. ,
(a, ) (, b) limx .
.
. lim f (x), lim(f (x))
lim(f (x)) = lim f (x).
. limx f (x) = . > 0, > 0 |f (x) | <
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . |(f (x)) ()| =
| f (x)| = |f (x) |. |(f (x)) ()| < x y = f (x)
0 < |x | < . , limx (f (x)) = .
limx f (x) = +. M > 0, > 0 f (x) > M
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . f (x) < M x
y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . , limx (f (x)) = = (+).
limx f (x) = .
120
y = f (x) y = g(x) y =
f (x) + g(x) x
.
. lim f (x), lim g(x) lim f (x) + lim g(x)
, lim(f (x) + g(x))
lim(f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x).
. limx f (x) = limx g(x) = . > 0, 0 > 0
|f (x) | < 2 x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0
00 > 0 |g(x) | < 2 x y = g(x)
0 < |x | < 00 . = min{ 0 , 00 }, 0 00 . |f (x) | < 2
|g(x) | < 2 x y = f (x) y = g(x)
0 < |x | < . |(f (x) + g(x)) ( + )| = |(f (x) ) + (g(x) )| |f (x) | + |g(x) |.
|(f (x) + g(x)) ( + )| < 2 + 2 = x y = f (x) + g(x)
0 < |x | < . , limx (f (x) + g(x)) = + .
limx f (x) = + limx g(x) = +. M > 0, 0 > 0
0
f (x) > M
2 x y = f (x) 0 < |x | <
00
00 > 0 g(x) > M
2 x y = g(x) 0 < |x | < .
M
M
0 00
0
00
= min{ , }. , f (x) > 2 g(x) > 2 x
y = f (x) y = g(x) 0 < |x | < . ,
M
f (x) + g(x) > M
2 + 2 = M x y = f (x) + g(x) 0 < |x | < .
limx (f (x) + g(x)) = + = (+) + (+).
limx f (x) = + limx g(x) = . M > 0, 0 > 0
f (x) > M + 1 x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0
00 > 0 |g(x) | < 1 x y = g(x) 0 < |x | < 00 .
= min{ 0 , 00 }. 0 00 , f (x) > M + 1 |g(x) | < 1 x
y = f (x) y = g(x) 0 < |x| < . |g(x)| < 1
g(x) > 1 , , f (x) + g(x) > (M + 1) + ( 1) = M x
y = f (x) + g(x) 0 < |x | < . limx (f (x) + g(x)) = + = (+) + .
.
(
)
1
= +. limx0 1 + |x|
= 1 + (+) = +.
(
= + limx0+ 1x = +. limx0+ x + 1 +
. (1) limx0 1 = 1 limx0

(2) limx0+ x = 0, limx0+ 1 = 1, limx0+ x1
)
1
1
+
= 0 + 1 + (+) + (+) = +.
x
x
(3) limx+ (1) = 1, limx+
1 + 0 + 0 = 1.
1
x
1
|x|
= 0 limx+
1
x
(
= 0. limx+ 1 +
1
x
1
x
(
.
(1) limx0+ ( x1 + 3) +, limx0+ ( x1 ) = limx0+ ( x1 + 3) +
)
( x1 ) = limx0+ 3 = 3.
, 3.
(
)
(2) limx+ 2x = +, limx+ (x) = limx+ 2x + (x) = limx+ x = +.
(3) limx0 ( x1 ) = +, limx0
2
x
= limx0 ( x1 + x2 ) = limx0
1
x
= .
(4) limx0 ( x22 ) (= .

( ) limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) =
)
+. , limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) + ( x22 ) = limx0 x1 .
y = f (x) y = g(x), y = f (x)g(x),

f (x) g(x) = f (x) + (g(x)). :
121
. lim f (x), lim g(x) lim f (x) lim g(x)

, lim(f (x) g(x))
lim(f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x).
(
)
= 0. limx+ 1 x1 = 1 0 = 1.
(
)
(2) limx1 x = 1 limx1 1 = +. limx1 x 1
= 1 (+) = .
|x1|
|x1|
)
(
1
1
=
(3) limx0 1 = 1, limx0 x1 = limx0 x
= +. limx0 1 + x1 x
1 + () (+) = .
. (1) limx+ 1 = 1 limx+
1
x
y = f (x) y = g(x) y = f (x)g(x)

x
.
. lim f (x), lim g(x) lim f (x) lim g(x)
, lim(f (x)g(x))
lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x).
. limx f (x) = limx g(x) = . > 0, 0 > 0

|f (x) | < 3||+1
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0

00 > 0 |g(x) | < min{ 3||+1
, 13 } x y = g(x)

00
0 00
0 < |x | < . = min{ , }, 0 00 . |f (x) | < 3||+1

1
|g(x) | < min{ 3||+1 , 3 } x y = f (x) y = g(x)
0 < |x | < . |f (x)g(x) | = |(f (x) )(g(x) ) + (g(x) ) + (f (x) )| |f (x) ||g(x)

1

| + |||g(x) | + |||f (x) |. |f (x)g(x) | 3||+1
3 + || 3||+1 + || 3||+1 < 3 + 3 + 3 =
x y = f (x)g(x) 0 < |x | < . limx f (x)g(x) = .
limx f(x) = + limx g(x) = +. M > 0, 0 > 0
f (x) > M x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0
00
00 > 0 g(x) > M x y = g(x)
0< |x | < .
0 00
0
00
= min{ , }, . f (x) > M g(x) > M x

y = f (x) y = g(x) 0 < |x | < .

f (x)g(x) > M M = M x y = f (x)g(x) 0 < |x | < .

limx f (x)g(x) = + = (+)(+).
limx f (x) = + limx g(x) = > 0. M > 0, 0 > 0
0
00
f (x) > 2M
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < > 0
|g(x) | < 2 x y = g(x) 0 < |x | < 00 .
= min{ 0 , 00 }, 0 00 . f (x) > 2M

|g(x) | < 2
x y = f (x) y = g(x) 0 < |x | < .
|g(x) | < 2 g(x) > 2 = 2 , , f (x)g(x) > 2M

2 = M x
y = f (x)g(x) 0 < |x | < . limx f (x)g(x) = + = (+).
.
. (1) . c
lim f (x) c lim f (x) .
lim cf (x) = c lim f (x)
(c 6= 0 lim f (x) = ).
y = f (x)
y = c c.
(2) limx1+ (x + 1) = 2 limx1+
1
x1
= +. , limx1+
122
x+1
x1
1
= limx1+ (x + 1) x1
=
2 (+) = +.
(3) limx+ x = + limx+ (x 1) = (+) 1 = +. limx+ (x2 x) =
limx+ x(x 1) = (+)(+) = +.
limx+ (x2 x) .
(4) limx1 (x2 x + 1) = limx1 (x x x + 1) = (1)(1) (1) + 1 = 3 limx1
2 x+1
1
. limx1 x x+1
= limx1 (x2 x + 1) x+1
= 3() = .
1
x+1
(5) limx0 x12 = + limx0 (2 + x) = 2. limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) = limx0 x12 (2 + x) = (+) 2 =

+. limx0 ( x22 + x1 )
limx0 x1 .
.
. (1) limx+ x = +, limx+
limx+ (2) = 2.
2 .
1
= +, limx0+ x = 0 limx0+ x12
x2
1
1
= +, limx0 x2 = 0 limx0 |x|
x2
limx0 |x|
2
x
= 0 limx+ x
1
x
(2) limx0+
x = limx0+
(3)
= limx0 |x| = 0.
(4) limx0
1
x2
= +, limx0 x = 0 limx0
1
x2
x = limx0
1
x
2
x
= +.
4.3. lim f (x) k ,

lim f (x)k = (lim f (x))k
(k ) .
)
(
lim f (x)k = lim f (x) f (x) = lim f (x) lim f (x) = (lim f (x))k .
{z
}
|
{z
}
|
k
(
)3
. (1) limx+ (1 x1 ) = 1 0 = 1. limx+ 1 x1 = 13 = 1.
(
)
(
)4
(2) limx0 x1 x12 = () (+) = . limx0 x1 x12 = ()4 = +.
(3) k . limx x = , limx xk = k .
lim xk = k
, , 6= 0, limx
1
x
= 1 , limx
lim xk = k
(4) k . limx+
+.
(k ).
1
x
1
xk
= limx
lim (x )k = +
x+
1
x
()k = +. k ,
( 1 )k
1
k
(k 6= 0).
= +, limx+
k . limx
( 1 )k
1
(x)k
= limx+
)k
1
x
= (+)k =
(k ).
= , limx
1
limx (x)
k
123
1
=
(x)k
( 1 )k
limx x
limx
)k
1
x
= ()k = .
lim (x )k
{
+,
=
,
k
k
(5) k . limx+ x = +, limx+ xk = (+)k = +.

lim xk = +
(k ).
x+
k . limx x = , limx xk = ()k = +. k

, limx xk = ()k = .
{
+, k
k
lim x =
x
, k
(6) k . limx
1
x
= 0, limx
lim xk = 0
1
f (x)
= limx
(1
x
)k = 0k = 0.
(k ).
y=
1
xk
x y = f (x) f (x) 6= 0.
1
lim f (x)
, . lim f (x)
lim f (x) 6= 0,
lim
1
1
=
.
f (x)
lim f (x)
. limx f (x) = > 0. > 0, > 0

2
|f (x)| < min{ 2 , 2 } x y = f (x) 0 < |x| < .
|f (x) | <
2
2
|f (x) | <
|f (x) | <
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < .

2
1

2
f (x) > 2 = 2 , , f (x)
1 = |ff(x)|
<
(x)
=
1
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . limx f (x)
= 1 .
limx f (x) = +. > 0, > 0 f (x) > 1
1
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . 0 < f (x)
< , ,
1

1

f (x) 0 = f (x) < x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < .
1
1
limx f (x)
= 0 = +
.
.
. (1) limx1 (x + 1) = 2, limx1

(2) limx+ (x2 + x + 1) = +, limx+
1
x+1
1
x2 +x+1
= 12 .
1
+
= 0.
(3) 0. ,
limx0 x = 0 limx0 x1 .

. , , ,
.
y = f (x) ,
, (i)
(a, ) (, b), , (ii)
(, b),
124
, (iii) (a, ),
. y = f (x)
(, b) (
), .
y = f (x) (a, ) (
), .
, y = f (x) +
(a, +)
(, b).
. (1) 0 < x1 < 1 (1, +), y =
(, , > 0 < 1) +.
1
x
(2) x(1 x) > 0 (0, 1), y = x(1 x)

0 1 . ,
y = x(1 x) 14 , x(1 x) > 0 (0, 41 ) ( 14 , 1).
1
(3) y = x(x1)
(, 0) (0, 21 )
1
( 12 , 1) (1, +). , y = x(x1)

0
1
1 +. : y = x(x1)
0 1.
lim f (x) x x + x x +
x y = f (x)
+ , ,
x.
, . (1) lim f (x) = 0 y = f (x) x,
1
lim f (x)
= +.
1
(2) lim f (x) = 0 y = f (x) x, lim f (x)
= .
. (1) limx f (x) = 0 f (x) > 0 x (a, )(, b).
1
M > 0, 0 > 0 |f (x)| = |f (x)0| < M
x y = f (x)
0
0
0 < |x | < . = min{ , a, b }, x 0 < |x | <
(a, ) (, b) , , f (x) > 0 x. , 0 ,
1
1
1
f (x) = |f (x)| > M x 0 < |x | < . limx f (x) = +.
(2) (1).
. limx+ ( x1
limx+ 1 1 1 = +.
x
1
)
x2
= 0.
1
x
1
x2
> 0 x > 1.
x2
y = f (x) y = g(x),
(x)
y = fg(x)
,
.
. lim f (x), lim g(x)
(x)
lim fg(x)

lim
f (x)
lim f (x)
=
.
g(x)
lim g(x)
125
lim f (x)
lim g(x)
. (1) limx1 (x2 + x) = 2 limx1 (x 2) = 1. limx1
x2 +x
x2
2
1
= 2.
(2) limx+ x = +, limx+ (1 x1 + x12 ) = 1 0 + 0 = 1 limx+ (1 + 2 x1 ) = 1 + 2 0 = 1.

limx+
x2 x+1
x+2
= limx+ x
limx+
1 x1 +
1+ x2
x2 x+1
x+2
1
x2
= (+) 11 = +.
.
0
0
. (1) limx0+ (2x) = 0, limx0+ x = 0 limx0+

2 .
(2) limx0+ x = 0, limx0+ x2 = 0 limx0+
x
x2
= limx0+
1
x
(3) limx0+ x2 = 0, limx0+ x = 0 limx0+
x2
x
= limx0+ x = 0.
+
+
2x
x
.
= limx0+ (2) = 2.
= +.
(4) limx+ 5x = +, limx+ x = + limx+ 5x

= limx+ 5 = 5.
x
5.
x2
x
limx+ xx2
(5) limx+ x2 = +, limx+ x = + limx+
= limx+ x = +.
(6) limx+ x = +, limx+ x2 = +
= limx+
1
x
= 0.
, ,
.
y = f (x) (a, +)
+ y = x + .
. limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0
= 0 , , = limx+ f (x)
. , , ,
limx+ f (x)x
x
x
f (x)
limx+ x ,
+. , , ,
. , ,
= limx+ (f (x) x),
. , limx+ (f (x) x)
, +.
, ,
.
. y = x + x1 (, 0) (0, +).
: = limx+ x1 (x + x1 ) = 1 = limx+ (x + x1 1x) = 0.
+ y = 1x + 0 = x. : = limx x1 (x + x1 ) = 1
= limx (x + x1 1x) = 0.
y = 1x + 0 = x.
. lim f (x), lim |f (x)|
lim |f (x)| = | lim f (x)|.
. limx f (x) = . > 0, > 0 |f (x) | <
x y = f (x)
0 < |x | < .

|f (x)| || |f (x) |, |f (x)| || < x y = f (x)
0 < |x | < . limx |f (x)| = ||.
limx f (x) = + limx f (x) = . M > 0, > 0
f (x) > M f (x) < M , , x y = f (x)
0 < |x | < . |f (x)| > M x y = f (x)
0 < |x | < . limx |f (x)| = + = | |.
126
. (1) limx1 (x 2) = 1, limx1 |x 2| = | 1| = 1.

(2) limx0 ( x1
1
)
x2
= () (+) = , limx0 | x1
1
|
x2
= | | = +.
(3) . y = f (x) = |x|

x
|x|

(, 0) (0, +). limx0 |f (x)| = limx0 x = limx0 1 = 1. ,
limx0 f (x) .
4.3.3
z = g(f (x))
: y = f (x) z = g(y). , ,
y = f (x)
z = g(y). .
, limx f (x) = limy g(y) = . , ,
. x 6= , y = f (x)
, , . , ,
y = f (x) 6= , y = f (x) 6= .
, z = g(f (x)) = g(y) . , ,
x 6= z = g(f (x)) = g(y)
. limx g(f (x)) = .
,
z = g(f (x)), y.
, (i)
x y = f (x) f (x) y
(ii) limx limy .
.
, . z =
g(f (x)) y = f (x) z = g(y). lim f (x) = y = f (x)
x limy g(y), lim g(f (x)) = limy g(y).
. :
limy g(y),
f (x) f (x) 6= x
limy+ g(y), f (x) f (x) > x

lim g(f (x)) = limy g(y), f (x) f (x) < x
limy+ g(y), f (x) +
lim
f (x)
y g(y),
. y = f (x) ()
(a, ) (, b) z = g(x) () (c, ) (, d) limx f (x) =
limy g(y) = . f (x) 6= x (a0 , ) (, b0 ),
a a0 < < b0 b. limx g(f (x)) = .
> 0, 0 > 0 |g(y) | < y
z = g(y) 0 < |y | < 0 . , 00 > 0 |f (x) | < 0
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 00 . = min{ 00 , a0 , b0 }.
x 0 < |x | < 0 < |x | < 00 , ,
0
(a0 , ) (, b0 ). x 0 < |x | < |f
(x) | < f (x) 6= , ,
0

0 < |f (x) | < , , g(f (x)) < .
.
. (1) limx0 (x+1)(8 +(x+1)
x+1)13 +5
y = x + 1 z = (x+1)(8 +(x+1)
z =
x+1)13 +5
127
y4
y 8 +y 13 +5
limx0 y = limx0 ( x + 1) = 0 + 1 = 1 y = x + 1 > 1 x

0.
4
4
limx0 (x+1)(8 +(x+1)

= limy1+ y8 +yy 13 +5 = 71 .
x+1)13 +5
( 1
)
1
(2) limx1+ x1
(x1)
3 + 1 .
1
1
1
6
y = x1
z = x1
(x1)
3 + 1 z = y y + 1.
1
limx1+ y = limx1+ x1
= +.
( 1
)
1
limx1+ x1 (x1)3 + 1 = limy+ (y y 6 + 1) = limy+ y 6 (1 + y 5 + y 6 ) =
(+)(1 + 0 + 0) = .
(
)
x1
2
4
(3) limx+ ( x2x1
)
+
(
)
.
2
+x+1
x +x+1
x1
x1
2
)4 z = y 2 + y 4 .
y = x2 +x+1 z = ( x2 +x+1 ) + ( x2x1
+x+1
limx+ y = limx+
x1
x2 +x+1
= limx+
1
1 1 x
1
x 1+ x +
x1
x2 +x+1
= 0
1
x2
10
1+0+0
= 0 y =
> 0 x + (, , x > 1).

)
(
x1
2
4
limx+ ( x2x1
)
+
(
)
= limy0+ (y 2 + y 4 ) = +.
2
+x+1
x +x+1
(4) , .
(1)
(1)
= lim g(y),
lim g
= lim g(y),
lim g
y+
x0
y
x0+
x
x
(1)
(1)
lim g
= lim g(y),
lim g
= lim g(y),
x+
y0+
x
y0
x
x
lim g(x) = lim g(y),
lim g(x) = lim g(y),
x+
lim g(ax + b) =
y+
lim g(y).
ya+b
y =
4.3.4
1
x
, y = x y = ax + b.
,
lim limx limx limx . ,

(a, ) (, b) limx .
4.4. f (x) g(x) x.
(1) lim f (x) = +, lim g(x) = +.
(2) lim g(x) = , lim f (x) = .
. (1) M > 0. limx f (x) = +, 0 > 0 f (x) > M
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0 .
(a, ) (, b) g(x) f (x) x . = min{ 0 , a, b },
0 , , x 0 < |x | < (a, ) (, b).
g(x) f (x) > M x 0 < |x | < . limx g(x) = +.
(2) (1).
2
. (1) y = x +x1
. x +x1
x
x
x2 +x1
limx+ x = +, limx+ x = +.
(2) x22 + x1 x22 x12 =
limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) = +.
1
x2
x2
x
= x x (1, +)
x (1, 0)(0, 1) limx0
128
1
x2
= +,
4.5. lim f (x) = lim g(x) = f (x) g(x) x,

.
. limx f (x) = limx g(x) = f (x) g(x) x
(a, ) (, b).
0
( ) < . =
2 > 0, > 0
|f (x) | < 2 x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0

00 > 0 |g(x) | <
x y = g(x)
2
0 < |x | < 00 . = min{ 0 , 00 , a, b }, x 0 < |x | <
(a, ) (, b) , , f (x) g(x) x. , 0 00 ,
+
|f (x) | <
2 |g(x) | < 2 x 0 < |x | < . f (x) > 2 = 2
+
+
g(x) < + 2 = 2 x 0 < |x | < . f (x) > 2 > g(x)
x 0 < |x | < .
. (1) lim f (x) f (x) u x,

lim f (x) u. , y = u ,
f (x) u x lim u = u, lim f (x) u.
(2) lim f (x) f (x) l x, lim f (x) l.
(1).
(3) lim f (x) x y = f (x)
[l, u], lim f (x) [l, u].
(1) (2).
. lim f (x) = lim h(x) = f (x) g(x) h(x)
x, lim g(x) = .
. limx f (x) = limx h(x) = f (x) g(x) h(x) x
(a, ) (, b).
> 0, 0 > 0 |f (x) | < x
y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0 00 > 0 |h(x) | < x
y = h(x) 0 < |x | < 00 . = min{ 0 , 00 , a, b },
x 0 < |x | < (a, ) (, b), f (x) g(x) h(x)
x. , 0 00 , |f (x) | < |h(x) | < x
0 < |x | < . f (x) > h(x) < + x 0 < |x | < . ,
< f (x) g(x) h(x) < + , , |g(x) | < x
0 < |x | < . limx g(x) = .
. (1) x12 f (x) < x1 x 3. limx+ ( x12 ) = 0

limx+ x1 = 0, limx+ f (x) = 0.
(2) x 1 < [x] x x. 1 x1 < [x]
1 x > 0.
x
1
limx+ (1 x ) = 1 0 = 1 limx+ 1 = 1, limx+ [x]
= 1.
x
(
)
1
1
1
(3) |x|
sinxx |x|
x (, 0) (0, +) limx+ |x|
=
sin x
sin x
1
limx+ |x| = 0. limx+ x = 0. limx x = 0.
4.6. (1) lim f (x) < u, f (x) l, f (x) > l x.
. (1) y = f (x) () (a, ) (, b) limx f (x) =
< u. = u > 0. 0 > 0 |f (x) | < u
x 0 < |x | < 0 . = min{ 0 , a, b },
0 , ( , ) (, + ) (a, ) (, b). ,
|f (x) | 0 u ( , M = u, u < 0, M = 1,
u 0) M . 0 > 0 f (x) < M
x 0 < |x | < 0 . = min{ 0 , a, b }, ,
, f (x) < M x ( , ) (, + ). M u, f (x) < M
f (x) 28
. x x2x
>
. (1) limx1 x x2x
8 +6x5 x4 +22x2 +1
8 +6x5 x4 +22x2 +1
1
28 1. a, b
x (a, 1) (1, b). a, b
.
7
(2) limx+
x+ x1 +1
(x+ x1 )2 +1
x+ x1 +1
t+1
< 15 +.
=
0.
2
t +1
(x+ x1 )2 +1
x+ x1 +1
< 51 x (a, +).
(x+ x1 )2 +1
= limt+
a
, , a.
4.3.5
4.7. lim f (x) , y = f (x) x.

. y = f (x)
(a, ) (, b) limx f (x) = . .
= 1, . 0 > 0 |f (x) | < 1 x
y = f (x) 0 < |x | < 0 . = min{ 0 , a, b }, ( , ) (, + )
(a, ) (, b). , 0 , , |f (x) | < 1 x
0 < |x | < , x ( , ) (, + ). |f (x) | < 1
1 < f (x) < 1 + , y = f (x) ( , ) (, + ),
.
. (1) y = x1 limx+ x1 = 0
+. y = x1 ;
, , , (, 0) (0, +)
(0, +). , , (a, +) y = x1 .
, (1, +) 0 x1 1 x (1, +).
5
1
x +1
(2) limx 2x5 x3x+x+12 +8x+1 = limx 2x2 +x1+x
3 +8x4 +x5 = 2 . y = 2x5 x3 +x2 +8x+1
. , (, b)
. , ( b)

.
4.8. (1) lim f (x) = +, y = f (x)

x.
(2) lim f (x) = , y = f (x)
x.
. y = f (x)
(a, ) (, b) limx f (x) = +. .
M = 1, . 0 > 0 f (x) > 1 x
0 < |x| < 0 . = min{ 0 , a, b}, ( , )(, +)
(a, ) (, b). , 0 , , f (x) > 1 x
0 < |x | < , x ( , ) (, + ). y = f (x)
130
( , ) (, + ), .
, , y = f (x) (c, ) (, d).
u f (x) u x (c, ) (, d). limx f (x) u
limx f (x) = +.
. (1) limx+ (x x1 ) = +, y = x x1
+. , y = x x1
(1, +) , , x x1 0 x (1, +).
, limx0+ (x x1 ) = , y = x x1
0 . , (0, 1)
, , x x1 0 x (0, 1).
(2) limx0
(x+ x1 )7 +1
1 5
3(x+ x ) +7(x+ x1 )4 (x+ x1 )3 +2
(x+ x1 )7 +1
1 5
3(x+ x ) +7(x+ x1 )4 (x+ x1 )3 +2
= limt
t7 +1
3t5 +7t4 t3 +2
= limt
t2 (1+t7 )
3+7t1 t2 +2t5
+. y =
0
. a (a, 0).
, a
(a, 0).
.
. .
1. x 0 x .
{
{
1
x, x 0
|x 1| 4 , |x| 1
y= 1
y= 1
, x < 0
,
|x| < 1
x
x
2. limx [x]. y = [x] .
(: ( 1, ) (, + 1),
; y = [x] = 1 y = [x] = .)
- .
(: ([], ) (, [] + 1), ;
y = [x] = [].)
limx [x];
[ ]
[ ]
3. : limx x1 limx x x1 .
(: (, 1) (1, +).)
. .
1. x 1 .
y=
1+x
1 x2
1
1
,
y
=
,
y
=
,
y
=
,
1 + x3
1 x3
1 + (x 1)3
(x 1)2 |x 1|
y = (x 1)1 + |x 1| 2 ,
1
131
(
1 )2
y = (x 1)1 + |x 1| 2 .
2. x .
y = x +
y=
1
2
2,
x x
x2 + x + 1
,
x3 + 1
x3 + 1
x2 4x + 3
2x2 + 3x + 1
,
y
=
,
y
=
,
x2 + 1
x3
x2 + 1
(
1 )4
(2x + 1)3 (3x2 + 2)2 (x + 4)13
y = 1+
, y=
.
x
x20
y=
3. f (x) 6= 1 x y = f (x). lim f (x) = 2

(x)+3
lim ff (x)1
= 5.
4. lim(f (x))2 = 1, lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1;
x 0.
y = f (x) = |x|
x
5. , , ( ) .
y = 2x 3,
y=
y = x2 ,
y = 5x +
x4
,
(x 1)(x2 + 1)
y=
7x + 1
,
x
y=
2x3 + x2 3
,
x2 + 1
1
x
x2
+
+
.
x x1 x2
6. y =
x = y+1
.
y2
2x+1
x1
,
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y);
7. y = 2x x1 (0, +).
(, +) x = 41 (y + y 2 + 8).
.
, y =
f (x) x = f 1 (y); .
. .
1. ( ) .
x+1
4 x+1
( x2 + 1 )4
)
(( x2 + 1 )8
+1
x1
x1
+3 5
+1 ,
lim
lim
,
x1+
x0
x5 + 2x3 + 2
x + 2x3 + 2
x+1
4 x+1
+
+
1
x1
x1
(
lim
x0
1 )3
1 )2
2
+ 1,
|x| +
|x| +
x
x
(
lim
x+
1
+
2
x +x+1
x+1 )
.
x+1
2. .
lim g(x2 ) = lim g(y),
y+
lim g( x) = lim g(y),

y0+
x0+
lim g
x0
(1)
= lim g(y).
y+
x2
3.
limx+ f (x)
f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1 x > 0.
132
. .
1. 4.4, 4.5 .
1
2. limx1 f (x), x |x 1| 2 < f (x) x + |x 1| 2 x

(0, 1) (1, 23 ).
3. limx f (x),
x+1
2x1
< f (x) <
x1
2x+1
x 7.
4. limx1 f (x), (x 1)f (x) 1 x 0 < |x 1| < 14 .

5. B , [a] a < [a] + 1.
[ 1 ]
[x]
[x2 ]
[ x]
lim [x],
lim
,
lim
,
lim
,
lim
.
x
x x
x x
x+ x
x1 x 1
6. lim f (x) = + y = g(x) x.
lim(f (x) + g(x)) = +.
lim f (x) = y = g(x) x.
lim(f (x) + g(x)) = .
7. lim f (x) = 0 y = g(x) x.
lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
8. lim f (x) = + y = g(x)
x. lim f (x)g(x) = + , .
lim f (x) = + y = g(x)
x. lim f (x)g(x) = +, .
9. 4.6.
10. , :
(i)
3x2 +7x+1
x2 5x+1
<
301
100
+.
, a x
(a, +).
x8 +1
4x4 x2 +2x1
(iii) (x x1 )5
(ii)
(iv) 108 <
< 34 1.
( x 1x )3 > 107 +.
x4 +13x3 +25x2 +33

x5 +2x+1
< 107 .
11. lim f (x) < lim g(x). f (x) < g(x) x.

(: : y = g(x) f (x) . :
lim f (x) < < lim g(x) 4.6 lim f (x) <
< lim g(x). .)
. .
1. 4.7 4.8.
133
2. ,
0 0
0 .
{
1
,
x < 0
1
y = x,
y = |x| ,
y= x 1
y= 3,
x
x , x > 0
{
y=
1
x
,
x,
x < 0
x 0
{
y=
1
,
|x|
1
x1
x < 0
,
x 0
1
1
y= + .
x
|x|
(a, 0) (0, b) (a, 0) (0, b)

;
3. ,
+ .
y = x2 ,
y = x3 ,
y = x2 ,
y = |x| 2 ,
y = (x) 3 ,
1
y = |x|.
(a, +) (, b)

;
4.4 .
limx f (x) = . (xn )
y = f (x)
( )
. , xn . f (xn )
, . . n
. xn 6= . x = xn
6= . , f (xn ) = f (x)
. , , n ,
f (xn ) . f (xn ) .

.
4.9. n xn y = f (x).
limx f (x), xn xn 6= n, f (xn ) limx f (x).
. :
limx f (x),
xn xn 6= n
limx+ f (x), xn xn > n

f (xn ) limx f (x), xn xn < n
limx+ f (x), xn +
lim
xn
x f (x),
. limx f (x) = (xn ) xn
6= , , xn . f (xn ) .
> 0. limx f (x) = , > 0 |f (x) | < x
134
0 < |x | < . xn , n0
|xn | < n n0 . xn 6= , 0 < |xn | < n n0 . ,
xn y = f (x), |f (xn ) | < n n0 .
f (xn ) .
.
. (1) limx+ x2 = + n2 +.
(xn ) xn = n +
y = x2 .
(2) limx0 x = 0 1n 0. (xn )

xn
= n1 0, [0, +)
y = x 6= 0.
)
(
(3) 1+(1+ n1 )2n 3(1+ n1 )3n y = 1+x2 3x3
(xn ) xn = (1 + n1 )n . xn e xn 6= e n. ,
limxe (1+x2 3x3 ) = 1+e2 3e3 . 1+(1+ n1 )2n 3(1+ n1 )3n = 1+xn 2 3xn 3 1+e2 3e3 .
4.9 . , , ,
. . y = f (x)
x .
(xn ) x,
(f (xn ))
. x .
, , (f (xn )) .
n1
. (1) (xn ) xn = (1)n

0,
6= 0 y = x1 . (yn )
yn = x1n = (1)n1 n . limx0 x1 .
(2) limx+ (1)[x] y = (1)[x] .
1 3.4.
[n, n + 1) (n Z) y = (1)[x] = (1)n .
x ,
+1 1. ,
limx+ (1)[x] .
. x
+, : ,
, xn = n (n N). xn = n + (1)[xn ] = (1)[n] = (1)n
. limx+ (1)[x] .
.
1. (
1 3.4), .
1
lim (1)[ x ] ,
x0+
lim (x [x]).
( limx (x [x]): y = x [x]

x [x] = 0 x [x] = 12 .
+ .)
135
2. lim f (x), (xn ) x

y = f (x) x.
(
)
(i) f (xn ) u, lim f (x) u.
(
)
(ii) f (xn ) l, lim f (x) l.
(xn ) x
(
)
y = f (x) x. f (xn )
u l l < u, lim f (x).
(: 2.6 4.9.)
4.5
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN N 1 aN 6= 0.
limx xk = k limx ak = ak limx ak xk = ak k , limx p(x) =
limx (a0 + a1 x + + aN xN ) = a0 + a1 + + aN N = p().
lim p(x) = p().
x p(x) = aN xN ( aaN0 x1N + +

, x 1,
{
+ , aN > 0
lim p(x) = aN (+) =
x+
, aN < 0
aN 1 1
aN x
+ 1)
{
+ ,
lim p(x) =
x
,
aN > 0 N aN < 0 N
aN < 0 N aN > 0 N
limx p(x) ,
lim p(x) = lim aN xN .
. limx+ (5x3 + x2 4x 12) = , limx (5x3 + x2 4x 12) = +,

limx (7x4 + x3 x + 5) = +.
a0 +a1 x++aN xN
b0 +b1 x++bM xM
aN 1 1
1
+1
++
N
a
x
. r(x) =
aN 6= 0, bM 6= 0, r(x) =
a
N
bM (+),
lim r(x) = baMN ,
x+
0,
136
aN N M
x
bM
N > M
N = M
N < M
a0
aN x
b0
1
bM xM
++
N
bM 1 1
+1
bM x

aN
(+),
bM
aN (),
lim r(x) = baMN
x
bM
0,
N M
N M
N = M
N < M
limx r(x)
,
aN xN
.
x bM xM
lim r(x) = lim
+2x+4
+x+4
3x x+2
. limx+ x x
= 12 , limx+ x2x+3x
= , limx+ x4 5x
2 x+1
3 +x2 1 = 0,
2x3 +1
3x2 +2x+4
3
x3 +5x2 4
x3 x+5
3x4 x2 +4
limx 2x2 1 = 2 , limx 3x4 +1 = 0, limx 2x+1 = , limx 2x+1 = .
3
x , .
+a1 ++aN N
b0 + b1 + + bM M 6= 0, limx r(x) = ab00+b
M = r(). ,
1 ++bM
lim r(x) = r().
. limx1
3x2
x4 +2x3 4
312
14 +213 4
= 1.
b0 + b1 + + bM M = 0, x b0 +
b1 x + + bM xM . (x )m ( m 1) x
b0 +b1 x+ +bM xM , b0 +b1 x+ +bM xM = (x)m q(x), q(x)
x , , q() 6= 0. ,
x a0 + a1 + + aN N , a0 + a1 + + aN N =
(x )n p(x), n 0 p(x)
x , , p() 6= 0. , , r(x) = (x )nm p(x)
,
q(x)
limx
p(x)
q(x)
p()
q()
6= 0,
lim r(x) =
{
0,
p()
q()
lim r(x) =
n > m
n = m
p()
(+),
q()
m n ,
lim r(x) =
p()
(),
q()
lim r(x) =
x+
p()
(+),
q()
m n .
x+1

. (1) limx1 xx4x
2x2 +1
4
2
1 x 2x + 1 , ,
x 1. ,
, : x4 2x2 + 1 = (x2 1)2 = (x 1)2 (x + 1)2 .
1 x3 x2 x + 1 x 1 . ,
3
137
: x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)x2 (x 1) = (x 1)(x2 1) = (x 1)2 (x + 1).

(x1)2 (x+1)
1
x3 x2 x+1
x3 x2 x+1
1
= (x1)
2 (x+1)2 = x+1 x 6= 1, 1. , limx1 x4 2x2 +1 = limx1 x+1 =
x4 2x2 +1
1
= 12 .
1+1
3
+x6
(2) limx1 xx3+4x
1 x3 x2 x + 1 , :
x2 x+1
x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)2 (x + 1). 1 x3 + 4x2 + x 6
x 1 : x3 + 4x2 + x 6 = x3 x2 + 5x2 5x + 6x 6 = (x 1)x2 + (x 1)5x + (x 1)6 =
(x 1)(x2 + 5x + 6). x 1 x2 + 5x + 6 1 .
2 +5x+6)
3
2 +x6
2
1 x2 +5x+6
x3 +4x2 +x6
= (x1)(x
= x1
. : limx1+ xx3+4x
= (+) 1 +51+6
= +
x3 x2 x+1
(x1)2 (x+1)
x+1
x2 x+1
1+1
limx1
x3 +4x2 +x6
x3 x2 x+1
= ()
12 +51+6
1+1
= . , limx1
x3 +4x2 +x6
x3 x2 x+1
.
1. x .
y = x4 4x3 ,
y=
x2 + 1
,
x3 1
x4 x + 1
,
3x4 + x2
y=
y=
1 x8
,
1 + 2x2
y=
2x + x5
.
1 x2
2. x 1 .
y = x2 + 2x,
y=
y=
x2 2x + 1
,
x+1
y=
x+2
,
4
3
x 2x + 2x2 2x + 1
x3 + 2x2 2
,
x4 x3 1
y=
y=
x4 x3 3x2 + 5x 2
,
x4 + x3 4x2 + x + 1
x3 x2 x + 1
.
x5 3x4 + 6x3 10x2 + 9x 3
3. limx1 f (x)
{
f (x)
4. limx+ f (x)
x3 x2 +2x2
x3 x2 x+1
x3 x2 +2x2
x3 x2 x+1
x3 +x2 3x7
2x3 +8x2 +x+3
,
,
f (x) <
0 x < 1
x > 1
x5 +x4 +7
2x5 4x4 x3 8x3
x > 5.
5. ,
(i)
5
4
(ii)
(iii)
<
x3 1
x2 1
<
3
2
+ 104 1.
2x7 14x6 x5 +3x4 7x2 1

3x4 +x2 +6
x3 x2 +x1
x4 2x2 +1
< 1013 .
< 109 1 .
6. ,
0 0
+ .
y=
x7 + 2x5 + 5x2
,
x6 + 5x5 + x4
y=
3x5 + x4 5x3 + x2
,
8x7 x5 x4 + 7x3
138
y=
x7 + x5 + x3
.
x7 4x5 + x3
4.6 .
y = xa , a ,
(0, +).
lim xa = a
( > 0).
a > 0. > 0 > 0

|x a | < x > 0 0 < |x | < .
|xa a | < a < xa < a + .
1
0 < < a , a < xa < a + ( a ) a <
1
1
1
a
a
a ( + ) a ,
x < ( a + ) a . {
)
}
1
1
, = min ( a ) a , ( a + ) a , x
1
1
0 < |x | < ( a ) a < x < ( a + ) a , , |xa a | < .
a , a < xa < a + 0 < xa < a +
1
1
1
0 < x < ( a + ) a . 0 < < ( a + ) a , = min{ 0, ( a + ) a },
1
x 0 < |x | < 0 < x < ( a + ) a , ,
|xa a | < .
, , > 0 |xa a | < x > 0
0 < |x | < . limx xa = a .
1
1
a < 0 ( a > 0), limx xa = limx xa
= a
= a .
, a = 0, : limx x0 = limx 1 = 1 = 0 .

a > 0
0,
a
lim x = 1,
a = 0
x0+
+, a < 0
a
+,
a
lim x = 1,
x+
0,
a > 0
a = 0
a < 0
.
limx xa < 0 limx xa
limx0 xa , y = xa (, 0),
a . .
. (1) y = x + 1, limx+ x + 1 =
limy+ y = +.
(2) limx+ ( x + 1 x) = 0.
(1),
(+)(+).
2 b2
= 1 , ,
x + 1 x = (x+1)x
a b = aa+b
x+1+ x
x+1+ x
1
1
(1), limx+ ( x + 1 x) = limx+ x+1+
= (+)+(+)
= 0.
x
5 y = 5 2 .
(3) limx3 5 xx+1
2 +1 = limy 2
5
5
139
(x2 2x + 1)(x3 + x) = limy0+ 4 y = 0.
(5) limx4 3 x+1

= limy+ 3 y = +.
4x
1
x+ x + 3 x+ x1
y+ 3 y
(6) limx+
=
lim
y+ y y = limt+
1
1
(4) limx1
x+ x
x+ x
t3 +t2
t6 t3
= 0.
.
1. ;
lim x
lim x 4 ,
x1
lim x 2 ,
1
lim x3+
x0
x0
2. x +.
x 8 3x2 + 2x 5 4
7
y=
x 5 2x 8 + 2
y=
x 2 2x 5 + 1
4
x + 4x 3 + 2
y=
x4 x3
15
x2 + 3x 8
3. .
( 1
1)
lim x 3 5x 2 ,
lim x
x1
x3
( 4
1)
lim 2x 3 + x 5 .
x1
4. x 0+ x +.
1
y = x3 ,
y = x 3 ,
1
y = x3 ,
y = x 3 ,
2
y = 2x 3 x 3 .
1
5. a 6= 0. .
1
,
a
x1 x 1
lim
1
,
a
x1 (x 1)2
lim
x3a 1
.
x1 xa 1
lim
(: : a < 0 a > 0.)

6. x +.
(
)
(
)
y = x2 + 1 x, y = x x + 1 x , y = x x2 + 1 x ,
3
x + 1 3 x,
y = x + 1 2 x + x 1,
y=
(
)
3
x2 3 x + 1 3 x ,
(
y = x3 x + 1 2 x + x 1 .
y=
7. .
2 7x + 1
1
3x
3
lim
,
lim
x + x + x,
lim
1+ ,
lim x2 + 1 ,
2
x
x+
x
x0
x +1
x
x+1
7 x+1
2
(
)
3
+1
x1
x1
1
1
1
3
5
lim
1 + 2 ,
lim 1
,
lim
.
x0
x1
x1+
x x
x1
2 x+1 + 7 5 x+1 + 3
x1
140
x1
8. a, b, c a > 0. A, B a, b, c
(
)
lim
ax2 + bx + c Ax B = 0.
x+
A, B
) 4ac b2
(
.
lim x ax2 + bx + c Ax B =
x+
8a a
9. (xn ) a > 0. 4.9,
(i) xn + xn > 0 n, xn a +.
(ii) xn 0 xn > 0 n, xn a 0.
a < 0;
.
( n 3 + n + 1 ) 2
( 2n ) 34
n5 + n3 + 1
4
lim
,
lim
,
,
lim
n+
n+
n+ 4n + 1
2n2 1
2n6 + n2 + 1
3
2n 4n
5 n + n + 1
5
lim
,
lim
.
n+
n+
2n2 1
2n 3n + 1
4.7 .
y = ax , a > 0.
y = ax (, +). :
lim ax = a .
a > 1. > 0 > 0 |ax a | <

x 0 < |x | < .
|ax a | < a < ax < a + .
0 < < a , loga (a ) < x < loga (a {
+ ).
} loga (a ) loga (a + ), = min
loga (a ), loga (a + ) , x 0 < |x | <
loga (a ) < x < loga (a + ) , , |ax a | < .
a , a < ax < a + ( 0 < ax ) ax < a +
x < loga (a + ). < loga (a + ), = loga (a + ) ,
x 0 < |x | < x < loga (a + ) , , |ax a | < .
limx ax = a .
0 < a < 1 ( a1 > 1), limx ax = limx ( 11)x = ( 11) = a .
, a = 1, limx 1x = limx 1 = 1 = 1 .
+ , a > 1
x
lim a = 1 ,
a = 1
x+
0,
0 < a < 1
141
a > 1. M > 0 N > 0 ax > M

x > N . ax > M x > loga M . N = loga M > 0,
M > 1, N = 1 > 0, 0 < M 1, x > N x > loga M , ,
ax > M . limx+ ax = +.
1
0 < a < 1 ( a1 > 1), limx+ ax = limx+ ( 11)x = +
= 0.
a
x
, a = 1, limx+ 1 = limx+ 1 = 1.
:
a > 1
0 ,
x
lim a = 1 ,
a = 1
x
+ , 0 < a < 1
,
. , ,
y = x. , a > 1, limx ax = limy+ ay = limy+ a1y =
1
= 0. a = 1 0 < a < 1.
+
.
a > 0, a 6= 1 y = loga x (0, +).
:
lim loga x = loga
( > 0).
a > 1. > 0 > 0 | loga x

loga | < x y = loga x ( x > 0)
0 < |x | < . | loga x loga | < loga < loga x < loga +

{ a < x < a
. a a ,
}
= min a , a , x > 0 0 < |x | <
a < x < a , , | loga x loga | < . limx loga x = loga .
0 < a < 1, limx loga x = limx ( log 1 x) = log 1 = loga a1 > 1.
a
x + :
{
+ , a > 1
lim loga x =
x+
, 0 < a < 1
a > 1. M > 0 N > 0 loga x > M
x y = loga x ( x > 0) x > N .
loga x > M x > aM , , N = aM > 0,
x > N x > aM , , loga x > M . limx+ loga x = +.
0 < a < 1, limx+ loga x = limx+ ( log 1 x) = (+) = .
a
:
{
,
lim loga x =
x0+
+ ,
142
a > 1
0 < a < 1
y = x1 .
a > 1, limx0+ loga x = limy+ loga y1 = limy+ ( loga y) = limy+ loga y =
(+) = . 0 < a < 1.
a = e,
:
lim ex = e ,
lim ex = 0,
lim ex = +
x+
lim log x = log
lim log x = ,
( > 0),
lim log x = +.
x0+
x+
.
1. x .
y = ex e2x + 2,
y=
1
,
ex 1
y=
e2x + ex + 1
.
2e2x ex + 2
2. x + x 0+ .
1 + 2(log x)2
y=
.
2 + log x + (log x)3
1
y=
,
log x
y = (log x) log x,
2
3. .
1
,
x
x0 e 1
e2x 1
,
x0 ex 1
1
,
x
x0 (e 1)2
lim
lim
1
,
x1 log x
log(2x)
,
x0+ log(3x)
lim
lim
lim
1
.
x1 (log x)2
lim
4. .
x
1
x
lim e ,
x2
lim e
x0
lim log(x + 1),
x+
1 x1
ex + e 2 + 1
,
lim
x
x+ 2ex e 3 + 2
1
x
lim e ,
lim log(x2 x + 1),
(log |x|)7 (log |x|)4 + 1

lim
,
x (log |x|)5 + (log |x|)2 + 1
lim log(x3 + 1),
x1
ex
lim log x
.
x
e2 + 1
5.
y = cosh x,
y = sinh x,
y = tanh x,
y = coth x
: limx , limx .
limx0 coth x.
143
6. 0
0 ;
y = e|x| ,
y = ex ,
y = log |x|,
y=
y=
ex
1
,
1
1
,
log |x|
y=
y=
(ex
1
,
1)2
1
.
log |1 + x|
7. (xn ) a > 1. 4.9,
(i) xn +, axn +.
(ii) xn , axn 0.
.
n
lim 2 ,
n+
lim e
n3 +3n1
n2 +1
n+
lim e
n+
2n
lim 2 ,
n+
lim 2
1 nn
1+ n
n+
8. (xn ) a > 1. 4.9,
(i) xn + xn > 0 n, loga xn +.

(ii) xn 0 xn > 0 n, loga xn .
.
lim log
n+
n+1
,
2n2 1
lim log
n+
lim log(3 2 + 1),

n
n+
n3 n2 + 1
,
n2 + 1
lim log
n+
e2n + 1
,
en + 1
(log n2n+1 )2 log n2n+1 + 2

lim
.
n+ (log 2n )2 + 4 log 2n 8
n +1
n +1
4.8 .
y = sin x.
| sin x| |x|.
. 0 < x < 2 x.
, x
sin x. , .
2 sin x 2x. 0 < 2 sin x < 2x, 0 < sin x < x , , | sin x| |x|.
2 < x < 0, 0 < x < 2 , 0 < sin(x) < x, x < sin x < 0 , , | sin x| |x|.
x = 0, 0 = 0.
, |x| 2 , | sin x| 1 < 2 |x|.
cos x cos = 2 sin x

sin x+
| cos x cos | =
2
2
,

x
x+
x
x

2 sin 2 sin 2 2 sin 2 2 2 = |x |. > 0
= . x y = cos x ( x)
0 < |x | < | cos x cos | |x | < = ,
| cos x cos | < .
144
4.10: < < .
lim cos x = cos .
cos x+
| sin x
sin x sin = 2 sin x
2
2
sin | |x | , ,
lim sin x = sin .
, cos 6= 0,
6= 2 + k (k Z),
(
lim tan x = tan
6= + k, k Z .
2
, sin 6= 0, 6= k (k Z),
(
)
lim cot x = cot
6= k, k Z .
x
.
= 2 +k2 (k Z), limx sin x = sin = 1. , limx cos x = cos = 0
, , cos x > 0 cos x < 0
. limx cos1 x = + limx+ cos1 x = .
= 2 + k2 (k Z), :
lim tan x = +,
lim tan x =
x+
= + k, k Z .
2

lim cot x = ,
lim cot x = +
x+
)
= k, k Z .
y = tan x
y = cot x , , x = 2 + k (k Z)
y = tan x x = k (k Z)
y = cot x.
145
. limx cos x limx sin x .

,
x y = cos x y = sin x ,
1 1 , ,
.

(n) + (
) (
) y = cos x
cos(n) = (1)n .
4.9, (
) limx+ cos x.
2 + n , limx+ sin x
x .
:
lim
x0
sin x
= 1,
x
lim
x0
1 cos x
1
= .
2
x
2

(
)
.
|x| | tan x|
|x| <
2
0
0
. 0 < x < 2 , x
.
x . tan x.
12 1 tan x x2 (
x
2
.) , 0 < x < tan x
|x| < | tan x|.
2 < x < 0, 0 < x < 2 , 0 < x < tan(x), |x| < | tan x|.
, x = 0, 0 = 0.
| sin x| |x| |x| | tan x|,

cos x
sin x
1
x
x ( 2 , 0) (0, 2 ). limx0 cos x = cos 0 = 1,

limx0 sinxx = 1.
( sin x )2 1
x)(1+cos x)
x)2
x
1cos
= (1cos
= x1(cos
,
2 (1+cos x) =
x2
x2 (1+cos x)
x
1+cos x
1cos x
1
1
2
limx0 x2 = 1 1+1 = 2 .
2(sin
x 2
)
x
= x22 =
. 1cos
x2
( x )2
sin x2
1 sin 2
x
.
,
y
=
,
lim
= limy0 siny y = 1.
x
x
x0
2
2
2
limx0
1cos x
x2
1
2
12 = 12 .
. (1) limx0
limx0 sinxx limx0 cos1 x = 1 1 = 1.
(2) limx0
tan x
x
sin(3x)
sin(2x)
tan x
x
sin x 1
x cos x
sin(3x)
sin(2x)
limx0 sin(3x)
limx0 sin(2x)
.
3x
2x
y = 3x, limx0 sin(3x)
= limy0
3x
limy0 siny y
= 1.
limx0 sin(3x)
sin(2x)
3
2
1
1
3
2
= .
146
, , limx0
= 32
sin y
y
sin(3x)
3x
sin(2x)
2x
tan x
x
= 1. : limx0
sin(2x)
2x
.
1. .
1 cos x
.
x0 (sin x)2
1 cos x
,
x0 x sin x
lim x cot x,
lim
lim
x0
2. .
sin(3x)
,
x0
x
1 cos(13x)
,
x0 (sin(7x))2
tan(3x)
,
x0
x
lim
lim
sin(3x)
,
x sin x
lim
lim
cos(8x) cos(15x)
sin x
cos x
1
,
lim
,
lim
,
lim x sin ,
2
x0
x x
x
x 2 x
x
x
2
(
1)
3 sin(7x) 7 sin(3x)
lim x2 1 cos
,
lim
,.
x
x0
x
x3
a > 1
0,
3. limx0+ xa sin x = 1,
a = 1
+, a < 1
lim
4. a > 0, limx0+ xa sin x1 = 0.

5. limx+ sin x,
limx0+ sin x1 .
6. (xn ). xn 0 xn 6= 0 n,
1cos xn
12 .
xn 2
sin xn
xn
lim n sin ,
n+
n
lim
n sin ,
n+
n
lim n sin ,
n+
n
2
)
,
lim n 1 cos
n+
n
2
cot 2n
lim
.
n+
n
7. .
y=
1
sin x,
x
y=
1
sin x,
x2
1
y = x sin ,
x
1
y = x2 sin ,
x
y=
1
x sin .
x
(: 6, 7 8 3.10.
3.)
8. 4.9,
; (xn ).
6, 7 8 3.10
sin x = 1
sin x1 = 1 (0, +).
lim x sin x,
x+
lim x2 sin x,
x+
lim sin
x0+
1
,
x
1
1
sin .
x0+ x
x
lim
: a 0, limx0+ xa sin x1 .
4.
147
4.9 .
y = f (x) (a, ).
, x
(a, ) , .
f (x), limx f (x) = +.
f (x),
u f (x) u x (a, ).
f (x) ,
limx f (x) = , u. limx f (x) =
limx f (x) = +.

: (i) (a, ) (a, +), y = f (x)
+ (ii) (, b)
(, b), y = f (x)
.
4.11: .
4.1 .
4.1. (1) y = f (x) .
(i) , y = f (x)
, (ii) +, y = f (x) .
, (i) ,
y = f (x) , (ii) , y = f (x)
.
(2) y = f (x) .
(i) , y = f (x)
, (ii) , y = f (x) . ,
(i) ,
y = f (x) , (ii) +, y = f (x)
.
4.1 ; 2.1
.
148
. , 4.1
.
. (1) 4.1
.
, a > 0, limx+ xa = + limx0+ xa = 0
y = xa (0, +).
+
.
, limx+ xa =
. limx+ (2x)a = limy+ y a = .
= limx+ (2x)a = limx+ 2a xa = 2a limx+ xa = 2a , , = 2a .
= 0 x 1 xa 1a = 1 , ,
= limx+ xa limx+ 1 = 1. +.
0. , xa > 0
x > 0, limx0+ xa limx0+ 0 = 0 , ,
-: limx0+ xa = 0.
limx0+ (2x)a = limy0+ y a = . = limx0+ (2x)a = limx0+ 2a xa = 2a , ,
= 2a . = 0.
(2) y = (1 + x1 )x (0, +).

. ( 2
6.9). , , ,
limx+ (1 + x1 )x +.
(n) ,
(
) +, 4.9
1 n
(1 + n ) . ,
e , ,
e. ,
(
lim
x+
1+
1 )x
= e.
x
, ,
limx+ (1 + x1 )x = e : , y = (1 + x1 )x

!!

.
(!) limx+ (1 + x1 )x = e.
limn+ (1+ n1 )n = e. ,
1
limn+ (1+ n+1
)n = limn+
1
(1+ n+1
)n+1
1
1+ n+1
e
1
= e limn+ (1+ n1 )n+1 = limn+ (1+ n1 )n (1+ n1 ) = e1 = e.
1
> 0, n0 0 e < (1 + n+1
)n < e +
n n0 0 n0 00 e < (1 + n1 )n+1 < e + n0 00 .
1
() N = max{n0 0 , n0 00 }, N n0 0 N n0 00 . e < (1 + n+1
)n < e +
1 n+1
< e + n N . ( ) x > N
e < (1 + n )
(
(
)[x]
)
1
1 [x]+1
[x] N , e < 1 + [x]+1
(1 + x1 )x 1 + [x]
< e + . , ,

1 x
> 0 N > 0 e < (1 + x ) < e + , , (1 + x1 )x e <
x > N . limx+ (1 + x1 )x = e.
149
.
1.
(
lim
x+
(: (1 x1 )x = ( x1
)x =
x
1
x
( x1
)x
1 )x 1
= .
x
e
=
1
1
1
(1+ x1
)x1 (1+ x1
)
.)

(
1+
lim
x+
t )x
= et
x
t, : t > 0, t = 0, t < 0.
( 1 )x
(: t >(0,
lim
= e. t < 0,
x+ 1+ x
)
1 x
1
limx+ 1 x = e .)
(
)x
(
)x
limx+ 1+ x1 = e limx+ 1 x1 = 1e
)x
(
limx+ 1 + xt = et .)
2. 4.9, .
(
lim
n+
(
lim
n+
1+
3 )4n
,
2n
1 ) n5
1+
,
3n
(
lim
n+
(
lim
n+
1 )n
,
4n
1 )n 2
1+ 2
,
n
(
lim
n+
(
lim
n+
1 )3n
,
2n
3 )
1+
2 n
n
4
3. a > 1. loga (ax) = 1 + loga x

y = loga x, limx+ loga x limx0+ loga x.
4. a > 1. ax+1 = aax y = ax ,
limx ax .
5. y = f (x) [1, +) f ( n) log n

n. limx+ f (x) , , ;
(: 4.9.)
6. y = f (x) (0, 2) f ( n1 ) = 1 1n
n. limx0+ f (x) , , ;
150
5
.
: . , ,
. . .
. . . , -
. Bolzano .
. . .
.
5.1
, .
y = f (x)
lim f (x) = f ().
,
, [, b),
(a, ), (a, ], (, b),
(a, b), a < < b.
, y = f (x)
(a, ) (, b),
y = f (x) .
y = f (x)
, f ().
(i) y = f (x) [, b) (a, ),
limx f (x) = f () , , limx+ f (x) = f ().
(ii) y = f (x) (a, ] (, b),
limx f (x) = f (). (iii) y = f (x)
(a, b) a < < b,
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = f ().
, y = f (x) [, b) limx+ f (x) = f (),
. , y = f (x)
(a, ] limx f (x) = f (),
. : (i) y = f (x) [, b)
151
(a, ),
. (ii) y = f (x) (a, ]
(, b),
. (iii) y = f (x) (a, b) a < < b,
.
. (1) y = x2 3, limx3 x2 = 9 = 32 .
(2) y = x 0, limx0+ x = 0 = 0.
(3) y = [x] y = 0 (0, 1), limx1 [x] =
limx1 0 = 0 6= 1 = [1]. , y = [x] y = 1 (1, 2),
limx1+ [x] = limx1+ 1 = 1 = [1]. y = [x] 1
, , 1.
y = [x] y = 0 (0, 21 ) ( 12 , 1), limx 1 [x] =
2
limx 1 0 = 0 = [ 12 ]. y = [x] 12 .
2
(4) x2 (x + 1) (, 1] {0}. , 0
0,
0.
(5) y = c . , limx c = c,
.
,
, , . ,
A ,
A, A,
A.
{
x,
x < 0
. y = f (x) =
(, +).
x + 1 , x 0
y = f (x) 0. : limx0 f (x) = limx0 x = 0 6= 1 = f (0),
0 , limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ (x + 1) = 1 = f (0),
0 . [0, +),
y = f (x) = x + 1 x [0, +)
. , [0, +) limx f (x) = limx (x + 1) =
+ 1 = f (). [0, +) 0
0 .
, , y = f (x) [0, +).
.
y = f (x)
, limx f (x).
limx f (x) = f (), ,
|f (x) f ()| |x | 6= 0. ,
, , |x | 0 , , x , f (x)
f () , , |f (x) f ()| 0 , , |f (x) f ()|
. 0 |x |
. , y = f (x)
|f (x) f ()| |x | .
152

, ,
. , , |x |
x , , f (x) f ()
, , |f (x) f ()| 0 , , |f (x) f ()| .
, . y = f (x)
|f (x) f ()|
|x | , ,
> 0 > 0 |f (x) f ()| < x
|x | < .
0 < |x |
.

. y = f (x)
, ,
x , (x, y) = (x, f (x))
(, f ()). ( )
:
(, f ()) , , . (, , 8
.) ,
.
y = f (x) .
y = f (x) > 0 > 0
x ( , + )
f (x) (x, f (x)) f ()
f () + , , ( , + )
y = f ()
y = f () + .
5.1: .
. , ,
.
(1) y = p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN ,
limx p(x) = p().
N
+a1 x++aN x
(2) y = r(x) = ab00+b
M . ,
1 x++bM x
, ,
limx r(x) = r().
153
5.2: .
(3) y = cos x y = sin x , limx cos x = cos

limx sin x = sin .
, y = tan x y = cot x ; ,
6= 2 + k (k Z) 6= k (k Z) ,
limx tan x = tan limx cot x = cot .
(4) y = xa ; limx xa = a , (i)
, a ( = 0, a 0) (ii) 0, a
( = 0, a 0).
(5) a > 0, y = ax , limx ax = a .
(6) a > 0, a 6= 1, y = loga x . , > 0 limx loga x =
loga .
.
1. 1.
.
y = x,
y = 2x 3,
y = x2 ,
y=
2. 0;
{
{
sin x
1cos x
,
x
=
6
0
,
2
x
y=
y= 1x
1,
x = 0
,
2
1
,
x
y=
x.
x 6= 0
x = 0
3.
;
{
{
{
0,
x = 0
x , x 0
x2 , x 6= 0
y=
y= 1
y= 1
, x 6= 0
1 , x = 0
, x > 0
|x|
x
{
x2 + 1,
y=
x + 1,
x < 0
x 0
{
x2 ,
y=
sin x ,
154
x x >
< x
4.
; 2
4.3.

1
1

y = [x], y = [2x], y = x [x], y = x [x] , y = x [x] .
2
2
(
)
5. limh0 f ( + h) f ( h) = 0 y = f (x)
(a, b) a < < b.
{
1 , x = 0
: y = f (x) =
0 , x 6= 0
= 0.
6. y = f (x) ,
M |f (x)| M x (a, ) (, b).
(, > 0
> 0) y = g(x) = (x )f (x) .
7. M 0 > 0 y = f (x) (a, b),
a < < b. |f (x) f ()| M |x | x (a, b),
(, > 0
> 0) .
y = f (x) , Hlder-
Hlder- . = 1, y = f (x)
Lipschitz- .
y = x, y = |x|, y = cos x, y = sin x, y = |x| y = x |x|

Hlder- 0 Hlder-.
Hlder- 6= 0
Hlder-.
Hlder- = 0 6= 0.
8. y = f (x)
(, f ()) , , .
, , . .
{
1
x(1)[ x ] , x 6= 0
y =
.
0,
x = 0
1 3.4.
0.
(: .)

0.
5.2
. 5.1 4.2.
155
5.1. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b) a < < b [, b)

(a, ].
, , .
. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b) a < < b, (a, )(, b)
f () = g(). y = f (x) , limx f (x) = f (). y = f (x)
y = g(x) (a, ) (, b), limx g(x) = limx f (x) = f (). ,
f () = g(), limx g(x) = g() , , y = g(x) .
[, b) (a, ] .
5.3: .
{
x + 1 , x 1
. (1) y =
y = x + 1 (, 1].
x 1 , 1 < x
1 , , 1 .
1 .
{
1 + x , |x| 1010
(2) y = x2 y =
(1010 , 1010 ).
x2 ,
|x| < 1010
0, 0.
. 5.2 , , ,
.
5.2. y = f (x) y = g(x)
, y = f (x) + g(x), y = f (x) g(x), y = f (x)g(x) y = |f (x)|
, .
(x)
fg(x)
, g() 6= 0.
. limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g()
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = f () + g()
, , y = f (x) + g(x) .
, ,
.
x+e
. (1) y = (x2x
2 ) log x ,
x
y = x, y = e , y = log x y = x 2x2
. (0, +)
.
(0, 12 ) ( 12 , 1) (1, +).
2
+ x
(2) y = sinxx+cos
0 ,
x
0 =
6 4 + k (k Z).
156
. .
(
)
5.3. z = g f (x) y = f (x) z = g(y).
(
) y = f (x)
z = g(y) = f (), z = g f (x)
.
. > 0. z = g(y) , 0 > 0
|g(y) g()| < y z = g(y) |y | < 0 . y = f (x)
, > 0 |f (x) | = |f (x) f ()| < 0 x
y = f (x) |x | < . , x y = f (x)
|f (x) |( < 0 ), () f (x) z = g(y),
|x( | <

)
g f (x) g() < . g f (x) g f () < x y = f (x) ,
(
)
(
)
x z = g f (x) |x | < . z = g f (x)
.
5.3 : x
, ( y = )f (x) , ,
f () = ,
(
)
g f (x) = g(y) ( ) g() =(g f ()
.
,
x
)
, g f (x) g f () . , ,
.
. (1) z = sin x
0.
,
y
=
x
0 z = sin y = .
(2) z = sin x [k2, + k2] (k Z)

sin x 0. y = sin x
z = y
= sin 0. z = sin x .
5.3 (
)
z = g f (x)
, y = f (x) z = g(y),
lim f (x) z = g(y) .
, limx f (x) = z = g(y) .
: x
( 6= ,) y = f (x)
, , , g f (x) = g(y)
g(). , x
6= ,
(
)
(
)
g f (x) g(). , limx g f (x) = g().
(
) , . z =
g f (x) y = f (x) z = g(y). (i) lim f (x) = y = g(x) (ii)
lim f (x) = f (x) x y = g(x)
(iii) lim f (x) = f((x) ) x y = g(x)
, lim g f (x) = g().
. limx f (x) = z = g(y) .
limx g(f (x)) = g().
> 0, 0 > 0 |g(y) g()| < y
z = g(y) |y | < 0 . , > 0 |f (x) | < 0
x y = f (x) 0 < |x | < . x
y = f (x) 0 < |x | < |f (x) | < 0 , f (x)
z = g(y), |g(f (x)) g()| < . , x y = f (x) ,
x z = g(f (x)) 0 < |x | < |g(f (x)) g()| < .
lim g(f (x)) = g().
157
. (1) limx0 (x+1)(8 +(x+1)

.
x+1)13 +5
y = x + 1, z = (x+1)(8 +(x+1)
x+1)13 +5
4
4
z = y8 +yy 13 +5 . limx0 y = limx0 ( x + 1) = 1 z = y8 +yy 13 +5 1.
limx0
( x+1)4
8
( x+1) +( x+1)13 +5
14
18 +113 +5
(2) limx+
x1
+
x2 +x+1
y =
= 17 .
(
x1
x2 +x+1
x1
x2 +x+1
)2
x1
x2 +x+1
+2
x1
x2 +x+1
x1
x2 +x+1
+2
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
x1
+
x2 +x+1
. limx+ y = limx+
0.
(
)2
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
z =
y+y 2 +y+1
3y 4 +2 y+1
x1
+
x2 +x+1
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
limx+
.
(
x1
x2 +x+1
x1
x2 +x+1
)2
x1
x2 +x+1
+2
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
x1
+1
x2 +x+1
= 0 z =
z =
y+y 2 +y+1
3y 4 +2 y+1
0+02
+0+1
304 +2 0+1
= 1.
)
(
(3) limx+ ( sinxx )3 + ( sinxx )2 + 3 .
y = sinxx z = ( sinxx )3 + ( sinxx )2 + 3 z = y 3 + y 2 + 3.
limx+ y(= limx+ sinxx = 0 ) z = y 3 + y 2 + 3 0.
limx+ ( sinxx )3 + ( sinxx )2 + 3 = 03 + 02 + 3 = 3.
.
y = f (x)
y = f (x) . ,
. , lim f (x) = ,
f (x) 6= x.
z = g(y)
.

( a sinxx 6= 0 x > a).
. .
5.4. f (x) g(x)
y = f (x) y = g(x)
, , f () g().
. 4.5 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g()
limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().
. (1) f (x) sin x x (0, 4 ) y = f (x)

0 , , y = sin x 0
, f (0) sin 0 = 0.
(2) l f (x) u y = f (x) ,
l f () u. 5.4 y = f (x)
y = l y = u.
5.5. y = f (x)
.
(1) f () < u, f (x) l, f (x) > l
, .
. 4.6 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g()
limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().
+1
x+cos x
3 3 23 12 =
. y = sin
sin xcos x
2
2
2 + 3 . 3 < 2 + 3 < 4, (a, b) a < 3 < b

x+cos x
3 < sin
< 4 x .
sin xcos x
5.5 l = 3 u = 4.
. 5.6 4.7.
5.6. y = f (x) ,
, .
. y = x1 1. 5.6
1 ( ). ,
(a, b) a < 1 < b y = x1
. , ( 12 , 32 ), 1,
32 < x1 < 2 x .
.
1. ;
y=
x2 log x + xex
,
(sin x cos x)2
y = x 4 (log x)2
3
tan x cot x
.
(sin x)2 2 sin x + 1
2. , 5.3,
.
y = sin(x2 ),
y=
y = log(x2 + 2),
1 cos x ,
y = [x2 ],
y = log(log x),
y = ex
3 2x
y = [ x],
y = log(sin x),
y = 22 ,
1
y= x
,
e 1
y = (x2 5x + 6)
y = log(1 cos x),
y = sin(log x),
y = log(x2 5x + 6),
y = tan(sin x cos x).
3. f (x) > 0 x y = f (x). y = f (x)

y = g(x) , y = f (x)g(x) .
(: f (x)g(x) = eg(x) log(f (x)) .)
.
(i) y = xx (0, +).
x2
(ii) y = (x2 3) x+2 (, 2) (2, 3) ( 3, +).
(iii) y = (2 x2 )log x (0, 2).

(iv) y = (log x)log x (1, +).
159
4. .
( sin x )
1
1
lim sin ,
lim cos
,
lim e(x1) sin x1 .
x+
x
x1
x
x
;
5. 5.4 5.5.
6. b > 0 x [0, b)
1
2
<
log(1+x)+cos x
x
e +sin x
< 32 .
7. (a, b)
8
5
x 2x
a < 1 < b x (a, b) 21 < x 4xx4 1+3 < 32 16 < e7x3
< 14 .
(: . (a, b)
;)
8. 5.6.
5.3
y = f (x) ,
. , y = f (x),
.
y = f (x)
, (
) . , ,
.
1. limx f (x) 6= f ().

.
5.4: .
y = f (x)
. ,
y = g(x) g(x) = f (x) x 6=
y = f (x) g() = limx f (x). y = g(x) y = f (x)
y = f (x) . , , y = g(x) ,
limx g(x) = limx f (x) = g(). ( g(x) = f (x)
x 6= g().) y = g(x)
.
160
{
x + 1, x 6= 0
. (1) y = f (x) =

0,
x = 0
0, limx0 f (x) = limx0 (x+1) = 1 f (0) = 0.
, 0

{ 0, 1 ( 0),
x + 1, x 6= 0
y = g(x) =
y = x + 1, 0.
1,
x = 0
{
x, x > 0
(2) y = f (x) =
0,
1,
x = 0
limx0 f (x) = limx0 x = 0 6= f (0) = 1.

0
{ 0,
x, x > 0
0 ( 1), y = g(x) =
= x
0,
x = 0
0.
5.5: : = + .
2. (i) limx f (x) , +

, (ii) limx+ f (x) limx f (x) .

. (ii)
limx+ f (x) limx f (x), 6= 0, y = f (x) .
{
1
x 6= 0
2,
. (1) y = f (x) = x

0, x = 0
0, limx0 f (x) = +.
{
1 ,
x < 0
x
y = f (x) =
0,
x = 0
{
1
, x 6= 0
x
0, limx0+ f (x) = +
(2) y = f (x) =
1, x = 0
limx0 f (x) = , limx0+ f (x) 6= limx0 f (x). 0
+ () = +.
161
x + 1, x 0
0,
x,
x < 0
limx0+ f (x) = 1 limx0 f (x) = 0, limx0+ f (x) 6= limx0 f (x). 0
1 0 = 1.
0
, 0
.
(3) y = f (x) =
5.6: : .
3. ,
limx+ f (x) limx f (x),

.
{
sin x1 , x > 0
. (1) y = f (x) =

x,
x 0
0, 0. , limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ sin x1 =
limt+ sin t .
0 , limx0 f (x) = limx0 x = 0 =
f (0).
{
sin x1 , x 6= 0
(2) y = f (x) =
0,
1,
x = 0
0. , limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ sin x1 =
limt+ sin t limx0 f (x) = limx0 sin x1 = limt sin t, , .
, y = f (x),
f ()
. .
y = f (x)
(a, b) a < < b. , , (a, )
, f (x) f () x (a, ). ,
4.1, limx f (x)
limx f (x) f (). ,
(, b), f (x) f () x (, b). limx+ f (x)
162
f (). , , limx f (x) limx+ f (x)

limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x).
. limx f (x) = limx+ f (x),
limx f (x) = f () = limx+ f (x) , ,
. limx f (x) < limx+ f (x),
limx+ f (x) limx f (x) > 0.
y = f (x) (a, b)
a < < b ; ,
limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x).
:
y = f (x) (a, b) a < < b, (i)
(ii) , ,
, .
, ,
.
.
1. 0
. 0
0. .
{
{
{
|x|
1
2
, x 6= 0
x
,
x
=
6
0
,
x
=
6
0
y=
y = |x|
y= x
1,
x = 0
0,
x = 0
1, x = 0
{
x,
y= 1
,
x
x 0
x > 0
{
sin x1 , x > 0
y=
1,
x 0
{
y=
tan x
x
0,
x 6= 0
x = 0
2. 4 5.1.
3. y = log[x] [1, +)
.
4. y = f (x) , ,
, (i) (ii)
.
5.4
y = f (x) . (xn )
y = f (x) .
limn+ xn = . : n ,
xn , , , f (xn )
f (). , , .
5.7. y = f (x) (xn )
. xn , f (xn ) f ().
163
. > 0, , y = f (x) , > 0

|f (x) f ()| < x y = f (x) |x | < . xn ,
n0 |xn | < n n0 . |f (xn ) f ()| < n n0 ,
, f (xn ) f ().
5.7: lim xn = lim f (xn ) = f ().
. (1) y = p(x) xn , p(xn )

p().
(2) y = r(x) , (xn )
xn , r(xn ) r().
(3) xn , cos xn cos sin xn sin .
(4) (xn ) , xn , xn a a .
(5) a > 0 xn , axn a .
, xn = n1 n, .
n
a1
(a > 0).
(6) (xn ) , xn , loga xn loga .
limn+ xn = limn+ f (xn ) = f () :
(
)
lim f (xn ) = f lim xn .
n+
n+
, limn+
f y = f (x)
, .
5.7 4.9
. , 5.7
(
) 4.9 , , 6= .
( 1+(1)n1 )
n1
. y = sin x 0 1+(1)
0,
sin
n
( 1+(1)n1 )
( n
1+(1)n1 )
sin 0 = 0. : limn+ sin
= sin limn+
= sin 0 = 0.
n
n
n1
4.9, 1+(1)
=0
n
n.
164
.
1. .
((
(
)
( 1+(1)n )
( (
(
1 )8
1 )5
1 ))
1)
1+
+4 1+
+7 ,
e n
,
log 1 +
,
tan n ,
n
n
n
2
( 3n4 +n4 (
(
(
(
1 ))
1 )) (( n2 + 3 ) 32
1 ))
2 n4 +n3 +4 sin
2 ,
n log 1 +
,
log
cos
.
2 n
n
4n2 3
n
5.5

.
. y = f (x)
[a, b]. .
.
y = f (x) (a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
x [a, b]
(x, f (x)) .

(x, f (x)), f (x),
.
,
. ,
,
, ,
.
{
1
, 1 x < 0 0 < x 1
. (1) y = x

0, x = 0
[1, 1], 0 [1, 1].
{
x, 1 x < 0 0 < x 1
(2) y =
[1, 1],
1, x = 0
0 [1, 1].
(3) H y =
1
x(x1)
(0, 1) (0, 1).
(4) y = x (1, 1) (1, 1).

(5) y = x (, +)
(, +).
(6) y = x21+1 (, +)
(, +).
- . y = f (x)
[a, b]. x1 , x2 [a, b]
f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 )
x [a, b].
165
5.8: - .
,
y = f (x) (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)) .
, ,
, (x1 , f (x1 )), , ,
, (x2 , f (x2 )), , . , ,
x1 x2
. x1 , x2 .
x1 ()
x2 () .
- x1 , x2

.
.
-
, .
, ,
, ,
.
x + 1 , 1 x < 0
. (1) y = 0 ,

x = 0
x 1 , 0 < x 1
[1, 1], 0 .
{
0 , 1 x < 0
(2) y =
[1, 1],
1 , 0 x 1
0 .
(3) H y = x (1, 1) .
x + 2 , 2 < x < 1
(4) y = x ,
1 x 1 (2, 2)
x 2 , 1 < x < 2
.
166
(5) y = x (, +)
.
{
1
, |x| > 1
x
(6) y =
(, +)
x , |x| 1
.
. y = f (x)
[a, b]. c, f (a) f (b), .
c f (a) c f (b) f (b) c f (a) [a, b]

f () = c
, , c f (x) = c ( )
[a, b].
f (a) = f (b), c = f (a) = f (b), f (x) = c
; = a = b. , f (a) 6= f (b) c = f (a) c = f (b),
f (x) = c ; = a = b, . ,
f (a) < c < f (b) f (b) < c < f (a), c
f (a) f (b), .
, a b f (x) = c,
(a, b).
5.9: .
, , . y = c c .
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)) f (a) f (b), , , ,
y = c .
y = f (x), (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)),
y = c. (, ),
= f () , , = c
y = c. f () = c.
f (x) = c,
. , , .
167

c.
,
.
, ,
, .
{
1 , 0 < x 1
. (1) y = f (x) =

0 , x = 0
[0, 1], 0 12 , c
f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1, .
{
x,
0 x < 21
(2) y = f (x) =

x 12 , 12 x 1
[0, 1], 12 c f (0) = 0 f (1) = 21
.
.
. (1) cos x = x
[0, 2 ].
y = cos x x [0, 2 ].
. cos 0 0 = 1 cos 2 2 = 2
0 . [0, 2 ]
cos = 0 , , cos = . , , (0, 2 ).
(2) x3 5x2 18x + 7 = 0 .
, .
a b a < b 0
y = x3 5x2 18x + 7 a b , ,
a3 5a2 18a + 7 b3 5b2 18b + 7 . - :
a = 0, a3 5a2 18a + 7 = 7 , b = 1, b3 5b2 18b + 7 = 15.
(0, 1) 3 5 2 18 + 7 = 0.
, , . , , . . limx (x3 5x2 18x + 7) = ,
a (
) a3 5a2 18a + 7 < 0. , limx+ (x3 5x2 18x + 7) = +,
b b3 5b2 18b + 7 > 0. ,
[a, b] 3 5 2 18 + 7 = 0.
.
.
Bolzano. y = f (x) [a, b]. f (a)f (b) < 0,
(a, b) f () = 0.
, f (a)f (b) < 0 f (a) < 0 < f (b) f (b) < 0 < f (a)
.
. y = f (x) I ( ). f (x) 6= 0 x I, f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.
168
I.
, a I
f (a) < 0 b I f (b) > 0. I ,
[a, b] [b, a] a b I , , y = f (x)
.
[a, b] [b, a] , , I f () = 0, .
f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0 x I.

x-, x-
x-.
.
. - .
1. (0, 1);
y = x2 ,
y = x2 x + 1,
y = sin(x),
y = cot(x),
y = sin(2x).
2. y = sin x1 (0, +)
.
;
y = x sin x y =
(0, +).
1
x
sin x1
(: 6, 7 8 3.10.)
1
sin x1
3. y = 1+x
(0, +).
1
(: y = 1+x
1
y = 1+x (0, +). 6, 7 8 3.10.)
4. () t = a
t = b (a < b).
t = a t = b
.
;
5. y = f (x) [a, b] f (x) > l x [a, b].
> l f (x) x [a, b].
;
6. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b] f (x) > g(x)
x [a, b]. f (x) g(x) +
x [a, b]. ;
(: y = f (x) g(x) [a, b].)
. .
1. x7 3x6 + 5x5 + 13x4 x3 12x2 5x + 1 = 0
[0, 1].
169
2. ex = x + 2 .
2
+
3. x3 + x1
(0, 1), (1, 2) (2, 3).
1
x2
5
x3
= 0
(: ,
.)
4. tan x = x ( 2 +
k, 2 + k) (k Z).
5. y = f (x) [0, 1] 0 f (x) 1 x
[0, 1]. [0, 1] f () = 2 .
(: y = f (x) x2 .)
6. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b]. f (a) < g(a)
f (b) > g(b), (a, b) f () = g().
(: y = f (x) g(x).)
;
7. ()
. t = a t = b
.
.
;
8. y = f (x) -- I.
y = f (x) I.
(: , x1 , x2 x3 I
x1 < x2 < x3 f (x1 ), f (x3 ) < f (x2 ) f (x1 ), f (x3 ) > f (x2 ).
c max{f (x1 ), f (x3 )} < c < f (x2 ).)
9. y = f (x) y = g(x) I. f (x) 6= g(x)
x I, f (x) < g(x) x I f (x) > g(x) x
I.
(: y = f (x) g(x).)
, , y = h(x) I. x I
h(x) = f (x) h(x) = g(x), h(x) = f (x) x I
h(x) = g(x) x I.
(: y = h(x) y =
f (x)+g(x)
2
.)
;
10. y = f (x) y = g(x) I g(x)2 = f (x)2
f (x) 6= 0 x I. g(x) = f (x) x I
g(x) = f (x) x I.
(: g(x) 6= 0 x I. :
y = f (x) y = g(x). :
170
y = h(x) =
. : .)
g(x)
f (x)
. :
;
y = f (x) I [0,
+) (, 0]
2
f (x)
= |x| x I. f (x) = |x| x
I f (x) = |x| x I.
y = f (x) (, +)
f (x)2 = x2 x;
y = f (x)
I [1, 1]
2
2
x + f (x) = 1 x I. f (x) = 1 x2 x I
f (x) = 1 x2 x I.
11. 9 .
y = f1 (x), y = f2 (x), . . . , y = fn (x) I
x I n .
;
, , y = h(x) I x I
( x) n , ,
(h(x) f1 (x)) (h(x) fn (x)) = 0 x I.
y = h(x) y = f1 (x), y = f2 (x), . . . , y = fn (x);
12. y = f (x) I [1, +) [0, 1]
(f (x)x)(f (x)x2 )(f (x)x3 ) = 0 x I.
f (x) = x x I f (x) = x2 x I f (x) = x3
x I.
(: .)
I = [0, +),
y = f (x);
5.6
y = f (x)
, ,
c f (x) = c .

.
5.8. I, ,
.
5.8 . A = {f (x) : x I} y = f (x)
I. y1 , y2 A, .
x1 , x2 I f (x1 ) = y1 f (x2 ) = y2 .
y3 y1 , y2 . I , [x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 ]
I, y = f (x) [x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 ].
x3 [x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 ] , , I f (x3 ) = y3 .
y3 A .
171
, , , y1 , y2 A y3 y1 , y2 , y3
A. , , A .
5.8
.
5.9. I,
( I)
I.
5.9 5.8.
,
- . (, ,
5.9.)
. y = f (x) [a, b], x1 , x2 [a, b] f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 )
x [a, b]. m1 = f (x1 ), m2 = f (x2 ) , ,
, [m1 , m2 ].
[m1 , m2 ].
, c [m1 , m2 ].
5.10: = [ , ].
[x1 , x2 ] [x2 , x1 ], [a, b]. y = f (x) [x1 , x2 ]
[x2 , x1 ] c m1 = f (x1 ) m2 = f (x2 ), x1 x2
, , [a, b] c = f (). c [m1 , m2 ]
, [m1 , m2 ] .
[m1 , m2 ].

.
. 6 , ,
. ,
.
. (1) y = x2 [1, 4],
12 = 1 42 = 16.
[1, 4] [1, 16].
(2) y = x1 [ 12 , 3], 13
11 = 2. [ 12 , 3]
[ 13 , 2].
172
(3) y = x2 6x + 5 [1, 6]. y = (x 3)2 4,

[1, 3] [3, 6].
[1, 6] 32 6 3 + 5 = 4
(1)2 6(1) + 5 = 12 62 6 6 + 5 = 5, 12.
[1, 6] [4, 12]. : [1, 3]
[4, 12] [3, 6] [4, 5].

.
.
, 6,

.
5.10 , 4.1,
,
;
.
5.10. (1) y = f (x) I = [a, b].
J = [A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b).
(2) y = f (x) I.
J
I ( ).
(3) y = f (x) I
. J
I
I ( ).
(1), (2) (3)
I. J
. , (1) J = [B, A] J = [A, B].
5.11: .
. (1) 5.10, y = f (x) [a, b] B = f (b)

A = f (a).
(2) y = f (x) (a, b) limxa+ f (x) = A limxb f (x) = B.
a b +.
A B, .
x (a, b). x0 a < x0 < x , x00
173
a < x00 < x0 < x f (x00 ) < f (x0 ) < f (x), A = limx00 a+ f (x00 ) f (x0 ) , ,
A < f (x). , x0 x < x0 < b , x00 x < x0 < x00 < b
f (x) < f (x0 ) < f (x00 ), f (x0 ) limx00 b f (x00 ) = B , , f (x) < B.
y = f (x) (A, B),
(A, B).
, c (A, B), A < c < B. 4.6
f (x) < c a c < f (x) b. a0 (a, b)
a f (a0 ) < c b0 (a, b) b c < f (b0 ). , y = f (x)
[a0 , b0 ], , , c
y = f (x) [a0 , b0 ] , , (a, b). (A, B)
y = f (x).
y = f (x) (A, B).
(3) y = f (x) [a, b) f (a) = A limxb f (x) = B.
x [a, b), a x < b, A f (x) < B , ,
y = f (x) [A, B).
, c [A, B), f (a) = A c < B,
b0 [a, b) b c < f (b0 ). f (a) c < f (b0 )
c [a, b0 ] , , [a, b). [A, B)
y = f (x).
y = f (x) [A, B).
y = f (x) (a, b]. ,
.
. (1) y = 2x2 +1 (1, 3).

(1, 3) limx1+ (2x2 + 1) = 3 limx3 (2x2 + 1) = 19. ,
y = 2x2 + 1 (1, 3) (3, 19).
x+1
(2) y = x1
(1, +). (1, +)
x+1
x+1
limx1+ x1 = + limx+ x1
= 1. y = x+1

x1
(1, +) (1, +).
(3) y = log x1 [1, +). log 11 = 0 limx+ log x1 = .

[1, +), [1, +)
(, 0].
x
e
(4) y = tanh x = eex +e
x (, +). limx tanh x = 1 limx+ tanh x =
1 , ,
(1, 1).
x
(5) n- . n b 0 a 0 an = b.
. y = xn [0, +)
0n = 0 limx+ xn = +. y = xn [0, +)
[0, +). , b 0 [0, +),
a 0 an = b.
, , 1.2,
1. , ,
. ,
1.2.
,
, .
5.11. (1) y = p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + a2n1 x2n1
( a2n1 6= 0). (, +).
(2) y = p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + a2n x2n (
174
a2n 6= 0). a2n > 0, , m,

[m, +). a2n < 0, , m,
(, m].
. (1) a2n1 > 0, limx p(x) = limx+ p(x) = +.
c 4.6 p(x) < c c < p(x) +.
a b p(a) < c < p(b).
c . (, +)
y = p(x) , , (, +).
a2n1 < 0, limx p(x) = + limx+ p(x) = .
(2) a2n > 0. y = p(x), p(0) = a0 .
limx p(x) = + limx+ p(x) = +, 4.6
a p(x) > a0 x (, a) b p(x) > a0
(b, +). y = p(x) [a, b], , m, . ,
0 [a, b], m p(0) = a0 , , m p(x) x (, a) x
(b, +). m y = p(x) (, +)
[a, b].
, , y = p(x) [m, +). ,
c [m, +), m c < +. m y = p(x), x0
p(x0 ) = m. 4.6, c < limx+ p(x),
b0 c < p(b0 ). c p(x0 ) p(b0 ) ,
c . [m, +)
y = p(x) [m, +).
a2n < 0, .
. (1) y = 2x5 + 4x4 3x3 x2 + 7x 1 (, +)

.
(2) y = x4 4x3 + 4x2 7 y = x2 (x 2)2 7. x4 4x3 + 4x2 7 7
x , , 7 x = 0 x = 2. , 7
y = x4 4x3 + 4x2 7 ,
, [7, +).
6
.
.
1. ;
y = 2x3 + x2 5x + 6,
y = x4 2x2 + 7,
y = x6 3x4 + 3x2 1.
2. y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN . a0 aN < 0,
p() = 0.
3. .
( ) , , .
(i) y = sin x y = cos(5x) [ 4 , 2 ].
(ii) y = x +
1
x
(, 1], [1, 0), (0, 1] [1, +).
(iii) y = ex + x y =
1
1+e2x
(, +).
2
1
5
+ x2
+ x3
(, 0),
4. y = x3 + x1
(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3) (3, +).
175

.

;
3
x
2
x1
1
x2
5
x3
= c, c
(: : c < 0, c > 0 c = 0.)

3 .
5.7
, y = f (x) I,
, , -- I x = f 1 (y). ,
, J y = f (x) I,
x = f 1 (y) J I. 5.10
y = f (x) ,
, I. : J
, , I. 5.12
5.10, x = f 1 (y) J.
5.12. (1) y = f (x) I = [a, b].
J = [A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b).
, x = f 1 (y) [A, B]
[a, b].
(2) y = f (x) I.
J
I ( ). , x = f 1 (y)
J I.
(3) y = f (x) I
. J
I
I ( ). , x = f 1 (y)
J I.
(1), (2) (3)
I. J
. , (1) J = [B, A] J = [A, B].
. (1) 5.10 y = f (x) [A, B] A = f (a)
B = f (b) , , x = f 1 (y) [A, B] [a, b].
x = f 1 (y) [A, B].
[A, B] = f 1 (). A < < B, > 0
x1 , x2 [a, b] x1 < < x2 + . y1 = f (x1 ), y2 = f (x2 )
[A, B], y1 < < y2 . = min{ y1 , y2 }. T y |y | <
y1 < y < + y2 , x1 = f 1 (y1 ) < f 1 (y) < f 1 (y2 ) = x2 + ,
, |f 1 (y) f 1 ()| = |f 1 (y) | < . x = f 1 (y) .
= A, = f 1 () = a, > 0 x2 [a, b]
a < x2 a + . y2 = f (x2 ) [A, B], A < y2 . = y2 A. T y
A y < A + = y2 a = f 1 (A) f 1 (y) < f 1 (y2 ) = x2 a + , ,
|f 1 (y) f 1 (A)| = |f 1 (y) a| < . x = f 1 (y) = A.
= B, x = f 1 (y) . x = f 1 (y)
[A, B].
(2) (3) (1), x = f 1 (y) J (1).
176
. (1) y = x3 + x
(, +).
limx (x3 + x) = limx+ (x3 + x) = +,
(, +) y = x3 + x
.
(, +) (, +).

.
(2) y = xex + 1 [0, +).
0e0 + 1 = 1 limx+ (xex + 1) = ,
(, 1]
(, 1] [0, +).
,
. ,
, xex + 1 = y x.
.
. (1) . y = ex
(, +).
limx ex = 0 limx+ ex = +,
(0, +) , x = log y,
(0, +) (, +).
x = log y (0, +). , , x = log y 5.12. ,
limy0+ log y = limy+ log y = +. , ,
5.12. , x = log y (0, +),
limy0+ log y limy+ log y.
, , (, +), limy0+ log y =
limy+ log y = +.
(2) n- . (i) n. y = xn
(, +).
limx xn = limx+ xn = +,{ (, +)
n y ,
y 0
, x =

n
y , y < 0
(, +) (, +). ,
(, +),
limy ( n y) limy+ n y . ,
, (, +), limy ( n y) =
limy+ n y = +. (,
.)
(ii) n. y = xn [0, +).
0n = 0 limx+ xn = +, [0, +)
, x = n y , [0, +)
[0, +). , x = n y
[0, +), n 0 = 0 limy+ n y .
, , [0, +), limy+ n y = +.

(3) . 177
, -, -, -
-. , ,
. 5.12
.
(i) H y = cos x [0, ]. cos 0 = 1
cos = 1, [0, ] [1, 1]. , , -, x = arccos y
[1, 1] [0, ].
(ii) H y = sin x [ 2 , 2 ]. sin( 2 ) = 1
sin 2 = 1, [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1].
-, x = arcsin y
[1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ].
(iii) H y = tan x ( 2 , 2 ). limx 2 + tan x =
limx 2 tan x = +, ( 2 , 2 ) (, +).
-, x = arctan y
(, +)
( 2 , 2 ). , , : limy arctan y = 2 limy+ arctan y = 2 .
(iv) H y = cot x (0, ). limx0+ cot x =
+ limx cot x = , (0, )
(, +). , , -,
x = arccot y (, +)
(0, ). : limy arccot y = limy+ arccot y = 0.
(4) . ,
- - ,
.
, -
- . 5.12
. , ,
.
x
x
(i) y = cosh x = e +e
[0, +).
2
cosh 0 = 1 limx+ cosh x = +, [0, +)
[1, +). - , x = arccosh y, [1, +)
[0, +).
x
x
(ii) y = sinh x = e e
(, +).
2
limx sinh x = limx+ sinh x = +,
(, +) (, +). - ,
x = arcsinh y,
(, +) (, +).
x2 1) x = arcsinh

x
=
arccosh
y
=
log(x
+
2
y = log(x + x + 1) .

3.11.
x ex
(iii) y = tanh x = eex +e
x (, +).
limx tanh x = 1 limx+ tanh x = 1, (, +)
(1, 1). - ,
x = arctanh y, (1, 1)
178
(, +).
x
x
(0, +).
(iv) y = coth x = eex +e
ex
limx0+ coth x = + limx+ coth x = 1, (0, +)
(1, +).
, y = coth x (, 0). limx coth x = 1
limx0 coth x = , (, 0) (, 1).
y = coth x (, 0) (0, +) --
(, 1) (1, +). , -
, x = arccoth y, (, 1) (1, +)
(, 0) (0, +). x = arccoth y
(, 1) (1, +).
, x = arccoth y (, 1)
(, 0) (1, +)
(0, +).
: x = arccoth y (, 1) (1, +)
(, 1) (1, +).
.
1. ,
. ,
.
(i) y = x2 + 2x [0, 1].
(ii) y =
(iii) y =
1
x
(0, 1].
1
x2 +1
[0, +).
2.
(i) arctanh y = 12 log 1+y
y (1, 1).
1y
(ii) arccoth y = 21 log y+1
y (, 1) (1, +).
y1
x = arctanh y x = arccoth y

y + 1
1

x = log

2
y1
(, 1) (1, 1) (1, +) (, +).

.
3. y = f (x) = 12 (x x1 ) (0, +).
y = f (x) , (, +)
x = f 1 (y). f 1 (y) f 11(y) = 2y
y (, +).
x = h(y) (, +), ,
1
= 2y y (, +), h(y) = f 1 (y)
h(y) h(y)
y (, +).
y = f (x) = 21 (x x1 )
(, 0).
.
179
4. y = f (x) = 12 (x + x1 ) (0, +).

f ( x1 ) = f (x) x (0, +) , ,
--.
y = f (x) [1, +),
[1, +) x = g1 (y)
[1, +) [1, +).
y = f (x) (0, 1],
[1, +) x = g2 (y)
[1, +) (0, 1].
g1 (y) +
1
g1 (y)
= 2y = g2 (y) +
1
g2 (y)
y [1, +).
1
x = h(y) [1, +) h(y) + h(y)
= 2y
y [1, +), h(y) = g1 (y) y [1, +) h(y) = g2 (y)
y [1, +).
y = f (x) = 21 (x + x1 )
(, 0).
.
5. y = f (x) = x3 3x.
y = f (x) (, 1],
[1, 1] [1, +).
y = f1 (x), y = f2 (x) y = f3 (x) y = f (x)
(, 1], [1, 1] [1, +), .
y = f1 (x), y = f2 (x) y = f3 (x) : ,
, ;
x = g1 (y), x = g2 (y) x = g3 (y) y = f1 (x), y = f2 (x)
y = f3 (x), , : , ,
;
, x = g(y) x = g1 (y), x = g2 (y) x = g3 (y),
g(y)3 3g(y) = y y .
I x = g(y) I : g(y)3 3g(y) = y
y I. I = [2, +), x = g(y) x = g3 (y).
I = (, 2], x = g(y) x = g1 (y). , , I = [2, 2],
x = g(y) I x = g1 (y) x = g2 (y)
x = g3 (y).
x = g1 (y), x = g2 (y) x = g3 (y) ;
.
180
6
.
. . .
. .
. . ,
.
.
. Fermat, Rolle
( Lagrange Cauchy). : ,
. . :
, , , ,
. l Hopitl. :
, . .
6.1
6.1.1

(
) .
y = f (x)
(a, b) (, f ())
(a, b). l (, f ())
.
(x, f (x)) x 6= . x
lx
(, f ()) (x, f (x)),
(, f ()) (x, f (x))
l. , lx
l. , lx
f (x) f ()
.
x
181
6.1: lx l.
f (x) f ()
.
x
x
l = lim lx = lim
x
6.1.2
.

.
.
s(t1 ) s(t2 )
t1 t2 ,

s(t2 ) s(t1 )
.
t2 t1
, , ;
,

t. ,
t
t . ,
= lim
s(t) s( )
.
t
.
1.
(i) () .
(ii) () ()

.
182
6.2

. , ,
: f (x)
x s(t) t
.

. , , .
y = f (x)
, (a, b), a < < b, (a, ]
(, b) [, b) (a, ).
()
limx f (x)f
, y = f (x) ,
x
y = f (x)
f 0 ()
Df ()
d f (x)

dx x=
d y
f (x) f ()
= lim
.

x
dx x=
x
f 0 () ,
.
y = f (x) ,

, .

. (1) y = x2 1 1 ddxy x=1 =

2 12
d x2
= limx1 xx1
= limx1 (x + 1) = 2.
dx x=1
3
(2) y = 3 x [0, +) 0 ddxy x=0 = d dxx x=0 =
limx0
x 3 0
x0
= limx0
1
( 3 x)2
= +. , 0.
()
limx f (x)f

x
, , . h = x ,
f (x) f ()
f ( + h) f ()
lim
= lim
.
x
h0
x
h
()
limx f (x)f

x
0. , y = f (x) ,
0 00 .
dy
dx
. x = x ,
, y = y = f (x) f (),
()
y
, f (x)f
x
.
x
-
x 6= .

- ,
dx. x
dx , y = f (x) ,
y
y = f (x) f () dy. , x
dy
dy
dx
. dx

183

0 . , ,
dy

dx
.
.
()
y = f (x) [, b). limx+ f (x)f
,
x
y = f (x)

f+0 ()
D+ f ()
d f (x)

dx x=+
d y
=

dx x=+
lim
x+
f (x) f ()
.
x
, y = f (x) (a, ].
()
limx f (x)f
, y = f (x)
x

f0 ()
D f ()
d f (x)

dx x=
d y
=

dx x=
f (x) f ()
.
x
x
lim
y = f (x) (a, b) a < < b. ,

y = f (x) ,
,
f0 () = f+0 () = f 0 (). , y = f (x)
, y = f (x)
.
.
(1) y = |x| (, +).

d |x|
d |x|
|x||0|
x
0: dx x=0+ = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ x = limx0+ 1 = 1, dx x=0 = limx0 |x||0|
=
x0
x
limx0 x = limx0 (1) = 1. 0.
d |x|
|x| |0|
(2) y = |x| (, +). : dx x=0+ = limx0+
=
x0

d |x|
|x| |0|
limx0+ 1x = +, dx x=0 = limx0
= limx0 1x = .
x0
0.
x > 0
x,

(3) y = 0 ,
x = 0 (, +) : ddxy x=0+ =

x , x < 0

x0
x0
dy
1
limx0+ x0 = limx0+ 1x = + dx
=
lim
= limx0 x
= +.
x0
x0
x=0
dy
= +.
0 dx
x=0
{

x sin x1 , x 6= 0
(4) y =
(, +). ddxy x=0+ =
0,
x = 0

1
x sin x1 0
x sin x 0
= limx0
limx0+
= limx0+ sin 1 = limt+ sin t dy
=
x0
limx0 sin x1 =
dx x=0
x0
limt sin t, , .
0.
y = f (x) [, b) (a, ),
()
()
limx f (x)f
, , limx+ f (x)f

x
x
184
. ,
. , y = f (x) (a, ]
()
()
(, b), limx f (x)f
limx f (x)f

x
x
.
y
=
x
[0, +) 0

d x
x 0
d x
= dx x=0+ = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ 1x = +.
dx x=0
y = f (x)
, f 0 () ,
y = f (x),
f 0 (x)
d f (x)
dx
Df (x)
dy
.
dx
.
1. ( ) 0
.
y = 2, y = x, y = 3x2 5x + 3, y = 5 x , y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x,

{
{
{
2x ,
x 0
2x2 ,
x 0
2 x , x 0
y=
y=
y=
2
3
3x , x 0
3x , x 0
x,
x 0
{
{
x > 0
1 x,
0, x 6= 0
x , x 0
y=
y=
y = 0,
x = 0
1, x = 0
1, x < 0
1 x, x < 0
{
2x2 + x + 1,
2. y =
ax + b,
0.
x 0
a, b
x > 0
{
2x2 + x + 1,
y =
ax + b,
x < 0
x 0
3. y = g(x) (a, ] y = h(x) [, b)

0
() = h0+ (). y = f (x) =
g() = h() g
{
g(x) , a < x
0
() = h0+ ().
f 0 () = g
h(x) , x < b
4. 1 6.1
(i) () .
(ii) () ()
.
185
6.3
, .
. y = c, c
x, . ,
d c
cc
= lim
= lim 0 = 0.

dx x= x x x
,
dc
= 0.
dx

. y = x ddxx x= = limx
y = x
x
x
= limx 1 = 1.
dx
= 1.
dx
. n 2, y = xn
d xn
= nxn1
dx
(n 2).
,
d xn
xn n
= lim (xn1 + xn2 + + x n2 + n1 ) = n n1 ,
= lim

x
dx x= x x
limx xnk k1 = nk k1 = n1 n.
xn
ddx
= nxn1 , n 2,
1
x
n = 1: ddx
= 1x0 . , ddxx = 1,
x 6= 0, 00 .
. y = xn
n 0 . , ,
= 0 0 y = xn n 0. , n = 0,
y = x0 y = 1 (, 0) (0, +),
, 0x01 (, 0)(0, +).
n < 0, m = n, m 6= 0
xn n
xm m
m xm
d xn
= lim
= lim
= lim m m

x
x x (x )
dx x= x x
x
m1
m2
m2
x
+x
+ + x
+ m1
m m1
= lim
=
= m m1 = n n1 .
x
m xm
2m
d xn
= nxn1
dx
(n 0, x 6= 0).
186
. y = xa , a -
. y = xa [0, +), a > 0, (0, +), a < 0.
, m n
> 0 a = m
n
.
t = n x .
y = tm , , = a = n . :
d xa
y
tm m
tm1 + tm2 + + t m2 + m1
= lim n
=
lim
= lim

t tn1 + tn2 + + t n2 + n1
dx x= x x t t n
)mn
m m1
m mn m (
n
=
=
= a a1 .
=
n1
n
n
n
, = 0. 0, 0
y = xa , a > 0. , :
{
0,
a > 1
d xa
xa 0a
= lim
= lim xa1 =

x0
dx x=0 x0 x 0
+, 0 < a < 1
[0, +), a > 1, (0, +),
a < 1. :
(
)
d xa
a > 1, x 0
a1
= ax
a < 1, x > 0
dx
. ,
d cos x
= sin x,
dx
d sin x
= cos x .
dx

sin x+
2 sin x
d cos x
cos x cos
2
2
= lim
= lim

x
dx x= x
x
x
sin x
x+
+
= lim x2 sin
= 1 sin
= sin
x
2
2
2
, ,
2 sin x
cos x+
d sin x
sin x sin
2
2
=
lim
=
lim

x
dx x= x x
x
sin x
x+
+
= lim x2 cos
= 1 cos
= cos .
x
2
2
2
.
1. .
d sin x
= 1,
dx
d sin x
+ sin x = 2 ,
dx
cos x
d cos x
d sin x
sin x
= 1.
dx
dx
2. .
y = (sin x)2 ,
y = (cos x)3 ,
187
y = sin(2x),
y = cos(7x).
3.
.

.

.
;
6.4

.
y = f (x) [, b). x
(, b), lx,+ (, f ())
(x, f (x))
. , , x . (x, f (x))
(, f ()) ( y = f (x) ),
lx,+ l+ (, f ())
y = f (x) (, f ())
()
. f (x)f

x
()
. (i) f+0 () = limx+ f (x)f
,
x
l+ , : l+
, , ,
, l+ , 0. (ii) f+0 () = +,
lx,+ , l+
. (iii) f+0 () = , lx,+
, l+
()
,
. , limx+ f (x)f
x
.
6.2: .
. y = f (x)
(a, ]. x (a, ), lx,
(, f ()) (x, f (x))
. x
. (x, f (x)) (, f ()) (
188
y = f (x) ), lx,
l (, f ()) y = f (x)
(, f ()) . lx,
()
()
. (i) f0 () = limx f (x)f
f (x)f
x
x
, l , : l
, ,
, , l ,
0. (ii) f0 () = +, lx,
, l . (iii)
f0 () = , lx, , l
()
. limx f (x)f
,
x
.
6.3: .
6.4: . .
y = f (x) (a, b), a < < b.
, , y = f (x)
,
(, f ()) , , , l
(, f ()).
, , ,
. , ,
.
. (1) y = |x| (0, 0).
|x|
(0, 0), ddx
= 1
x=0+
189

|x|
. (0, 0), ddx
= 1
x=0
. ,
(0, 0).
(2)
y
=
|x| (0, 0).
d |x|

= +, (0, 0)
dx
x=0+
d |x|
. , dx x=0 = , (0, 0)
.
(0, 0).
{
x,
0 x
(3) y =
(0, 0).
x , x 0

dy
= +, (0, 0)
dx x=0+

dy
. , dx
= +, (0, 0)
x=0
. ,
(0, 0), , , ;
x = 0.
y = f (x)
,
(, f ()).
y
=
x (0, 0).

d x
= +, (0, 0)
dx x=0+
.
y = f (x) (a, b), a < < b y = f (x)
. , l
(, f ()) f 0 (), :
:
y = f 0 ()(x ) + f () (f 0 () 6= ).
, ,
(, f ()) .
y = f (x) (, f ()). f 0 () 6= 0,
f 01() , ,
y=
1
(x ) + f ().
f 0 ()
f 0 () = 0, ,

x = .
, y = f (x) f 0 () = + f 0 () = ,
(, f ())
:

y = f ().
190
x=
(f 0 () = ),
6.5: .
. (1) (, 2 ) y = x2
y = 2(x)+ 2 . (, 2 ) y = 21 (x)+ 2 ,
6= 0, x = 0, = 0.
1
(2) > 0, (, 3 ) y = x 3 y =
1
1
2
1
1 23
(x)+ 3 . (, 3 ) y = 3 3 (x)+ 3 .
3
1
(, 3 ) y = x,
2
, 13 3 = 1, = 127 .
.
1. ( ) ,
0
1 6.2.
2.
. ;
(i) y = x2 .

.
(ii) y = x3 .
3.
6.3.
4. b c y = x2 + bx + c
y = x (1, 1).
1
5. y = x 3
y = 34 x + 23 ; y = 43 x + 23 ; x = 4; y = 1;
{
x sin x1 , x 6= 0
6. y = f (x) =
0,
x = 0
0.
0.
191
lx,+ (0, 0)
(x, f (x)) x 0+ . lx,+
(0, 0); lx, (0, 0)
(x, f (x)) x 0 .
{
x2 sin x1 , x 6= 0
7. y =
0,
x = 0
0 0 0.
, lx,+ lx,
(0, 0) (x, f (x))
x 0+ x 0 , .
8.
y 4 = x3 . (i) y
x . (ii) x ,
3
3
y = x 4 y = x 4
[0, +) (0, 0) .
y 2 = x3 . , ,
(0, 0);
9. , xy = a (a > 0),
x- y-
( ).
x, y .
3
10. , x2 + 3 y 2 =
a (a > 0), x- y-
3
a 2 .
.
;
6.5
6.5.1 .
y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b) a < < b.
()
f (x)f
g(x)g()
x (a, ) (, b),
x
x
, , . ,
y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, ] [, b). :
6.1. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b)
a < < b (a, ] [, b).
, ,
.
{
|x|
, x 6= 0
x
. (1) y =
(, +)
0,
x = 0
y = 1 (, +) (0, +).
192
(0, +) 0. ,
y = 1 (, +)
(, 0). (, 0)
0.
: (a, b) a < 0 < b
y = 0 .
0 0. , 0.
(2) y = |x| (, +) [0, +) y = x

[0, +). y = |x|
(0, +)
d |x|
y = x , dx = ddxx = 21 xx x
(0, +). , y = |x|

0

d |x|

= d x
= +.
y = x 0 ,
dx
6.5.2
x=0+
dx
x=0+
6.2. y = f (x)
,
, .
. y = f (x) , f 0 () .
()
f (x) = f (x)f
(x ) + f ()
x
limx f (x) = limx
f (x)f ()
x
limx (x ) + f () = f 0 () 0 + f () = f ().
y = f (x) .
, , .
. (1) 6.2 . y = |x|

0 0.
(2) 6.2 .
{
|x|
, x 6= 0
+ , y = f (x) . y = x
0,
x = 0
(, +). 0
, limx0+ |x|
= limx0+ 1 = 1 limx0 |x|
= limx0 (1) = 1
x
x
dy
dy
10
0 0. , dx x=0+ = limx0+ x0 = + dx
=
x=0

dy
10
limx0 x0 = +, 0 dx x=0 = +.
, y = f (x)
, (, f ()). 6.2
, ,
. , , ,
.
(0, 0) .
6.5.3
6.3. y = f (x) y = g(x) . ,

, , g() 6= 0,
:
193
(f + g)0 () = f 0 () + g 0 (), (f g)0 () = f 0 () g 0 (),

( f )0
0
()g 0 ()
(f g)0 () = g()f 0 () + f ()g 0 (),
() = g()f ()f
.
g
g()2
.
. .
)
(
()+g())
()
(f + g)0 () = limx (f (x)+g(x))(f
= limx f (x)f
+ g(x)g()
x
x
x
= limx
f (x)f ()
x
+ limx
g(x)g()
x
= f 0 () + g 0 ()
. :
(f g)0 () = limx
f (x)g(x)f ()g()
x
= limx g(x) limx
(
)
()
= limx g(x) f (x)f
+ f () g(x)g()
x
x
f (x)f ()
x
+ f () limx
g(x)g()
x
= g()f 0 () + f ()g 0 ().
, :
( f )0
g
() = limx
f ()
g()
f (x)
f ()
g()
g(x)
limx
1
g(x)
= limx
limx
1 f (x)f ()
g(x)
x
g(x)g()
x
1
0
g() f ()
f () g(x)g() )
g(x)g()
x
f () 1
0
g() g() g ()
= limx
1
g(x)
limx
g()f 0 ()f ()g 0 ()

g()2
f (x)f ()
x
(, , )
( f ) gDf f Dg
D(f g) = Df Dg,
D(f g) = gDf + f Dg,
D
=
g
g2
d(f (x) g(x))
d f (x) d g(x)
d(f (x)g(x))
d f (x)
d g(x)
=
,
= g(x)
+ f (x)
,
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
( (x) )
d fg(x)
g(x) d fdx(x) f (x) d g(x)
dx
=
dx
g(x)2
( )
d yz
z dy y dz
d(y z)
dy
dz
d(yz)
dy
dz
=
,
=z
+y ,
= dx 2 dx ,
dx
dx dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
z
z = g(x) y = g(x)
y = f (x).
. (1) y = f (x) c
, y = cf (x)
(cf )0 () = cf 0 ().
, y = c , (cf )0 () =
0 f () + cf 0 () = cf 0 ().
(2) y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN .
k
xk
kx )
d (adx
= ak ddx
= kak xk1
, ,
)
d(
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + aN xN = a1 + 2a2 x + + N aN xN 1 .
dx
194
(3)
d
( x2 +x1 )
x3 +2
dx
+x1)
(x3 + 2) d (x dx
(x2 + x 1) d (xdx+2)
=
(x3 + 2)2
(x3 + 2)(2x + 1) (x2 + x 1)3x2

x4 2x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 2
=
.
(x3 + 2)2
(x3 + 2)2
.
=
(4)
d tan x
1
=
,
dx
(cos x)2
d cot x
1
=
.
dx
(sin x)2
:
sin x
cos x
cos x d dx
sin x d dx
d tan x
(cos x)2 + (sin x)2
1
=
=
=
.
2
2
dx
(cos x)
(cos x)
(cos x)2
.
6.5.4
.
(
)
. z = (g f )(x) = g f (x) y = f (x)
z = g(y). y = f (x)
z = g(y)
(
)
= f (), z = (g f )(x) = g f (x)
(
)
(g f )0 () = g 0 ()f 0 () = g 0 f () f 0 ().
.
{
g(y)g()
, y z = g(y) y 6=
y
z = G(y) =
0
g () ,
y =
z = G(y) z = g(y). z = G(y)
limy G(y) = limy g(y)g()
= g 0 () = G(). , G(y)
y
g(y) g() = G(y)(y ) y z = g(y), y = . , ,
limx
g(f (x))g(f ())

x
= limx
G(f (x))(f (x)f ())

x
0
0
= limx G(f (x)) limx
f (x)f ()
x
= G(f ())f () = G()f () = g 0 ()f 0 (),

limx G(f (x)) = G(f ()), z = G(f (x))
.
:
(
)
D(g f )() = Dg()Df () = Dg f () Df ()
d g(y) d f (x)
d g(y)
d f (x)
d g(f (x))
=
=

dx
dy y= dx x=
dy y=f () dx x=
x=
dz
dz dy
dz
dy
=
=

.
dx x= dy y= dx x= dy y=f () dx x=
195
,
x ( ), ,
(
)
D(g f )(x) = Dg f (x) Df (x)
d g(y)
d g(f (x))
d f (x)
=

dx
dy y=f (x) dx
dz
dz
dy
=
.
dx
dy y=f (x) dx

y=f (x) ,
d f (x)
dz
dz dy
dz
d g(fdx(x)) = d g(y)
dx
= dy
. , d g(y)
dy

dy
dx
dx
dy
0
z = g (y), y. ,
x (
x) , , y
f (x) x. , ,
d g(f (x))
d g(y) d f (x)
dz
dz dy
=
,
=
,
dx
dy
dx
dx
dy dx
, , y f (x).

dy
dz dz
, dy dx
.
. , , dx
. (1) z = sin(x2 + 3) 2.
y = x2 + 3 z = sin y. y = x2 + 3

2
dy
2 dx
= d (xdx+3) x=2 = 2x|x=2 = 4 z = sin y 22 + 3 = 7
x=2

2
dz
= d sin y
= cos y|y=7 = cos 7. d sin(x +3)
= dz
= dz dy
= 4 cos 7.
dy y=7
dy
dx
y=7
x=2
dx x=2
dy y=7 dx x=2
(2) z = sin(x +3).

y = x2 + 3 z = sin y. y = x2 + 3
2
sin y
dy
dz
= d (xdx+3) = 2x z = sin y dy
= d dy
= cos y.
dx

d sin(x2 +3)
dy
dz
dz
=
=
= cos y 2 2x = 2x cos(x2 + 3).
2
dx
dx
dy y=x +3 dx
y=x +3
(3) z = (sin x)n .

n
dy
dz
dz
y = sin x z = y n d (sindxx) = dx
= dy
= ny n1 y=sin x cos x =
y=sin x dx
n(sin x)n1 cos x.
6.5.5

. y = f (x)
(a, b) (a, b). ,
()
f (x)f ()
0 x 6= (a, b) , , f 0 () = limx f (x)f
x
x
0 +. , y = f (x) ,
f 0 () 0 .
[, b) (a, ],
f+0 () f0 ().
196
. y = f (x)
I . y = f (x) ,
, J = f ()
x = f 1 (y) J. y = f (x)
, x = f 1 (y)
1
0
f 0 () , f () > 0
( 1 )0
f
() = 0 ,
f 0 () = +
+ , f 0 () = 0
y = f (x) , : < 0 > 0
+.
.
( 1 )0
1
1
()
x
f
() = limy f (y)f
= limx f (x)f
y
() = limx
1
0
f 0 () , f ()
f (x)f ()
0
x
1
f (x)f ()
x
> 0, 0 f 0 () +.
f 0 () = 0,
, ,
1
f (x)f ()
x
+.
:
1
d f 1 (y)
dx
1
1
1
D(f )() =
,
,
= d f (x)
= dy
.

Df ()
dy
dy y=
y=
dx x=
dx
x=

( 1 )0
f
(y) =
f 0 f 1 (y)
d f 1 (y)
=
dy
D(f 1 )(y) =
),
d f (x)
dx x=f 1 (y)
dx
=
dy
1
(
),
Df f 1 (y)

dy
dx x=f 1 (y)
,
1
1
= dy1 d f dy (y) = dx
,
d f dy (y) = d f1(x) dx
dy
dy
dx
dx
x = f 1 (y), y d fdx(x) =
x. , ,
d f 1 (y)
=
dy
1
d f (x)
dx
dy
dx
dx
1
= dy ,
dy
dx
x
f 1 (y) y. dx
= dy1
dy
dx
, .
.
, ,
y = x.
.

. :
y = x .
197
ny
. (1) dy = n1 y
x = n y .
. x = n y y = xn ,
d ny
dx
1
1
1 ny

=
= dy
=
=
.
n1

dy
dy
n
y
nx
n
n
x= y
dx x= y
, , ,
xa
ddx
= axa1
y = xa
a . , a = m
, m
n
a
m
n
n , u = x y = x = u

n
1 nx
dy
dy
du
m
m ( n x)m
d xa
x
m1
m1
n
=
=
= mu
= ( x)
=
= axa1 .
n

dx
dx
du u=
n
x
n
x
x dx
u= n x n x
(2) y = sin x [ 2 , 2 ]
[1, 1]. , , x = arcsin y,
[1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ].
x = arcsin y. y = sin x
d sin x
= cos x = 1 (sin x)2 +.
dx
cos x = 1 (sin x)2 + cos x 0 x [ 2 , 2 ].
1 y 2 = 1 (sin x)2 > 0,

d arcsin y
=
dy
d sin x
dx x=arcsin y
1
1

=
=
.
2
1 (sin x) x=arcsin y
1 y2
y
= +.
1 y 2 = 1 (sin x)2 = 0, d arcsin
dy
1
d arcsin y 1y2 , 1 < y < 1
=
+ ,
dy
y = 1
x = arccos y,
[1, 1] [0, ].
1
d arccos y 1y2 , 1 < y < 1
=
,
dy
y = 1
(3) y = tan x ( 2 , 2 )
(, +). , , x = arctan y
(, +) ( 2 , 2 ).
tan x
= (cos1x)2
x = arctan y. d dx
0 +,
d arctan y
=
dy

d tan x
dx
x=arctan y
1

2
1
(cos x)

= (cos x)2 x=arctan y
x=arctan y

1
1

=
.

2
1 + (tan x) x=arctan y 1 + y 2
198
d arctan y
1
=
.
dy
1 + y2
x = arccot y,
(, +) (0, ).
d arc cot y
1
=
.
dy
1 + y2
.
1. .
y = x2 3x + 1
x3 + 2
,
x2 + 1
y=
x3 x + 4 sin x
,
x2 + sin x + 2
y = sin x + tan x.
2. .
y = sin(xn ),
y = (tan x)n ,
y = tan(xn ),
y = sin(arccos x), y = arcsin(cos x),

{
x sin x1 , x 6= 0
3. y =
0,
x = 0
y=
n
1 + cos x ,
y = arctan(tan x),
y=
(sin x)3 3(sin x)2

,
(sin x)2 + 4
y = tan(arctan x).
0.
(, 0) (0, +).
{
x2 sin x1 , x 6= 0
4. y =
0,
x = 0
(, +). (, +);
{
xa sin x1 , x 6= 0
5. . y =
0,
x = 0
a.
a (, +);
(, +); (, +);
6. x + x2 + x3 + + xn = x x11 1
x + 2x2 + 3x3 + + nxn x + 4x2 + 9x3 + + n2 xn .
n+1
7. y = f1 (x), , y = fn (x)
0 . g(x) = f1 (x) fn (x),
f1 0 ()
fn 0 ()
g 0 ()
=
+ +
.
g()
f1 ()
fn ()
8. y = r(x) limx+
199
xr0 (x)
r(x)
= 0;
9. (a, b) y = r(x)
r0 (x) = x1 x (a, b).
(: . .)
10. .
11. .
12. y = f (x) f (x)2 +4f (x) = x3 5x2 5x+21
x .
(2f (x) + 4)f 0 (x) = 3x2 10x 5 x
.
,
.
13. y = f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 7 (, +).
y = f (x) (, +).
;
{
1
( 1 )0
y 6= 6
1
2 ,
f
(y) = 3(f (y)+1)
+,
y = 6
x = f 1 (y).
x = f 1 (y),
.
( : y = (x + 1)3 + 6.)
14.
.
.
15.
.
;
16. l
.
v ( ),
( ).
, ,
.
17. y 2 = 4x3 .
( )
( );
x, y.
(: x = x(t), y = y(t)
y 2 = 4x3 .)
200
6.6
, .
.
. y = loga x, a > 0, a 6= 1,
(0, +) (, +).
d loga x
1 1
=
dx
log a x
(x > 0).
)t
(
limt+ 1 + 1t = e,
(
lim
t+
1 )t
1
= lim
= lim
t+ (1 +
t+ (1 + 1 )t
t
t1
1
1 t1
) (1
t1
1
)
t1
1
1
= .
e1
e
y = loga x
(
1
1 )t
= loga e =
,
lim loga 1 +
t+
t
log a
(
1
1
1 )t
lim loga 1
= loga =
.
t+
t
e
log a
t =
x
h
(x + h) 1
(
loga (x + h) loga x
1
x
h)
=
lim
= lim
loga
lim
log 1 +
h0+
h0+ h
h
x
x h0+ h a
x
(
(
1
1) 1
1 )t
1 1
=
lim t loga 1 +
=
lim loga 1 +
=
.
x t+
t
x t+
t
log a x
, t = hx .
(x + h) 1
(
loga (x + h) loga x
1
x
h)
= lim
loga
=
lim
loga 1 +
h0
h0 h
h
x
x h0 h
x
(
(
1
1)
1
1 )t
1 1
= lim t loga 1
= lim loga 1
.
=
x t+
t
x t+
t
log a x
lim
d loga x
dx
= limh0
loga (x+h)loga x
h
1 1
log a x
d log x
1
=
dx
x
(x > 0).
d log |x|
1
=
dx
x
(x 6= 0).
|x|
log x
(0, +) d log
= d dx
=
dx
1
1
(1) = x .
x
1
x
(, 0)
d log |x|
dx
d log(x)
dx
. y = ax ,
a > 0, (, +) (0, +). :
d ax
= ax log a.
dx
201
a > 0, a 6= 1, .
y = ax x = loga y , ,
d ax
dy
=
=
dx
dx
dx
dy y=ax
1 1
log a y y=ax
= ax log a.
a = 1, y = 1x = 1 . 1x log 1
, , .
y = ex :
d ex
= ex .
dx
. , y = xa a .
y = xa [0, +), a > 0, (0, +), a < 0.
(
)
d xa
a > 1, x 0
a1
= ax
a < 1, x > 0.
dx
a
x > 0. y = xa = elog(x ) = ea log x

. z = a log x, y = ez

d xa
dy
dy
dz
a
a
a

=
=
= ez
= ea log x = xa = axa1 .
dx
dx
dz z=a log x dx
x
x
z=a log x x
a < 0, y = xa 0. a 0 < a < 1,
a 0a
xa
= limx0+ xx0
= limx0+ xa1 = +. , a a > 1,
ddx
x=0

a 0a
d xa
= limx0+ xa1 = 0 = a0a1 .
= limx0+ xx0
dx x=0
.
1. .

( 2
( 5 ))
y = x log x,
y = log log |x|,
y = log e3x +4 + sin x 4 ,
y = 2x
2 +1
y = 3 sin(log x) ,
log3 (sin x),
( 2 )
y = sin e log(x +1) .
2.
.
ex 1
,
x0
x
log x
,
x1 x 1
lim
lim
xa 1
.
x1 x 1
lim

log x
1
= ,
a
x1 x 1
a
lim
a
ax bx
= log ,
x0
x
b
lim
xa xb
= a b,
x1 x 1
lim
eax ebx
= a b,
x0
x
lim
202
xa xb
= a b,
x1 log x
lim
lim
x0
tanh(ax)
= a.
x
3. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b), a < 0 x (a, b).
, y = f (x)g(x)
.
.
y = xx ,
y = (x2 + 1)sin x ,
y = |x 1|x2 |x 2|x1 .
4.
d cosh x
d sinh x
d tanh x
1
d coth x
1
= sinh x,
= cosh x,
=
,
=
(x 6= 0).
dx
dx
dx
(cosh x)2
dx
(sinh x)2
5.
,
d arccosh y
y 2 1
=
+,
dy
d arctanh y
1
=
dy
1 y2
6.7
y > 1
d arcsinh y
1
=
,
2
dy
y +1
y = 1
(|y| < 1),
d arccoth y
1
=
dy
1 y2
(|y| > 1).
x = x(t) y = y(t) I
t. C (x, y) = (x(t), y(t)) , t
I, .
I C
.
t
, (x, y) = (x(u), y(u)), (x, y) = (x(s), y(s)) .
x = x(t) y = y(t) C , , t
.

, .
. (1) x = x(t) = t+ y = y(t) = t+ t (, +),
, 6= 0.
C.
, ,
, , , .
, t, C x y = . , (x, y)
x y = , , 6= 0, t = 1 x
t x = t + y = t + . , C
(x, y) x y = .
6= 0. , ,
x y = l : 6= 0,
203
y = y(x) = x +
, 6= 0,
x = x(y) = y + . , 6= 0 6= 0,
, . = 0,
, x = , , . = 0,
, y = , , .
, , C l.
, l
ax + by = c,
a, b 6= 0. = b, = a
, = c. , C
x = x(t) = t + y = y(t) = t + l.
t = 0 t = 1 A0 = (, ) A1 = ( + , + )
A0 A1 = (, )

t.
x = x(t) = t +
y = y(t) = t +
, (x, y) = (t + , t + ) = (, )t + (, ).
(, )
(, ) , ,
(, ) ( t = 0) (, ).
t (, +), (x, y) = (t + , t + )
.
(2) x = x(t) = r0 cos t + x0 y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0 t
I = [t0 , t0 + 2] 2, r0 > 0, (x0 , y0 )
r0 . , (x, y) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 )
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r0 2
, , (x, y) (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r0 2
(x, y) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 ) t I. , ,
x = x(t) = r0 cos t + x0 y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r0 2 . , t I
, (x, y) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 )
.
t < 2, (x, y) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 )
.
(3) x = x(t) = 0 cos t + x0 y = y(t) = 0 sin t + y0 t
I = [t0 , t0 + 2] 2, 0 , 0 > 0,
(x0 , y0 ) 20 20 .
(x, y) = (0 cos t + x0 , 0 sin t + y0 )
( x x )2
0
( y y )2
0
=1
. , x = x(t) = 0 cos t + x0 y =
0 2
0 2
) +( yy
) = 1. t
0 sin t+y0 ( xx
0
0
204
I , (x, y) = (0 cos t+x0 , 0 sin t+y0 )

. t < 2, (x, y) = (0 cos t+x0 , 0 sin t+
y0 ) .
(4) y = f (x) I,
(x, y) = (x, f (x)) x I,
. ,
x = t y = f (t) t I.
, x = g(y) I
,
x = g(t) y = t t I.
. x = x(t), y = y(t) z = z(t)
I t,
(x, y, z) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) , t I,
.
. (1) x = x(t) = t+, y = y(t) = t+ z = z(t) = t+ t
(, +), , , 6= 0,
.
, (x, y, z) = (, , )t + (, , ),
(, , ) ( t = 0)
(, , ).
h0
(2) x = x(t) = r0 cos t + x0 , y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0 z = z(t) = 2
t + z0 t
(, +), r0 > 0 h0 > 0, ,
. t
2 , (x, y) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 )
xy-
(x0 , y0 ) r0 , , z
h0 . ,
(x, y, z) , , r0
l xy- (x0 , y0 , 0).
, ,
.
, , x = x(t) y = y(t)
I t. , , (x( ), y( ))
I. + h I, h ,
, (x( + h), y( + h)) .

x = x(t) =
x( + h) x( )
(t ) + x( ),
h
y( + h) y( )
(t ) + y( ).
h
h 0,
(x( ), y( )), , ,

y = y(t) =
205
x = x(t) = x0 ( )(t ) + x( ),
y = y(t) = y 0 ( )(t ) + y( ).
t
(
)
(
)
:
x0 ( ) y y( ) = y 0 ( ) x x( ) .

(x0 ( ), y 0 ( ))
(x(t), y(t)) t =
, , .
x = x(t) = x0 ( )(t ) + x( ) y = y(t) = y 0 ( )(t ) + y( )
x0 ( ), y 0 ( ) 6= 0. ,
x = x( ), y = y( ).
I,
t ,
I, , .
,
x = x(t), y = y(t) z = z(t) I t,
(x( ), y( ), z( ))
x = x(t) = x0 ( )(t ) + x( ),
y = y(t) = y 0 ( )(t ) + y( ),
z = z(t) = z 0 ( )(t ) + z( ).

(x0 ( ), y 0 ( ), z 0 ( ))
(x(t), y(t), z(t))
t = . ,
x0 ( ), y 0 ( ), z 0 ( ) 6= 0.
. (1) x = x(t) = t cos t, y = y(t) = sin t t
(, +) .
(x(0), y(0)) = (0, 0) x = x0 (0)(t 0) + x(0) = t, y = y 0 (0)(t
0) + y(0) = t. ( t) y = x.
(x0 (0), y 0 (0)) = (1, 1).
(2) x = x(t) = t, y = y(t) = t2 , z = z(t) = t3 t (, +)
. (x(1), y(1), z(1)) = (1, 1, 1)
x = x0 (1)(t 1) + x(1) = t, y = y 0 (1)(t 1) + y(1) = 2t 1,
z = z 0 (1)(t 1) + z(1) = 3t 2.
(x0 (1), y 0 (1), z 0 (1)) = (1, 2, 3).
(3) y = f (x) (x I)
x = t y = f (t) t I.

(, f ()) y = f 0 ()(x ) + f () x (, +).
x =
206
1 (t ) + y = f 0 ()(t ) + f () t (, +). x = t
y = f 0 ()(t ) + f () t (, +) , t,
y = f 0 ()(x ) + f () x (, +).
, .
.
1. :
.
2.
.
3.
() x = x(t) = r0 cos t + x0 ,
h0
y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0 z = z(t) = 2
t + z0 t (, +), r0 > 0 h0 > 0.
4.
() x = x(t) = r0 t cos t + x0 ,
h0
t + z0 t (, +), r0 > 0 h0 > 0.
y = y(t) = r0 t sin t + y0 z = z(t) = 2
5. a > 0. (x, y)
x2 y 2 = a2 .

x = t2 + a2 y = t t (, +)
x = t2 + a2 y = t t (, +).
x = x(t) =
a cosh t y = y(t) = a sinh t t (, +)
x = x(t) = a cosh t y = y(t) = a sinh t t
(, +).
,

. :
,
.
6. (x, y)
xy = b,
b 6= 0,
x = x(t) = t y = y(t) = bt x = x(t) = bt y = t t
(0, +) t (, 0).

.
7. x2 y 2 = a2 (a > 0)
xy = b (b 6= 0) ,

.
207
8. x = x(t) = t3 y = y(t) = t4 t (, +) ,
, C (t3 , t4 ).

C (0, 0).
, x = x(s) = s
3
y = y(s) = s4 s (, +).
C (0, 0);
6.8
y = f (x) (a, b) (a, b).

y = f (x)
(c, d), , , , f (x) f () x
(c, d). y = f (x) [, b) (a, ),
y = f (x)
[, d) f (x) f () x [, d). , y = f (x)
(a, ] (, b),

(c, ] f (x) f () x (c, ].
y = f (x)
f (x) f () f (x) f ().
, y = f (x)
, ,
.
y = f (x)
.
, , () , . ,
, ()
, .
y = f (x) :
( ) (, f ())
, , (, f ()).
. (1) 0 y = 1 + x2 (x + 1),
0 1 1+x2 (x+1) 1 x (1, +)
0. 0 () , < 1.
, 2 3 < 1 , , limx (1 + x2 (x + 1)) = .
(2) 0
y = x x [0, +),
0 0 x x 0 [0, 1). 0 () ,
> 0.
(3) ,

, . ,
,
{
x sin x1 , x > 0
y=
0,
x = 0
208
[0, +).
. ,
6, 7 8 3.10, 7 8 4.8, 2
3 5.5, 6.2, 6 7
6.4 3, 4 5 6.5.
0, limx0+ x sin x1 = 0. x =
1
1
(n Z, n 0) x sin x1 = x > 0 x = 3 +n2
(n Z, n 0)
+n2
2
x sin x1 = x < 0. n ,
0. , [0, d),
0.
0 .
.
Fermat. y = f (x) (a, b)
(a, b). y = f (x),
(i) y = f (x) ,
(ii) y = f (x) f 0 () = 0.
6.6: Fermat.
. y = f (x). (c, d) (a, b)

f (x) f () x (c, d). (i),
0
0
f 0 (). f+
() f
() f 0 ()
.
()
0
0. f 0 () = f+
() =
x (, d) f (x)f
x
limx+
f (x)f ()
x
0. , x (c, )
f (x)f ()
x
0.
0. f 0 () = 0 ,
f () =
=
, (ii).
, , 0
0 .
0
0
f
()
()
limx f (x)f
x
Fermat . y = f (x)

y = f (x),
(, f ()) 0, .
209
. (1) 0 () y = |x|,
(, +), 0.
(2) 0 () y = x2 ,
(, +), 0 , ,

d x2
=
2xx=0 = 0.
dx x=0
Fermat .
,
: () ,

0. .
. y = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 5 [0, 4].
3
2
y = d(2x 9xdx+12x+5) = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2),
[0, 4] 0 4
1 2 .
5, 37, 10 9, .
. [0, 4],
.
, , 0 (
5) 4 ( 37).
1 2 .
[0, 2] ,
. 0, 1 2
. 5, 10
9, 1 [0, 2] , ,
[0, 4].
, 1, 2 4 10, 9 37, ,
2 [1, 4] , ,
[0, 4].
.
Fermat
.
6.4. (1) y = f (x) [, b)
y = f (x).
(i) f+0 (),
(ii) f+0 () f+0 () 0 f+0 () 0, .
(2) y = f (x) (a, ]
y = f (x).
(i) f0 (),
(ii) f0 () f0 () 0 f0 () 0, .
. (1) y = f (x). [, d)
0
f (x) f () x [, d). (i), f+
().
f (x)f ()
f (x)f ()
0

0 x (, d) , , f+ () = limx+ x
0.
x
(1) (2) .
, f+0 () 0 f+0 () 0, f+0 () = f+0 () = +, . f0 ().

210
. (1) y = x [0, 2] 0
0 , , 1 0.
2 2 1 0.
(2) y = x [0, 2] 0
0 , , + 0.

Rolle. y = f (x) [a, b]
(a, b). f (a) = f (b), (a, b) f 0 () = 0.
6.7: Rolle.
. .
(i) y = f (x) [a, b], f (a) = f (b),
0 (a, b), .
y = f (x) [a, b], (ii) > f (a) = f (b) (iii)
< f (a) = f (b). .
(ii) - [a, b],
y = f (x). f (a) = f (b),
f () > f (a) = f (b) , , (a, b). ,
y = f (x) , Fermat, f 0 () = 0.
(iii) - [a, b],
y = f (x). < f (a) = f (b),
f () < f (a) = f (b) , , (a, b). , y = f (x)
, Fermat, f 0 () = 0.
(a, b) f 0 () = 0.
. y
= x3 + 2x2 3x 5 [2, 3],
3) 1.
(2,
(2, 3), y = 3x2 + 4x 3

0.
2 13
2
3x + 4x 3 = 0.

3
(2, 3).
Rolle f 0 () = 0.
y = f (x) Rolle
(a, b), (a, b) f 0 () = 0.
. y = |x| [1, 1]
1. , (1, 1)
0.
211
Rolle +
(a, b). .
.
(Lagrange). y = f (x)
[a, b] (a, b). (a, b)
f (b) f (a)
= f 0 ().
ba
6.8: .
. y = h(x) = (b a)f (x) (f (b) f (a))x

[a, b] (a, b). , h(a) = h(b). (a, b)
(a)
h0 () = 0. (b a)f 0 () (f (b) f (a)) = 0 , , f (b)f
= f 0 ().
ba
Rolle (Lagrange). , f (a) = f (b), (Lagrange)

(a)
(a, b) f 0 () = f (b)f
= 0. , (Lagrange)
ba
Rolle. (Lagrange)
Rolle. .
y = f (x) (Lagrange),
(a)

f (b)f
ba
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)). ,
(Lagrange) , y = f (x) [a, b] (a, b),
(, f ()) , ,
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)).
. y = sin x [0, 2 ] (0, 2 ).
sin( )sin 0
(0, 2 ) cos = 2 0 = 2 .
2
.
(Cauchy). y = f (x) y = g(x)
[a, b] (a, b) (i) g(a) 6= g(b)
(ii) x (a, b) f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) = 0. (a, b)

212
f (b) f (a)
f 0 ()
= 0
.
g(b) g(a)
g ()
. y = h(x) = (g(b) g(a))f (x) (f (b) f (a))g(x)
[a, b] (a, b). , h(a) = h(b). (a, b)
h0 () = 0. (g(b) g(a))f 0 () (f (b) f (a))g 0 () = 0 , , (g(b) g(a))f 0 () =
(b)f (a) 0
(f (b) f (a))g 0 (). g(a) 6= g(b), fg(b)g(a)
g () = f 0 (). g 0 () = 0,
f 0 () = 0, . g 0 () 6= 0,
f (b)f (a)
g(b)g(a)
f 0 ()
g 0 ()
. 0 < a < b, m, n a < 0
y=
y=
0,
x = 0
0,
x = 0
{ (
)
x 1 + sin x1 , x > 0
y=
0,
x = 0
{ (
)
x2 1 + sin x1 ,
y=
0,
x > 0
x = 0
0.
(: .)
.
2. a < b.
(i) a < < b
sin bsin a
ba
(ii) a < < b

(iii) a < < b
sin bsin a
eb ea
= cos .
= e cos .
eb ea
arctan barctan a
= (1 + 2 )e .
3. x3 12x = c [2, 2];

(, 2]; [2, +);
5
4. y = 2 x2 1 1
1. (1, 1)
;
5. Rolle , n-
n .
213
6. y = (x+4)(x+1)(x2)(x3)
.
, a1 < a2 < . . . < an y =
(x a1 )(x a2 ) (x an ) n 1 .
a1 , . . . , an .
(: .)
7. x2 = x sin x + cos x .
0.
2
8. ex = 1; ex = 1 + x; ex = 1 + x + x2 ;
2
n
: ex = 1+ 1!x + x2! + + xn! ;
(: .)
9. y = f (x) [1, 4], f (1) = 7 f 0 (x) 3 x
(1, 4).
f (4) = 1; f (4) 2.
2 y = f (x)
f (4) = .
(: y = f (x) = ax + b .)
10. y = f (x) I
I. y1 y2 d,
x1 x2 I f (x1 ) = y1 f (x2 ) = y2 .
(i) |f 0 (x)| m > 0 x I,
x1 x2 md .
(ii) |f 0 (x)| m < + x I,
x1 x2 md .
11. y = f (x) I f 0 (x) 6= 0
x I.
y = f (x) -- I.
12. y = f (x) y = g(x) I
f (x)g 0 (x) f 0 (x)g(x) 6= 0 x I.
f (x) = 0 I g(x) = 0 .
(: a, b I a 0 > f0 (b);
214
14. Darboux. y = f (x) [a, b]

f+0 (a) < c < f0 (b) f+0 (a) > c > f0 (b).
(a, b) f 0 () = c.
(: y = g(x) = f (x)cx.)

[a, b] , , .
15. y = f (x) [ h, + h]
( h, ) (, + h). :
f (+h)f (h)
h
(i) (0, h)
(ii) (0, h)
= f 0 ( + ) + f 0 ( ).
f (+h)2f ()+f (h)

h
= f 0 ( + ) f 0 ( ).
16. y = f (x) (0, +) |f 0 (x)|

limx+ (f (x + x) f (x)) = 0.
1
x
x > 0,
(: x > 0 [x, x +
.)
x]
17. y = f (x) (0, +) limx+ f 0 (x) = 0,

limx+ (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.
(: > 0 limx+ f 0 (x) = 0.
x [x, x + 1] |f (x + 1) f (x)| < .)
18. y = f (x) [, b) (, b).
limx+ f 0 (x), f+0 ()
.
(: > 0 limx+ f 0 (x) = . x
()
< .)
[, x] f (x)f
x
y = f (x) (a, ] (a, ).
limx f 0 (x), f0 ()
.
6.9 .
6.9.1
6.5.

(1) y = f (x)
(2) y = f (x)
(3) y = f (x)
y = f (x)
I.
I f 0 (x) = 0 x I.
I f 0 (x) 0 x I.
I f 0 (x) 0 x I.
. (1) y = f (x) , . ,
f 0 (x) = 0 x I. x1 x2 I
x1 < x2 ( I). y = f (x) [x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , x2 ). (x1 , x2 ) , ,
(x1 )
= f 0 () = 0. f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). y = f (x)
I, f (xx22)f
x1
, y = f (x) I.
(2) y = f (x) I, , ,
215
f 0 (x) 0 x . , f 0 (x) 0 x .
(1), x1 x2 I x1 < x2
(x1 )
(x1 , x2 ) , , I, f (xx22)f
= f 0 () 0.
x1
f (x1 ) f (x2 ) , , y = f (x) I.
(3) (2).
6.5.

. ,

- . , ,
.
6.5.
6.6. y = f (x)
I.
(1) f 0 (x) > 0 x , y = f (x) I.
(2) f 0 (x) < 0 x , y = f (x) I.
. 6.5.
6.5 6.6 f 0 (x) 0 f 0 (x) > 0

f 0 (x) = +. , f 0 (x) 0 f 0 (x) < 0
f 0 (x) = . 6.7 .
(1) (2) 6.6. y = f (x)
, ,
f 0 (x) 0 x I. y = f (x)
.
. y = x3 (, +) f 0 (x) > 0
x3
x (, +). : ddx
= 3x2 x > 0 x 6= 0
0 x = 0.
6.5 6.6
. ,
.
. (1) y = |x|
,
x
(, 0) (0, +), (, 0) (0, +). 1
(, 0) 1 (0, +).
(2) y = x1 x12 < 0 , (, 0)
(0, +), (, 0) (0, +).
(, 0) (0, +).

.
6.7. y = f (x) (a, b),
(c, d) (a, b) (c, d).
(1) f 0 (x) 0 x (c, ) f 0 (x) 0 x (, d),
y = f (x).
(2) f 0 (x) 0 x (c, ) f 0 (x) 0 x (, d),
y = f (x).
216
. (1) y = f (x) (c, ] [, d), f ()

(c, d).
(2) .
6.7.
y = f (x) ( )
1 , 2 , . . . , n ()

. (i) () , (ii)
k
(iii) k
.
6.9: .
y = f (x) 1 , 2 , . . . , n ;
.
. (1) 6.8. y = 2x3 9x2 +
12x + 5 [0, 4] y = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2)
(0, 4). (0, 1) (2, 4) (1, 2).
[0, 1] [2, 4] [1, 2] ,
, 0 2 1 4
.
4
)
(2) y = x4 (x 1)4 (, +) d (x (x1)
= 4x3 (x 1)4 +
dx
4x4 (x 1)3 = 8x3 (x 1)3 (x 21 ). (0, 12 ) (1, +)
(, 0) ( 21 , 1). [0, 21 ]
[1, +) (, 0] [ 21 , 1]. , 0 1 12 . 0 1 0 ,
0 x4 (x 1)4 x, 0 1 . 21
1
, 256
, limx x4 (x 1)4 = +.
(3) y = x + x1 (, 0) (0, +).

d
(x + x1 ) = 1 x12 (, 1) (1, +)
dx
(1, 0) (0, 1). (, 1] [1, +)
[1, 0) (0, 1] , , 1
217
1 . , 1
(, 0) 1 (0, +).
(4) y = | sin x| [0, 2] y = sin x (0, )
sin x
y = sin x (, 2). , d dx
= cos x
d ( sin x)
(0, )
= cos x (, 2).
dx
(0, 2 ) (, 3
) ( 2 , ) ( 3
, 2).
2
2
3
[0, 2 ] [, 2 ]
, 2]. , 0, 2 2 3
[ 2 , ] [ 3
2
2
. 0,
, 1,
.

sin x|
, 0, 2. 0: d |dx
=
x=0

| sin x|| sin(2)|
| sin x|| sin 0|
d | sin x|
sin xsin 0
= limx0+ x0 = cos 0 = 1. 2: dx x=2 = limx2
=
limx0+
x0
x2
sin x+sin(2)
sin xsin(2)
limx2
= limx2 x2 = cos(2) = 1. , x2

sin |
d | sin x|
x+sin
. : dx x=+ = limx+ | sin x||

= limx+ sinx
= limx+ sin xsin
=
x
x

cos = 1 d | sin x|
= limx | sin x|| sin | = limx sin xsin = cos = 1.
dx
6.9.2
x=
. , .

6.5 6.6.
cos x
sin x
. (1) d dx
= sin x d dx
=
2
2
cos x (cos x) + (sin x) = 1 x.
2
2
d ((cos x)dx+(sin x) ) = 2 cos x sin x + 2 sin x cos x = 0 x (, +).
6.5 y = (cos x)2 + (sin x)2 (, +),
c (cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = c x (, +).
c, x ; : c =
(cos 0)2 + (sin 0)2 = 1.
(2)
ex x + 1
x ( ).
. y = f (x) = ex x 1
(, +). f (0) = 0 x > 0.
x
(0)
(0, x) e x1
= f (x)f
= f 0 () = e 1.
x
x0
> 0, e 1 > 0 , , ex x 1 > 0. , ,
x < 0, (x, 0)
x
(0)
= f (x)f
= f 0 () = e 1. < 0, e 1 < 0 ,
e x1
x
x0
x
, e x 1 > 0.
, , x 6= 0 ex > x + 1 x = 0
, , e0 = 0 + 1.
. .
y = f (x) = ex x 1 f 0 (x) = ex 1
> 0 x > 0 < 0 x < 0.
[0, +) (, 0]. f (x) > f (0) = 0 x 6= 0.
218
(3) cos x 1 x2 x.
2
. y = f (x) = cos x 1 + x2
(, +). f (0) = 0 x 6= 0. (0, x)
2
cos x1+ x
(0)
2
(x, 0)
= f (x)f
= f 0 () = sin . x > 0, > 0
x
x0
, , > sin . , x < 0, < 0 , , < sin .
2
cos x > 1 x2 .
2
. y = f (x) = cos x 1 + x2 f 0 (x) = x sin x
> 0 (0, +) < 0 (, 0).
[0, +) (, 0] , , f (x) > f (0) = 0 x 6= 0.
.
. .
1.
.
x2 2x + 3
x
2
3
2
y = x x 1, y = x 15x + 72x + 7, y = 2
, y=
,
x + 2x + 3
x+4
y = x2 ex ,
y = sin x cos x,
y = x + | sin x|,
y=
log x
,
x
y=
sin(3x)
cos x,
3
y = |x|e|x1| ,
y = x + sin x,
y = arctan x log(1 + x2 ) .
)x
(
2. y = 1 + x1 (0, +).
{
x x2 sin x1 , x 6= 0
3. y =
0,
x = 0

ddxy x=0 = 1 > 0.
a > 0, ,
(a, a).
4. .
(i) y = (x 1)|x| [1, 3].
(ii) y = |x2 3x + 2| [3, 10].
(iii) y =
(iv) y =
(log x)2
x
x + x1
x
[1, 3].
[ 13 , 3].
(v) y = e sin x [0, 2].

5. a > 0 y = a log x + 2a x
(0, +) .
6. a1 < a2 < < an1 < an .
.
y = (x a1 )2 + + (x an )2 ,
219
y = |x a1 | + + |x an |.
7. y = f (x) Hlder- Hlder- > 1 ( 7

5.1). f 0 () = 0.
8. |f (x2 ) f (x1 )| M |x2 x1 | x1 , x2 I.
y = f (x) Hlder- I Hlder- .
= 1, y = f (x) Lipschitz- I.
, > 1, y = f (x) I.
(: .)
9. y = f (x) (a, b), a < 0.
f (x) > f () f (x) < f ()
.
(: f 0 () 4.6.)
3.
y = f (x);
f 0 () < 0;
10. y = f (x) I f 0 (x) 6= 0
x I. 11
y = f (x) -- I.
(1) y = f (x) I.
(: : 8 5.5. :
Fermat , x1 , x3 I x1 < x3
y = f (x) [x1 , x3 ] x1 , x3 . x1 , x2 , x3
I x1 < x2 < x3 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) < f (x3 ) f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) > f (x3 ).
: (2) .)
(2) f 0 (x) > 0 x I f 0 (x) < 0
x I.
(: : (1) . :
a, b I a 0 > f 0 (b),
13 14 .)
11. . l
M = (x0 , y0 ) . M l
M l d(M, l).
(i) l x = ,
d(M, l) = | x0 |.
(ii) l y = x + ,
d(M, l) =
|x0 + y0 |
.
1 + 2
ax + by = c, a, b
6= 0,
|ax0 + by0 c|
.
d(M, l) =
a 2 + b2
220
12. l . ;
13.
A1 d1 A2
d2 . ()
v1
v2 .
A1 A2 .
14. h r.

;

;
15. y = f (x) y = g(x) [0, b]
(0, b), f (0) = g(0) = 0 f 0 (x) > 0 g 0 (x) > 0 x (0, b).
(i) y = f 0 (x) (0, b), y =
(0, b].
(ii) y =
(0, b].
f 0 (x)
g 0 (x)
(0, b), y =
f (x)
x
f (x)
g(x)

x
y=
,
sin x
y=
1 2
x
2
1 cos x
y=
1 3
x
6
x sin x
(0, 2 ).
. , .
1.
d (arccos y+arcsin y)
dy
= 0 y (1, 1).
2 1.4, arccos y +
arcsin y = 2 y [1, 1].
.
2.
d (arctan x+arctan x1 )
dx
= 0 x 6= 0.
arctan x + arctan x1 =
x < 0.
x > 0 arctan x + arctan x1 = 2
6.5 y = arctan x + arctan x1

;
3. y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, b) a < 0 < b.
f 0 (x) = g(x), g 0 (x) = f (x) x (a, b) f (0) = 0
g(0) = 1.
;
221
f (x)2 + g(x)2 = 1 x (a, b).

y = F (x) y = G(x) , F (x) = f (x)
G(x) = g(x) x (a, b).
(: y = (F (x) f (x))2 + (G(x) g(x))2 .)
4.
2
x
< sin x < x x (0, 2 ).
5. log 1+x
> 2x +
1x
2x3
3
x (0, 1).
6. log 1+x
< 2x +
1x
2x3
3
x4
2
x (0, 12 ].
7. e x+1 < 1 + x x > 1.

8. x > arctan x > x
x3
3
x > 0.
9. y = f (x) [a, b]
(a, b).
(i) f 0 (x) x (a, b), f (a) + (x a) f (x)
f (b) + (x b) x [a, b].
(ii) f 0 (x) x (a, b), f (b) + (x b) f (x)
f (a) + (x a) x [a, b].
10. 0 < x < y < +. :
(i) a > 1, axa1 <
y a xa
yx
(ii) 0 < a < 1, ay a1 <
< ay a1 .
y a xa
yx
< axa1 .
11. x < y a > 0, a 6= 1. ax log a <

12. 0 < x < y.
1
y
13. 0 x < y.
yx
1+y 2
<
1
yx
log( xy ) <
1
x
ay ax
yx
< ay log a.
< arctan y arctan x <
yx
1+x2
14.
ex 1 +
x
,
1!
ex 1 +
x
x2
+
,
1!
2!
ex 1 +
x
x2 x3
+
+
1!
2!
3!
x 0.
;
, x 0 , ,
, .
15.
sin x
x
,
1!
sin x
x
x3
,
1!
3!
sin x
x
x3 x5
+
1!
3!
5!
x 0 x 0.
222
, ,
cos x 1
x2
,
2!
cos x 1
x2 x4
+
,
2!
4!
cos x 1
x2 x4 x6
+
2!
4!
6!
x.
;
16. a1 , . . . , an > 0.
y =
.
a1 ++a
n +x
(n+1) n+1 a1 an x
(0, +).
Cauchy.
a1 an
a1 + + an
.
n
(: .)
n
a1 = . . . = an .
: n a1 an = a1 ++a
n
17. a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn , 1 , . . . , n > 0 1 + + n = 1. , 0 < t < 1
a, b > 0.
Young.
a1t bt (1 t)a + tb
a = b.
(: x =
b
a
y = xt tx + t (0, +).)
Hlder.
(
)1t (
)t
a1 1t b1 t + + an 1t bn t a1 + + an
b1 + + bn

B = b1 + + bn .
ak
A
bk
B
k, A = a1 + +an
(: Young
ak bk
,
A B
.)
1
x
y = (1 a1 x + + n an x ) (, 0) (0, +).
(: 0 < x < x0 , Hlder k , k ak x
t = xx0 . x < x0 < 0 x < 0 < x0 .)
limx0 (1 a1 x + + n an x ) x = a1 1 an n .
(
)
x ++ a x
x
x
log
a
1
n
n
1
1
n an 1
(: log(1 a1 x + + n an x ) x = 1 a1 x ++n an x 1 1 a1 ++
.)
x

0
(1 a1 x + + n an x ) x a1 1 an n (1 a1 x + + n an x ) x0
x, x0 x < 0 < x0 . Cauchy
.
223
6.10
y = f (x)
y = f 0 (x), ,
0
0 ()
, limx f (x)f
.
x
y = f (x)
d2 f (x)
d2 y
f 0 (x) f 0 ()
f () D f ()
.
=
lim

x
dx2 x=
dx2 x=
x
00

.
y = f (x) [, b) (a, ], , ,
.
, ,
, n- (n 1)- .
f (1) f (2) .
f 000 f (3)
, n-

f
(n)
()
D f ()
dn f (x)

dxn x=
dn y
.
dxn x=
, , n- y = f (x)
f (n1) (x) f (n1) ()
x
x
f (n) () = lim
(n 1)-
.
, y = f (0) (x) y = f (x).
n
x
. (1) n , y = xn ddx
= nxn1 , ddxx2 =
3 n
n1 xn
n n
n(n 1)xn2 , ddxx3 = n(n 1)(n 2)xn3 , . . . , ddxn1
= n(n 1) 2x ddxxn = n(n
1) 2 1. n- ,
m xn
0, ddxm
= 0 m > n.
a
x
= axa1 , ddxx2 = a(a1)xa2 ,
(2) a 0, y = xa ddx
m a
d3 xa
= a(a 1)(a 2)xa3 , , m ddxmx = a(a 1) (a m + 1)xam .
dx3
x 0 , ,
0.
(3) a > 0, a 6= 1, y = ax
d m ax
= ax (log a)m m.
dxm
m x
y = ex ddxme = ex m.
2
d ax
dx
= ax log a,
d 2 ax
dx2
= ax (log a)2 , ,
sin x
(4) y = sin x d dx
= cos x, d dxsin2 x = sin x, d dxsin3 x = cos x, d dxsin4 x = sin x.
: sin x, cos x, sin x,
2k sin x
2k1 sin x
cos x. d dx2k
= (1)k sin x d dx2k1
= (1)k1 cos x
k.
224
cos x
, y = cos x d dx
= sin x, d dxcos2 x = cos x, d dxcos3 x = sin x,
4
d cos x
= cos x. : cos x,
dx4
2k
2k1 cos x
x
sin x, cos x, sin x. d dxcos
= (1)k cos x d dx2k1
= (1)k sin x
2k
k.
.
6.10.1

.
. y = f (x) (a, b),
(a, b) y = f (x) .
(1) f 0 () = 0 f 00 () > 0, y = f (x).
(2) f 0 () = 0 f 00 () < 0, y = f (x).
. (1) f 0 () = 0 f 00 () > 0. f 00 () = limx
f 0 (x)f 0 ()
x
0
f 0 (x)f 0 ()
x
(a, )(, b)
> 0 x . , f 0 (x) > f 0 () = 0
0
x (, b) f (x) < f () = 0 x (a, ). y = f (x)
[, b) (a, ], (a, ] [, b) , ,
.
(2) .
2
x
= 2x ddxx2 = d(2x)
= 2,
. (1) y = x2 ddx
dx

2
2
d x
= 2 > 0. 0 .
dx2 x=0
d x2
dx x=0
= 0
x
(2) . y = x4 ddx
= 4x3

3
2 4
)
d2 x4
x4
= d(4x
= 12x2 , ddx
= 0 ddxx2 x=0 = 0. , 0
dx2
dx
x=0
.
6.10.2 .
y = f (x) I x1 x2 I x1 < x2
[x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )). , y = f (x)
I x1 x2 I x1 < x2
[x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )).
.
l (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
y=
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x1 ) + f (x1 ).
x2 x1
x [x1 , x2 ],
(x, f (x)) y = f (x)
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )) (x, f (x))
(x, y) l,
f (x)
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x1 ) + f (x1 ).
x2 x1
225
6.10: .
, , y = f (x) I x1 x2
I x1 < x2 x [x1 , x2 ] .
, y = f (x) I
x1 x2 I x1 < x2 x [x1 , x2 ] :
f (x)
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x1 ) + f (x1 ).
x2 x1

. t [0, 1] x = (1 t)x1 + tx2
x1 x2 . , x x1 x2
t [0, 1] x = (1 t)x1 + tx2 . ,
1
, [0, 1]. , ,
t, t = xxx
2 x1
(
) (
)
f (1 t)x1 + tx2 f (x2 ) f (x1 ) t + f (x1 ) =
(1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) . y = f (x)
I x1 x2 x1 < x2
(
)
f (1 t)x1 + tx2 (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
(0 t 1).
:
(
)
f (1 t)x1 + tx2 (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
(
)
f (1 t)x1 + tx2 (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ). , x1 = x2 ,
, , .
. (1) y = x + (, +).
: ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) + = (1 t)(x1 + ) + t(x2 + ).
(2) y = x2 (, +). ,
2x1 x2 x21 + x22 , : ((1 t)x1 + tx2 )2 = (1 t)2 x21 + 2t(1 t)x1 x2 + t2 x22
(1 t)2 x21 + t(1 t)(x21 + x22 ) + t2 x22 = (1 t)x21 + tx22 .
(3) y = |x| (, +). : |(1t)x1 +tx2 | |(1t)x1 |+|tx2 | =
(1 t)|x1 | + t|x2 |.

.
226
6.11: : .
6.8. y = f (x) I
I.
(1) y = f (x) I I.
(2) y = f (x) I I.
. (1) y = f (x) I. x1
x2 I x1 < x2 f 0 (x1 ) f 0 (x2 ). x x1 x2
(x1 )
(x1 )
(x1 )
f (x) f (xx22)f
(x x1 ) + f (x1 ). f (x)f
f (xx22)f
, ,
x1
xx1
x1
x x1 + , f 0 (x1 )
(x1 )
(x2 )
f (xx22)f
f (x)f
, ,
x1
xx2
f (x2 )f (x1 )
0
f (x2 ). ,
x2 x1
f (x2 )f (x1 )
.
x2 x1
x x2 ,
f 0 (x1 ) f 0 (x2 ).
, . x1 x2
I ( ) x1 < x2 x (x1 , x2 ).
[x1 , x] (x1 , x),
(x1 )
1 (x1 , x) f (x)f
= f 0 (1 ).
xx1
f (x2 )f (x)
= f 0 (2 ). , f 0 (1 ) f 0 (2 ),
x2 x
(x1 )
(x)
(x1 )
f (x)f
f (xx22)f
. f (x) f (xx22)f
(x x1 ) + f (x1 ) x
xx1
x
x1
(x1 , x2 ) x = x1 x = x2 ,
2 (x, x2 )
I.
(2) (1).
{
{
2x2 , x 0
4x , x 0
dy
=

. y =
dx
2x , 0 x
x2 , 0 x
(, +) , , (, +). ,
6.9, 0.
6.8
. y = f (x) lx
(x, f (x)). lx
f 0 (x). 6.8 y = f (x) , x ,
lx .
, y = f (x) , x , lx
.

, .
227
6.9. y = f (x) I
I.
(1) y = f (x) I f 00 (x) 0 x I.
(2) y = f (x) I f 00 (x) 0 x I.
2
dy
d y
= 3x2 6x + 2 dx
. (1) y = x(x 1)(x 2) dx
2 = 6x 6.
d2 y
(, 1) dx2 0 , , (, 1].
d2 y
(1, +) dx
2 0, [1, +).
(2) n , y = xn (, +). n
, y = xn (, 0] [0, +).
2 n
, n , ddxx2 = n(n 1)xn2 0 x , n
2 n
2 n
, ddxx2 = n(n 1)xn2 0 x > 0 ddxx2 = n(n 1)xn2 0
x < 0.
(3) y = xa (0, +), a 0 a 1, (0, +), 0 a 1.
2 a
ddxx2 = a(a 1)xa2 a(a 1).
(4) y = ax (, +) a > 0
d2 ax
dx2
= ax (log a)2 0 x.
(5) y = loga x (0, +), a > 1, (0, +), 0 < a < 1.

2 log x
a
= x12 log1 a log1 a .
d dx
2
6.10.3 .
y = f (x) (a, b) (a, b).
y = f (x) . y = f (x)
, (, f ())
y = f 0 ()(x ) + f (), f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x
(c, ] f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x [, d) , ,
f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x (c, ] f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f ()
x [, d), y = f (x).
, f 0 () +
y = f (x).
y = f (x)
(, f ()) (, f ())

(, f ()).
6.12: : f 0 () .
228
6.13: : f 0 () = + .
6.10
y = f (x) , f 0 ()
.
6.10. y = f (x) (a, b), (a, b)
y = f (x) . y = f (x) (c, ]
[, d) , , (c, ] [, d),
.
. , , y = f (x) (c, ] [, d).
()
6.8 , (c, ], f (x)f
f 0 ()
x
()
f 0 () x
x (c, ] , [, d), f (x)f
x
0
0
[, d). f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x (c, ] f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x
[, d).
, ,
.
:
6.11. y = f (x) (a, b), (a, b)
y = f (x) . f 00 (x) 0 x (c, )
f 00 (x) 0 x (, d) , , f 00 (x) 0 x
(c, ) f 00 (x) 0 x (, d), .
2
d y
dy
= 3x2 dx
. y = x3 dx
2 = 6x.
d2 y
d2 y
0 (, 0) dx2 0 (0, +), 0 .
dx2
6.10.4 .
l y = f (x)
(, f ()) l
l. , l y = x + ,
f () = + f (x) x + x y = f (x).
, l y = f (x)
(, f ()) l
l. , l y = x + ,
f () = + f (x) x + x y = f (x).
229
6.14: .
f () = + l y = x+f ()
, , y = (x ) + f (). , , l
y = f (x) (, f ()) y = (x ) + f ()

f (x) (x ) + f ()
x y = f (x). , ,
:
f (x) (x ) + f ()
f (x) (x ) + f (). ,
.
. (1) y = |x|
(0, 0) y = x.
|x| x x (, +). x = 1 1
x = 1 1 , , 1 1. ,
1 1, x |x| = |||x| |x| x.
y = |x| (0, 0) y = x (1 1).
(2) y = (x2 1)2 (0, 1)
y = x + 1.
(x2 1)2 x + 1 x (, +). , x = 1 0 + 1
x = 1 0 + 1 . .
6.12
.
6.12. y = f (x) I,
I, y = f (x) l
y = f (x) (, f ()).
y = f (x) (, f ()), l.
. y = (x ) + f (), f (x)
(x ) + f () x I. .
()
x > I f (x)f
, x + , f 0 () . ,
x
()
x < I f (x)f
, x , f 0 () .
x
0
= f (), y = f 0 ()(x ) + f () l.
.
230
. (1) y = x2
(3, 9). ,
, y = 6(x 3) + 9.
x2 6(x 3) + 9 x. (x 3)2 0 x ,
, .
(2) , y = x3
(3, 27). ,
y = 27(x 3) + 27 x3 27(x 3) + 27 x.
x3 27x + 54 0 x .
limx (x3 27x + 54) = . :
(10)3 27(10) + 54 = 676 < 0. y = x3
(3, 27)
.
6.13. y = f (x) I,
I, y = f (x) l y = f (x)
(, f ()).
(1) y = f (x) I, l
(, f ()).
(2) y = f (x) I, l
(, f ()).
. (1) l y = f 0 ()(x ) + f (). x I x >
()
f 0 () f (x)f
, , f (x) f () f 0 ()(x ), f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f (). ,
x
()
, , f (x) f () f 0 ()(x ),
x I x < f 0 () f (x)f
x
0
f (x) f ()(x ) + f (). , , f (x) f 0 ()(x ) + f () x I
, , l . l
6.12.
(2) (1).
. y = ex (, +). , y = ex
(0, e0 ) = (0, 1) ,
y = x + 1. ex x + 1 x (, +).
6.10.5 .
.
, , ( )
.
x1 +x2
2
. (1) e 2 e 1 +e
x1 , x2 .
2
y = ex . , y = ex
(, +), e(1t)x1 +tx2 (1 t)ex1 + tex2 x1 x2 , x1 6= x2 ,
t [0, 1]. t = 21 ,
x1 6= x2 . x1 = x2
, , .
2
(2) (x1 + x2 ) log x1 +x
x1 log x1 + x2 log x2 x1 , x2 > 0.
2
2
x)
= x1 0 x
, y = x log x (0, +), d (xdxlog
2
(0, +). , ,
2 log x2
2
2
log x1 +x
x1 log x1 +x
x1 , x2
t = 12 , x1 +x
2
2
2
231
(0, +), x1 6= x2 . x1 6= x2 ,
x1 = x2 , , .
3
(3) x 4 34 (x 1) + 1 x 0.
;
3
y = x 4 [0, +).
3
y = x 4 (1, 1)
.
.
. .
{
x2 ,
x 0
1. y =
(, +),
2
x , x 0
(, 0) (0, +) 0.
{
xk ,
x 0

, k y =
k
x , x 0
dn y
( ) dx
n n.
2. y = g(x) (a, ] y = h(x)
0
00
{ [, b). g() = h(), g
() = h0+ () g
() = h00+ (),
g(x) , a < x
00
y = f (x) =
f 00 () = g
() =
h(x) , x < b
h00+ ().
3. y = p(x) n 1, y = p0 (x)
n 1. . (:
.)
N 0. f (N +1) (x) = 0 x
( ) I y = f (x) N .
4. y = f (x) (a, b) f (x)f 00 (x) 0
x (a, b). (a, b) f (x)f 0 (x) = 0,
y = f (x) .
(
)0
(: f (x)f 0 (x) .)
5. y = p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN .

p(n) (0) = n!an ,
an =
p(n) (0)
n!
n = 0, 1, . . . , N .
, p(n) (0) = 0 n N + 1.
y0 , y1 , . . . , yN . y = p(x) N
p(n) (0) = yn n = 0, 1, . . . , N .
;
232
6. p(x) k 2.
, p(x) (x )k , ,
p0 (x), (x )k1 .
, , p0 (x) (x )k1 p() = 0,
p(x) (x )k .
(: p(x) = q(x)(x )k + r(x) q(x), r(x), r(x)
k.)
7. y = (x2 1)n . n
n (1, 1).
dn y
dxn
= 0
(: .)
8. Leibniz:
(n)
(f g)
n ( )
n (k)
(x) =
f (x)g (nk) (x).
k
k=0
(: Newton. )
9. y = f (x) = e x (0, +).
1
n f (n) (x) = x2n pn (x)e x

x (0, +), pn (x) n1. :
p1 (x) = 1, p2 (x) = 1 2x, p3 (x) = 1 6x + 6x2 .
1
pn+1 (x) = x2 pn 0 (x) + (1 2nx)pn (x) (0, +).

(: f (n) (x) = x2n pn (x)e x .)
1
pn+2 (x) = (1 2(n + 1)x)pn+1 (x) n(n + 1)x2 pn (x) (0, +).
(: x2 f 0 (x) = f (x) (0, +) n
Leibniz .)
xn1 pn (x) (1)n1 n!.
x2 pn 00 (x) (2nx 2x 1)pn 0 (x) + n(n 1)pn (x) = 0 (0, +).
x2
10. y = f (x) = e 2 (, +).

x2
n f (n) (x) = pn (x)e 2

x (, +), pn (x) n. :
p1 (x) = x, p2 (x) = 1 + x2 , p3 (x) = 3x + x3 .
pn+1 (x) = pn 0 (x) + xpn (x) (, +).
pn+1 (x) = xpn (x) + npn1 (x) (, +).
(: f 0 (x) = xf (x) (, +) n
Leibniz .)
xn pn (x) 1.
pn 00 (x) + xpn 0 (x) npn (x) = 0 (, +).
233
11. (x, y), (x0 , y 0 ) (x00 , y 00 ) xy-

. R

(x0 x)2 + (y 0 y)2 (x00 x)2 + (y 00 y)2 (x0 x00 )2 + (y 0 y 00 )2

.
2(x0 x)(y 00 y) (x00 x)(y 0 y)
x = x(t) y = y(t) (a < t < b) xy. t (a, b) h > 0 (x(t), y(t)),
(x(t + h), y(t + h)) (x(t h), y(t h)) . Rt,h
Rt limh0+ Rt,h , Rt
(x(t), y(t)).

)3
(x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 2
.
Rt = 00
x (t)y 0 (t) x0 (t)y 00 (t)

x = x(t) = x0 + r0 cos t y = y(t) = y0 + r0 sin t. ;
;

x = x(t) = x0 + 0 cos t y = y(t) = y0 + 0 sin t.
; ;
y = f (x) (x, f (x)),
x ,
3
(1+(f 0 (x))2 ) 2
|f 00 (x)|
y = x2
y = x1 .
;
;
. .
1.
.
y = x3 4x2 + x + 3,
y = xex ,
y = x log x.
. .
1. .
y = x3 3x2 + 6x,
y = x2 (x 1)2 ,
y=
x
,
x+1
y=
1
,
log x
y = sin x.
2. y = f (x) y = f (x)
.
y = f (x)
1 .
234
3. y = f (x) I x1 , x0 , x2 I x1 < x0 < x2 .

(x0 , f (x0 ))
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )), ,
x x1 < x < x2 (x, f (x)) ,
, [x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )).
(: x1 < x < x0 . x1 , x0 , x2 ,
x1 , x, x0 x, x0 , x2 .)
4. y = f (x) (, +),
(, +).
(: f (x) u x. x1 , x2 x1 < x2 .
x > x2 x1 , x2 , x f (x) u,
x + f (x2 ) f (x1 ). , x < x1
f (x2 ) f (x1 ).)
5. y = f (x) I,
I.
(: I. x1 , x2 I x1 < < x2 . < x < x2 ,
x1 , , x , x, x2
limx+ f (x).)
. .
1. .
y = x3 3x2 + 6x,
y = x2 (x 1)2 ,
y=
x
,
x+1
y=
{ (
)
x2 |x|
+ sin x1 ,
x
2. 0 y =
0,
1
,
log x
y = sin x.
x 6= 0
x = 0
6.10 6.11;
3. y = f (x) (a, b)
(a, b). f 0 (x) f 0 () x (a, b) f 0 (x) f 0 () x
(a, b), y = f (x).
. .
1.
.
y = x,
y = |x|,
y = x2 ,
y = x3 ,
y = e2x ,
y=
x2
1
,
+1
y = x log x.
2. y = f (x) I.
(1) x I
y = f (x) (x, f (x)), I.
(: x1 , x, x2 I x1 < x < x2 f (x1 ) (x1 x) + f (x)
f (x2 ) (x2 x) + f (x).)
235
(2) (1). y = f (x) I, x

I y = f (x)
(x, f (x)).
(x0 )
(: x0 I. f (x)f

xx0
(x0 )
x I \ {x0 }. limxx0 f (x)f
,
xx0
f (x)f (x0 )
f (x)f (x0 )
limxx0 xx0
limxx0 + xx0 .
y = (xx0 )+f (x0 )
y = f (x) (x0 , f (x0 )).)
. .
1. a 1 a 0.
(
)a
(1 t)x1 + tx2 (1 t)x1 a + tx2 a
xa a a1 (x ) + a
(x1 , x2 > 0, 0 t 1),

(x, > 0).
0 a 1.
2. a > 0.
a(1t)x1 +tx2 (1 t)ax1 + tax2
(0 t 1),
ax a log a (x ) + a .
3.
(
)
log (1 t)x1 + tx2 (1 t) log x1 + t log x2
1
log x (x ) + log
(x1 , x2 > 0, 0 t 1),

(x, > 0).
4. Young 17 6.9, a1t bt

(1 t)a + tb (a, b > 0, 0 < t < 1) : (i) y = log x
(0, +) (ii) xt (0, +) 0 < t < 1.
(:
(i) ) a1t bt (1 t)a + tb (1 t) log a + t log b
(
log (1 t)a + tb . (ii)
y = xt (1, 1) x = ab .)
5. y = f (x) I. x1 , . . . , xn I
1 , . . . , n > 0 1 + + n = 1.
)
(
f 1 x1 + + n xn 1 f (x1 ) + + n f (xn ).
(: n.
n n + 1 t = n+1 , x1 0 = 11n+1 x1 + + 1nn+1 xn x2 0 = xn+1 .)
Hlder 17 6.9
y = xt (0, +) 0 < t < 1.
(: x1 =
a1 + + an .)
b1
a1
, . . . , xn =
bn
an
1 =
a1
A
, . . . , n =
1
an
,
A
A =
a1 1 an n (1 a1 x + + n an x ) x 17
6.9 ( ) y = log x (0, +).
(: x1 = a1 x , . . . , xn = an x .)
236
6.11
00
. l Hopitl.
6.11.1 .
l Hopitl 00 .
l Hopitl. y = f (x) y = g(x)
(, b) g(x) 6= 0 g 0 (x) 6= 0 x (, b). , ,
0 (x)
limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0. limx+ fg0 (x)
,
limx+
f (x)
g(x)
.
f (x)
f 0 (x)
= lim 0
.
x+ g(x)
x+ g (x)
lim
( ) :
x , x , x + x .
. y = f (x) y = g(x) ,
f () = 0 g() = 0. limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0,
[, b).
0 (x)

0
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
= . > 0, > 0 fg0 (x)
<
x (, b) < x < + . (Cauchy)
0
(x)
(x)f ()
()
x (, b) (, x) fg(x)
= fg(x)g()
= fg0 ()
. ,
x (, b) < x < + (, b)
0 ()

(x)

< < + , fg0 ()
< , , fg(x)
< . , ,

f (x) < x (, b) < x < + . limx+ f (x) = .
g(x)
g(x)
0
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
:
= . ,
x x .
x + x 0+ .
y = f (x) y = g(x) (a, +) a > 0, g(x) 6= 0 g 0 (x) 6= 0
0
(x)
x (a, +) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0. limx+ fg0 (x)
(x)
limx+ fg(x)
.
1
t = x , F (t) = f ( 1t ) = f (x) G(t) = g( 1t ) = g(x) (0, a1 )
G(t) = g(x) 6= 0 G0 (t) = t12 g 0 ( 1t ) = x2 g 0 (x) 6= 0 t (0, a1 ). ,
limt0+
F 0 (t)
G0 (t)
= limx+
F (t)
limt0+ G(t)
x2 f 0 (x)
x2 g 0 (x)
= limx+
f 0 (x)
g 0 (x)
, , limt0+
F 0 (t)
G0 (t)
. limx+
0
(x)
limx+ fg(x)
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)

x x 0 .
.
f (x)
g(x)
= limt0+
F (t)
G(t)
sin x
. limx0 esin1
. ( 2 , 0) (0, 2 ) sin x 6= 0 d dx
=
x
x
cos x 6= 0. , limx0 (e 1) = limx0 sin x = 0.
x
x
= 1.
: limx0 cose x = 11 = 1. , limx0 esin1
x
x
l Hopitl
, , .
l Hopitl. y = f (x), y = g(x)

(, b) g(x) 6= 0 g 0 (x) 6= 0 x (, b). , ,
237
limx+ g(x) = + . limx+

.
f 0 (x)
g 0 (x)
, limx+
f (x)
g(x)
f (x)
f 0 (x)
= lim 0
.
x+ g(x)
x+ g (x)
lim
( ) :
x , x , x + x .
0
(x)
. limx+ fg0 (x)
= . > 0, 0 > 0
f 0 (x)

0
0

g (x) < 6 x (, b) < x < + .
x0 (, b) < x0 < + 0 . , limx+ |g(x)| = +, 00 > 0
{
}
|g(x)| > max |g(x0 )|, 3 |f (x0 )|, 3||
x (, b) < x < + 00 .
|g(x0 )|
00
= min{x0 , }. x (, b) < x < +
< x < x0 < + 0 < x < + 00 . (Cauchy)
0
(x)f (x0 )
()
x (x, x0 ) fg(x)g(x
= fg0 ()
.
0)
f (x)f (x0 )

f 0 ()

0

= 0
< .
(, b) < < + ,
g(x)g(x0 )
g ()
|f (x) f (x0 ) (g(x) g(x0 ))| < 6 |g(x) g(x0 )|, |f (x) g(x)| < 6 (|g(x)| + |g(x0 )|) + |f (x0 )| + |||g(x0 )|
(x)

(
) |f (x0 )|
|g(x0 )|

0 )|
< 6 1 + |g(x
, , fg(x)
|g(x)| + |g(x)| + || |g(x)| < 6 (1 + 1) + 3 + 3 = . , ,
f (x)

> 0
< x (, b) < x < + .
g(x)
limx+
f (x)
g(x)
= .
0
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
= x x
. x x 0 .
l Hopitl limx+ f (x)

( ). ,
l Hopitl, .
. (1)
xb
=0
x+ ax
lim
(b > 0, a > 1).
b = 1, limx+ axx = 0 a > 1.

limx+ x = + limx+ ax = +,
+
ax
+
. (, +) ax 6= 0 ddx
= ax log a 6= 0.
1
1
ax log
limx+ ax log
= 0 .
a
a
x
limx+ ax = 0.
(
)b
1
b
: a b > 1, limx+ axx = limx+ x1 x =
(a b )
(
)b
x
b
limx+ 1 x = 0 = 0.
(a b )
(2)
(log x)b
=0
x+
xa
lim
(b > 0, a > 0).
x
= 0 a > 0. limx+ log x = +
limx+ log
xa
+
a
limx+ x = +, +
. (0, +) xa 6= 0
1
x
x
ddx
= axa1 6= 0. axa1
=
log x
limx+ xa = 0.
238
1
axa
limx+
1
axa
= 0.
: limx+
(log x)b
xa
= limx+
( log x )b
a
xb
= 0b = 0
a
b
> 0.
x
(3) limx+ xcos
+
. , limx+ x =
x
+
+. , x cos x x 1 limx+ (x cos x) = +.
:
cos x
1 x > 0, limx+ cos x = 0 , , limx+ xcos x =

x
x
x
x
(
)
limx+ 1 cosx x = 1 0 = 1.
x
! 1+sin
= 1 + sin x
1
, , limx+ sin x.
, , l Hopitl.
,
.
, , 00
.

l Hopitl. , , .
(1) lim f (x) = 0 lim g(x) = lim f (x)g(x),

,
0(). lim f (x)
1
g(x)
0
.
0
lim
g(x)
1
f (x)

(2) lim f (x) = + lim g(x) = ( lim(f (x)
) + g(x)),
1
1
(+)+(). lim g(x) + f (x) f (x)g(x),
0(). .
(3) lim f (x) = 0, y = f (x) , lim g(x) = 0
lim f (x)g(x) , 00 .
lim eg(x) log f (x) , 0().
(4) lim f (x) = + lim g(x) = 0 lim f (x)g(x) ,
(+)0 . lim eg(x) log f (x) ,
0(+).
(5) , lim f (x) = 1 lim g(x) = lim f (x)g(x) ,
1 . lim eg(x) log f (x) , ()0.
. (1) limx0+ x log x,
0(). x log x = log1 x , limx0+ x1 = +.
:
1
x
6= 0
limx0+
d ( x1 )
dx
1
x
12
x
= x12 6= 0 x (0, +). ,
= limx0+ x = 0. limx0+ x log x = 0.
(2) limx0+ xx 00 . xx = ex log x ,

, limx0+ xx = limx0+ ex log x = e0 = 1 y = ex 0.
(
)
(3) limx0+ sin1x x1 (+) (+). sin1x x1 =
xsin x
limx0+ (x sin x) = 0 limx0+ x sin x = 0.
x sin x
: x sin x 6= 0 d (xdxsin x) = sin x + x cos x 6= 0 x (0, 2 ) (
sin x > 0, x > 0 cos x > 0 ). ,
x
00 limx0+ (1 cos x) = 0
limx0+ sin1cos
x+x cos x
239
limx0+ (sin x + x cos x) = 0. ( ) ,

d
sin x+x cos x 6= 0 x (0, 2 ) dx
(sin x+x cos x) = 2 cos xx sin x 6=
sin x
= 02 = 0.
0 x (0, 4 ). limx0+ 2 cos xx
sin x
(
)
x
limx0+ sin1cos
= 0 , , limx0+ sin1x x1 = 0.
x+x cos x
(
)x
x
(4) limx+ 1 + 1+x
1+ .
2
(
)
)x
)
(
(
x log 1+ x 2
x
x
1+x
1 + 1+x
= e
, limx+ x log 1 + 1+x
2
2 ,
(
)
x
(
)
log
1+
2
x
1+x
(+)0. , , x log 1 + 1+x
=
1
2

d ( x1 )
dx
0
0
.
:
( )
1x2
= x12 6= 0 x (0, +).
d log 1+
x
1+x2
dx
1
x
6= 0
(1+x2 )2
1x2
x
(1+x2 )(1+x+x2 )
2
1+x
x2 (x2 1)
1+
limx+ (1+x2 )(1+x+x2 ) = 1.

(
)
(
)
(
)x
x log 1+ x 2
x
x
1+x
= e1 = e
limx+ x log 1+ 1+x2 = 1 , , limx+ 1+ 1+x2 = limx+ e
y = ex 1.
6.11.2 .

l Hopitl .
. (an ) (bn ) bn 6= 0 n
an 0 bn 0. limn+ abnn , .
l Hopitl,
y = f (x) y = g(x), [1, +), :
f (n) = an
g(n) = bn
(n ).
, [1, +), g(x) 6= 0

g 0 (x) 6= 0 x [1, +) , , limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) =
0 (x)
0. , , limx+ fg0 (x)
,
limx+
f (x)
g(x)
, 4.9 y =
xn = n,
.
limn+ abnn
f (x)
g(x)
(xn )
(n)
limn+ fg(n)
. limn+ arctan n1 tan( 2 n1 ).

arctan n1 0 tan( 2 n1 ) +,
0 (+).
arctan 1
arctan n1 tan( 2 n1 ) = arctan n1 cot n1 = tan 1n n
00 . y = f (x) = arctan x1 y = g(x) = tan x1

( 2 , +). ,
x2 (cos x1 )2
f 0 (x)
=
lim
= 1.
x+
0
g (x)
1+x2
1
arctan n
arctan x1
limn+ tan 1 = limx+ tan 1 = 1.
n
x
limx+
(n) +,
. (an ) (bn ) bn 6= 0 n bn +
. , , limn+ abnn , .
240
l Hopitl, y = f (x)
y = g(x), [1, +), :
f (n) = an
g(n) = bn
(n ).
[1, +), g(x) 6= 0

g 0 (x) 6= 0 x [1, +) limx+ g(x) = + . , ,
0 (x)
(x)
limx+ fg0 (x)
, limx+ fg(x)

, limn+
.
an
bn
= limn+
f (n)
g(n)
. (1)
(log n)b
0 (b > 0, a > 0).
na
nb
0 (b > 0, a > 1)
an
y = xb y = ax ,
b
limx+ axx .
l Hopitl,
b
limx+ axx = 0 4.9 (xn )
xn = n. .
(2) .
lim n n = 1.
n+
log n
1
n n = n n = e n (+)0 +
; limn+ lognn =
+
log n
0. limn+ n n = limn+ e n = e0 = 1.
.
. .
1. , .
1
1
x
7
e4x
x
e 2 (log x)4
e x2
lim
,
lim
,
lim
,
lim
,
x
x+ x13
x0 x5
x+ (log x)5
x+ x100 e 4
(1
)
( x
)
2
10
7
lim e x ,
lim
2 + (log x) .
x+
x0+ x5
x
2. l Hopitl, .
1 x + log x
,
x1 1
2x
lim
log(1 + x)
,
x0 e2x 1
lim
x2 3x + 2
,
x2 x2 5x + 6
lim
sin x
,
x0 arctan x
lim
xa 1
,
x1 xb 1
lim
ax 1
1 cos(1 cos x)
x sin(sin x) (sin x)2
(a,
b
>
0,
b
=
6
1),
lim
,
lim
,
x0 bx 1
x0
x0
x4
x6
(
)
1
log log(log x)
log(log x)
e (1 + x) x
,
lim
,
lim
,
lim sin x log x,
lim
x+
x+
x0+
x0
x
log x
log(log x)
1
( 1
(
x(x x 1)
1)
1
1)
lim log x log(x 1),
lim
, lim
, lim
,
x1+
x+
x0 ex 1
x0 log(1 + x)
log x
x
x
(
1
1)
x
lim cot x
, lim (tan x)tan(2x) ,
lim xx 1 , lim (x + ex ) x .
x0
x0+
x0
x 4
x
lim
241
3. limx+
l Hopitl ;
cosh x
ex
, l Hopitl ;
(
)
x
2
4. a, b limx0 1cos
+
ax
+
b
= 0.
4
x
{
1
, x 6= 0
log |x|
5. y =
Hlder- 0 (
0,
x = 0
7 5.1).
(: .)
6. ,
, , ()
() , (
).
y = xex ,
y = xex ,
2
y = x log x,
y=
log x
,
x
y = xx ,
y = xx .
7. .
, l Hopitl .
ex 1 1!1 x
,
x0
x2
ex 1
,
x0
x
lim
lim
ex 1 1!1 x 2!1 x2
ex 1 1!1 x 2!1 x2 3!1 x3
,
lim
.
x0
x0
x3
x4
.
lim
8. l Hopitl
limx0 sinxx = 1;
9. .
sin x 1!1 x
,
x0
x3
cos x 1 + 2!1 x2
,
x0
x4
lim
lim
sin x 1!1 x + 3!1 x3

,
x0
x5
.
lim
cos x 1 + 2!1 x2 4!1 x4

.
x0
x6
lim
10. .
, l Hopitl .
log(1 + x)
,
x0
x
lim
log(1 + x) x
,
x0
x2
lim
log(1 + x) x + 12 x2
log(1 + x) x + 12 x2 13 x3
,
lim
.
x0
x0
x3
x4
.
lim
242
11. y = f (x) n 1 (a, b) a < < b.

f (n) (),
lim
f (x) f ()
f (1) ()
(x
1!
)1
f (n1) ()
(x
(n1)!
)n1
(x )n
f (n) ()
.
n!
: l Hopitl;
7, 9 10 .
12. . y = f (x) 2m 1
(a, b), a < 0, y = f (x).
(ii) f (2m) () < 0, y = f (x).
(: .)
13. y = f (x) 2m (a, b), a < < b
f (2m+1) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m) () = 0 f (2m+1) () 6= 0,
y = f (x).
(: .)
14. y = f (x) (a, b) a < < b.
f 0 (), limh0+
l Hopitl;
(:
f (+h)f (h)
2h
f (+h)f (h)
2h
1 f (+h)f ()
2
h
f 00 (), limh0+
= f 0 ().
1 f (h)f ()
.)
2
h
f (+h)2f ()+f (h)

h2
= f 00 ().
(: f 00 ()
(c, d) c < < d. l Hopitl.)
15. y = f (x) (0, +) limx+ f 0 (x) = .
= .
limx+ f (x)
x
16. 18 6.8 l Hopitl.
17. y = f (x) (0, +) = limx+ (f (x) + f 0 (x))
. limx+ f (x) = limx+ f 0 (x) = 0.
(: f (x) =
f (x)ex
.)
ex
18. limx0+ xm e x = 0 m.
{ 1
e x , x > 0
y = h(x) =
y = h(x)
0,
x 0
(, +) , , h(n) (0) = 0 n.
1
(: n y = h(x) n
(, +) , , h(n) (0) = 0.
9 6.10.)
243
{
2
e 1x2 , 1 < x < 1
19. y = f (x) =
y = f (x)
0,
|x| 1
(, +).
(:
.)
20. y = ex (, +).
(: pn (x), . . . , p1 (x), p0 (x) pn (x)enx +
+ p1 (x)ex + p0 (x) = 0 (, +). pn (x)enx
x +.)
. .
1. .
( (log n)13 )
( n )
( e n5 )
( n )
( 3 n )
,
,
ne ,
ne ,
.
n2
(log n)95
n100
2. limn+ n n = 1 .
n
n
lim n n + 1 = 1,
lim
n2 = 1,
lim
n3 + 3n2 + n + 2 = 1.
n+
n+
n+
(:
1
( )2
n
2
n = n n .)
n
n + 1 n 2n = n 2 n n
3. .
( log(log n) )
log n
( log(log(log n)) )
log(log n)
(
,
n cot
1)
.
n
6.12 , .
6.12.1 .
y = f (x) y = g(x) f (x), g(x) 6= 0 ,
(x)
x (a, ) (, b). limx fg(x)
= 0, y = f (x)
y = g(x) y = g(x)
y = f (x)
g(x)
f (x).
,
-

, limx g(x) = 0 limx f (x) = +. ,

l u 0 < l f (x) u < + ,
g(x)
y = f (x)
y = g(x) .
f (x)

= limx g(x) ,
l < ( , l = 2 ) u > ( , u = 2), ,
(x)
 0) y = ax (a > 1)

b
+, , , limx+ axx = 0.
(2) y = (log x)c (c > 0) y = xb (b > 0) +,
c
limx+ (logxbx) = 0.
(3) y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN y = b0 + b1 x + + bN xN (
N
1 x++aN x
aN , bN 6= 0) +, limx+ ab00+a
= abNN
+b1 x++bN xN
.
, y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN ( aN 6= 0)
y = b0 + b1 x + + bM xM ( bM 6= 0),
N < M , +.
+a1 x++aN xN
, limx+ ab00+b
M = 0.
1 x++bM x
(4) y = a x (a > 1) y = xb (b > 0) 0
1
, limx0+
a x
xb
= limt+
tb
at
= 0.
(5) H y = 1 cos x y = x2 0, limx0

.
1cos x
x2
1
2
(6) H y = sin x y = x 0, limx0 sinxx = 1

.
(
)c
(7) y = log x1 (c > 0) (
y = x1b (b > 0) 0
)
, limx0+
log
1
x
1
xb
= limt+
(log t)c
tb
= 0.
(8) limx+ 2x+xx sin x = limx+ (2 + sin x) . , y = 2x + x sin x

y = x +. , 2x+xx sin x = 2 + sin x
1 2x+xx sin x 3 x (0, +).
, , x + : , .
(3) , N ,
N +.
y = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN ( aN 6= 0) , ,
N +. , ,
(3), +
: . ,
N y = xN . , ,
N
N y = xN +.
a0 +a1 x++an xn
b0 +b1 x++bm xm
(an , bm 6= 0), n > m,

a0 +a1 x++an xn

m xm
N = n m +. limx+ b0 +b1 x++b
= bamn > 0.
xnm
y = xb
(b > 0) b , .
, ,
y = xb (b > 0) +. ,
b + y = xb (b > 0)
+.
245
, limx+ xxb12 = limx+ xb21b1 = 0 0 < b1 < b2 . , ,

+ +
+. , y = f (x) y = xb (b > 0),
u , , |f (x)| lxb +.
u, l > 0 l fx(x)
b
limx+ (lxb ) = +, limx+ |f (x)| = +.
, a > 1, y = ax +.

y = ax (a > 1) +.

(
)x
x
a. , limx+ aa12 x = limx+ aa12 = 0 1 < a1 < a2 .
, c > 0, y = (log x)c +.

y = (log x)c (c > 0) +.
x)c1
c, limx+ (log
= limx+ (log x)1c2 c1 = 0 0 < c1 < c2 .
(log x)c2
,
+ + +.
.
(1) (2)
+
.
6.12.2 . .
y = f (x) y = g(x) g(x) 6= 0 x
(x)
(a, ) (, b). limx fg(x)
= 0,
(
)
f (x) = g(x)
(x)
y = f (x) y = g(x) . y = fg(x)

, u |f (x)| u|g(x)|
,
(
)
f (x) = g(x)
y = f (x) y = g(x) .
: x + , x , x + x .
. (1) y = (f (x) ) y = g(x)
x, f (x) = g(x) x.
, , , ,
f (x)
) 0 x.
( 6=
( )
, (log x)c = ( x)b xb = ax + ( ) a > 1, b > 0
c > 0. , xb1 = xb2 + xb2 = xb1 0
0 < b1 < b 2 .
(2) y = f (x)
(
) y = g(x)
x, f (x) = g(x) x.
, sin x = (x) 1 cos x = (x2 ) 0.
y = f (x) y = g(x) g(x) 6= 0 x
(x)
(a, ) (, b). limx fg(x)
= 1,
f (x) g(x)
246
y = f (x) y = g(x) .
: x + , x , x + x .
(x)
(x)
limx fg(x)
= 1 fg(x)
6= 0
, , f (x) 6= 0 . , f (x) g(x) ,
f (x), g(x) 6= 0 .
. (1) sin x x 1 cos x 12 x2 0.
x
x
(2) ex 1 x 0, limx0 e x1 = ddxe x=0 = 1.

d log x
(3) log(1 + x) x 0, limx0 log(1+x)
=
= 1.
x
dx x=1
(4) tan x
x
2
, limx 2
tan x
1
x
2
= limt0 t cot t = limt0
t
sin t
cos t = 1.
.
(
)
f (x) g(x) = cg(x) , c 6= 0,
f (x) g(x).
, lim f (x)g(x)
= 0, lim f (x)g(x)
= 0,
cg(x)
g(x)
)
( f (x)
f (x)
lim g(x) 1 = 0, lim g(x) = 1 f (x) g(x).
.
.
(1) sin x x = (x) cos x 1 + 12 x2 = (x2 ) 0.
(2) ex 1 x = (x) 0.
(3) log(1 + x) x = (x) 0.
( 1 )
1
(4) tan x x
= x
2 .
2
y = g1 (x), . . . , y = gn (x) y = g(x)

x, y = g1 (x) + + gn (x)
y = g(x) x. :
n (x)
n (x)
1 (x)
= lim gg(x)
+ + gg(x)
= 0 + + 0 = 0.
lim g1 (x)++g
g(x)
y = f (x) = g(x) + g1 (x) + + gn (x)
y = g1 (x), . . . , y = gn (x) y = g(x) x, y = g(x)

(
) x f (x) g(x)
f (x)
g1 (x)++gn (x)
x. , lim g(x) = lim 1 +
= 1.
g(x)

. , y = f (x) = g(x) + g1 (x) + + gn (x)
y = g(x) x , y =
f (x) . , , f (x) g(x) x ,
)
( (x)
g(x) = 1 lim g(x). :
, lim f (x) = lim fg(x)
y = g(x) + g1 (x) + + gn (x) y = h(x) + h1 (x) + + hm (x) y = g(x) y = h(x)
g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x)
g(x)
, , x, h(x)+h
h(x)

1 (x)++hm (x)
x , , y =
g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x)
h(x)+h1 (x)++hm (x)
g(x)
h(x)
x ,
. (1) . xn = (xN ) + n < N ,

247
a0 + a1 x + + aN xN (aN 6= 0) aN xN
+, a0 + a1 x + + aN xN aN xN , , limx+ (a0 + a1 x + + aN xN ) =
limx+ aN xN .
aN x N
a0 +a1 x++aN xN
aN xN
+a1 x++aN xN
, ab00+b
M b xM +, limx+ b +b x++b xM = limx+ b xM .
x++b
x
1
0
1
M
M
M
M
x
(2) xe2x x2 + 3ex x2 e 2 2e2x + log x x2 ex

x
2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2
2x
+. xe2e2x
xe
= x2 +,
+log xx2 ex
2e2x
x
limx+
xe2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2
2e2x +log xx2 ex
= limx+
x
2
= +.
.
. .
x
1. a > 1. + y = ax , y = aa
ax
y = aa .
.
2.
(
) + y = log x, y = log(log x) y =
log log(log x) .
.
1
3. y = x, y = log(ex + x log x) y = e(1+ x ) log x

+.
y = log x1 y =
x2 +x log x1
sin x+x2
0.
4. + ,
.
x
x3 ex x5 e 2
y=
,
xex + sin x
y = e 5 + x3 e 6 x,
y = e3 log(2+log x) .
5.
y = x1b (b > 0). ,
+
y = a1x (a > 0) y = (log1x)c (c > 0), ,
+.
+ 0 +.
+

.

.
n
+a1 x++an x
y = ba00+b
m (an , bm 6= 0), n < m,
1 x++bm x
+.
+
, .
( 1
1)
1
2
,
y = log e x + 2 .
y = ex + 2ex ,
y=
log(x + log x)
x
248
. . .
1.
0.
1
1 = (1),
1x
1
(1 + x) = (x),
1x
1
(1 + x + x2 ) = (x2 ).
1x
.
2.
0.
(
(
x)
x
x2 )
ex 1 = (1), ex 1 +
= (x), ex 1 + +
= (x2 ).
1!
1!
2!
.
3.
0.
(x
(
x3 )
x2 x4 )
3
sin x
= (x ),
cos x 1
+
= (x4 ),
1!
3!
2!
4!
(
(x
2
3
5)
x
x
x
x4 x6 )
= (x5 ),
cos x 1
= (x6 ).
sin x
+
+
1!
3!
5!
2!
4!
6!
.
4.
0.
(
x2 )
= (x2 ),
log(1 + x) x = (x),
log(1 + x) x
2
(
x2 x3 )
log(1 + x) x
+
= (x3 ).
2
3
.
5.
0.
(
x3 )
= (x3 ),
arctan x x = (x)
arctan x x
3
(
3
5)
x
x
arctan x x
+
= (x5 ).
3
5
.
6. f (x) (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 ) 0.
f (x) (a + bx + cx2 ) = (x2 ), f (x) (a + bx) = (x) f (x) a = (1)
0.
a, b, c, d
ex
x
(a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 )
1
0.
249
7. .11 .
y = f (x) n 1 (a, b) a < < b.
f (n) () ,
(
)
(
)
f (1) ()
f (n) ()
f (x) f () +
(x )1 + +
(x )n = (x )n
1!
n!
.
1, 2, 3, 4 5
.
8. +;
e2x log x x5 ex ,
x log x
x2
+ x x log(log x),
log x
x2 log x x2 + 3x sin x.
9. 0;
2
1
3
+ ,
x x x
x
1 + 2x x x ,
1
3
1
+ .
2
(sin x)
x x x
10. y = f (x) y = g(x), y = f (x)

y = g(x). :
(
)
(
)
g(x) = g(x) .
(
)
(
)
: g(x) = g(x) .
, y = f1 (x) y = f2 (x) y = g(x),
y = f1 (x) + f2 (x) y = g(x). :
(
)
(
)
(
)
g(x) + g(x) = g(x) .
:
(
)
(
)
(
)
g(x) + g(x) = g(x) ,
(
) (
)
(
)
(
) (
)
(
)
g1 (x) g2 (x) = g1 (x)g2 (x) ,
g1 (x) g2 (x) = g1 (x)g2 (x) .
250
7
Riemann.
. , , Riemann.
Riemann: Riemann, . Riemann
. Riemann . Riemann
. Riemann . ,
. Riemann
: ,
, ,
, ,
,
, .
7.1

.

.
.
,
, ,
.
7.1: .
251

. : , ,
, , .

. .
,
,
:
, . . , ,
, , .

. , ,
[a, b] x-,
y = f (x) a x b .
(a, 0) (a, f (a)) . (b, 0) (b, f (b)).
, f (x) 0 x [a, b].
,
[a, b] y = f (x).
y = f (x) [a, b]. A
E.
. [a, b]
x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b. a b. , ,
[x0 , x1 ] = [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xk1 , xk ], . . . , [xn2 , xn1 ] [xn1 , xn ] = [xn1 , b].
, ,
; , , .
, b a
[a, b], n.
ba < n, n > ba
, ,
n . x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } [a, b]. [x0 , x1 ], n- [xn1 , xn ]
, , k- (1 k n) [xk1 , xk ]. , n = 1,
[x0 , x1 ] = [a, b]. , [a, b].
n
, , n 2
x1 , . . . , xn1 (, a < x1 < . . . < xn1 < b).
. [a, b] . x0 = a, x1 = a + ba
, x2 = a + 2 ba
, . . . , xk =
ba
n
n
n
ba
ba
ba
a + k n , . . . , xn1 = a + (n 1) n xn = a + n n = b.

,
{
}
() = max xk xk1 : 1 k n .
252
,
.
7.2: .
[a, b],
n , k- [xk1 , xk ],
y = f (x) xk1 x xk .
(xk1 , 0) (xk1 , f (xk1 )) . (xk , 0) (xk , f (xk )).
Ak Ek . , ,
E = E1 + + En .
A1 , . . . , An , ,
, . , : ,
[xk1 , xk ] , x
, f (x) , ,
, , .
y = f (x) [a, b]. ,
. ,
k [xk1 , xk ], f (x) [xk1 , xk ]
fk
f (k ), Ak A
[xk1 , xk ] f (k ). , Ek Ak
fk = f (k )(xk xk1 ) A
fk ,
E
,
fk = f (k )(xk xk1 ) .
Ek E
f
, ,
, Ek Ek , ,

fk , .
Ek E

fk
fk . , , k = 1, . . . , n E
Ek E
e=E
f1 + + E
fn ,
E
e A
f1 , . . . , A
fn . Ek
A
fk , E = E1 + + En
E
e=E
f1 + + E
fn = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) , ,
E
f1 + + E
fn = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ).
EE
253
, :

(
)
e = (E1 + + En ) E
f1 + + E
fn
E E

f1 + + En E
fn .
E1 E
, ,
, . ,

e

|E E .
e . ,
, E E
k [xk1 , xk ],
f (k ), (xk xk1 )
k = 1, . . . , n. {1 , . . . , n }
, .
, . f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )

(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ).
.
, k = xk1 ,
, k = xk .
: = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } [a, b]
= {1 , . . . , n } (f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1
x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ). |E (f ; a, b; ; )| . :
E (f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ).
, (f ; a, b; ; ) E
, , |E (f ; a, b; ; )|

.
.

fk
. Ek E

f1 + + En E
fn , , .
E1 E

fk [xk1 , xk ]
. Ek E
, , n
. , ,
: 105 n
1013 , 1013 105 = 108 .
.
y = f (x) A > 0 > 0
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < x0 , x00 A |x0 x00 | < .
; , y = f (x)
A, A. , , . , y = f (x)
A y = f (x) A A. , ,
A , .
7.1, .
7.1. y = f (x) [a, b], [a, b].
254
> 0. y = f (x) [a, b],

7.1 > 0 x0 , x00 [a, b] |x0 x00 | <
|f (x0 ) f (x00 )| < . = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } < ,
, [xk1 , xk ] < .
. , = {1 , . . . , n },
.

fk .
Ek E
- , k,1 , k,2 [xk1 , xk ] f (k,1 ) f (x) f (k,2 ) x
g
[xk1 , xk ]. . A
k,1 [xk1 , xk ] f (k,1 ) .
g
A
[x
,
x
]
f (k,2 ), Ak
k,2
k1
k
g
g
g
g
Ak,1 Ak,2 . Ek,1 = f (k,1 )(xk xk1 ) E
k,2 = f (k,2 )(xk xk1 )
,
g
g
E
k,1 Ek Ek,2 .
fk [xk1 , xk ] f (k ), A
fk A
g
. A
k,1
g
Ak,2 . ,
g
f
g
E
k,1 Ek Ek,2 .
k,1 , k,2 [xk1 , xk ], |k,1 k,2 | xk xk1 < .
7.3: (()), (()) (()) . .

, f (k,2 ) f (k,1 ) < .

fk E
g
g
Ek E
k,2 Ek,1 = f (k,2 )(xk xk1 ) f (k,1 )(xk xk1 )
= (f (k,2 ) f (k,1 ))(xk xk1 ) < (xk xk1 ).

fk : Ek E
fk
Ek E
(xk xk1 ).

f1 + + En E
fn , ,
E1 E

e . :
E E

e E1 E
f1 + + En E
fn < (x1 x0 ) + + (xn xn1 )
E E
= (x1 x0 + + xn xn1 ) = (b a).

e (b a). , ,
E E

e . , ,
E E
; .
. (1) . , , A
.
255
y = f (x) = c 0 [a, b]. = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}

= {1 , . . . , n } :
(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) = (x1 x0 )c + + (xn xn1 )c
= (b a)c.
, , (f ; a, b; ; ) E
, (f ; a, b; ; ) (b a)c
,
E = (b a)c,
, , .
(2) .
A [a, b] 0 a < b
y = f (x) = x.
, = {a, a + ba
, a + 2 ba
,...,a +
n
n
ba
ba
ba
k n , . . . , a + (n 1) n , a + n n = b}, ba
.
n
ba
.
,
n
ba
= {a + ba
,
a
+
2
,
.
.
.
,
a
+
k ba
, . . . , a + (n 1) ba
, a + n ba
= b},
n
n
n
n
n
.
(f ; a, b; ; )
(
b a)b a (
b a)b a
(f ; a, b; ; ) = a +
+ a+2
+
n
n
n
n
(
b a)b a (
b a)b a
+ a + (n 1)
+ a+n
n
n
n
n
(
(
)b a)b a
= na + 1 + 2 + + (n 1) + n
n
n
(
n(n + 1) b a ) b a
n+1
= na +
= a(b a) +
(b a)2 .
2
n
n
2n
(: 1 + 2 + + (n 1) + n = n(n+1)
.) ,
2
ba
, n , , , n ,
(f ; a, b; ; ) = a(b a) + n+1
(b a)2 E.
2n
(
E = lim
n+
a(b a) +
)
1
b2 a2
n+1
(b a)2 = a(b a) + (b a)2 =
.
2n
2
2
(3)
. A [a, b] y = f (x) = x2
, , .
= {a, a + ba
, a + 2 ba
, . . . , a + k ba
, . . . , a + (n 1) ba
, a + n ba
= b},
n
n
n
n
n
ba
.
n , ba
n
ba
ba
ba
ba
ba
= {a + n , a + 2 n , . . . , a + k n , . . . , a + (n 1) n , a + n n = b},
.
256
(f ; a, b; ; )
(
b a )2 b a
b a )2 b a (
+ a+2
+
(f ; a, b; ; ) = a +
n
n
n
n
(
b a )2 b a (
b a )2 b a
+ a + (n 1)
+ a+n
n
n
n
n
(
(
)
ba
= na2 + 2a 1 + 2 + + (n 1) + n
n
2)
( 2
)
ba
(b
a)
+ 1 + 22 + + (n 1)2 + n2
2
n
n
n
+
1
(n
+
1)(2n
+
1)
= a2 (b a) +
a(b a)2 +
(b a)3 .
n
6n2
(: 12 + 22 + + (n 1)2 + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
.) ,
6
, ba
,
,
,
,
n
(n+1)(2n+1)
n+1
2
2
3
(f ; a, b; ; ) = a (b a) + n a(b a) +
(b a)
6n2
E. ,
(
)
n+1
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3
a(b a)2 +
(b
a)
n+
n
6n2
1
b3 a 3
= a2 (b a) + a(b a)2 + (b a)3 =
.
3
3
E = lim
a2 (b a) +
.
1.
y = x3 [a, b] a 0. 13 + 23 +
2
2
+ (n 1)3 + n3 = n (n+1)
.
4
7.2
Riemann.
, , . 7.4
.
y = f (x) [a, b].
0. = {x0 =
a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b] = {1 , . . . , n }

(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ).
(f ; a, b; ; ) Riemann y = f (x) [a, b],
. I (f ; a, b; ; )
I , , |(f ; a, b; ; ) I|
. y = f (x) Riemann
[a, b], I Riemann y = f (x) [a, b]

f (x) dx.
a
257
b
a
: y = f (x) Riemann [a, b] Riemann

f (x) dx > 0 > 0
b

f (x) dx <
(f ; a, b; ; )
a
[a, b] () < .
, , Riemann Riemann
, .

.
b
b
b
b
f (u) du
f (t) dt,
f (y) dy,
f (x) dx,
a
, y = f (x) [a, b].

Riemann
0.
lim
(f ; a, b; ; ) =
()0
f (x) dx
a
.
. Riemann (f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + +
f (n )(xn xn1 ) , , f (x)x, ()
: (f (x))
(x). Sum (= ),
S f (x)x Riemann , , x dx (
) S .
, y = f (x) [a, b] , () ,
(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )
I y = f (x) [a, b]. :
( )
, ,
(f ; a, b; ; ). ; :
. , y = f (x) b
[a, b], a f (x) dx

(f ; a, b; ; )
.

.
.
7.2. y = f (x) [a, b], [a, b].
.
7.3. y = f (x) [a, b], [a, b].
258
7.2 7.3 .
. (1) y = f (x) [a, b] f (x) 0
x [a, b].
E A [a, b], y = f (x),
. (a, 0) (a, f (a)) . (b, 0) (b, f (b)).

E=
f (x) dx
a
, , E , ,
(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ).
(2) x-
: y = c 0 y = x2
[a, b] y = x [a, b] 0 a < b.
:
1 dx = b a,
a
b2 a2
x dx =
,
2
x2 dx =
a
b3 a3
.
3
Riemann
. .
. y = x
y = x2 , 7.2.
b
2
2
0 a 1. :
. , , = {a, a2 , . . . , an1 , an = b}, (
) k . k-
1
k
k1
a a
= a 1 , > 1, n-. :
(
(
)
)
() = a(1 1 )n = b 1 n ab . () = b 1 n ab b(11) = 0.
, n , , Riemann . , ,
259
Riemann:
1
1
(a a) + 2 (a2 a) +
a
a
1
1
+ n1 (an1 an2 ) + n (an an1 )
a
a
(
)
(
)
(
1
1
1) (
1)
= 1
+ 1
+ + 1
+ 1
)
(
)
(
1
a
=n 1
=n 1 n
.
(f ; a, b; , ) =
)
(
1
a
b
dx = lim n 1 n
= log .
n+
b
a
a x

x
x
a
limx0 a x1 = ddx
= a0 log a = log a.
x=0
, xn = n1 , limn+ n( n a 1) = log a.
(4)
. [a, b], c
[a, b], a c b,
{
1 , x = c
y = f (x) =
0 , a x b x 6= c
= {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
= {1 , . . . , n }. .
c, (f ; a, b; , ) =
f (1 )(x1 x0 )+ +f (n )(xn xn1 ) = 0(x1 x0 )+ +0(xn xn1 ) = 0.
c, k = c
k, (f ; a, b; , ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (k )(xk xk1 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) =
0(x1 x0 ) + + 1(xk xk1 ) + + 0(xn xn1 ) = xk xk1 .
c,
,
. k = k+1 = xk = c k, (f ; a, b; , ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + +
f (n )(xn xn1 ) = 0(x1 x0 )+ +f (k )(xk xk1 )+ f (k+1 )(xk+1 xk )+ +0(xn xn1 ) =
1(xk xk1 ) + 1(xk+1 xk ) = xk+1 xk1 . c
. , ,
0 (f ; a, b; , ) 2 ().
(f ; a, b; , ) 0 ()
. , > 0 = 2 > 0
() < (f ; a, b; , ) 0 =
(f ; a, b; , ) < 2 = . , ,
b
f (x) dx = 0.
a
y = f (x) [a, b] x-
: (a, 0) (b, 0)
260
. (c, 0) (c, 1). .

0 .
0. .
0 ,
b
, a f (x) dx.
.
1.
b 2
x dx
a
b
b a
x dx =
log
a
x dx
a, b a 0, 6= 1. ,
b
ex dx = eb ea .
a
2.
b 1
dx
a x
b
b+1 a+1
x dx =
+1
a
a, b 0 < a < b .
3.
b
b
cos x dx = sin b sin a,
sin x dx = cos a cos b
a
a, b a < b.
cos(p +
sin nq
2
cos(p + q) + cos(p + 2q) + + cos(p + nq) =
sin 2q
sin nq
sin(p +
2
sin(p + q) + sin(p + 2q) + + sin(p + nq) =
sin 2q
12 1.4.
(n+1)q
)
2
(n+1)q
)
2
4. .
.
( n
)
n
n
n
(i) limn+ n2 +1
2 + n2 +22 + + n2 +(n1)2 + n2 +n2 .
n2 02 + n2 12 ++ n2 (n1)2
(ii) limn+
.
n2
(
)
1
(iii) limn+ n21+12 + n21+22 + + 2 1
+
.
n2 +n2
n +(n1)2
n+1+ n+2++ n+(n1)+ n+n
.
(iv) limn+
n n
n
(: (i) k- n2 +k
2 =
1
1
n = f (k )(xk xk1 ) y = f (x) [0, 1],
1+( k )2
n
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } [0, 1] = {1 , . . . , n }
. (ii) (iv).)
261
( 1
)
1
1
1
5. limn+ n+1
+ n+2
+ + n+(n1)
+ n+n

[1, 2].
(: .)
6. y = f (x) [a, b] A = f (a), B = f (b).
x = f 1 (y) [A, B].
b
B
f (x) dx +
f 1 (y) dy = Bb Aa.
a
(: {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b]

{y0 = A, y1 , . . . , yn1 , yn = B} [A, B] yk = f (xk ) k.
y1 (x1 x0 ) + y2 (x2 x1 ) + + yn1 (xn1 xn2 ) + yn (xn xn1 )
x0 (y1 y0 ) + x1 (y2 y1 ) + + xn2 (yn1
yn2 ) + xn1 (yn yn1 ) ;
.)
;
(: y = f (x) x = f 1 (y) .)
7.3
Riemann.
7.3.1
7.1. y = f (x) [a, b] .

y = f (x) [a, b]
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx.
a
. = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
= {1 , . . . , n }
(
)
(f ; a, b; ; ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )
= (f ; a, b; ; ).
> 0, > 0 () <

(f ; a, b; ; ) b f (x) dx < . (f ; a, b; ; ) b f (x) dx = (f ; a, b; ; )

||+1
a
a

)
b
b(
b
f (x) dx || < . , y = f (x)
f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a
||+1
7.1. f (x) 0 x [a, b]

A y = f (x) [a, b] x-.
0 B y = f (x) [a, b]
x-, B A [a, b] B
f (x) A f (x)
. 7.1 B A
.
.
f (x) 0 x [a, b] A
y = f (x) [a, b] x-. A , , x-.
B y = f (x) [a, b]
262
x-, B A x-. f (x) 0,

)
b(
a f (x) dx B, , ,
)
b
b(
A. 7.1 a f (x) dx a f (x) dx,
b
A. a f (x) dx A.
7.2. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b]. y =
f (x) + g(x) [a, b]
)
f (x) + g(x) dx =
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx.
a
. = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
= {1 , . . . , n }
(
)
(
)
(f + g; a, b; ; ) = f (1 ) + g(1 ) (x1 x0 ) + + f (n ) + g(n ) (xn xn1 )
= f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) + g(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + g(n )(xn xn1 )
= (f ; a, b; ; ) + (g; a, b; ; ).
> 0, 0 > 0 () < 0

(f ; a, b; ; ) b f (x) dx < 00 > 0 () < 00

2
a

(g; a, b; ; ) b g(x) dx < . = min{ 0 , 00 }, () <

2
a
, ,

(b
)
b
(f + g; a, b; ; )
f (x) dx + a g(x) dx
a
(
) (b
)
b
= (f ; a, b; ; ) + (g; a, b; ; ) a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx

b
b
(f ; a, b; ; ) a f (x) dx + (g; a, b; ; ) a g(x) dx
< 2 + 2 = .
, y = f (x) + g(x)
b(
a
)
b
b
f (x) + g(x) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
f (x), g(x) 0 x [a, b]. A

y = f (x) [a, b] x-, B y = g(x)
[a, b] C y = f (x) + g(x) [a, b],
C f (x) + g(x) A
f (x) B g(x). 7.2 C
A B.
7.1 7.2, , y = f (x) y = g(x)
[a, b] , y = f (x) + g(x)
[a, b]
)
f (x) + g(x) dx =
f (x) dx +
a
g(x) dx.
a
, y = f1 (x), . . . , y = fm (x)
[a, b] 1 , . . . , m , 1 f1 (x) + + m fm (x)
[a, b]
)
1 f1 (x) + + m fm (x) dx = 1
f1 (x) dx + + m
a
263
fm (x) dx.
a
b
b
b
b
. (1) a ( + x + x2 ) dx = a 1 dx + a x dx + a x2 dx = (b a) +
(
(
2
2
3
3
2
3)
2
3)
b a
+ b a
= b + b2 + b3 a + a2 + a3 .
2
3
.
b
b
b
2
2
3
3
+ b a
=
(2) a ( x1 ++x+x2 ) dx = a x1 dx+ a (+x+x2 ) dx = log ab +(ba)+ b a
2
3
(
)
(
)
b2
b3
a2
a3
log b + b + 2 + 3 log a + a + 2 + 3 0 < a < b.
(3) [a, b] m c1 , . . . , cm [a, b]. y = f (x)
f (x) = 0 x [a, b] c1 , . . . , cm . y = f (x)
b
[a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
. 1 , . . . , m
{
1 , x = ck
c1 , . . . , cm , . ck y = fk (x) =
0 , a x b x 6= ck
f (x) = 1 f1 (x) + + m fm (x) x [a, b], ,
b
y = fk (x) [a, b] a fk (x) dx = 0,
b
b
b
y = f (x) [a, b] a f (x) dx = 1 a f1 (x) dx+ +m a fm (x) dx =
1 0 + + m 0 = 0.
y = f (x) [a, b] x-
m .
0 .
.
7.3. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b]. y =
f (x)g(x) [a, b].
, ,
b
. , a f (x)g(x) dx =
b
b
f
(x)
dx
g(x) dx. , ,
a
a
.
.
b
b
b
b
a 1 1 dx = a 1 dx = b a a 1 dx a 1 dx =
(b a)(b a) = (b a)2 . b a = (b a)2 .
7.4. y = f (x) [a, b]. m > 0
1
[a, b].
|f (x)| m x [a, b], y = f (x)
, ,
.
b 1
1
, a f (x)
dx = b f (x)
.
dx
a
. , ,
b
b
1
1
a 11 dx = a 1 dx = b a b 11 dx = ba
. b a = ba
.
a
7.3.2
7.5. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b]

[a, b].
264
[a, b], [a, b]

b
b
g(x) dx =
f (x) dx.
a
. y = f (x) [a, b]. y = h(x) = g(x) f (x),

h(x) = 0 x [a, b] [a, b], ,
b
, [a, b] a h(x) dx = 0. g(x) = f (x) + h(x) x
b
b
b
[a, b], y = g(x) [a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx + a h(x) dx =
b
f (x) dx.
a
7.5 .

,

.
f (x), g(x) 0 x [a, b]. A
y = f (x) [a, b] B y = g(x) [a, b],
m . .
0, A B .
7.5.
7.3.3
7.6. y = f (x) [a, b]. y = f (x) [c, d] [a, b].

7.6.
7.7. y = f (x) [a, b] [b, c]. y = f (x)
[a, c]
f (x) dx =
a
f (x) dx +
a
f (x) dx.
b
. y = f (x) [a, b] [b, c], ,

M 0 M 00 |f (x)| M 0 x [a, b] |f (x)| M 00 x
[b, c]. M = max{M 0 , M 00 } |f (x)| M 0 M x [a, b]
|f (x)| M 00 M x [b, c]. |f (x)| M x [a, c],
[a, c].
= {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = c} [a, c] b
: b = xk k 1 k n 1.
= {1 , . . . , n }. 0 = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xk1 , xk = b}
[a, b] 0 = {1 , . . . , k }. 00 = {xk =
b, xk+1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = c} [b, c] 00 = {k+1 , . . . , n }. :
(f ; a, c; , ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (k )(xk xk1 ) + f (k+1 )(xk+1 xk ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )
= (f ; a, b; 0 , 0 ) + (f ; b, c; 00 , 00 ).

b
0
0
> 0, 0 > 0 (f ; a, b;
, 0 ) a f (x) dx < 3

c
0
0
0
00
00
00

( ) < > 0 {(f ; a, b; }, ) b f (x) dx < 3
00 (00 ) < 00 00 . = min 0 , 00 , 6M+1
265
[a, c] () < . .
1. b . , ,
0 [a, b] 00 [b, c] 0 00 . , (0 )

b
() < 0 (00 ) ()
< 00 , , (f ; a, b; 0 , 0 ) a f (x) dx < 3

c
(f ; a, b; 00 , 00 ) b f (x) dx < 3 . , , (f ; a, c; , ) =
0
0
(f ; a, b; , ) + (f ; b, c; 00 , 00 ). ,

)
(
c
b

(f ; a, c; , ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx
(
)
) (
c
b

= (f ; a, b; 0 , 0 ) + (f ; b, c; 00 , 00 ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx

c
b

(f ; a, b; 0 , 0 ) a f (x) dx + (f ; b, c; 00 , 00 ) b f (x) dx < 3 + 3 = 2
3 < .
2. b . xk1 < b < xk
k 1 k n. = {x0 = a, . . . , xk1 , b, xk , . . . , xn = c}, b
. ( ) () < . ,
= {1 , . . . , k1 , , , k+1 , . . . , n }, [xk1 , b] [b, xk ]
k [xk1 , xk ].

(f ; a, c; , ) (f ; a, c; , ) = f (k )(xk xk1 ) f ()(b xk1 ) f ()(xk b)

= f (k )(b xk1 ) + f (k )(xk b) f ()(b xk1 ) f ()(xk b)

f (k ) f ()(b xk1 ) + f (k ) f ()(xk b)
2M (b xk1 ) + 2M (xk b) = 2M (xk xk1 ) < 2M < 3 .
b , 1,

(
)
c
b

(f ; a, c; , ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx < 2
3 .

(f ; a, c; , ) (f ; a, c; , ) < 3 ,

(
)

c
b

(f ; a, c; , ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx (f ; a, c; , ) (f ; a, c; , )

)
(
c
b

+ (f ; a, c; , ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx < 3 +
2
3
= .

(b
)
c
(f ; a, c; , ) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx < .
c
b
c
y = f (x) [a, c] a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx.
f (x) 0 x [a, b]. A, B C

y = f (x) [a, b], [b, c] [a, c], , C
A B A B . . .
0, C A B.
7.7.
7.7
. , y = f (x)
[a1 , a2 ], [a2 , a3 ], . . . , [am1 , am ], y = f (x)
[a1 , am ]
am
a2
am
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx + +
f (x) dx.
a1
a1
am1
, .
[a, b]
y = f (x) 0 0.
b
y = f (x). a f (x) dx
266

0
0.
7.7,
.
7.4: .
y = f (x) [a, b]
t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tm1 , tm = b y = f (x)
(t0 , t1 ), . . . , (tm1 , tm ),
t0 , t1 , . . . , tm1 , tm t0 = a tm = b
tk .
7.8. y = f (x) [a, b],
[a, b].
. y = f (x) [a, b],
. y = f (x) [tk1 , tk ].
y = g(x) [tk1 , tk ], g(x) = f (x) x (tk1 , tk ),
g(tk1 ) = limxtk1 + f (x) = limxtk1 + g(x) g(tk ) = limxtk f (x) = limxtk g(x), y = g(x)
[tk1 , tk ] y = f (x) : tk1 tk . y = g(x)
[tk1 , tk ], y = f (x) [tk1 , tk ].
. y = f (x) [a, b]. ,

t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tm1 , tm = b y = f (x)
(t0 , t1 ), . . . , (tm1 , tm ). k y = f (x)
(tk1 , tk ). y = f (x) t0 , . . . , tm .
y = f (x) , , [a, b],
b
a f (x) dx. y = f (x) [tk1 , tk ] , f (x) = k ,
tk
tk
, tk1
f (x) dx = tk1
k dx = k (tk tk1 ).
b
f (x) dx = 1 (t1 t0 ) + + m (tm tm1 ).
a
7.3.4
7.9. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b]

f (x) g(x) x [a, b].
f (x) dx
a
g(x) dx.
a
267
. = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b] = {1 , . . . , n }.

(f ; a, b; , ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 ) g(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + g(n )(xn xn1 )
= (g; a, b; , ).
b
b
b
b
a f (x) dx > a g(x) dx. 0 < a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.

b
0 > 0 (f ; a, b; , ) a f (x) dx < 2 () < 0

b
. , 00 > 0 (g; a, b; , ) a g(x) dx < 2

b
() < 00 . = min{ 0 , 00 }, (f ; a, b; , ) a f (x) dx < 2

b
(g; a, b; , ) a g(x) dx < 2 () < . , ,
b
b
(g; a, b; , ) < a g(x) dx + 2 a f (x) 2 < (f ; a, b; , ), .
0 f (x) g(x) x [a, b]. A B

[a, b] y = f (x) y = g(x), , A
B. 7.9 A B.
7.10. y = f (x) [a, b].
(1) u y = f (x) [a, b], f (x) u
b
x [a, b], a f (x) dx (b a)u.
(2) l y = f (x) [a, b], f (x) l
b
x [a, b], a f (x) dx (b a)l.
y = h(x) = l y = g(x) = u x [a, b]
b
b
b
b
7.9, a h(x) dx = a l dx = (b a)l a g(x) dx = a u dx =
(b a)u.
. y = x2x+2 [1, 2]
2
dy
= (x2x
[ 2, 4], dx
2) < 0 ( 2, 4).
2 +2)2 > 0 (1,
4
(2)22 +2 = 42 . , 1 x2x+2 dx (4 1) 42 = 3 4 2 .
0 l f (x) u x [a, b]. A
y = f (x) [a, b] B C [a, b]
l u, , A B C. 7.10
A B
C.
7.11. y = f (x) [a, b]. y = |f (x)|
[a, b]
b
b

|f (x)| dx.
f (x) dx

a
y = |f (x)| [a, b]. , , , |f (x)| f (x) |f (x)|

x [a, b]

b
b
b
b
b

a |f (x)| dx = a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx , , a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
7.11 .
.
| sin x| 1 x
x

x > 0
sin t dt x | sin t| dt x. , | sin x| |x| x x sin t dt

0
0
0
{ 2
x

{
}
x
x
x
0
<
x2
2
2
x
| sin t| dt 0 |t| dt = 0 t dt = x2 . 0 sin t dt min x, x2 = 2
0
x,
x 2
268
7.3.5
y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , yk
k , ,

1 y1 + + n yn
1
n
=
y1 + +
yn = 1 y1 + + n yn ,
1 + + n
1 + + n
1 + + n
k
yk
k = 1 ++
n
y1 , . . . , yn . , ,
y1 , . . . , yn ( )
y1 , . . . , yn .
. y = f (x)
[a, b] = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
[a, b] = {1 , . . . , n } .
f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) .
, [xk1 , xk ] , x
k ,
f (k ) f (x) x [xk1 , xk ] , ,
f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) . , ,
[xk1 , xk ] [xl1 , xl ], f (k )
f (l ). , ,
f (x) f (k )
k1
k = xk x

ba
[xk1 , xk ] b a. ,
y = f (x),

x1 x0
xn xn1
f (1 ) + +
f (n )
ba
ba
f (1 ), . . . , f (n )
. ,
, ,
1
(f ; a, b; ; ).
ba
b
1
, , ba
f (x) dx
a
.
, , y = f (x) [a, b], [a, b]

b
1
y = f (x) [a, b] =
f (x) dx.
ba a
b
b
y = f (x) [a, b] , a f (x) dx = (b a) = a dx
:
y = f (x) [a, b]
[a, b] y = f (x).
. f (x) 0
x [a, b] A y = f (x)
269
[a, b]. y = f (x) [a, b]

A [a, b] , ,
[a, b] A.
. . ,
y1 , . . . , yn 1 , . . . , n . x0 = 0,
x1 = 1 , x2 = 1 + 2 , . . . , xn1 = 1 + + n1 xn = 1 + + n1 + n = 1 ,
, y = f (x) [0, 1]
y1 [x0 = 0, x1 ), y2 [x1 , x2 ), . . . , yn [xn1 , xn = 1].
y = f (x) [0, 1]
1
1
f (x) dx = y1 (x1 x0 ) + y2 (x2 x1 ) + + yn (xn xn1 ) = 1 y1 + 2 y2 + + n yn .
10 0
7.10 . ,
, . ,
, , .
. y = f (x)
[a, b]. [a, b]
1
ba
f (x) dx = f ().
a
. - x1 x2 [a, b]
b
f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 ) x [a, b]. (b a)f (x1 ) a f (x) dx (b a)f (x2 ),
b
1
ba a f (x) dx y = f (x).
[a, b] f ().
. (1) y = x2 [0, 1]
2 = 13 13 .
1
0
x2 dx =
1
3
. [0, 1]
(2) y = f (x) [a,{

b], [a, b]
1, 1 x < 0
. y =
[1, 1]
1,
0 x 1
(0
)
1
1
(1)
dx
+
1
dx
= 0, [1, 1]
1(1)
1
0
0.
.
. .
1. 1, 2 3 7.2,
.
2
4
2
2
x
(2 3x + 4x ) dx,
(3x 2 ) dx,
(3 cos x 2 sin x) dx,
1
(3x 2 sin x) dx,

0
270
(2
x
x +x
2
+ 3e
)
dx.
. .
1 + 3x ,
2
1. 1 f (x) dx y = f (x) = 0,
2,
x ,
5
2. 1 f (x) dx y = f (x) = 2x,
x + 2,
3.
7
2
1 < x < 2
x = 1
x = 2
1 x < 0
0 x 2
2 < x 5
[x] dx.
(: .)
4.
)
k+1 (
(i) k
x [x] 12 dx = 0 k,
)
)
k+ 1 (
k+1 (
(ii) k 2 x [x] 12 dx = 81 k+ 1 x [x] 12 dx = 81 k,
2
)
(
b
(iii) 18 a x [x] 12 dx 18 a, b a < b.
(: a b.)
. .
2x
1. xe2x x et dt xex x > 0, .
2
2. 3e2 1 xex dx 32 e1 , .
2
x
4x
3. 0 1x+x
2 3 x [0, 1] 0
x [1, +).
x
1x+x2
4
3x
,
x t
2x2
x [0, 1],
(i) 0 0 1t+t
2 dt
3
x t
(ii) 0 0 1t+t2 dt 23 + 43 log x x [1, +).
4. , n
(sin x)
n+1
dx
(sin x) dx,
n+1
(tan x)
dx
(tan x)n dx.
5. .
lim
x+
x+ x
t
dt,
1 + t2
1+x
lim
x0+
1x
t
dt,
1 + t2
1
lim
x0+ 2x
1x
(: y =
.)
271
1+x
t
dt.
1 + t2
t
1+t2
6. |f (x2 ) f (x1 )| M |x2 x1 | x1 , x2 [0, 1]. , y = f (x)

Lipschitz- [a, b] ( 8 6.9).
b

2
(i) a f (x) dx (b a)f (b) M (ba)
[a, b]
2
[0, 1].
b
(: (b a)f (b) = a f (b) dx.)
(ii)
1 ( k ) M
f (x) dx
f

n k=1
n
2n
n
n.
(: (i) [ k1
, nk ] k = 1, . . . , n.)
n
7. y = f (x) [a, b] f (x) 0 x [a, b].
d
b
0 c f (x) dx a f (x) dx [c, d] [a, b].
n+1
1
1
8. n+1
n x1 dx n1 , , n+1
log(n + 1) log n n1
n.
1
(xn ) xn = 1 + 12 + + n1
+ n1 log n n
0 , , .

(
)
1
1
= lim 1 + + + log n
n+
2
n
Euler.
9. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b].
)2
)2
b(
b
b(
t, s t2 a f (x) dx + 2ts a f (x)g(x) dx + s2 a g(x) dx =
)2
b(
tf
(x)
+
sg(x)
dx 0.
a
Schwarz:
b
( b
)2 b (
)2
(
)2
f (x)g(x) dx
f (x) dx
g(x) dx.
a
(: , At2 + 2Bts + Cs2 0 t, s,

B 2 AC.)
10. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, b].

1
2
b( b
(
a
)(
) )
f (y) f (x) g(y) g(x) dy dx
a
b
b
b
= (b a)
f (x)g(x) dx
f (x) dx
g(x) dx.
a
[a, b],
b
b
b
a f (x) dx a g(x) dx (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx.
272
[a, b] [a, b],

b
b
b
f (x) dx a g(x) dx (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx.
a
(
)(
)
(: f (y) f (x) g(y) g(x) .)
. .
1. .
(i) y = x [1, 1] [0, 1].
(ii) y = x2 [1, 1].
(iii) y = sin x [0, ], [0, 2 ] [0, 2]. 3
.
2. . y = f (x) y = w(x)
[a, b] w(x) 0 x [a, b],
[a, b]
b
b
f (x)w(x) dx = f ()
w(x) dx.
a

w(x) = 1 .
b
, y = w(x) , a f (x)w(x) dx
y = f (x) y = w(x) ,
b
b
1
w(x) dx > 0, b w(x)
f (x)w(x) dx y = f (x)
a
dx a
a
y = w(x).
3. z = f (y) I, y = g(x)
[a,
( b]
) g(x) I x [a, b] ,
z = f g(x) [a, b].
b
( 1 b
)
(
)
1
f
g(x) dx
f g(x) dx.
ba a
ba a
(: = {a = x0 , x1 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
= {1 , . . . , n } . 5 6.10
k1
f (1 y1 + + n yn ) 1 f (y1 ) + + n f (yn ) k = xk x
ba
b
1
yk = g(k ). ba a g(x) dx I. ,
0.)
:
b
b g(x)
1
1
e
dx,
(i) e ba a g(x) dx ba
a
( 1 b
)
b
1
(ii) log ba a g(x) dx ba
log g(x) dx g(x) > 0 [a, b],
a
(
)
)
( 1 b
b
1
g(x) dx g(x) > 0 [a, b] 1 0,
(iii) ba a g(x) dx ba
a
)
( 1 b
)
b(
1
g(x) dx g(x) > 0 [a, b] 0 1.
(iii) ba
g(x) dx ba
a
a
273
7.4 Riemann.
7.4.1

d = ml , m
l .
, d = ml
.

,
. , ,

.
m
.
x-, [a, b].
d(x) x [a, b],
y = d(x) [a, b]. y = d(x)
x , , [a, b].
. =
{x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b] . mk
[xk1 , xk ],
m = m1 + + mn .
y = d(x) , x
[xk1 , xk ], y = d(x) , , .
, y = d(x)
. , k [xk1 , xk ],
d(x) d(k ), mk
m
fk = d(k )(xk xk1 ) [xk1 , xk ]
d(k ). :
mk m
fk = d(k )(xk xk1 ) .
, m = m1 + + mn m
e =m
f1 + + m
fn =
d(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + d(n )(xn xn1 ) , ,
mm
e = d(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + d(n )(xn xn1 ).

, mk m
fk , ,
m m
e . Riemann
(d; a, b; , ) = d(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + d(n )(xn xn1 ) m
,
b
m=
d(x) dx.
a
,
.
274
7.4.2
A , E. ,
.
(i) . x- l
A. x l
lx ( ), A(x) A lx
A l. A ,
A(x) l(x)
, .
A , [a, b] l , x [a, b],
A(x) , , l(x) = 0.
E y = l(x) [a, b].
7.5: .
= {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b]
. Ak A lxk1
lxk Ek Ak . , A
A1 , . . . , An ,
E = E1 + + En .
[xk1 , xk ] k A(k )
.
lxk1 lxk
.
fk
[xk1 , xk ] , Ak A
A(k ) .
xk xk1
fk A
fk l(k )(xk xk1 ).
l(k ), E
fk A
fk , :
Ek Ak E
fk = l(k )(xk xk1 ) .
Ek E
e=E
f1 + + E
fn =
, E = E1 + + En E
275
l(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + l(n )(xn xn1 ) , ,

e = l(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + l(n )(xn xn1 ).
EE

fk , ,
, Ek E

e . Riemann (l; a, b; , ) =
E E
l(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + l(n )(xn xn1 ) E
,
b
l(x) dx.
E=
a
:

.
. (1) h,
a b. x- l
0 l
a h l
b . x [0, h],
x [0, h] l(x)
h
h
l(x) = ba
x + a. 0 l(x) dx = 0 ( ba
x + a) dx =
h
h
2
h
h
ba
h
+ ah = b+a
h.
x dx + a 0 1 dx = ba
h
h 2
2
0
.
(2) r > 0 x- l
. 0 l
,
l(x) l x
2 r2 x2 x
r [r, r] 0 x [r, r].
2 r r2 x2 dx.
! r2 , .
, ,
.
. y = f (x) y = g(x)
[a, b] A
, (a, f (a))
(a, g(a)) (b, f (b)) (b, g(b)). x [a, b]
A(x) (x, f (x)) (x, g(x)),
l(x) = |g(x) f (x)|, x [a, b] A(x) .
A
b
E=
|g(x) f (x)| dx.
a
. y = x y =
x2 ,
(3, 3)
3 2 (1, 1) (1, 1)
2
(3, 9) 1 |x x| dx. x x = x(x 1),
3
0
1
3
= 19
.
: 1 |x2 x| dx = 1 (x2 x) dx + 0 (x x2 ) dx + 1 (x2 x) dx = 65 + 16 + 16
3
3
276
(ii) .
, .
s0 ,
[0, 2], s
s0 . , s2 s0 , 0 2, s ,
, s0 s2 .
[a, b] [0, 2] A() s
r(). r = r() ( ) [a, b] , ,
r() 0 . A()
A sa sb .
[a, b] A() , A s ,
A . A
r = r()
A.
= {0 = a, 1 , . . . , n1 , n = b} [a, b]
. [k1 , k ] Ak A
sk1 sk , A A1 , . . . , An ,
Ek Ak ,
E = E1 + + En .
7.6: .
fk ,
[k1 , k ] k A
sk1 sk
sk r(k ) . [k1 , k ] ,
fk , Ek Ak
Ak A
(
)
fk A
fk . , E
fk 1 (r(k ))2 tan(k k )+tan(k k1 )
( E
2
)
1
(r(k ))2 (k k ) + (k k1 ) .
2
k k k k1 0.
(
) 1
1
Ek (r(k ))2 (k k ) + (k k1 ) = (r(k ))2 (k k1 ).
2
2
k = 1, . . . , n,
1
1
E (r(1 ))2 (1 0 ) + + (r(n ))2 (n n1 ).
2
2
277
(
)
Riemann 12 r2 ; a, b; ; E
A ,
1
E=
2
(r())2 d.
a
:

.
. (1) r > 0
.
: r() = r [0, 2].
1 2 2
2 0 r d = r2 .
(2) , r > 0 ( [0, 2])
. r() = r [0, ]
r() = 0 [0, ]. 12 0 r2 d = 21 r2 .
(3) r1 0 r2 ( r2 > r1 )
. , ,
r2 2 r1 2 = (r2 2 r1 2 ).
, r1 , r2
, 21 r2 2 12 r1 2 =
1
(r 2 r1 2 ).
2 2
(4) 0 < .
x = x() = cos , y = y() = sin [0, 2],
x = x() = cos , y = y() = sin
[0, 2] . (2, 0) (2, 0)
3
2
2
21 0 2 2 d 12 0 2 2 d = 43 (2 2 ).
(iii) . A
. r 0 Cr r.
A(r) Cr A A
( ). A(r) Cr ,
l(r). A , [a, b]
[0, +) , r [a, b], A(r)
, , l(r) = 0.
= {r0 = a, r1 , . . . , rn1 , rn = b} [a, b]
Ak A
rk1 rk . Ek Ak , , :
E = E1 + + En .
[rk1 , rk ] k
A(k ) .
rk1 rk ,
.
21 (rk 2 rk1 2 ), . , 21 (rk 2 rk1 2 ) = rk +r2k1 (rk
rk1 ) k (rk rk1 ), rk rk1 k .
278
7.7: .
l
fk
k , l (rk rk1 ). A

fk A
fk
A(k ) , E
(k )
A
rk rk1 , , l(k )(rk rk1 ). [rk1 , rk ]
fk , Ek Ak
, Ak A
fk A
fk . :
E
fk l(k )(rk rk1 ).
Ek E
:
E l(1 )(r1 r0 ) + + l(n )(rn rn1 ).
Riemann (l; a, b; ; ) E
,
E=
l(r) dr.
a
.

( ).
. 0 < < .
x = x(r) = r cos(r), y =
],
y(r) = r sin(r) r [0, 2
x = x(r) = r cos(r), y = y(r) = r sin(r) r [0, 2

]
( 2
) ( 2
2
2
2
(0, 0) cos( ), sin( , 0).
r ( )r,
2
0 ( )r dr = 2 2
.
2
279
7.4.3
B
V . .
(i) . .
A E L
L,
A, h
L. B
A h.
V B
V = Eh.
7.8: .
l L x l
lx L l x. A ,
[a, b] l x [a, b] lx
A . = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b]
Ak A lxk1 lxk . Ek
Ak , , :
E = E1 + + En .
Bk Ak ,
B A, B B1 , . . . , Bn ,
Vk Bk , :
V = V1 + + Vn .
[xk1 , xk ] , Ak
fk , ,
A
fk
Bk B
fk
. , B
280
fk h. E
fk
L A
fk Vek B
fk , :
A
Vk Vek ,
fk ,
Ek E
fk h.
Vek = E

. :
fn ,
V Ve1 + + V
f1 + + E
fn
EE
(
)
fn = E
f1 + + E
fn h.
Ve1 + + V
fn
, , Ve1 + + V
V Eh. , ,
V = Eh.
(ii) .
B.
l x l
Lx l x B (x) Lx
B. B B
l. B , [a, b] l x
[a, b] B (x) B . x [a, b] E(x)
B (x) . = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
[a, b] Bk B
Lxk1 Lxk . B B1 , . . . , Bn , , Vk
Bk , :
V = V1 + + Vn .
7.9: .
[xk1 , xk ] k
fk Lx
Lxk
B
k1
281
Lk , , B (k ) B. ,
fk ,
[xk1 , xk ] , Bk B
fk . , Vek = E(k )(xk xk1 ),
Vk Bk Vek B
Vk Vek = E(k )(xk xk1 )

k.
V E(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + E(n )(xn xn1 ).
, , Riemann (E; a, b; ; ) =
E(1 )(x1 x0 ) + + E(n )(xn xn1 ) V ,
,
V =
E(x) dx.
a
:

.
. ,
h E.
l L A . 0
l L h l
. E(x)
E x [0, h] 0 x [0, h].
h
0 E dx = Eh.
(iii) . l ,
x-, [a, b] l. x [a, b]
l x x r(x).
r = r(x) ( ) [a, b] r(x) 0 x [a, b].
B
. B.
L l l0 ,
y-, L l 0 l
A L y = r(x) [a, b].
B A 2
l.
x [a, b] B l x
r(x) x. E(x) = (r(x))2 ,
B
(r(x))2 dx.
V =
a
:

.
282
. (1) R > 0. l 0 l
.
l x [R, R] l x r = R2 x2 .
R
, R (R2 x2 ) dx = 4
R3 .
3
(2) B = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 z 1} . ,
l z-, , z < 0 z > 1, B (z) B
, 0 z 1, B (z) (0, 0,
1z),
l r(z) = z . B 0 z dz = 2 .
B
A = {(x, z) : x2 z 1}, xz-,
z-.
(3) B h > 0 R > 0. l
.
0 l h . x l
[0, h] B (x) x [0, h] B (x)
l x r(x) = Rh x.
h 2
0 Rh2 x2 dx = 3 R2 h.
noindent (iv) . xy-
(x, y) a x b c y d.
, z = f (x, y) z = g(x, y),
(x, y) .
, (x, y, f (x, y)), , ,
, (x, y, g(x, y)).
B . z = f (x, y)
z = g(x, y) x y. , ,
x y f (x, y)
g(x, y).
B.
l x- x Lx
l x. Lx (x, y, z) x. x
[a, b] B (x) B l x
Lx z = f (x, y) z = g(x, y)
x y [c, d]. ,
d
E(x) = c |g(x, y) f (x, y)| dy. x [a, b],
b
B (x) . V B a E(x) dx , ,
b( d
)
V =
|g(x, y) f (x, y)| dy dx.
a
l y-, B

d( b
)
V =
|g(x, y) f (x, y)| dx dy.
c
. B
z = 2x + y z = x + 2y
283
7.10: .
1 (1
1 x 1 1 y 1. 1 1 |x + 2y 2x
)
)
1 (1
y| dy dx = 1 1 |y x| dy dx. y x,
x [1, 1] y x 0, y
) y
1 ([x,
x1], y 1 x 0,
[1, x]. , B 1 1 (x y) dy + x (y x) dy dx =
1 2
(x + 1) dx = 38 .
1
7.4.4
(x0 , y 0 ) (x00 , y 00 )
,
(x00 x0 )2 + (y 00 y 0 )2 .
, (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) (x00 , y 00 , z 00 )
,
(x00 x0 )2 + (y 00 y 0 )2 + (z 00 z 0 )2 .
,
, .
l
. :
.
.
(x, y) = (x(t), y(t)) t [a, b]
, , x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, b]. .
= {t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn = b} [a, b]
284
7.11: .
k = 0, 1, . . . , n Tk (x(tk ), y(tk )) .
T0 Tn . lk
Tk1 Tk ,
l = l1 + + ln .
T0 , T1 , . . . , Tn1 , Tn
, [tk1 , tk ] ,
Tk1 Tk . ,
lk ,
lk (x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2 .

k k
[tk1 , tk ] x(tk )x(tk1 ) = x0 (k )(tk tk1 ) y(tk )y(tk1 ) = y 0 (k )(tk tk1 ).

(x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2 = (x0 (k ))2 + (y 0 (k ))2 (tk tk1 ).
, y 0 (t) [tk1 , tk ]
k k y 0 (k ) y 0 (k ),

(x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2 (x0 (k ))2 + (y 0 (k ))2 (tk tk1 ).
:
(x0 (1 ))2 + (y 0 (1 ))2 (t1 t0 ) + + (x0 (n ))2 + (y 0 (n ))2 (tn tn1 )

(
)
Riemann x0 2 + y 0 2 ; a, b; ;
l .
l
b
l=
(x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 dt.
a
.
(x, y, z) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) t [a, b]
285
l=
(x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 + (z 0 (t))2 dt.
:
.
. (1)
, x = x(t) = t + y = y(t) = t +
t [a, b].
x0 (t) =
b
y 0 (t) = t [a, b], a 2 + 2 dt = 2 + 2 (b a).
+ ) = (b + , b + )
= (a + , a
2
2
(b + a ) + (b + a ) = 2 + 2 (b a).
(2) (x0 , y0 ) r0 x = x(t) = r0 cos t+x0
y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0 t [0, 2]. x0 (t) = r0 sin t y 0 (t) = r0 cos t
2
0
r0 2 (sin t)2 + r0 2 (cos t)2 dt = 2r0 .
(3) x = x(t) = 0 cos t + x0 y = y(t) = 0 sin t + y0

[0, 2]. x0 (t) = 0 sin t y 0 (t) = 0 cos t
2t
0
0 2 (sin t)2 + 0 2 (cos t)2 dt.
(4) , ,
y = f (x) [a, b]. y = f (x) [a, b],

l=
1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
, x = g(y)
[a, b],
l=
1 + (g 0 (y))2 dy.
a
h0
(5) (x, y, z) = (r0 cos t + x0 , r0 sin t + y0 , 2
t + z0 ), t
h0
0
0
0
[0, 2], x (t) = r0 sin t, y (t) = r0 cos t z (t) = 2 ,
2
h0 2
r0 2 (sin t)2 + r0 2 (cos t)2 + 4
4 2 r0 2 + h0 2 .
2 dt =
0
7.4.5
, F
() , A
B, W ,
F A B
+ , F AB ,
, . ,

W = F AB cos ,
[0, ] F AB . ,
0 < 2 , , 2 < ,
286

, , = 2 , 0. | F ||AB| cos
F AB ,

W = F AB .
W
()
A B .
, (x, y) = (x(t), y(t))
t [a, b].
F = (Fx , Fy ) (x, y) = (x(t), y(t)) F (t) =

(Fx (t), Fy (t)) t [a, b]. , , Fx = Fx (t)
Fy = Fy (t) x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, b] , , .
= {t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn = b} [a, b]
. Wk
[tk1 , tk ].

, :
W = W1 + + Wn .
[tk1 , tk ] , (Fx (t), Fy (t))
.
k [tk1 , tk ], Wk
F (k ) = (Fx (k ), Fy (k ))
fk =
Ak1 = (x(tk1 ), y(tk1 )) Ak = (x(tk ), y(tk )), W
(
)
(
)
F (k ) Ak1 Ak = Fx (k ) x(tk ) x(tk1 ) + Fy (k ) y(tk ) y(tk1 ) . :

(
)
(
)
fk = Fx (k ) x(tk ) x(tk1 ) + Fy (k ) y(tk ) y(tk1 ) .
Wk W
k k [tk1 , tk ] x(tk ) x(tk1 ) =
x0 (k )(tk tk1 ) y(tk ) y(tk1 ) = y 0 (k )(tk tk1 ). x0 (t) y 0 (t)
, x0 (k ) y 0 (k ) x0 (k ) y 0 (k ),
fk Fx (k )x0 (k )(tk tk1 ) + Fy (k )y 0 (k )(tk tk1 ).
Wk W
,
(
)
(
)
W Fx (1 )x0 (1 ) + Fy (1 )y 0 (1 ) (t1 t0 ) + + Fx (n )x0 (n ) + Fy (n )y 0 (n ) (tn tn1 ).
, , Riemann (Fx x0 + Fy y 0 ; a, b; ; )
W , ,
W =
)
Fx (t)x0 (t) + Fy (t)y 0 (t) dt.
, ,

287

W =
)
Fx (t)x0 (t) + Fy (t)y 0 (t) + Fz (t)z 0 (t) dt.
:

.
. ,
0.
, (x(t), y(t))
(x0 (t), y 0 (t)). Fx (t)x0 (t) + Fy (t)y 0 (t) = 0 t
)
b(
, , W = a Fx (t)x0 (t) + Fy (t)y 0 (t) dt = 0.
.
. .
1. ,

2
y = x y = x
[0, 1].
2. ,
2
0)
(xx
+
0 2
(yy0 )2
0 2
= 1. .
3.
x = x() =
a > 0,

a cos(2) cos y = y() = a cos(2) sin [ 4 , 4 ]
[ 3
, 5
].
4
4
, (0, 0).
.
,
.
4.
x = x() =
a > 0,
a cos(3) cos y = y() = a cos(3) sin [ 6 , 6 ]
] [ 7
, 3
] . .
, [ 2 , 5
6
6
2
,
.
5. n (n 2).
. .
1.
2
2
2
xa2 + yb2 + zc2 = 1.
, a, b, c ,
.
288
2.
x2 + y 2 = 4 z = 0 x + y + z = 0.
(: y = x
xy-.)
. .
1. y = ax2 .
2. y =
a
x
3. > 0. y = 2 (e +e ) = cosh x
.
.
.
x
4. x = x() = r() cos

y = y() = r() sin , [a, b], r = r()
[a, b] r() 0 t [a, b]. l

b
(r())2 + (r0 ())2 d.
l=
a
c, > 0, x = x() = ce cos

y = y() = ce sin , (, +), .
.
> 0, x = x() = cos y = y() =
sin , [0, +), .
.
> 0, x = x() = cos y = y() =
sin , (0, +), .
.
5.
.
(xx0 )2
0 2
0)
+ (yy
= 1
0 2
6.
(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2
(x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 dt ;
, .

b

b

0
2
2
y 0 (t) dt
x (t) dt + |y(b) y(a)|
(x(b) x(a)) + (y(b) y(a)) = |x(b) x(a)|
a
a
b
(
)
|x(b) x(a)||x0 (t)| + |y(b) y(a)||y 0 (t)| dt
a
b
(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 dt.

a
289
7.
;
. .
1. Newton F = (Fx , Fy , Fz )
(x, y, z) =
6 (0, 0, 0) m
(Fx , Fy , Fz ) =
cm
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
3
2
(x, y, z) =
cm
(x, y, z) ,
r3
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 > 0 c
.
x = x(t), y = y(t) z = z(t), t
[a, b],
cm
1 d (r(t))2
dt = cm
(r(t))3
dt
r0 (t)
dt,
(r(t))2
r(t) = (x(t))2 + (y(t))2 + (z(t))2 > 0 , ,

(0, 0, 0).
2. Hooke F = Fx x
x- 0 Fx = cx, c
.
x = x(t), t [a, b],
.
290
8

Riemann.
Riemann. . Riemann
. Riemann , ,
. Riemann . ,
Riemann , Riemann ,
Riemann Riemann
. Riemann. . :
, , , .
8.1
Riemann.
, ,
Riemann Riemann .
8.1.1
y = f (x) I ( ).
y = F (x), I,
F 0 (x) = f (x)
(x I),
y = F (x)
y = f (x) I.
xn+1
n+1
. (1) n y =
(, +).
y = xn
(2) y = x y = 1 (, +).
(3) n 2 y =
(0, +).
xn+1
n+1
y = xn (, 0)
(4) - a y =
xa+1
a+1
(5) y = log |x| y =
1
x
y = xa (0, +).
(, 0) (0, +).
291
(6) a > 0, a 6= 1, y =
ax
log a
y = ax (, +).
(7) y = sin x y = cos x y = cos x

y = sin x (, +).
(8) y = tan x y = (cos1x)2 ( 2 + k, 2 + k) (k Z). ,
y = cot x y = (sin1x)2 (k, + k) (k Z).
(9) y = arcsin x y =
1
y = 1x
2 (1, 1).
(10) y = arctan x
1
1x2
1
1+x2
(1, 1). , y = arccos x
(, +).
8.1. y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x)

I y = f (x) I,
y = f (x) I. , y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x) y = f (x)
I, I.
. . F2 (x)F1 (x) = c x I,
c ( x), y = F1 (x) y = f (x)
I. F2 0 (x) = F1 0 (x)+0 = f (x) x I, y = F2 (x) y = f (x)
I. , y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x) y = f (x) I
y = h(x) = F2 (x) F1 (x) I. h0 (x) = F1 0 (x) F2 0 (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0
x I, 6.5(i) y = h(x) I.
.
y = F (x) y = f (x) I.
y = f (x) I y = F (x) + c,
c ( x),
.
8.1 ,
, :

.
. (1) y = x2 (, +) 3
y = x3 + c, c .
(2)
c . , y = cos x (, +)
y = sin x + c, c .
. y = g(x) 0
,
.
{
1 , 0 < x < 1
. y = g(x) =
0
2 , 1 < x < 3
(0, 1) (1, 3), (0, 1) (1, 3). ,
y = g(x) (0, 1) (1, 3).
292
8.1 .
. y = x1 (, 0) (0, +)
y = log |x| + c, c .
{ ,
log |x| + c1 , x < 0
y = x1 (, 0) (0, +) y =
log |x| + c2 , x > 0
c1 c2 ( x), .
8.1.2
b
a
y = f (x) [a, b],

f (x) dx. :
f (x) dx =
b
f (x) dx.
a
, ,
. ,
y = f (x) a, , , [a, a] = {a}
:
f (x) dx = 0.
a
b
, a f (x) dx a b
y = f (x) [a, b], b > a, [b, a], b < a,
a, b = a.

c
b
c
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx,
a
a < b < c, a, b, c,
y = f (x) . , .
a
a
b
, c < b < a, c f (x) dx = b f (x) dx c f (x) dx
a
b
a
, , c f (x) dx = c f (x) dx + b f (x) dx .
b
a
, a = c < b, 0 = a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx
a
b f (x) dx. .
. y = f (x)
[a, b], a < b, [b, a], b < a, , M
|f (x)| M x ,

b

f
(x)
dx
M |b a|.

a
, a < b, (
.
|b a| a= b a),

b
a

b < a, a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx = b f (x) dx M (a b) = M |b a|.
b

, a = b, a f (x) dx M |b a| 0 = 0.
, y = f (x) I ( ) . a
293
I,
x x I x
f (t) dt. x. , a
c ( x) I

f (t) dt + c.
y = F (x) =
a
y = f (x) I.
x
a y = F (x) = a f (t) dt + c.
a a0 I,
:
F (x) =
a0
a0
f (t) dt +
f (t) dt + c =
a
f (t) dt + c =
a
f (t) dt + c0 ,
a0
a0
c0 , c0 = a f (t) dt + c. ,
a a0 c
c0 .
x
a a f (t) dt
.
. y = x2 (, +),
3
3
3
x
a = 0 y = 0 t2 dt = x3 03 = x3 .
3
y = x2 y = x3 + c, c .
,
a ,
x 2,
x 2
3
3
x3
y = a t dt y = a t dt = 3 a3 c = a3 .
8.2. y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x) I
y = f (x) I,
y = f (x) I. , y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x)
y = f (x) I, I.
, y = F2 (x) F1 (x) = c x I, c ,
x, y = F1 (x) y = f (x) I.
x
, a1 I c1 F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1
x
x
x I. F2 (x) = F1 (x) + c = a1 f (t) dt + (c1 + c) = a2 f (t) dt + c2
x I, a2 = a1 c2 = c1 + c. y = F2 (x)
y = f (x) I. , y = F1 (x) y = F2 (x)
y = f (x) I,
x a1 a2 I c1 c2
x
F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1 F2 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 x I.
x
x
a
F2 (x) F1 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 a1 f (t) dt c1 = a21 f (t) + c2 c1 x I,
y = F2 (x) F1 (x) I.
8.2 ,
,
:
.

f (x) dx
294
y = f (x)
x
I , , a f (t) dt + c I, a
I c . ,
x
f (x) dx =
f (t) dt + c.
a
. , y = x2
3
(, +) y = x3 + c, c .
x2 dx , ,
2
3
x dx = x3 + c, c .
f (x) dx .
, , y = x2
:
.
.
f (x) dx. :
)
f (x) + g(x) dx =
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx.

.
a I
x
x
F (x) = a f (t) dt G(x) = a g(t) dt I. f (x) dx =
F (x) + c1 g(x) dx = G(x) + c2 , c1 c2
. , f (x) dx + g(x) dx = F (x) + c1 + G(x) + c2 =
x
x
F (x) + G(x) + (c1 + c2 ) = a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 ). a (f (t) + g(t)) dt
y = f (x)+g(x) I , c1 +c2 , ,
x
a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 )

(f (x) + g(x)) dx. , f (x) dx + g(x) dx = (f (x) + g(x)) dx.
:
)
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx
( 6= 0).
, , F (x) = a f (t) dt, f (x) dx =

F (x) + c, c

.
x
x
f (x) dx = F (x) + c = a (f (t)) dt + c. a (f (t)) dt
y = f (x) I c (: 6= 0)
x

. a (f (t)) dt + c (f (x)) dx , ,
f (x) dx = (f (x)) dx.
,
, ,
6= 0
.
2
3
. (1) (x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + x3 + c.
2
3
(x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + c1 + x3 + c2 .
295
(2)
2
7 x2 + 7c.
(7x) dx = 7
x dx = 7 x2 + c.
(7x) dx = 7
x dx =
2
(3) (x + g(x)) dx = x dx + g(x) dx = x2 + g(x) dx.
2
(x + g(x)) dx = xdx + g(x) dx = x2 + c + g(x) dx c
(()) g(x) dx .
(4) ! x dx x dx = c = 0. : x dx x dx = (x x) dx =
2
2
0 dx = c , , x dx x dx = x2 + c1 x2 c2 = c1 c2 = c.
.
. .
1. y = 2x + sin x (, +). y = 2x + sin x (, +);
y = 2x + sin x (, +) x = 1
2. ;
2. y = F (x) F 0 (x2 ) =
F (1) = 1.
1
x
x (0, +)
3. y = F (x) F 0 (log x) = 1 x (0, 1]

F 0 (log x) = x x [1, +) F (1) = 1.
4. y = r(x) (a, b) r0 (x) =
x (a, b), r(x) = . . . (a, b). ;
1
x
. .
1. y = 1 x2 (, +).
y = 1 x2 (, +); , (1 t2 ) dt;
y = 1 x2 (, +) x = 2
1. ;
2. y = f (x)
I a I .
y = f (x) x = a;
2
3.
f
(x)
dx
=
g(x)
dx
+
x
3.
f (x) dx
g(x) dx;
4. y = f (x) = x [x]
1
2
(, +).
(i) y = f (x) 1.
x
(ii) F (x) = 0 f (t) dt [0, 1].
x
(iii) y = F (x) = 0 f (t) dt (, +) 1.
y = F (x) [x].
x
1
(iv) G(x) = 0 (F (t) + 12
) dt [0, 1]
y = G(x) (, +) 1.
5.
. , ,
, ;
296
8.2
.
.
. y = f (x)
I ( )
.
x
a I y = F (x) = a f (t) dt
I. y = f (x) I, y = F (x)

F 0 () = f ().
, y = f (x) I, y = F (x) I
F 0 (x) = f (x) x I.
. > 0. y = f (x) , > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x I |x | < . , , x I
0 < |x | < . t x , , |t | < , ,
|f (t) f ()| < . , ,

x
x f (t) dtf ()(x)
F (x)F ()
f (t) dt a f (t) dt

f () = a
f
()
=
x

x
x

x f (t) dt x f () dt x (f (t)f ()) dt

|x|
=
= |x|
x
|x| = .
limx
F (x)F ()
x
= f (),
F 0 () = f ().
, , .
y = f (x) I, I
I .
x , y = F (x) =
f (t) dt y = f (x) I y = f (x) I. ,
a
, y = f (x) y = F (x) + c,
c , ( )
y = f (x) , , y = F (x) + c, c
( ).
.
.
, , .
.
, y =f (x) I
x
, y = a f (t) dt + c, I
, y = f (x):
)
(x
d a f (t) dt + c
= f (x).
dx
297
, , . , y = F (x)
I y = d Fdx(x) I
I,
y = F (x) ( x):
x
(
)
d F (t)
dt + c = F (x) + c F (a) .
dt
a
. y = f (x) = d Fdx(x) I.
x
y = F (x) y = f (x) I. a d Fdt(t) dt+c =
x
f (t) dt + c , ,
a
x
y = f (x) I , , c0 a d Fdt(t) dt+c = F (x)+c0
x I. x = a, 0 + c = F (a) + c0 , c0 = c F (a) ,
x
, a d Fdt(t) dt + c = F (x) + (c F (a)) x I.
, , .
8.3. y = f (x) I y = F (x)
y = f (x) I.
(1) y = f (x) I y = F (x) + c,
c . ,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c
(x I).
(2) y = f (x) [a, b] I
y = F (x) [a, b]. ,
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a)
(a, b I).
, 8.3. (1)
x
(2) , , y = a f (t) dt
x
y = f (x) I. c a f (t) dt
F (x) = c x I. x = a, 0 F (a) = c , ,
x
b
f
(t)
dt
F
(x)
=
F
(a)
I.
,
x
=
b
f (t) dt F (b) =
a
a
b
F (a) , , a f (t) dt = F (b) F (a).
. y = f (x) I
y = F (x) y = f (x) I, I.
. .
(1)
1 dx = x + c
(, +).
(2) 6= 1 6= 0,
298

x dx =
x+1
+ c.
+1
(i) (, +) , (ii) (, 0) (0, +)

2, (iii) [0, +) - (iv) (0, +)
-.
(3) , = 1,
1
dx = log |x| + c
x
(, 0) (0, +).
(4) > 0, 6= 1,
x dx =
x
+c
log
(, +).
(5) (, +).
cos x dx = sin x + c,
sin x dx = cos x + c
(6)
1
dx = tan x + c,
(cos x)2
1
dx = cot x + c
(sin x)2
( 2 + k, 2 + k) (k, + k),
k .
(7)
dx = arcsin x + c,
1 x2
1
dx = arccos x + c
1 x2
(1, 1).
(8)
1
dx = arctan x + c
1 + x2
(, +).
. y = f (x) I
y = F (x) y = f (x) I,
I.
. .
(1) a, b (, +)
299
1 dx = b a.
a
(2) 6= 1 6= 0,
x dx =
a
b+1 a+1
.
+1
(i) a, b , (ii) a, b < 0

a, b > 0 2, (iii) a, b 0 -
(iv) a, b > 0 -.
(3) = 1, a, b < 0 a, b > 0
1
b
dx = log |b| log |a| = log .
x
a
(4) > 0, 6= 1, a, b
x dx =
a
b a
.
log
(5) a, b
cos x dx = sin b sin a,
sin x dx = cos a cos b.
(6)
b
a
1
dx = tan b tan a,
cos2 x
1
dx = cot a cot b
sin2 x
a, b ( 2 + k, 2 + k) a, b
(k, + k), k .
(7) a, b (1, 1)
dx = arcsin b arcsin a,
1 x2
dx = arccos a arccos b.
1 x2
(8) a, b
1
dx = arctan b arctan a.
1 + x2
, , ,
.
b 0
(a)
1
, f (b)f
= f 0 () ba
f (x) dx = f 0 () y = f (x)
ba
a
b
(a)
1
[a, b]. , ba
f (x) dx = f () F (b)F
= F 0 (),
ba
a
y = F (x) y = f (x) [a, b].
300
.
1.
(i) cos(ax) dx =
1
a
sin(ax) + c,
(: , y =
(ii) sin(ax) dx = a1 cos(ax) + c.
1
a
sin(ax).)
2.
1
(i) x log
dx = log(log x) + c (1, +),
x
(
)
1
dx = log log(log x) + c (e, +).
(ii) x log x log(log
x)
3.
(
2
n)
(i) xn ex dx = n!ex ex 1 x x2! xn! + c,
(
2
n)
(ii) xn ex dx = (1)n1 n!ex ex 1 + x x2! + + (1)n1 xn! + c.
4. :
(i) 1 7.4.
(ii) 3, 4 5 7.4
. ;
(iii) 3 7.4.
(iv) 4
7.4.
(v) 1 7.4.

;

;
(vi) 2 7.4.
x
5. y = f (x) (, +) a a f (t) dt = sin x 23
x. ;
x
6. y = f (x) (, +) 0 f (t) dt = ex x;
x
0 f (t) dt = ex 1.
7. .
y=
0
sin t
dt,
1 + t2
y=
x
sin t + et
dt,
t2 + 1
y=
1
x2 x
t2 2t
dt,
et + 2t2
x+cos x
tet dt.
y=
sin x
h(x)
, y = g(x) f (t) dt y = f (x)
y = g(x) y = h(x) .
x2
2
8. y = f (x) (, +) 0 f (t) dt = 1 2x x.
301
9. limx+ ex
x
0
et dt = 0.
(: .)
x
10. limx+ x1 0 etx (2t + 1) dt.
x t2
1
11. a > 0 b limx0+ bxsin

dt = 1.
x 0
a+t
12. 4 7.2.
limn+
1 +2 ++(n1) +n
n+1
13. , k :
2
(i) 0 sin(kx) dx = 0.
2
(ii) 0 cos(kx) dx = 0, k 6= 0.
, n, m :
2
(iii) 0 sin(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0.
2
(iv) 0 sin(nx) sin(mx) dx = 0 n 6= m.
2
(v) 0 cos(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0 n 6= m.
2
2
(vi) 0 (sin(nx))2 dx = 0 (cos(nx))2 dx = n 6= 0.
14. , f (x) = a0 +(a1 cos x+b1 sin x)+
+ (an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx)) g(x) = c0 + (c1 cos x + d1 sin x) + + (cn cos(nx) +
dn sin(nx)),
2
1
a1 c1 + b1 d1
an cn + bn dn
f (x)g(x) dx = a0 c0 +
+ +
.
2 0
2
2
15. 3 7.2
,
sin((n+ 12 )x)
dx = n.
(i) 0
sin x2
(ii) 0 sin(nx)
dx = 0, n , .
sin x
( sin(nx) )2
(iii) 0 sin x
dx = n n.
T
16. a 6= b, limT + T1 0 sin(ax) sin(bx) dx = 0.
l Hopitl;
17. Bernoulli :
1
0
P0 (x) = 1, Pn (x) = nPn1 (x),
Pn (x) dx = 0 (n 1).
0
Pn (x) n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Pn (x) n xn .
Pn (0) = Pn (1) n 2.
302
Pn (x + 1) Pn (x) = nxn1 n 1.

1 + 2 + + k =
n
k+1
Pn (x) dx =
0
Pn+1 (k + 1) Pn+1 (0)

n+1
n = 1 n = 2.
Pn (1 x) = (1)n Pn (x) n 1.
P2n+1 (0) = 0 P2n1 ( 12 ) = 0 n 1.
18. y = f (x) I a I.
x
(i) y = a f (t) dt I, y = f (x) 0
I.
x
b
(ii) a f (t) dt = x f (t) dt x I, y = f (x)
0 I.
19. y = f (x) [a, b] f (x) 0 x [a, b].
b
f (x) dx = 0, y = f (x) [a, b]
a
.
x
b
b
(:
f
(t)
dt
+
f
(t)
dt
=
f (t) dt = 0
a
x
a
x
a f (t) dt = 0 x [a, b]. : f () > 0
[a, b] . [c, d]
x
[a, b] d c > 0 f (x) > f ()
2
b
d
f ()
[c, d]. a f (x) dx c f (x) dx 2 (d c) > 0.)
: y = f (x) [a, b], f (x) 0 x [a, b]
b
f (x) dx = 0, y = f (x) 0 [a, b].
a
20. y = f (x) [a, b] M f (x) M x
b
[a, b]. a f (x) dx M (b a).
b
, a f (x) dx = M (b a), f (x) = M x [a, b].
(: y = M f (x).)
b
21. y = f (x) [a, b]. a (f (x))2 dx = 0, f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
(: .)
x00
22. y = f (x) [a, b]. x0 f (t) dt 0 x0 , x00 [a, b] x0 < x00 ,
f (x) 0 x [a, b].
x
(: : y = a f (t) dt [a, b].
: f () < 0 [a, b]. [c, d]
x
[a, b] d c > 0 f (x) < f ()
2
d
f ()
[c, d]. c f (x) dx 2 (d c) < 0.)
x
23. y = f (x) [0, +) f (x) 6= 0 x > 0 (f (x))2 = 2 0 f (t) dt
x 0.
(i) f (x) > 0 x > 0.
303
(: f (0) = 0 f (x) > 0

x x > 0 f (x) < 0
2
x > 0. y = (f (x)) = 2 0 f (t) dt
[0, +) .)
(ii) y = f (x) (0, +).
(: . . . .)
(iii) f (x) = x x 0.
24. y = f (x) [0, a] f (0) = 0.
{
(f (x))2
, 0 < x a
x
(i) y = g(x) =

0,
x = 0
[0, a].
x
(ii) y = g(x) y = 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt.
x
(iii) (f (x))2 x 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt x [0, a].
a
(iv) (f (a))2 = a 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt, y = f (x)
(0, a].
x
a
(v) (f (a))2 = a 0 (f 0 (t))2 dt f 0 (0) = 2, f (x) = 2x x
[0, a].
25. y = f (x)
I. I.
x
(: F (x) = a f (t) dt + c
I. [c, d] I a, . M
|f
M
(x)|
x [c, d]. x [c, d] |F (x) F ()| =
x f (t) dt M |x |.)
26. y = f (x) [a, b]. [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
x
b
(: y = a f (t) dt x f (t) dt .)
8.3
Riemann.
8.3.1
8.4. z = f (y) J, y = (x)

I y = (x) J ( z = f ((x))
I)

0
(x I).
f ((x)) (x) dx = f (y) dy
y=(x)
(b)
f ((x)) (x) dx =
a
f (y) dy
(a)
304
(a, b I).
f ((x))0 (x) dx = f (y) dy y=(x) .

z = f ((x))0 (x)
I
z = f ((x))0 (x) dx
, , . , , x I. ,
z = f (y) dy , ,
z = f (y) , ,
y J. y = (x)
x I, x I.
, .
.
, z = f (y) dy z = f (y) J,
f (y) dy = G(y) + c J, z = G(y)
z = f (y)

J c . , f (y) dy y=(x) = G((x)) + c I. ,
= G0 ((x))0 (x) = f ((x))0(x) I, z = G((x))
z = f ((x))0 (x) I. z = f ((x))0 (x) dx z = f ((x))0 (x)
0
I,
f ((x))
(x) dx = G((x)) + c I, c . ,
, f ((x))0 (x) dx = f (y) dy y=(x) I.
x
(x)
z = F (x) = a f ((t))0 (t) dt z = H(x) = (a) f (s) ds
y
I z = G(y) = (a) f (s) ds J. F 0 (x) = f ((x))0 (x)
x I G0 (y) = f (y) y J. , H(x) = G((x)) I , ,
H 0 (x) = G0 ((x))0 (x) = f ((x))0 (x) I. F 0 (x) = H 0 (x) I,
c F (x) = H(x) + c I. x = a 0 = 0 + c, c = 0 , ,
x
(x)
f ((t))0 (t) dt = (a) f (s) ds I. , x = b
a
.
d (G((x)))
dx
. (1) (sin x)n cos x dx,

.
n n
n d sin x
y = sin x, (sin x) cos x dx = (sin x) dx dx =
( n+1
)
n
x)n+1
y dy y=sin x = yn+1 + c y=sin x = (sinn+1
+ c.
2x
(2) x2 +1 dx y = x2 + 1,

2x
2
dx = x21+1 d(xdx+1) dx = y1 dy y=x2 +1 = (log |y| + c)y=x2 +1 = log(x2 + 1) + c.
x2 +1
b 1
(3) a x log
dx y = log x
x
log b
b 1
b 1 d log x
log b 1
.
a x log x dx = a log x dx dx = log a y dy = log | log b| log | log a| = log log
a
a, b y = log x
a, b
z = y1 , (, 0) (0, +).
y = log x log a, log b. log a, log b > 0
, , a, b > 1 log a, log b < 0 , , 0 < a, b < 1. ,
b 1
log b
log a, log b , a x log
dx = log log
.
x
a
8.3.2
.
8.5. y = f (x) y = g(x) I,
0
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f 0 (x)g(x) dx
(x I).
,
305
f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a)

a
f 0 (x)g(x) dx
(a, b I).
. y = F (x) y = f 0 (x)g(x) I, f 0 (x)g(x) dx = F (x) c

(x))
I, c . d (f (x)g(x)F
= f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x) F 0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x)
dx
0
0
I, y = f (x)g(x) F (x)
0 y = f (x)g (x) I. f (x)g (x) dx =
f (x)g(x) F (x) + c = f (x)g(x)
x f (x)g(x) dx I.
x
y = F (x) = a f 0 (t)g(t) dt y = G(x) = a f (t)g 0 (t) dt I, F 0 (x) + G0 (x) =
f 0 (x)g(x)+f (x)g 0 (x) = d (f (x)g(x))
I. c F (x)+G(x) = f (x)g(x)+c
dx
I. x = a
0 + 0= f (a)g(a) + c, c = f (a)g(a). F (x) + G(x) = f (x)g(x)

x
x
f (a)g(a) , , a f 0 (t)g(t) dt + a f (t)g 0 (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) I. , x = b
.
.
(1) log x dx = log x ddxx dx = x log x
x log x 1 dx = x log x x + c (0, +).
d log x
dx
x dx = x log x
1
x
x dx =
(2) a 6= 0,
1
d eax
1 ax
1
d sin(bx)
ax
e sin(bx) dx =
sin(bx) dx = e sin(bx)
eax
dx
a
dx
a
a
dx
1
b
= eax sin(bx)
eax cos(bx) dx
( )
a
a
1 ax
b
d eax
= e sin(bx) 2
cos(bx) dx
a
a
dx
1 ax
b ax
b
d cos(bx)
= e sin(bx) 2 e cos(bx) + 2 eax
dx
a
a
a
dx
1 ax
b ax
b2
= e sin(bx) 2 e cos(bx) 2 eax sin(bx) dx.
a
a
a
(
)
(
)
2
1 + ab 2 eax sin(bx) dx = a12 eax
a
sin(bx)
b
cos(bx)
+ c, ) c
( a
b
, , eax sin(bx) dx = eax a2 +b
sin(bx)
cos(bx)
+ c.
2
a2 +b2

a = 0 b 6= 0,
sin(bx) dx = 1b cos(bx) + c. :
a
b
eax sin(bx) dx = 2
eax sin(bx) 2
eax cos(bx) + c
2
a +b
a + b2
a, b a2 + b2 6= 0. , :
a
b
eax cos(bx) dx = 2
eax cos(bx) + 2
eax sin(bx) + c.
2
a +b
a + b2
2
2
2
2
x
(3) 0 xex dx = 0 x ddxe dx = 2e2 0e0 0 ddxx ex dx = 2e2 0 ex dx = 2e2 (e2 e0 ) =
e2 + 1.
dx
x
dx = cos + 0 cos 0 + 0 dx
cos x dx = + 0 cos x dx =
(4) 0 x sin x dx = 0 x d cos
dx
+ (sin sin 0) = .
8.3.3
am xm + am1 xm1 + + a1 x + a0
r(x) dx =
dx,
bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + b1 x + b0
306
r(x) =
am xm +am1 xm1 ++a1 x+a0

bn xn +bn1 xn1 ++b1 x+b0
.
. m < n , . , , m n,
p(x) q(x) q(x)
< n
(
)
am xm + + a0 = p(x) bn xn + + b0 + q(x)
x.
r(x) = p(x) +
bn
xn
+ bn1
q(x)
.
+ + b1 x + b0
xn1
p(x) dx ,
m < n.
. . , ,
.
.
bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + b1 x + b0
bn xn + + b0 = bn (x ) (x ) ((x )2 + 2 ) ((x )2 + 2 )
= bn (x ) (x ) (x i) (x + i) (x i) (x + i) ,
, . . . , , , . . . , + + + 2 + + 2 = n
, . . . , > 0.
x , . . . , x
, . . . ,
, . . . , . ,
(x )2 + 2 , . . . , (x )2 + 2
i, . . . , i , . . . ,
.
, , . . . ,
: , , . . . , , +.
. :
( A
(
A2
A )
2
)
1
1
r(x) =
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
x (x )2
(x )
x (x )2
(x )
( M (x ) + N
)
M (x ) + N
1
1
+
+ +
+
2
2
(x ) +
((x )2 + 2 )
( E (x ) +
E (x ) + )
1
1
+ +
.
+
(x )2 + 2
((x )2 + 2 )
. x , . . . , x
1 , . . . , ,
, . , (x )2 + 2 , . . . , (x )2 + 2

307
1 , . . . , . A1 , A2 , . . . , E ,
. ,
, bn xn + + b1 x + b0 .
,
n n A1 , A2 , . . . , E , .
. , ,
:
1
x
1
dx,
dx,
dx,
k
2
2
k
(x )
((x ) + )
((x )2 + 2 )k
k
. .

1
(i) (x)k dx, (, ) (, +),
y = x

1
1
d(x )
1

dx
=
dx
=
dy
.

k
k
k
(x )
(x )
dx
y
y=x
k 2,
k = 1,
(ii)
(
)
1
1
1
1
1

dx =
+c
+ c.
=
k
k1
(x )
k1y
k 1 (x )k1
y=x
x
((x)2 + 2 )k
(
)
1
dx = log |y| + c
= log |x | + c.
x
y=x
dx y = (x )2 + 2
x
1
dx =
2
2
k
((x ) + )
2
1
d ((x )2 + 2 )
1
dx =
2
2
k
((x ) + )
dx
2

1

dy
.

yk
y=(x)2 + 2
k 2,
)
1
1
1
1(
x
1

dx
=
+
c
+ c.
=

2
2
k
k1
2
2
2
((x ) + )
2
k1y
2(k 1) ((x ) + 2 )k1
y=(x) +
k = 1,
)
x
1(
1
dx
=
log
|y|
+
c
=
log((x )2 + 2 ) + c.

2
2
(x )2 + 2
2
2
y=(x) +
(iii) , ((x)12 + 2 )k dx y = x

1
1
1
1
1
d x

dx = 2k1
dx = 2k1
dy x .
( x
)k
2
2
k
2
k
((x ) + )
(y + 1)
y=
(
)2 + 1 dx
Ik =
(y 2
1
dy,
+ 1)k
k .
. , k = 1,
1
I1 =
dy = arctan y + c.
2
y +1
308
k > 1,
1
y2 + 1
y2
Ik =
dy
=
dy
dy
(y 2 + 1)k
(y 2 + 1)k
(y 2 + 1)k
1
y
1
d
1
=
y
dy y 2
dy = Ik1 +
dy
2
k1
k
2
(y + 1)
(y + 1)
2(k 1)
dy (y + 1)k1
1
y
1
1
= Ik1 +
dy
2
k1
2
2(k 1) (y + 1)
2(k 1)
(y + 1)k1
2k 3
1
y
+
=
Ik1 .
2
k1
2k 2 (y + 1)
2k 2
Ik Ik1 ,
(2k3)(2k5)
y
y
2k3
1
+ (2k2)(2k4)
+ (2k2)(2k4)
, I1 : Ik = 2k2
Ik2
(y 2 +1)k1
(y 2 +1)k2
1
y
2k 3
y
+
+
2
k1
2
2k 2 (y + 1)
(2k 2)(2k 4) (y + 1)k2
(2k 3)(2k 5) 3 y
(2k 3)(2k 5) 1
+
+
arctan y + c.
2
(2k 2)(2k 4) 2 y + 1 (2k 2)(2k 4) 2
A2
A1
A
+ (x)
r(x) dx, x
2 + + (x)

Ik =
A1 log |x |
,
M1 (x)
(x)2 + 2
A2
A

x
(k 1)(x )1
M (x)
M2 (x)
+ ((x)
2 + 2 )2 + + ((x)2 + 2 )
M1
M2
M
log((x )2 + 2 )

2
2
2
2((x ) + )
2( 1)((x )2 + 2 )1
, ,
N1
(x)2 + 2
N1 0 arctan
N2
((x)2 + 2 )2
+ +
N
((x)2 + 2 )
x
N2 0 (x )
N 0 (x )
+
+
+
,
(x )2 + 2
((x )2 + 2 )1
N1 0 , . . . , N 0 N1 , . . . , N .
2
. (1) x3
dx = 2 log |x 3| + c (, 0) (0, +).
5
1
(2) (x+2)3 dx = 52 (x+2)
2 + c (, 2) (2, +).
(3) (x+1)1 2 +9 dx y = x+1

,
3
1
1
dx =
2
(x + 1) + 9
3

(1
)
1
x+1
1

dy
=
arctan
y
+
c
+c

x+1 = arctan
2
x+1
y +1
3
3
3
y= 3
y= 3
(, +).
x2
2
(4) (x2)
2 +4 dx y = (x 2) + 4,
x2
1
dx =
2
(x 2) + 4
2

1
1
1
= (log |y| + c)y=(x2)2 +4 = log((x 2)2 + 4) + c
dy
2
y
2
2
y=(x2) +4
309
(, +).
x2
2
(5) ((x2)
2 +4)4 dx y = (x 2) + 4 :

(
)
x2
1
1
1

dx =
dy
= 3 +c
=
+ c.
2
4
4
2
2
((x 2) + 4)
2y
6y
6((x 2)2 + 4)3
y=(x2) +4
y=(x2) +4
(, +).
3 2 +2
(6) xx22x
dx, x3 2x2 + 2 x2 3x + 2
3x+2
3
2 +2
x
x3 2x2 +2 = (x2 3x +2)(x +1) + x , , xx22x
= x + 1 + x2 3x+2
.
3x+2
x 2x2 + 2
x
1 2
x
dx = (x + 1) dx +
dx = x + x +
dx.
2
2
2
x 3x + 2
x 3x + 2
2
x 3x + 2
x
x
x2 3x+2
dx x2 3x+2
.
x
2
2
x 3x + 2 1 2, x 3x + 2 = (x 1)(x 2). x2 3x+2
:
A
B
x
=
+
,
x2 3x + 2
x1 x2
A, B .
(x 1)(x 2) x = A(x 2) + B(x 1) , , x =
(A + B)x + (2A B).
A + B = 1 2A B = 0.
A = 1, B = 2.
x
1
2
=
+
.
x2 3x + 2
x1 x2
,
x
1
1
dx =
dx + 2
dx = log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c
2
x 3x + 2
x1
x2
, ,
x3 2x2 + 2
1
dx = x2 + x log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c
2
x 3x + 2
2
(, 1), (1, 2) (2, +).
2x2 +1
2x2 +1
(7) x3 +x
2 x1 dx x3 +x2 x1 .
x3 +x2 x1 : x3 +x2 x1 = x2 (x+1)(x+1) = (x2 1)(x+1) =
(x 1)(x + 1)2 . , x3 + x2 x 1 1 1.
2x2 +1
x3 +x
2 x1 :
A
B
C
2x2 + 1
=
+
+
.
3
2
x +x x1
x 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2
(x 1)(x + 1)2 2x2 + 1 = A(x +
1)2 + B(x 1)(x + 1) + C(x 1) , , 2x2 + 1 = (A + B)x2 + (2A + C)x + (A B C).
A + B = 2, 2A + C = 0 A B C = 1.
A = 43 , B = 45 , C = 23 .
3 1
5 1
3
2x2 + 1
1
=
+
,
3
2
x +x x1
4 x 1 4 x + 1 2 (x + 1)2
310
2x2 + 1
3
1
5
1
3
1
dx =
dx +
dx
dx
3
2
x +x x1
4
x1
4
x+1
2
(x + 1)2
3
5
3 1
+c
= log |x 1| + log |x + 1| +
4
4
2x+1
(, 1), (1, 1) (1, +).
(8) x4 x2x2x+2 dx x4 x2x2x+2 .

x4 x2 2x + 2 : x4 x2 2x + 2 = x2 (x2 1) 2(x 1) =
x2 (x 1)(x + 1) 2(x 1) = (x 1)(x3 + x2 2) = (x 1)(x3 x2 + 2x2 2) = (x 1)(x2 (x
1) + 2(x 1)(x + 1)) = (x 1)2 (x2 + 2x + 2). , x4 x2 2x + 2 1
, x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 () .
x
:
x4 x2 2x+2
x
A
B
C(x + 1) + D
=
+
+
.
x4 x2 2x + 2
x 1 (x 1)2
(x + 1)2 + 1
(x 1)2 ((x + 1)2 + 1) x = (A + C)x3 + (A + B C +
D)x2 + (2B C 2D)x + (2A + 2B + C + D). A + C = 0,
A + B C + D = 0, 2B C 2D = 1 2A + 2B + C + D = 0.
1
7
1
, B = 15 , C = 25
, D = 25
.
A = 25
x
1
x+1
1
1 1
1
1
7
=
+
,
x4 x2 2x + 2
25 x 1 5 (x 1)2 25 (x + 1)2 + 1 25 (x + 1)2 + 1
1
1
1
dx +
dx
x1
5
(x 1)2
x+1
1
1
7
dx
dx
2
25
(x + 1) + 1
25
(x + 1)2 + 1
1
1 1
1
7
=
log |x 1|
log((x + 1)2 + 1)
arctan(x + 1) + c.
25
5 x 1 50
25
x
1
dx =
4
2
x x 2x + 2
25
(, 1) (1, +).
7 +6x6 x
(9) x5 x4x+2x
3 2x2 +x1 dx.
7
6
+6x x
2
, x5 x4x+2x
3 2x2 +x1 = x + 7x + 5 +
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5

x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
1
7
x7 + 6x6 x
dx = x3 + x2 + 5x +
5
4
3
2
x x + 2x 2x + x 1
3
2
7x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + x + 5

dx.
x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1
: x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1 = x4 (x1)+2x2 (x1)+(x

4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
1) = (x4 +2x2 +1)(x1) = (x2 +1)2 (x1). x7x
5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1 =
(x2 +1)2 (x1)
:
A
Bx + C
Dx + E
7x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + x + 5
=
+
+
.
(x2 + 1)2 (x 1)
x1
x2 + 1
(x2 + 1)2
(x2 + 1)2 (x 1) 7x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + x + 5 = (A + B)x4 +
(B + C)x3 + (2A + B C + D)x2 + (B + C D + E)x + (A C E) A + B = 7,
311
B + C = 3, 2A + B C + D = 4, B + C D + E = 1 A C E = 5.
A = 32 , B = 17
, C = 11
, D = 4 E = 2.
2
2
7x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + x + 5

dx =
x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1
3
17
= log |x 1|
log(x2 + 1)
2
4
3
1
1
17x + 11
2x + 1
dx
dx
+
2
dx
2
x1
2
x2 + 1
(x2 + 1)2
11
2
1
arctan x 2
+2
dx.
2
x +1
(x2 + 1)2
(, 1) (1, +). .
1
x2 + 1
x2
1
x
dx =
dx
dx =
dx x 2
dx
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
x +1
(x + 1)2
1
d
1
x
1
1
= arctan x +
x
dx = arctan x +
dx
2
2
2
2
dx x + 1
2(x + 1) 2
x +1
1
x
= arctan x +
+ c.
2
2
2(x + 1)
(, +). :
x7 + 6x6 x
1
7
x2
3
17
dx = x3 + x2 + 5x + 2
+ log |x 1|
log(x2 + 1)
5
4
3
2
x x + 2x 2x + x 1
3
2
x +1 2
4
9
arctan x + c.
2
(, 1) (1, +).
8.3.4
r(cos x, sin x) dx,

r(s, t) s, t. , y = f (x) = r(cos x, sin x)
(x)
, y = f1 (x) y = f2 (x) a (cos x)k (sin x)l ,
ff21 (x)
a k, l - .
x)3 (sin x)2 cos x

x)3 (sin x)2 cos x
. sin x+(cos
dx f (x) = sin x+(cos
, f1 (x) = sin x +
sin x+(cos x)2
sin x+(cos x)2
3
2
2
(cos x) (sin x) cos x, f2 (x) = sin x + (cos x) r(s, t) =
t+s3 t2 s
.
t+s2
y = f1 (x) y = f2 (x) (, +) y = f (x)
y = f2 (x) 0 , ,
y = f (x), y = f (x) .
, , y = f (x) 2
.
1. y = f (x) ,
0 . 2, . ,
(, ), (, ),
(, ), (, ).
312
y = f (x) (, )
x
u = tan .
2
:
u = tan x2 . u = tan x2 , ddxu = 2(cos1 x )2 > 0
2
x (, ). limx+ tan x2 = limx tan x2 = +,
u = tan x2 (, +).
x = 2 arctan u,
(, +) (, ). ,
x (, ), u (, +)
2
1(tan x )2
2 tan x2
2u
. , cos x = 1+(tan x2 )2 = 1u
sin
x
=
= 1+u
2
2 ,
1+u
1+(tan x2 )2
2
( 1u2 2u )
y = f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, ) y = g(u) = r 1+u2 , 1+u2
(, ). u.
. y = f (x) =
sin x+(cos x)3 (sin x)2 cos x

sin x+(cos x)2
y = g(u) =
2u
+
1+u2
(, ) )3 (
)2 2
1u
2u 2
2 +4u3 +7u4 +2u5 u6
1+u2
( 1+u
)
= 1+2u7u
2
1+2u2u2 +2u3 +u4
2
1u2
1+u2
2u
+
1+u2
1u
1+u2
(, +).
f (x) = g(u) = g(tan x2 ) g(u) = f (x) = f (2 arctan u) , ,
y = f (x) y = g(u) .
, y = f (x) x (, ), y = g(u)
u (, +) . , y = f (x) x
(, ), y = g(u) u (, +) .
, y = f (x)
(, ) y = g(u) (, ),
. , y = g(u) , ,
(, ), y = f (x) (, ).
y = g(u) u1 , . . . , un < u1 < < un < +,
(, u1 ), (u1 , u2 ), . . . , (un1 , un ), (un , +), y = f (x)
x1 , . . . , xn < x1 < < xn <
(, x1 ), (x1 , x2 ), . . . , (xn1 , xn ), (xn , ). xi ui
ui = tan x2i xi = 2 arctan ui .
(
)
2
, ddxu = 2(cos1 x )2 = 12 1 + (tan x2 )2 = 1+u
. , 2
2
r(sin x, cos x) dx (, ),

2

r(sin x, cos x) dx = f (x) dx = g(u)
du
.

2
1+u
u=tan x2
y = f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, )
u
(, +).
2
, , g(u) 1+u
2 du = G(u) + c, y = G(u)
u (, +). ,
,
(
x)
+ c = F (x) + c
r(cos x, sin x) dx = f (x) dx = G tan
2
313
(, ).
, , (, )
( + k2, + k2)
( (k
) Z). , y = f (x)
x

2, y = F (x) = G tan 2 2. ,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a, b) (, ) y = f (x)

. , , F 0 (x) = f (x) .
(a + k2, b + k2) ( + k2, + k2), x
(a+k2, b+k2) xk2 (a, b) , , F 0 (x) = F 0 (xk2) = f (xk2) =
f (x). f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a +k2, b + k2).
, , r(cos x, sin x) dx
(, +) y = f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) .
. sin1x dx.
1 y = sin1x .
(, ).
2
u = tan x2 y = sin1x (, ) y = 1+u
2u
2
(, +). y = 1+u
0 (, +) y = sin1x
2u

1
2
2
0 (, ).
dx = 1+u
duu=tan x = u1 duu=tan x =
sin x
2u 1+u2
2
2

log tan x2 + c
(,
0)
(0,
)
(,
).

1
1
tan x 2,
y
=
y
=
log
dx =
sin x
2
sin x

log tan x2 + c ( + k2, k2) (k2, + k2) ( +
k2, + k2) (k Z).

, : sin1x dx = log tan x2 + c (k, + k) (k Z).

, , , y = r(cos x, sin x) x0
6= .
, z = x x0 cos x = cos(z + x0 + ) =
cos(z + x0 ) = cos x0 cos z + sin x0 sin z = p cos z + q sin z, p = cos x0 q = sin x0 , ,
, sin x = sin(z + x0 + ) = sin(z + x0 ) = sin x0 cos z cos x0 sin z = q cos z + p sin z.
r(cos x, sin x) = r(p cos z + q sin z, q cos z + p sin z) ddxz = 1,

r(cos x, sin x) dx = r(p cos z + q sin z, q cos z + p sin z) dz
.
z=xx0
x (x0 , x0 +2) z (, )
, y = r(cos x, sin x) x0 , y = r(p cos z + q sin z, q cos z + p sin z)
. , , .
. (cos1x)2 dx.
.
y = (cos1x)2 2 ( ).
1
1
,
z = x ( 2 ) = x 2 y = (cos1x)2 y = (cos(z+
2 =
(sin z)2
))
2

1
1

,
.
2 dx =
2 dz
(cos x)
(sin z)
z=x 2
, y =
(, ).
u = tan z2 y = (sin1z)2 (, )
1
(sin z)2
y=
(1+u2 )2
4u2
(, +). y =
(1+u2 )2
4u2
0 (, ). ,
0 (, +) y = (sin1z)2

(1+u2 )2 2
1+u2
1

dz
=
du
duu=tan z =
=
z
2
2
2
(sin z)
4u
1+u
2u2
u=tan
2
314
)
1
2u
+ u2 u=tan z + c = 12 cot z2 + 12 tan z2 + c = cot z + c (, 0) (0, ).
2
z (, 0) (0, ), x = z + 2

1
1

dx
=
dz
=
( 2 , 2 ) ( 2 , 3
).
2
(cos x)2
(sin z)2
z=x 2
cot(x 2 ) + c = tan x + c.
y = (cos1x)2 y = tan x 2, (cos1x)2 dx =

tan x + c ( 2 + k2, 2 + k2) ( 2 + k2, 3
+ k2)
2
( 2 + k2, 3
+
k2)
(k
Z).
2
(cos1x)2 dx = tan x + c ( 2 + k, 2 + k) (k Z).

2. y = f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, +),
.
,
, y = f (x)
(, +).
f (x) dx = r(cos x, sin x) dx
(, +), f (x) dx = F (x) + c, y = F (x)

F 0 (x) = f (x) (, +). , , y = F (x).
1, , , (, ) u = tan x2 x = 2 arctan u.
, y = f((x) = r(cos
) x, sin x) (, )
1u2
2u
y = g(u) = r 1+u
,
(, ). , , 2 1+u2
y = g(u). y = f (x) ,
limu+ g(u) = limx f (x) = f () , ,
y = g(u)
a0 +a1 u++an un
2
. y = g1 (u) = g(u) 1+u
2 = b +b u++b um ( an , bm 6= 0)
m
0
1
m n + 2. limu+ ug1 (u) = 0. y = g(u)
(, +), b0 + b1 u + + bm um .
y = g1 (u)
( M (u ) + N
M (u ) + N )
1
1
g1 (u) =
+
+
+
(u )2 + 2
((u )2 + 2 )
( E (u ) +
E (u ) + )
1
1
+
+
+
,
(u )2 + 2
((u )2 + 2 )
, , , . . . , > 0.
u
u +, M1 + +E1 = 0.

g1 (u) du

M1
E1
g1 (u) du = G(u) + c =
log((u )2 + 2 ) + +
log((u )2 + 2 )+
2
2
u
u
+ + 1 0 arctan
+ h(u) + c,
+ N1 0 arctan
y = h(u) u (, +)
.
, M1 + + E1 = 0
= (N1 0 + + 1 0 ),

(
x)
= lim G(u) = ,
lim G tan
u+
x
2
2
(
x)
lim G tan
= lim G(u) = .
x+
u
2
2
315

f (x) dx (, ) :
(

x)
f (x) dx = g1 (u) duu=tan x = G tan
+ c.
2
2
y = f (x) y = G(tan x2 ) 2, f (x) dx = G(tan x2 ) + c

( + k2, + k2) (k Z).
{
G(tan x2 ) + [ x+
], x 6= + k2 (k Z)
2
y = (x) =
x,
x = + k2 (k Z)
2
Ik = ( + k2, + k2) (x) = G(tan x2 ) + k, y = (x)
, , 0 (x) = f (x) . y = (x)
+ k2
( Ik x Ik+1 .
)
x
y = G(tan 2 ) limx(+k2)+ (x) = limx(+k2)+ G(tan 2 ) + (k + 1) =
x
limx+ G(tan
+1) )= 12 +(k +1) = (k + 12 ) = ( +k2) limx(+k2) (x) =
( 2 )+(k
limx(+k2) G(tan x2 ) + k = limx G(tan x2 ) + k = 12 + k = (k + 21 ) = ( + k2).
y = (x) + k2 (k Z).
, , y = (x) (, +),
( + k2, + k2) (k Z) 0 (x) = f (x) . y = F (x)
y = f (x) (, +)
y = F (x) F 0 (x) = f (x) (, +).
y = (x)F (x) (, +), (+k2, +k2) (k Z)
( F )0 (x) = 0 . y = (x) F (x)
[ + k2, + k2] (k Z). , y = (x) F (x)
(, +). c0 (x) = F (x) + c0 x
(, +). , y = (x) y = f (x) (, +)
y = F (x) y = (x). , ,
r(cos x, sin x) dx = (x) + c

(, +).
1
. 2+sin
dx.
x
1
y = 2+sin x (, +).
(, )

1
x
1
2
1

u = tan 2 2+sin x dx = 2+ 2u 1+u2 du u=tan x = u2 +u+1
duu=tan x .
2
2
2
1+u
1
1
1
2 arctan 2u+1
du =
dx
=
, u2 +u+1
du
=
+
c
(,
+).
2+sin x
3
3
(u+ 12 )2 +( 23 )2
(
)
2 arctan 2 tan x + 1
+ c (, ).
2
3
3
3
)
(
1
2
1
dx =
y = 2+sin x 3 arctan 23 tan x2 + 13 2 , , 2+sin
x
)
(2
2
x
1
arctan tan
+ 3 + c ( + k2, + k2). ,
2(
3
3
)
)
(
limx 23 arctan 23 tan x2 + 13 = 3 limx+ 23 arctan 23 tan x2 + 13 = 3 . ,
{
) 2 x+
(
2 arctan 2 tan x + 1
+ 3 [ 2 ], x 6= + k2 (k Z)
2
3
3
y = (x) = 13
x,
x = + k2 (k Z)
3
1
y = (x) (, +) 2+sin x dx = (x) + c (, +).
316
8.3.5
(
)
(
)
(
)
2
2
r x, 1 x dx,
r x, x 1 dx,
r x, x2 + 1 dx.
r(s, t) s, t.
(i) [1, 1]

,
].
x
=
sin
t
[
1 x2 =
2 2
cos t r(sin t, cos t) cos t dt, , 8.3.4,

u = tan 2t . x
u u = 1+x1x2 . , ,

x
u=
.
1 + 1 x2
[1, 1], ddxu = 1x2 +11x2 > 0 x
(1, 1) , , [1, 1].
2u
, x = 1+u
2 . ,
2
2
2
(1+u
)
1u
d
u
1 x2 = 1+u2 dx = 2(1u2 ) . ,
(
(
)
2u 1 u2 ) 2(1 u2 )
2
.
r x, 1 x dx = r
,
dy
1 + u2 1 + u2 (1 + u2 )2
u= x 2
1+ 1x
u [1, 1]
8.3.3.
, r(x, 1 x2 )
x [1, 1]. , ,
.
1
dx [1, 12 ) ( 12 , 1]
.
x+ 1x2
[1,
1]. [1, 1] ,
x + 1 x2 6= 0 x 6= 12 . u = 1+x1x2 [1, 1 2)

1u2

(1 2, 1], , : x+11x2 dx = 2 (1+2uu
.
2 )(1+u2 ) du u=
x
1+ 1x2
1u2
, 2 (1+2uu
2 )(1+u2 ) du
2
|
12 log |1+2uu
+ arctan u + c. , , x+11x2 dx =
2
1+u
1
log
|x
+
1 x2 | + arctan 1+x1x2 + c.
2
(ii) [1, +) (, 1].
[1, +) x = sin1 t t
(0, 2 ]. x2 1 = cos

sin t

1 cos t cos t
r( sin t , sin t ) (sin t)2 dt, , 8.3.4, u =
tan 2t . x u u = x + x2 1 ,
t. ,
,
u = x + x2 1 .
[1, +), ddxu = 1 + xx2 1 > 0
x (1, +). limx+ (x + x2 1) = +,

317
[1, +). x =
2
2
x2 1 = u 2u1 ddxu = u2u
2 1 .
( 2
(
)
u + 1 u2 1 ) u2 1
2
r x, x 1 dx = r
,
du
2u
2u
2u2
u=x+ x2 1
u2 +1
2u
u [1, +).
(, 1],
u = x x2 1
u (, 1].
.
, (, 1] [1, +),

r(x, x2 1).
. x+1x2 1 dx [1, +).
, x + x2 1 6= 0 [1, +). x+1x2 1 dx =

1
1
2u1 3 ) du = 12 log |u| + 4u1 2 + c, x+1x2 1 dx =

( 2u 2u1 3 ) duu=x+x2 1 . , ( 2u
1
log |x + x2 1| + 4(x+1x2 1)2 + c.
2
(iii)
(, +)
x
=
cot
t
(0,
).
x2 + 1 = sin1 t
t 1
r( cos
, ) 1 dt, , 8.3.4, sin t sin t (sin t)2
u = tan 2t . , u = x + x2 + 1,
.
u = x + x2 + 1
ddxu = 1 + xx2 +1 > 0 x (, +).
limx (x + x2 + 1) = 0 limx+ (x + x2 + 1) = +,
2
(0, +). x = u 2u1 .
2
2
, x2 + 1 = u 2u+1 ddxu = u2u
2 +1 .
( 2
(
)
u 1 u2 + 1 ) u2 + 1
r x, x2 + 1 dx = r
,
du
2u
2u
2u2
u=x+ x2 +1
u (0, +).
. xx12 +1 dx (, 0) (0, +).
x , u = x + x2 + 1
,
,

(0, 1) (1, +).
1
1
dx = 2 u2 1 du u=x+ x2 +1 2 u2 1 du (0, 1)
x x2 +1
(1, +) log |u1|log(u+1)+c. , xx12 +1 dx =

log 1+|x|x2 +1 + c.
(
)
r x, x2 + x + dx,
, , , 6= 0 r(s, t) s, t.
318
(
)
2 42
, x2 +x+ = (x+ 2
) + 42 , .
1: > 0 4 2 > 0. u = 2 2 (x + 2
),
4
)
42 (
42
42 2
+
u,
u
+
1
du =
2
2
2
2
2
R(u, u + 1) du, R(s, t) s, t.
2: > 0 4 2 < 0. u = 22 (x + 2
),
4
)
2 4 (
2 4
2 4 2
+
u,
u
1
du =
2
2
2
2
2
R(u, u 1) du, R(s, t) s, t.
(x + 2
),
3: < 0 4 2 < 0. u = 2
2 4
)
2 4 (
2 4
2 4
2
r 2
u, 2
1 u2 du =
2
R(u, 1 u2 ) du, R(s, t) s, t.

2
< 0 4 > 0
x2 + x + . , 4 2
0,
.
x2 + x + ) dx 6= 0
r(x,
r(x, a(x)) dx, y = a(x)

x. Abel .
y = a(x) =
x4 + x3 + x2 + x + , 6= 0,
, .
8 .
, ,
.
.
. .
1. .
b+c
b
(i) a+c f (x c) dx = a f (x) dx.
b
b ( )
(ii) a f x dx = a f (x) dx > 0.
,
f (x) 0 x [a, b].
a
b
2. y = f (x) , b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
a
b
y = f (x) , b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
b
b
y = f (x) , b f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx.
b
y = f (x) , b f (x) dx = 0.
;
319
3. y = f (x) T > 0,
b+T
b
(i) a+T f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
a+T
b+T
(ii) a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx.
;
. .
1. .
sin x
x
3
4
2
dx,
x cos(x ) dx,
(cos x) sin x dx,
dx,
2
x
x +1
2x + 1 dx,
x
x+1
2
dx,
dx,
dx,
(x2 + 2x + 5)2
x
1x
x5
sin x
x 3 x 1 dx,
dx,
cos(2x) 4 sin(2x) dx,
dx,
(2 + cos x)3
1 x6
ex
sin x + cos x
x
2 x3
dx,
dx,
dx,
x e dx,
e3 sin x cos x dx,
(sin x cos x)3
1 + e2x
x+1

1
1
1
1
2
sin dx,
1 + 3(cos x) sin(2x) dx,
dx,
tan x dx,
dx,
2
2
x
x
4 + x2
4x
1
1
1
dx,
dx,
dx,
x sin(x2 ) cos(x2 ) dx,
2
4
2
x x+2
x(x + 1)
1xx
log x
arctan x
1
(cos x)3
3
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx.
(sin x) dx,
sin x
1 + ex
x 1 + log x
(1 + x) x
x x + 1 dx,
x 2x + 1 dx,
2
2. .

2x
x
3 2x
3 x2
e
sin(3x) dx,
e cos(5x) dx,
x e dx,
xe
dx,
e x dx,
arcsin x dx,
x2 arccos x dx,
2
2
arctan x dx,
x arcsin x dx,
x(arctan x) dx,
arctan x dx,
(cos x)2 dx,
x
4
3
(sin x) dx,
(sin x) sin(5x) dx,
dx,
(tan x)2 dx,
(cos x)2
x2
arctan(ex )
xearctan x
dx,
dx,
3 dx.
(x2 + 1)2
ex
(x2 + 1) 2
x sin x dx,
x log x dx,
x (log x) dx,
3. .
x+2
2x2 + 5x 1
x2 + 2x + 3
5x + 3
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
x2 + 2x 3
x2 4x + 4
x3 + x2 2x
x3 + x2 x 1
3x2 + 2x 2
x2 + 1
1
x4
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
x3 1
(2x 1)3
x4 1
x4 + 5x2 + 4
320
1
8x3 + 7
1
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
2
4
3
4
(x 4x + 4)(x 4x + 5)
x + 2x 2x 1
x 2x2 + 1
4
2
x2
1
x x3 + 2x2 x + 2
x +x+1
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
2
4
4
2
(x + 2x + 2)
x +1
(x 1)(x + 4x + 4)
(x 1)4
1
1
dx,
dx.
(x2 2x + 1)(x4 + 2x2 + 1)
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 (x + 3)3
1
4. Ik = (y2 +1)
k dy.
I1 , . . . , I5 .
5. sin x cos x.
1
1
1
dx,
dx,
dx,
(1 + cos x)2
1 + 2 sin x
5 + 3 cos x
(sin x)2
sin x
1
dx,
dx,
dx.
2
1 + (sin x)
1 + sin x + cos x
2 sin x cos x + 5
6. .

2
1 x dx,
x2 1 dx,

x2 + 1 dx,
dx,
x2 1
1
1
x
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
2
x +1
x +x+1
(x 1)(x 2)
1
1
dx,
dx.
x1+ x+1
(x + 1) 1 + 2x x2
7. :
(i) 2 7.4
.
(ii) 3, 4 5 7.4
.
(iii) 1 7.4.
(iv) 1 7.4.
(v)
4 7.4.
8. 5
2 7.4 .
. .
1. y = f (x) (,+). y = fn (x)
x
n, f1 (x) = 0 f (t) dt
x
fn (x) = 0 fn1 (t) dt.
x
1
fn (x) = (n1)!
f (t)(x t)n1 dt n.
0
321
2. Jn (x) =
:
(i) Jn (x) =
(cos x)n dx In (x) =
sin x(cos x)n1

n
n1
(ii) In (x) = cos x(sinnx)
(sin x)n dx, n 2
n1
Jn2 (x),
n
n1
I (x).
n n2
y = J1 (x), . . . , J6 (x) y = I1 (x), . . . , I6 (x).

.
3. In = 02 (sin x)n dx n.
In = n1
I
n 2.
n n2
I0 =
(i) I2n =
(2n1)(2n3)31
2n(2n2)42
(ii) I2n+1 =
I1 = 1. n :
2 ,
2n(2n2)42
.
(2n+1)(2n1)53
n :
(iii)
(246(2n))2
I2n
,
(35(2n1))2 (2n+1) I2n+1
(iv) (n + 1)In In+1 =
I2n+1 I2n I2n1 =

I2n
I2n
1
1 I2n+1
1 + 2n
, , I2n+1
1.
2n+1
I
2n 2n+1
Wallis:
(
)2
2 4 6 (2n 2) (2n)
(
)2
2
3 5 (2n 3) (2n 1) (2n + 1)

4. In (x) =
n 2.
(n!)2 22n
.
(2n)! n
(tan x)n dx, In (x) =
(tan x)n1
n1
In2 (x)
y = I1 (x), . . . , I6 (x) .
5. In (x) = xn ex dx Jn (x) = xn ex dx, n 1

(i) In (x) = xn ex + nIn1 (x),
(ii) Jn (x) = xn ex nJn1 (x).
y = In (x) y = Jn (x) 3
8.2.
6.
xn ex dx = pn1 (x)ex + c
2
n x2
x e
x2
dx = pn1 (x)e
(n )
ex dx
2
(n )
(, +), pn1 (x) n 1 c .

322

2
, ex dx .
x
2
y=
et dt
0
,
.
7. Im,n (x) = xm (1 x)n dx,

(i) Im,n (x) =
xm+1 (1x)n
m+1
m
m 6= 1, n 6= 0,
n
I
(x)
m+1 m+1,n1
n+1
m
(ii) Im,n (x) = x (1x)
+ n+1
Im1,n+1 (x) m 6= 0, n 6= 1.
n+1
1
m!n!
0 xm (1 x)n dx = (m+n+1)!
m, n 0.
8. In (x) = xn sin x dx Jn (x) = xn cos x dx, n
(i) In (x) = xn cos x + nxn1 sin x n(n 1)In2 (x),

(ii) Jn (x) = xn sin x + nxn1 cos x n(n 1)Jn2 (x).
y = In (x) y = Jn (x).
9. Im,n (x) = (cos x)m (sin x)n dx, m, n

(i) Im,n (x) =
(cos x)m1 (sin x)n+1

m+n
m+1
m1
I
(x),
m+n m2,n
n1
(sin x)
n1
+ m+n
Im,n2 (x).
(ii) Im,n (x) = (cos x) m+n
Im,n = 02 (cos x)m (sin x)n dx, m, n
(i) Im,n =
(m1)(m3)1(n1)(n3)1
(m+n)(m+n2)2
2
(ii) Im,n =
.
m, n ,
(m1)(m3)(1 2)(n1)(n3)(1 2)
(m+n)(m+n2)(1 2)
m, n
10. Im,n (x) = (sin x)m sin(nx) dx, , n 6= m, Im,n (x) =

m
m1 cos x sin(nx)
n(sinnx)2 mcos(nx)
+ m(sin x) n2 m
m(m1)
I
(x).
2
2
n2 m2 m2,n
. .
1. y = f (x) [0, ]
)
n1 f ()
1
f 00 (x) sin(nx) dx = f (0)+(1)
n.
n2
n
(
0
f (x) +
2. . y = f (x)
[a, b] y = g(x) [a, b].
[a, b]
f (x)g(x) dx = f (a)
a
g(x) dx + f (b)
a
g(x) dx.
x
b
b
G(x) = a g(t) dt, a f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x)G0 (x) dx
, ,
2 7.3.
323
3. y = (x) [a, b] y = 0 (x)

[a, b]
m > 0 0 (x) m x [a, b],
b

a sin((x)) dx m4 .

b
b

(: a sin((x)) dx = a 01(x) 0 (x) sin((x)) dx.
.)
b

sin(x2 ) dx 2 a, b 0 < a < b.
a
4. x = x(t) [a, b],

y = y(t) [a, b] y(t) 0 t [a, b].
x = x(t) y = y(t), t [a, b], x-
x = x(a) x = x(b)
E=
y(t)x0 (t) dt.
(:
b
a
y(t)x0 (t) dt =
) 0
b ( 1
y
x
(x(t))
x (t) dt.)
a
5. C x = x(t) y = y(t), t
[a, b], , : (x(b), y(b)) = (x(a), y(a)).
, t , (x, y) = (x(t), y(t)) C

C . x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, b], ,
, E C

b
b
)
1 b(
0
0
E=
y(t)x (t) dt =
x(t)y (t) dt =
x(t)y 0 (t) y(t)x0 (t) dt.
2 a
a
a
(: t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 [a, b] x(t1 ) x(t) x(t3 ) y(t2 )
y(t) y(t4 ) t [a, b]. t1 , t2 , t3 , t4
x = x(t) y = y(t) [a, b].)
6. x = x(t) = r0 cos t + x0 y = y(t) = r0 sin t + y0
(x0 , y0 ) r0 > 0.
x = x(t) = 0 cos t + x0
y = y(t) = 0 sin t + y0
( 2
)
n
dn
n
7. Pn (x) = (1)
(x
1)
.
n
n
2 n! dx
Pn (x) n.
1
1 p(x)Pn (x) dx = 0 p(x) n.
{
1
0,
n 6= m
1 Pn (x)Pm (x) dx =
2
, n = m
2n+1
324
8.4 Riemann.

1
1
dx,
0 x
x dx.
1

. y = x1
[0, 1] , , limx0+ x1 = +.
[1, +) . ,
,
.
y = f (x) [a, b)
[a, c] [a, b).
b
f (x) dx
a
y = f (x) [a, b).

c
b
limcb a f (x) dx, a f (x) dx
f (x) dx = lim
f (x) dx.
cb
c
,
lim
f (x) dx
cb
a
c
. limcb a f (x) dx , b
c
a f (x) dx . limcb a f (x) dx ,
b
c
a f (x) dx , . limcb a f (x) dx
b
, a f (x) dx .
: [a, +), (a, b] (, b]. , , ( )
:
+
c
f (x) dx = lim
f (x) dx,
c+
f (x) dx = lim
a+
ca+
f (x) dx,
f (x) dx = lim
f (x) dx.
c
b
a+ f (x) dx, y = f (x)
(a, b). d ( a < d < b), (
d
b
) a+ f (x) dx d f (x) dx ( b
d
b
) . a+ f (x) dx = a+ f (x) dx + d f (x) dx.
+
b
+
a+ f (x) dx f (x) dx f (x) dx.
b
a f (x) dx;
f (x) 0 x [a, b). c
c
(a, b) a f (x) dx Ec Ac
y = f (x), [a, c] x-, . (a, 0)
325
(a, f (a)) . (c, 0) (c, f (c)). c

b, .
x = b , , Ac A
y = f (x), [a, b) x-, .
(a, 0) (a, f (a)) x = b. Ac
A Ec Ac
c
b
E A. a f (x) dx = limcb a f (x) dx
Ec c b , , E.
, y = f (x) [a, b),
A .

.
+
, f (x) 0 x [a, +), a f (x) dx
A y = f (x),
[a, +) x- . (a, 0) (a, f (a)).
A .
-
. .
,
.
c
1p
. (1) p . c > 1 1 x1p dx = c 1p1 ,
c
1
p 6= 1, = log c, p = 1. , limc+ 1 x1p dx = +, p 1, = p1
,
p > 1.
{
+
1
, p > 1
1
p1
dx
=
p
x
+, p 1
1
1
1p
(2) p . c 0 < c < 1 c x1p dx = 1c
, p 6= 1,
1p
1 1
1
1
= log c , p = 1. , limc0+ c xp dx = +, p 1, = 1p , p < 1.
1
0+
1
dx =
xp
1
1p
p < 1
+,
p 1
+
, 0+ x1p dx = + p.
c
c
(3) c > 0 0 x21+1 dx = arctan c arctan 0 = arctan c, limc+ 0 x21+1 dx = 2 .
+
1
dx = .
2
x +1
2
0
0
x21+1 dx = 2 ,
,
+
1
dx = .
2
x + 1
c tx
tc
(4)
c
>
0
e dx = 1et , t 6= 0, = c, t = 0.
0
c tx
limc+ 0 e dx = 1t , t > 0, = +, t 0. ,
326
(5) c 0 < c < 1

c 1
limc1 0 1x
2 dx = 2 .
1
1x2
dx = arcsin c arcsin 0 = arcsin c. ,
dx = .
2
1 x2
1
t
,
t > 0
+, t 0
etx dx =
1
1x2
1+
1+
dx =
1
dx = .
1 x2
, , 7.1, 7.2 7.9

.
b
b
8.6. a f (x) dx , a f (x) dx
b
. a f (x) dx
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx.
, , .
c
. c [a, b)
c b .
f (x) dx =
c
a
f (x) dx
b
b
b
8.7. a f (x) dx a g(x) dx a f (x) dx +
b
b
g(x) dx . a (f (x) + g(x)) dx
a
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx.
, , .
. c [a, b)
c b .
8.8.
x [a, b).
c
a
b
a
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
f (x) dx
b
a
c
a
c
a
g(x) dx
g(x) dx f (x) g(x)
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
a
g(x) dx.
a
, , .
. c [a, b)
c b .
c
a
f (x) dx
c
a
g(x) dx
327
8.2
.
8.1. y = f (x) y = g(x) [a, c]
b
[a, b). |f (x)| g(x) x [a, b) a g(x) dx ,
b
f (x) dx
a

f (x) dx
g(x) dx.
, , .
c
. f (x) + g(x) 0 x [a, b), a < c1 < c2 < b a 2 (f (x) +
c1
c2
c
c1
g(x)) dx = a (f (x) + g(x)) dx + c1 (f (x) + g(x)) dx a (f (x) + g(x)) dx. a (f (x) + g(x)) dx
c
b
c [a, b). limcb a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a (f (x) + g(x)) dx .
b
, 0 f (x) + g(x) 2g(x) x [a, b), 0 a (f (x) + g(x)) dx
b
b
b
b
2g(x) dx = 2 a g(x) dx. , a g(x) dx < +, 0 a (f (x)+ g(x)) dx < +.
a
b
b
b
a f (x) dx = a (f (x) + g(x)) dx a g(x) dx .
b
b
b
b
, g(x) f (x) g(x) a g(x) dx = a (g(x)) dx a f (x) dx a g(x) dx
b
b
, , a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
+
. (1) 1 x12 dx 1.
+
| sinx2x | x12 x 1, 1 sinx2x dx , ,
+ sin x + 1

dx 1 x2 dx = 1.
x2
1
+
2
(2) 0 ex dx .
+
2
, 0 ex e1x x 0. 0 e1x dx , ,
+
+
+
2
0 e1x dx = e 0 ex dx = e. , 1 ex dx .
.
1. , , .
1
+
1
+
1
1
1
1
1
1
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
dx,
2
2
x
x
x
0+ x
1
0+ x
1
0+
x
dx,
x2 + 1
+
e
0
1
dx,
x log x
tx 2
x dx,
sin x dx,
0
1
dx,
x(log x)2
tx
1
dx,
x
sin x dx,
0
+
1
dx,
2
(x + 1)2
log x dx,
0+
x4
1
dx.
+1
2. , , .
+
+
+
+
+
1
x
dx,
dx,
|x| dx,
x dx,
ex x dx,
p
2+1
x
x
0+
|x|
dx,
|x|
x dx,
0+
328
1
dx,
x(1 x)
0+
1
x(1 x)
dx.
x
3. y = 0 (1)[t] dt x.
+
0 (1)[x] dx.
+
4. 1 sinxx dx .
c x
c
(: 1 sinxx dx = cos 1 cosc c 1 cos
dx , ,
x2
+ cos x
1
dx .)
x2
+
+
5. 0 sin(x2 ) dx 0 cos(x2 ) dx,
Fresnel, .
)0
c
c 1 (
c
2)
2)
(: 1 sin(x2 ) dx = 1 2x
cos(x2 ) dx = cos(c
+ cos2 1 12 1 cos(x
dx
2
2c
x
+ cos(x2 )
, , 1
dx . ,
x2
c
1
c
2
2
2
sin(x ) dx = 0 sin(x ) dx + 1 sin(x ) dx.)
0
+
6. (n) 0 ex xn1 dx n:
+
(n) =
ex xn1 dx
(n ).
0
(1) = 1.
(n) , (n+1) (n+1) = n(n).
c
c
(: 0 ex xn dx = ec cn + n 0 ex xn1 dx.)
(n) = (n 1)! n.
+
+
7. (t) 0 ex xt1 dx t 1 0+ ex xt1 dx
t 0 < t < 1:
{ +
ex xt1 dx, t 1
0
(t) =
+ x t1
e x dx, 0 < t < 1
0+
(t) (n) .
(t) , , (t)
t (0, +). y = (t) (0, +)
( Euler).
(: t 1, n = [t] + 1 |ex xt1 | ex xn1 x
[1, +). 0 < t < 1, |ex xt1 | xt1 x (0, 1]
|ex xt1 | ex x [1, +).)
(t + 1) = t(t) t > 0.
8.5

F (x, y, y 0 , y 00 , . . . ) = 0,
F (x, y, y 0 , y 00 , . . . ) x, y 0 , y 00 , . . . x I, y
329
x y = f (x) y 0 , y 00 , . . . y 0 = f 0 (x), y 00 = f 00 (x), . . . . y = f (x) ( ) F (x, y, y 0 , y 00 , . . . ) =

0
(
)
F x, f (x), f 0 (x), f 00 (x), . . . = 0
x I.
. (1) y 0 + 2xy = 0 y = ex
x2
2
2
2
(, +), d edx + 2xex = 2xex + 2xex = 0 x
(, +).
2
(2) y 00 + y = 0 y = sin x (, +),

2
d dxsin2 x + sin x = sin x + sin x = 0 x (, +).
.

.
, y 0 q(x) = 0
y 0 = q(x),
y = q(x) I. I
y = f (x) I
f 0 (x) = q(x)
(x I),
y = q(x) I. y = q(x)
I, , , ,
y = q(x) I, y = q(x)
I. , y 0 = q(x) I
x
y = f (x) = q(t) dt =
q(t) dt + c
(x I),
x0
x0 I c .

y0 y0 x0 ,

f 0 (x) = q(x)
(x I),
f (x0 ) = y0 .
, x = x0
x
y0 = f (x0 ) = x00 q(t) dt + c = c. ,
y = f (x) =
q(t) dt + y0
(x I).
x0
;
.
.
330
8.5.1

g(y)y 0 = h(x).

.
y = f (x)
I. ,
(
)
g f (x) f 0 (x) = h(x)
(x I).
y = f (x) I (
)
J g(y) g f (x) .
G(y) g(y) J
H(x) h(x) I. , , g(y) h(x) ,
G(y) g(y) J H(x)
h(x) I. G0 (y) = g(y) J H 0 (x) = h(x) I,
y = f (x)
( (
))0
(
)
G f (x) = G0 f (x) f 0 (x) = H 0 (x)
(x I).

(
)
G f (x) = H(x) + c
(x I)
c. , , y = f (x) ,
, y = f (x)
. , G(y) H(x) , ,(

)
g(y) h(x) G f (x) = H(x) + c
y = f (x).
(
)
, y = f (x) G f (x)
( =)H(x) + c
I I. , , G0 f (x) f 0 (x) = H 0 (x) I
0
0
,
(
) 0 G (y) = g(y) J H (x) = h(x) I,
g f (x) f (x) = h(x) I.
, , g(y)y 0 = h(x) I
(-) G(y) = H(x) + c ( c)
I.
. (1)
yy 0 = x.
12 y 2 y (, +) 12 x2 x
(, +). y = f (x) yy 0 = x I
I 21 (f (x))2 = 12 x2 + c ( c) .
12 (f (x))2 = 12 x2 + c ( ) (f (x))2 = x2 + c (
).
,
. c > 0, y = f (x) = x2 + c
y = f (x) = x2 + c (, +). c = 0,
y = f (x) = x y =
(, +).
f (x) = x
2
2
c < 0, y = f (x)
= x + c y = f (x) = x + c
(, |c|) ( |c|, +).
331
(2) y 2 y 0 = x.
31 y 3 y 2 (, +) 12 x2 x
(, +). y = f (x) y 2 y 0 = x I
I 31 (f (x))3 = 12 x2 + c ( c) .
1
1 2
3 3 2
3
(f
(x))
=
x
+
c
(
f
(x)
=
x + c (
3
2
2
).
c > 0, y = f (x) = 3 32 x2 + c (, +). c = 0,
y = f (x) = 3 32 x2 (, 0) (0, +).
(
)
c < 0, y = f (x) = 3 32 x2 + c , 23 |c|
( 2
)
|c|,
+
. :
3
.
(3) y 0 + p(x)y = 0, y = p(x)
I. y1 y 0 = p(x)
y 6= 0, .
log |y| y1 (, 0) (0, +)
x
x0 p(t) dt p(x) I, x0 I.
y = f (x) y1 y 0 = p(x) I f (x) 6= 0 I x
- I log |f (x)| = x0 p(t) dt + c ( c)
p(t) dt+c
, y = f (x)
. |f (x)| = e x0
I.
I ,
x
x
c x0 p(t) dt
c x0 p(t) dt
, y = f (x) = e e
y = f (x) = e e
I.
c
I. c e ,
y 0 + p(x)y = 0 I
I
x p(t) dt
y = f (x) = ce x0
(x I),
c 6= 0. c = 0,
0 I.
8.5.2

y 0 + p(x)y = q(x),
y 0 = q(x). y = p(x)
y = q(x) I.
x
p(t) dt
y = (x) = e x0
x I, x0
x
0
x0 p(t) dt
I (x) = p(x)e
= p(x)(x) x I.
() y = f (x) y 0 + p(x)y = q(x)
I,
f 0 (x) + p(x)f (x) = q(x)
(x I),

(x)f 0 (x) + p(x)(x)f (x) = q(x)(x)
332
(x I)
(x)f 0 (x) + 0 (x)f (x) = q(x)(x)

(x I)
(
)0
(x)f (x) = q(x)(x)
(x I),
y = (x)f (x) y 0 = q(x)(x)
I.
x
(x)f (x) =
q(t)(t) dt + c
(x I),
x0
, ,
1
y = f (x) =
(x)
q(t)(t) dt +
x0
c
(x)
(x I),
x0 I c .

f 0 (x) + p(x)f (x) = q(x) (x I),
f (x0 ) = y0 ,
x = x0 y0 = f (x0 ) =
c
(x0 )
= c, (x0 ) = e
1
y = f (x) =
(x)
0
x0
p(t) dt
1
(x0 )
x0
x0
q(t)(t) dt +
= 1.
q(t)(t) dt +
x0
y0
(x)
(x I).
y 0 + p(x)y = q(x).
, ,
.
. (1) y 0 2xy = 0.
y = p(x) = 2x y = q(x) = 0 (, +) y = (x) =
x
2
e 0 (2t) dt = ex (, +). y = f (x) y 0 2xy = 0
2
2
(, +),
f 0 (x)2xf (x) = 0 x, ex f 0 (x)2xex f (x) =

( x
)
2
2
0
0 , , e f (x) = 0 , , ex f (x) = c x, c
2
. y 0 2xy = 0 (, +) y = f (x) = cex
c.
f (0) = 2, x = 0
2
2
f (x) = cex . 2 = f (0) = c y = f (x) = 2ex .
{ 1
e |x| , x 6= 0
(2) x2 y 0 + y =
0,
x = 0
y 0 + x12 y =
1
e
x2
1
|x|
1 |x|
e
x2
1
x 6= 0. y = p(x) =
1
x2
y = q(x) =
(, 0) (0, +).
x 1
1
(0, +) y = (x) = e 1 t2 dt = e1 x
1
(0, +). y = f (x) y 0 + x12 y = x12 e |x| (0, +),
1
1
1
2
f 0 (x)+ x12 f (x) = x12 e x x > 0, e1 x f 0 (x)+ x12 e1 x f (x) = x12 e1 x , ,
( 1 1
)0
x
2
1
2
2
e x f (x) = x12 e1 x x > 0. e1 x f (x) = 1 t12 e1 t dt + c = 2e e x + c
x > 0, c . x2 y 0 + y = e |x| (0, +)

1
1
y = f (x) = 12 e x + ce x c.
(, 0) x0 = 1,
1
1
1
x2 y 0 + y = e |x| (, 0) y = f (x) = x1 e x + c0 e x c0 .
1
333
{ 1
e |x| , x 6= 0
, x2 y 0 + y =
(, +).
0,
x = 0
y = f (x) , , ,
1
1
(, 0) (0, +). y = f (x) = 21 e x + ce x (0, +)
1
1
c y = f (x) = x1 e x + c0 e x (, 0)
c0 . y = f (x) 0,
limx0+ f (x) = f (0) =
( 1
1
1)
limx0 f (x). limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ 2 e x + ce x = c(+) limx0 f (x) =
(
1
1)
limx0 x1 e x + c0 e x = 0, c = 0 f (0) = 0. ,
(, +) y = f (x) =
1 x1
x > 0
2e ,
f (x)f (0)
1 x1
e = 0,
0,
x = 0 limx0+ x0 = limx0+ 2x
1
1 x1
x e + c0 e x , x < 0
(0)
y = f (x) 0 f+0 (0) = 0. , limx0 f (x)f
=
x0
( 1 1
)
1
1
0
limx0 x2 e x + c x e x = 0. y = f (x) 0
f0 (0) = 0. y = f (x) 0 f 0 (0) = 0 , ,
0.
. (, 0) (0, +).
, (, +), , ,
[0, +).
(3)
y 0 + p(x)y = q(x).
y 0 + ky = q(x),
k
y = q(x) I.
x
x0 k dt
y = (x) = e
= ek(xx0 ) I. y = f (x)
I, f 0 (x) + kf (x) = q(x) x I.

( k(xx )
)0
x
0
e
f (x) = q(x)ek(xx0 ) , ek(xx0 ) f (x) = x0 q(t)ek(tx0 ) dt + c , ,
f (x) = e
kx
q(t)ekt dt + cek(xx0 )
x0
x I, c . y0 x0 , f (x0 ) = y0 , x = x0
c = y0 .
(4) 3.1:
t (
k ) q
.
y = q(t) , t,
t, q 0 (t) = kq(t) t.
q 0 (t) , , 0
k > 0. , x0 = 0, q(t) = cekt
c. q0 0
t = 0, q0 = q(0) = c, q(t) = q0 ekt .
334
8.5.3
,
y 00 + ky 0 + ly = q(x),
k l . y = q(x) I.
()
t2 + kt + l = 0.
1. t2 +kt+l = 0 () , 1 2 , k = 1 2
l = 1 2 . y = f (x) y 00 + ky 0 + ly = q(x) I,

f 00 (x) + kf 0 (x) + lf (x) = q(x)
(x I),
, x0 I ,
f 00 (x) (1 + 2 )f 0 (x) + 1 2 f (x) = q(x)
(x I),
( 0
)0
(
)
f (x) 1 f (x) 2 f 0 (x) 1 f (x) = q(x)
(x I),
x
f 0 (x) 1 f (x) = e2 x
q(t)e2 t dt + c1 e2 (xx0 )
(x I),
)
x(
t
x0
f (x) = e1 x
e2 t
q(s)e2 s ds + c1 e2 (tx0 ) e1 t dt + c2 e1 (xx0 )
x
x0
0x
t
x
1 x
(2 1 )t
2 s
2 x0 +1 x
=e
e
q(s)e
ds dt + c1 e
e(2 1 )t dt
x0
1 (xx0 )
x0
+ c2 e
x0
(x I)
, ,
(2 1 )x
1 x e
f (x) = e
2 1
q(s)e
2 s
ds e
1 x
x0
x0
(2 1 )x
e(2 1 )t
q(t)e2 t dt
2 1
(2 1 )x0
e
e
+ c1 e2 x0 +1 x
+ c2 e1 (xx0 )
2 1
x 2 (xt)
e
e1 (xt)
e2 (xx0 ) e1 (xx0 )
=
q(t) dt + c1
+ c2 e1 (xx0 )
2
1
2
1
x0
(x I),
c1 c2 .

x0 :
f (x0 ) = y0 , f 0 (x0 ) = y0 0 .
x = x0 c2 = y0 .
x = x0 c1 + 1 c2 = y0 0
, , c1 = 1 y0 + y0 0 .
2. t2 + kt + l = 0 , , k = 2 l = 2 .
y = f (x) y 00 + ky 0 + ly = q(x) I, ,
,
f 00 (x) 2f 0 (x) + 2 f (x) = q(x)
335
(x I),
)0
(
)
f 0 (x) f (x) f 0 (x) f (x) = q(x)
(x I),
x
f 0 (x) f (x)
ex
q(t)et dt + c1 e(xx0 )
(x I),
=
)
x(
t
x0
f (x) = ex
et
q(s)es ds + c1 e(tx0 ) et dt + c2 e(xx0 )
x
x0
t
x
0x
s
(xx0 )
x
0
dt + c2 e(xx0 )
q(s)e ds dt + c1 e
=e
(t x0 )
x0
x0
x x0
x
= ex (x x0 )
q(s)es ds ex
(t x0 )q(t)et dt
x0
(xx0 )
x0
+ c1 (x x0 )e
+ c2 e
x
(x t)e(xt) q(t) dt + c1 (x x0 )e(xx0 ) + c2 e(xx0 )
=
(xx0 )
(x I),
x0
c1 c2 . y = f (x)
x0 , f (x0 ) = y0 f 0 (x0 ) = y0 0 ,
c2 = y0 c1 = y0 + y0 0 .
3. t2 + kt + l = 0 , + i i > 0,
k = 2 l = 2 + 2 . y = f (x) y 00 + ky 0 + ly = q(x)
I, f 00 (x) 2f 0 (x) + (2 + 2 )f (x) = q(x) x I.
ex g(x) = ex f (x),
g 00 (x) + 2 g(x) = ex q(x)

(x I).
sin(x) cos(x)
( 0
)0
g (x) sin(x) g(x) cos(x) = ex q(x) sin(x)
( 0
)0
g (x) cos(x) + g(x) sin(x) = ex q(x) cos(x)
, ,
g (x) sin(x) g(x) cos(x) =
(x I),
(x I)
et q(t) sin(t) dt + c1
(x I),
et q(t) cos(t) dt + c2
(x I)
x0
g (x) cos(x) + g(x) sin(x) =

x0
c1 c2 . 1 cos(x)
1
sin(x) ,
x
sin((x t))
c1 cos(x) + c2 sin(x)
g(x) =
et
q(t) dt +
(x I)
x0
, ,
f (x) =
x0
e(xt)
c1 ex cos(x) + c2 ex sin(x)
sin((x t))
q(t) dt +
(x I).
f (x0 ) = y0 f 0 (x0 ) = y0 0 , c1 =
( sin(x0 ) cos(x0 ))ex0 y0 + sin(x0 )ex0 y0 0 c2 = ( sin(x0 ) cos(x0 ))ex0 y0 +
cos(x0 )ex0 y0 0 .
:
.
336
. (1) y 00 5y 0 + 6y = x (, +)
y = x .
t2 5t + 6 = 0 2 3, , y = f (x)
y 00 5y 0 + 6y = x (, +),
f 00 (x) (2 + 3)f 0 (x) + 2 3f (x) = x
( 0
)0
(
)
f (x) 2f (x) 3 f 0 (x) 2f (x) = x
x
)
x 1 (1
0
3x
f (x) 2f (x) = e
te3t dt + c1 e3x = +
+ c1 e3x
3 9
9
0
x 1
f 0 (x) 2f (x) = + c1 e3x
3 9
x
( t 1
)
f (x) = e2x
e2t + c1 e3t dt + c2 e2x
3 9
0
(5
)
x
5
= +
+ c1 c2 e2x + c1 e3x
6 36
36
x
5
f (x) = +
+ c2 e2x + c1 e3x
6 36
c1 c2 .
f (0) = 1 f 0 (0) = 2, x = 0
5
+c2 +c1 .
1 = f (0) = 36
0
x = 0, 2 = f (0) = 61 + 2c2 + 3c1 .
5
c1 = 37
c2 = 21
. f (x) = x6 + 36
21
e2x + 37
e3x .
9
4
4
9
(2) y 00 2y 0 + y = 4 (, +) y = 4 .
t2 2t + 1 = 0 1, , y = f (x)
y 00 2y 0 + y = 4 (, +),
f 00 (x) 2f 0 (x) + f (x) = 4
( 0
)0 (
)
f (x) f (x) f 0 (x) f (x) = 4
x
0
x
f (x) f (x) = e
4et dt + c1 ex = 4 + 4ex + c1 ex
0
0
f (x) f (x) = 4 + c1 ex
x
(
)
x
et 4 + c1 et dt + c2 ex = 4 + c1 xex + (c2 4)ex
f (x) = e
0
f (x) = 4 + c1 xex + c2 ex
c1 c2 .
f (0) = 3 f 0 (0) = 2, x = 0
3 = f (0) = 4 + c2 . , x = 0
2 = f 0 (0) = c2 + c1 . c1 = c2 = 1.
f (x) = 4 xex ex .
(3) y 00 + 2y 0 + 2 = sin x (, +) y = sin x .
t2 + 2t + 2 = 0 , 1 + i 1 i. y = f (x)
337
y 00 + 2y 0 + 2y = sin x (, +), f 00 (x) + 2f 0 (x) + 2f (x) = sin x

x (, +). ex g(x) = ex f (x),
g 00 (x) + g(x) = ex sin x.
sin x cos x
)0
( 0
g (x) sin x g(x) cos x = ex (sin x)2 ,
( 0
)0
g (x) cos x + g(x) sin x = ex sin x cos x.
,
g (x) sin x g(x) cos x =
et (sin t)2 dt + c1 =
0
ex ex
ex
sin(2x)
cos(2x) + c1 ,
2
5
10
ex
ex
sin(2x) cos(2x) + c2 .
10
5
0
cos x sin x,
ex
2ex
g(x) =
sin x
cos x c1 cos x + c2 sin x
5
5
, ,
1
2
f (x) = sin x cos x c1 ex cos x + c2 ex sin x
5
5
c1 c2 .
f (0) = 1 f 0 (0) = 1, x = 0
1 = f (0) = 25 c1 . , x = 0
1 = f 0 (0) = 15 + c1 + c2 . c1 = 57 c2 = 11
.
5
1
2
7 x
11 x
f (x) = 5 sin x 5 cos x + 5 e cos x + 5 e sin x.
0
g (x) cos x + g(x) sin x =
et sin t cos t dt + c2 =
.
1. c y = x tan(x + c)
xy 0 x2 y 2 y = 0.
x
2. f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt (0, +).
(: , .)
3. y = f (x) (x2 + 1)y 0 = 1 (, +)
limx f (x) . limx+ f (x)
limx f (x).
4. y = f (x) x + y 3 + cxy 3 = 0 x I, c
, y = f (x) y 4 + 3x2 y 0 = 0 I.
(: x + y 3 + cxy 3 = 0
c.)
5. y = f (x) x(x + y) = cey x I, c
, y = f (x) x(x + y 1)y 0 = 2x + y
I.
338
. .
1. :
. :
.
y 0 = ey ,
y 2 y 0 = 1,
(1 + x2 )yy 0 = 1 + y 2 ,
yy 0 1 x2 = x,
xyy 0 = (1 + x2 )(1 + y 2 ),
y0 = y2 ,
x + yy 0 = x(xy 0 y)y,
y 0 = (y 1)(y 2),
(x + 1)y 0 + y 2 = 0,
(1 + x2 )y 0 = 1 + y 2 ,
(x 1)y 0 = xy,
(x2 4)y 0 = y,
y 2 + (y 0 )2 = 1.
. .
1. y 0 + ky = 0 (, +);
2. k > 0 y = f (x) y 0 +ky = 0 (, +)
limx+ f (x) = 0.
3. m y = f (x) y 0 + 3y = emx (, +)
limx+ f (x) = 0;
4. :
.
y 0 + y = xe2x ,
xy 0 y = 1,
xy 0 y = x,
x(x 1)y 0 + 3y = x(x 2),

y 0 + y tan x = cos x,
x
5. f (x) = 1 x 1 f (t) dt (0, +).
y 0 + xy = x3 ,
y 0 + y cot x = cos x.
6. .
y 0 x cot y =
x+1
,
sin y
yy 0 + (1 + x2 )y 2 = ex ,
1 + ey + 2xey y 0 = 0.
7. Bernoulli. 6= 1,
y 0 + p(x)y = q(x)y
z = y 1 .
.
y 0 + y = ex y ,
y y 0 = xy 2 ,
xy 0 y = x y ,
xy 0 + y = xy 2 log x.
8. Riccati. y = f (x)
y 0 + p(x)y + r(x)y 2 = q(x)
y = g(x) ;
1
y 0 + p(x)y + r(x)y 2 = q(x).
, y = f (x) + g(x)
y 0 +3yy 2 = 2.
y 0 + 3y y 2 = 2.
,
.
y 0 + 3y y 2 = 2 . ;
339
. .
1. y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0 (, +) (i) k 2 4l > 0, (ii)
k 2 4l = 0 (iii) k 2 4l < 0;
2. k l y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0
(i) y = ex + 3e2x .
(ii) y = (1 + 2x)ex .
(iii) y = e2x sin(3x).
;
3. k > 0 l > 0 y = f (x) y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0
(, +) limx+ f (x) = 0.
4. y = f (x) y 00 + ky 0 + ly = 0 limx+ f (x) =
limx f (x) = 0;
5. .
y 00 4y 0 + 3y = ex ,
y 00 + 6y 0 + 9y = xe3x ,
y 00 2y 0 + 5y = sin(2x).
6. m y = f (x) y 00 +4y 0 +3y = emx limx+ f (x) = 0;

y 00 + 6y 0 + 9y = emx y 00 + 2y 0 + 5y = emx .
m;
8.6
, .
8.6.1
:
x
1
log x =
dt
(x > 0).
1 t
y = 1t [x, 1], 0 < x < 1, [1, x], x > 1,
. ,

.
, y = x1 (0, +), y = log x
log x
(0, +) d dx
= x1 x > 0.
y = log x (0, +). log(ab) = log a+log b a, b > 0
. y = h(x) = log(xb) log x
1
x1 = 0, y = h(x) (0, +). ,
h0 (x) = b xb
, log 1 = 0, h(1) = log b , , log(xb)log x = h(x) = h(1) =
log b x > 0. x = a log(ab) = log a + log b. ,
a
ab
b
ab
. log(ab) = 1 1t dt = 1 1t dt + a 1t dt = log a + 1 1s ds = log a + log b,
t = as.
log(ab) = log a + log b, b = a1 log a1 = log a. ,
n log(2n ) = n log 2 , log 2 > log 1 = 0,
340
log(2n ) +. y = log x , limx+ log x, ,

2n +, limx+ log x = limn+ log(2n ) = +. ,
limx0+ log x = limt+ log 1t = limt+ log t = . ,
x 0+ x + y = log x
(0, +) (, +).
, .
, , y = ex (, +) (0, +)

y = ex

x = log y.
x
e
, y = ex , (, +) ddx
=
1
x
a+b
a b
= e x. e
= e e
d log y
dy
y=ex
a, b. c = ea d = eb , a + b = log c + log d = log(cd)

, , ea+b = cd = ea eb . , y = h(x) = ea+bx ex
h0 (x) = ea+bx ex + ea+bx ex = 0 x, y = h(x)
(, +). ea+bx ex = h(x) = h(0) = ea+b e0 = ea+b x , x = b,
ea+b = ea eb . e0 = 1
ea = e1a .
ex
e. , ,
e = e1 ,
, , log e = 1.
, a x
ax = ex log a .
, a = e, ax ex log e = ex , .
, a1 = e1 log a = elog a = a.
, : ax+y = e(x+y) log a = ex log a+y log a =
x log a y log a
e
e
= ax ay (ab)x = ex log(ab) = ex log a+x log b = ex log a ex log b = ax bx axy = exy log a =
y
log
a
y
)
ex log(e
= ex log(a ) = (ay )x . ,
, , a > 1 x > 0, log a > log 1 = 0 , ,
ax = ex log a > e00 = e0 = 1.
.
, , : ,
, ;

x 1. ,
log x = 1 t dt .
. , y = log x (
) x1 . , ,
log 1 = 0 1, .
, , . , ,
, , ,
, . . y = f1 (x)
y = f2 (x) y = h(x) = f1 (x)f2 (x),
h0 (x) = f1 0 (x)f2 (x) f1 (x)f2 0 (x) = f1 (x)f2 (x) f1 (x)f2 (x) = 0 x,
341
y = h(x) . f1 (x)f2 (x) = h(x) = h(0) = f1 (0)f2 (0) = 11 = 1

, , f1 (x) = f2 (x) x. , .
, , . ax
, , ,
n an = a1++1 = a1 a1 = a a , , an
a . .
1
, (
xn = a, n a > 0, x = a n
)
1
1
1 n
a n = a n n = a1 = a. a n
( 1 )m
m
1
m
r
n
n = an
a
=
a
a . , r = m
=
an
= ( n a)m
n
, , ar ar , .
, y = ax
. y = f1 (x) y = ax y = f2 (x)
y = ax , a > 1 x, f1 (s) < f1 (x) < f1 (t)
f2 (s) < f2 (x) < f2 (t) s, t s < x < t.
, f1 (x) f2 (x)
f1 (s) < < f1 (t) s, t s < x < t.
1.3 f2 (x) = f1 (x). , a > 1, ax
x. 0 < a 1 , ,
.
- : , , , , , ,
. , , !
1 .
, ,

, , ,
. 1
, , ,
, ,
, . , ,
,
1,
. , ,
.

. -
, , !
8.6.2
.
- x
x
1
dt.
arctan x =
2
0 t +1
y = t21+1 [0, x], x > 0, [x, 0], x < 0,
. y = x21+1 (, +),
342
x
y = arctan x (, +) d arctan
= x21+1 x.
dx
y = arctan
x x
x (, +).
, arctan(x) = 0 t21+1 dt = 0 (s)12 +1 ds = arctan x. ,
x21+1 1 [0, 1] x21+1 x12 [1, +). x 1 arctan x =
x
1
x
1 1
dt + 1 t21+1 dt 0 1 dt + 1 t12 dt = 1 + (1 x1 ) < 2. y = arctan x
0 t2 +1
[1, +) , ,
limx+ arctan x . , ,
= 2 lim arctan x.
x+
limx+ arctan x = 2 limx arctan x = limt+ arctan(t) = limt+ arctan t = 2

, , y = arctan x (, +) ( 2 , 2 ).
0
y = arctan x arctan 0 = 0 t21+1 dt = 0.
y = arctan x . s = 1t ,
x
1
1
x
1
1 t21+1 dt = 1x s21+1 ds = 1 s21+1 ds, 2 = limx+ 0 t21+1 dt = 0 t21+1 dt +
x
x
1
1
1
1
limx+ 1 t21+1 dt = 0 t21+1 dt+limx+ 1 t21+1 dt = 2 0 t21+1 dt. arctan 1 = 0 t21+1 dt = 4 .
x
, arctan(1) = 4 .
, y = tan x x = arctan y. ,
y = tan x
x = arctan y.
y = tan x ( 2 , 2 ) (, +),
tan x
( 2 , 2 ) d dx
= d arctan y1
= (tan x)2 + 1. x = arctan y
dy
y=tan x
, y = tan x . , tan 0 = 0, tan 4 = 1

tan( 4 ) = 1.
k Z , ( 2 + k, 2 + k)
, ( ,
) k
k + 1, ( 2 + k, 2 + k) 2 + (k + 1), 2 + (k + 1)
2 + k = 2 + (k + 1), .
k = 0 ( 2 , 2 ) y = tan x. ( 2 + k, 2 + k)
( 2 , 2 ) k. , , y = tan x

tan x = tan(x k)
+ k < x < + k.
2
2
y = tan x ( 2 +k, 2 +k),

k , . ,
y = tan x 2 + k
2 , +. , y = tan x
2 + k 2 , . ,
tan x
, d dx
= (tan x)2 +1 ( 2 +k, 2 +k).
, , x2 ( 2 +
k, 2 + k) x ( + k2, + k2).
, y = cos x y = sin x
( + k2, + k2), k ,
1 (tan x2 )2
,
cos x =
1 + (tan x2 )2
2 tan x2
sin x =
.
1 + (tan x2 )2
343
( + k2, + k2)
2 tan x
1(tan x )2
cos x
sin x
, d dx
= 1+(tan 2x )2 = sin x d dx
= 1+(tan x2 )2 = cos x.
2
2
( 2 + k, 2 + k), k
Z, ( + k2, +k2) 2,
( , )k k + 1, ( + k2, + k2)
+ (k + 1)2, + (k + 1)2 + k2 = + (k + 1)2,
. y = cos x y = sin x (, +)
+ k2, k.
y = tan x 2 + k,
y = cos x y = sin x + k2 y = cos x
( ) + k2 1. , y = sin x
( ) + k2 0. , ,
cos( + k2) = 1 sin( + k2) = 0 k , , y = cos x
y = sin x (, +).
, l Hopitl, =
xcos
x
+ k2 limx cos x
= limx sin
= 0 = sin limx sin xsin
= limx cos1 x =
1
x
1 = cos . y = cos x y = sin x = + k2
d cos x
sin x
= sin d dx
= cos . ,
dx
x=
x=
d cos x
sin x
(, +) dx = sin x d dx
= cos x.
y = cos x y = sin x y = tan x
y = cos x y = sin x 2. ,
y = tan x , y = cos x y = sin x
.
y = tan x, : cos 0 = 1, cos( 2 ) = 0
sin 0 = 0, sin 2 = 1, sin( 2 ) = 1.
y = tan x ( 2 , 2 ) 4 ,
0 4 , y = cos x y = sin x ,
, .
; , cos(a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b. y = h(x) =
cos(a + b x) cos x sin(a + b x) sin x h0 (x) = sin(a + b x) cos x cos(a +
b x) sin x + cos(a + b x) sin x sin(a + b x) cos x = 0, y = h(x)
(, +). cos(a + b x) cos x sin(a + b x) sin x = h(x) = h(0) = cos(a + b)
x. x = b cos(a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b.
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b. cos(a b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b
sin(a b) = sin a cos b cos a sin b. (cos a)2 + (sin a)2 = 1.
, ,
1, ,
, . . y = c1 (x) y = s1 (x)
y = cos x y = sin x y = c2 (x) y = s2 (x)
, y = h(x) = (c1 (x) c2 (x))2 + (s1 (x) s2 (x))2
h0 (x) = 2(c1 (x) c2 (x))(s1 (x) + s2 (x)) + 2(s1 (x) s2 (x))(c1 (x) c2 (x) = 0
x. y = h(x) , , (c1 (x) c2 (x))2 + (s1 (x) s2 (x))2 = h(x) =
h(0) = (1 1)2 + (0 0)2 = 0 x. c1 (x) = c2 (x) s1 (x) = s2 (x) x.
- : 1
,
. ,
344

1
x .
y = arctan x = 0 t21+1 dt
x 1
y = arcsin x = 0 1t
2 dt. .
,
10.
345
346
9
.
Taylor
Lagrange .
Newton. Riemann: , , Simpson.
9.1
Taylor.
y = f (x) , limx f (x) = f () , , f (x)

f () x . :
f (x) f () (x ).
f ()
f (x).
. 4, 00001 4 y = x 4,
4, 00001 4 = 2.
, , , f (),
f (x) f ()
f (x) f ().
x . ,
x ,
()
x f (x)f
= f 0 () , ,
x
f (x) = f () + f 0 ()(x ).
, , l u ,
, x ,
l(x ) f (x) f () u(x ), x > , u(x ) f (x) f () l(x ), x < .
, M 0 ,
|f (x) f ()| = |f 0 ()||x |
M |x |.
4, 00001
1
4 = 2. y = x y = 2x 0 < 21 x 21 4 = 14
x 4, x 4 4, 00001. , 0 4, 00001 2
347

4) = 0, 0000025. 4, 00001
4 = 2 - 0, 0000025. ,

2 4, 00001 2 + 0, 0000025 2, 00000 4, 00001
.
1
(4, 00001
4
y = f (x) (
x ) , f 0 (),
f (x) = f () + f 0 ()(x ), f 0 (). ,
f (x) f () + f 0 ()(x )
f (x).
. y = x, 4, 00001 2 +
1
(4, 00001 4) = 2, 0000025.
4

4, 00001 , 2 2, 0000025,
4, 00001
.
4, 00001
;
)
f (x) = f () + f 0 ()(x ) f 0 () f 0 ( +x
2
0
0 +x
f (), f (x) f () + f ( 2 )(x ). ,
f 0 ( +x
) = f 0 () + f 00 ()( +x
) = f 0 () + f 00 () x
.
+x
2
2
2
2
, ,
+x
.
2
00
, , f (x) f () + f 0 ()(x ) + f 2() (x )2 . , ,
, f 00 () f 00 (),
f 00 ()
f (x) f () + f ()(x ) +
(x )2 .
2
0
, , f (x) x :
f (),
f (x) f () + f 0 ()(x ),
00
f () + f 0 ()(x ) + f 2() (x )2 .
. .
Taylor Lagrange. n I
. y = f (x) n I (
) n + 1 I.
x I x
f (x) = f () +
f 0 ()
f (n) ()
f (n+1) ()
(x ) + +
(x )n +
(x )n+1 .
1!
n!
(n + 1)!
, , |f (n+1) (x)| M x I,

(
)
M
f 0 ()
f (n) ()

(x ) + +
(x )n
|x |n+1
f (x) f () +
1!
n!
(n + 1)!
348
x I.
f () +
f 0 ()
(x
1!
f (n) ()
(x )n
n!
f (n+1) ()
(x )n+1
(n+1)!
) + +
Taylor
n y = f (x) I
n
Lagrange. Taylor n x n.
n = 0 , 0 ,
0
Taylor f (x) = f () + f 1!() (x )
.
Taylor
(
)
(
)
f 0 ()
f (n) ()
f (x) f () +
(x ) + +
(x )n = (x )n+1
1!
n!
.
11 6.11 7 6.12.
. Taylor x A
0
(n)
A
f (x) = f () + f 1!() (x ) + + f n!() (x )n + (n+1)!
(x )n+1 .
y = g(t) = f (x) f (t)
f 0 (t)
1! (x
t)
f (n) (t)
n! (x
t)n
A
(n+1)! (x
t)n+1
t x . y = g(t)

g 0 (t) =
Af (n+1) (t)
(x
n!
t)n .
, g(x) = 0 , A, g() = 0. x
g 0 () = 0, A = f (n+1) (). A
, Taylor.
|f (n+1) ()| M .
0, 0000025
4, 00001 4 = 2.
Taylor
y
=
x [4, 4, 00001] = 4, x = 4, 00001 n =
10
1
1
1, 4, 00001 = 4 + 1! 2 4 (4, 00001 4) 2!1 1 3 (4, 00001 4)2 = 2, 0000025 10 3
4
10
10
8 3
10
10
8 43
4 < < 4, 00001. 0 <

<
= 0, 0000000000015625,
2, 0000024999984375
< 4, 00001 < 2, 0000025. 2, 00000249999
4, 00001 .

, Taylor n = 2.
4, 00001 = 4 + 1!1 21 4 (4, 00001 4) 2!1 4143 (4, 00001 4)2 + 3!1 3 5 (4, 00001 4)3 =
8
15
10
16 5
15
4 < < 4, 00001. 0 < 10 5 <

16
15
10
= 0, 000000000000000001953125, 2, 0000024999984375 < 4, 00001 <
16 45
2, 000002499998437501953125. , 2, 00000249999843750 4, 00001

.
2, 0000024999984375 +
Taylor . n I
. y = f (x) n + 1 I
( ). x I
f (n) ()
1 x (n+1)
f 0 ()
n
(x )+ +
(x ) +
f
(t)(x t)n dt.
f (x)=f ()+
1!
n!
n!
349
x
n!1 f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt .
n = 0, Taylor f (x) = f () +
(2) 8.3.
.
1
0!
f 0 (t) dt
f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt.
1. Taylor Lagrange y = x
[4, 4, 00001] = 4 x = 4, 00001.
n 4, 00001
;
2. sin(1o ) sin(31o )
. (1o = 0 + 180
, 31o = 6 + 180
.)
(n+1)
3. Taylor Lagrange f (n+1)!() (x)n+1 , ,

x. , n + 2 y = f (x)
x
1
I , limx x
= n+2
, , n+2
.
9.2

f (x) = 0,
y = f (x) (a, b)
(a, b) . ,
y = f (x) (a, b) (a, b)
y = f (x) , Bolzano
f (x) = 0 (a, b).
.
9.1: .
x1 (a, b) , x1 ,
(x1 , f (x1 )) y = f (x).
350
x1 , (x1 , f (x1 ))
y = f (x1 ) + f 0 (x1 )(x x1 ). 0 = f ()
f (x1 ) + f 0 (x1 )( x1 ) ,
x1
f (x1 )
.
f 0 (x1 )
1)
x-
x2 = x1 ff0(x
(x1 )
y = f (x) (x1 , f (x1 )).
x1 , () , x2 ,
2)
. , x3 = x2 ff0(x

(x2 )
3)
x2 , x4 = x3 ff0(x
x3 .
(x3 )
, (xn ). Newton.
, (xn ) , ,
xn .
9.1. y = f (x) (a, b) 0 < m |f 0 (x)|

m
|f 00 (x)| M x (a, b). < M
,
4M
m
m
[c , c + ] (a, b), = M
+1 M
.
m
0 < < [c, c+] f () = 0.
Newton x1 [c , c + ],
xn [c , c + ]
xn .
,
2m ( M )2n1
|xn |
M m
n.
. x1 [c , c + ] x2 = x1
0
f (x1 )
f 0 (x1 )
Taylor, x1 0 = f () = f (x1 ) + f (x1 )( x1 ) +

f 00 ()
2f 0 (x1 ) (
f 00 ()
2f 0 (x1 ) (x1
f 00 ()
2 (
x1 )2 , ,
00
|f ()|
2
x2 = x1 + ( x1 ) +
x1 )2 , , x2 =
)2 . |x2 | = 2|f
0 (x )| |x1 |
1
M
2
2m |x1 | . x1 [c , c + ] [c , c + ], |x1 | + ,
M
M
|x2 | 2m
( + )2 . |x2 c| |x2 | + | c| 2m
( + )2 + = , , x2
[c , c + ]. , x2 x3 ,
x3 [c , c + ] , , xn [c , c + ]. ,
M
|xn | 2m
|xn1 |2 n 2. |x1 | + 2
( M )2n1
n 1. 2n1 +
|xn | 2m
M
m
n1
(
)
2
M
0 , , xn .
0 Mm < 1, 2m
M
m
( )2n1
(xn ) . , Mm
,
, |xn | -, 2n1 .
Newton, ,
n, .
(a, b) f () = 0 . , 1 2
(a, b) f (1 ) = f (2 ) = 0, f 0 () = 0
0 < m |f 0 ()|.
351
, 9.1 . (a, b)
m M . a1 b1 a < a1 < b1 < b y = f (x) a1 , b1
a1 , b1 . <
m
min{ M
, a1 a, b b1 }. , c [a1 , b1 ] ( )
4M
m
m
[c, c+] (a, b). = M
+ 1 M

m
[a1 , b1 ] 2.
, I, y = f (x) ,
I. c I, I [c , c + ],
[c , c + ], [c , c + ] (a, b). ,
Newton x1 [c , c + ].
.
2
1.
Newton x 2 = 0
2 [1, 2].
x1 = 2 x2 , x3 , x4 .
2 .
n xn 2
;
9.3
Riemann.
.
y = f (x) [a, b]. [a, b] n

xk = a + k
ba
n
(0 k n).
. [xk1 , xk ]
, [xk1 , xk ] xk xk1 = ba
n
xk1 +xk
,
,
2
x 2k1 =
2
(
xk1 + xk
1)b a
=a+ k
.
2
2
n
, ,
x0 , x 1 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x 2k1 , xk , . . . , xn1 , x 2n1 , xn
2
yi = f (xi ) y = f (x) :
y0 , y 1 , y1 , . . . , yk1 , y 2k1 , yk , . . . , yn1 , y 2n1 , yn .
2
b
a f (x) dx
y = f (x) , ,
.
y = f (x)
[xk1 , xk ]
xk
xk1 f (x) dx
. ,
352
: ,
, ,
Simpson .
n [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx,
.

|| c
(b a)m+2 Mm+1
= c(b a)Mm+1 hn m+1 ,
m+1
n
hn = ba
, c ,
n
m Mm+1
m + 1 y = f (x) [a, b].
0 n , , hn = ba
0. ,
n
, ,
Simpson
. , ( )
y = f (x) .
. ,
, ,
[xk1 , xk ] ,
[a, b] [xk1 , xk ]. ,
.
9.3.1
y = f (x) [a, b] |f 0 (x)| M1 x

[a, b].
b
(b a)2 M
(a + b)

1
(b a)
f (x) dx f
.

2
4
a
. y = f (x) (
a+b
0) y = p(x) = f ( a+b
2 ). . x [a, b] x
2
a+b
a+b
a+b
0
f (x) p(x) = f (x) f ( 2 ) = f ()(x 2 ). |f (x) p(x)| M1 |x 2 | x [a, b].
b

b
f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) = b (f (x) p(x)) dx
a p(x) dx = f ( a+b
2 )(b a),
2
a
a
b
(ba)2 M1
M1 a |x a+b
.
2 | dx =
4
9.2. y = f (x) [a, b] |f 0 (x)| M1 x [a, b],

b
(
)b a
.
f (x) dx y 1 + + y 2n1
2
2
n
a
: ||
1 (ba)2 M1
4
n
xk
f (x) dx
. [xk1 , xk ], xk1

2
b
x
x
(ba)
M
1
n
1

y 2k1 ba
. a f (x) dx = x0 f (x) dx + + xn1 f (x) dx n
4n2
2

b
)
(
2
2
n (ba)2 M1 = (ba) M1 .
a f (x) dx y 12 + + y 2n1 ba
n
4n
4n
2
353
9.2: .
9.3.2
, y = f (x) [a, b] |f 00 (x)| M2

x [a, b].
b
(b a)3 M
f (a) + f (b)

2
(b a)
.
f (x) dx

2
12
a
. y = f (x) 1, y = f (x)
(a)
a b . y = p(x) = f (a) + f (b)f
(x a)
ba
. x (a, b) c f (x) p(x) =
c(xa)(xb). y = g(t) = f (t)p(t)c(ta)(tb) t [a, b]. g(a) = g(x) = g(b) = 0,
(a, x) (x, b) g 0 () = g 0 () = 0. (, ) , ,
00
(a, b) g 00 () = 0. , g 00 (t) = f 00 (t) 2c, c = f 2() . , , x (a, b)
00
(a, b) f (x)p(x) = f 2() (xa)(xb). x (a, b) |f (x)p(x)| M22 (xa)(bx).

b
(b)
, , x = a x = b. a p(x) dx = f (a)+f
(b a),
2

b
3
b
b
f (x) dx f (a)+f (b) (b a) = (f (x) p(x)) dx M2 (x a)(b x) dx = (ba) M2 .
a
12
9.3. y = f (x) [a, b] |f 00 (x)| M2

x [a, b],
f (x) dx
(y
+ y1 + + yn1 +
: ||
yn ) b a
.
2
n
1 (ba)3 M2
12
n2
xk
f (x) dx
. [xk1 , xk ] , xk1
yk1 +yk ba
2
n
(ba)3 M2
12n3
.
b

(
)
3
3
1
n (ba) 3M2 = (ba) 2M2 .
, a f (x) dx y0 +y
+ + yn12+yn ba
2
n
12n
12n
9.3.3
y = f (x) [a, b] |f 00 (x)| M2

x [a, b].
(b a)3 M
b
(a + b)

2
f (x) dx f
(b a)
.

2
24
a
354
. y = f (x) 1,
y = f (x) a+b
2 y = f (x) .
0 a+b
y = p(x) = f ( a+b
)
+
f
( 2 )(x a+b
2
2 ) Taylor. , x
00
f ()
a+b
a+b
a+b 2
0 a+b
[a, b] x a+b
2 f (x) = f ( 2 )+f ( 2 )(x 2 )+
2 (x 2 ) , ,

b
a+b
2
b f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) =
|f (x) p(x)| M22 (x a+b
2 ) . a p(x) dx = f ( 2 )(b a),
2
a

b
3
(f (x) p(x)) dx M2 b (x a+b )2 dx = (ba) M2 .
2
24
9.4. y = f (x) [a, b] |f 00 (x)| M2

x [a, b],
f (x) dx y 1 + + y 2n1
a
: ||
)b a
n
1 (ba)3 M2
24
n2
.
.
xk

. [xk1 , xk ] xk1
f (x) dxy 2k1 ba
n
2

(
)
3
b
(ba) M2

. , a f (x) dx y 12 + +y 2n1 ba
24n3
n
3
M2
=
n (ba)
24n3
(ba)3 M2
24n2
9.3: Simpson.
9.3.4
Simpson.
, y = f (x) [a, b] |f (4) (x)| M4

x [a, b].
b
(
(a + b)
) b a (b a)5 M

4
f (x) dx f (a) + 4f
+ f (b)
.

2
6
2880
a
. ,
b a+b
y = f (x)
y = f (x) a, a+b
2
2
a+b
. y = p(x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)(x a+b
2 ) + c3 (x a)(x 2 )(x b),
a+b
c0 , c1 , c2 , c3 c0 = f (a), c0 + c1 ( a+b
2 a) = f ( 2 ),
a+b
a+b
a+b
a+b
0 a+b
c0 +c1 (ba)+c2 (ba)(b 2 ) = f (b) c1 +c2 ( 2 a)+c3 ( 2 a)( 2 b) = f ( 2 ).
y = f (x) y = p(x) . x (a, b) x 6= a+b
2 c
a+b 2
2
f (x) p(x) = c(x a)(x 2 ) (x b). y = g(t) = f (t) p(t) c(t a)(t a+b
2 ) (t b) [a, b]
355
a+b
0 a+b
g(a) = g( a+b
2 ) = g(x) = g(b) = 0 g ( 2 ) = 0. , a < x < 2 , (a, x),
a+b
0
0
0
0 a+b
(x, a+b
2 ) ( 2 , b) g () = g () = g () = 0. g ( 2 ) = 0
a+b
a+b
00
00
(, ), (, 2 ) ( 2 , ) g () = g () = g 00 () = 0.
(, ) (, ) g (3) () = g (3) () = 0 , (!), (, ) g (4) () = 0.
(4)
, g (4) () = f (4) () 24c , , c = f 24() .

a+b
a+b
(a, b)
2 < x < b x (a, b) x 6= 2
f (4) ()
M4
a+b 2
a+b 2
24 (x a)(x 2 ) (x b), |f (x) p(x)| 24 (x a)(x 2 ) (b x).
a+b
b
f (a)+4f ( 2 )+f (b)
x = a, x = a+b
x = b. a p(x) dx =
(b a). ,
2
6
a+b
b

5
b
b
f
(a)+4f
(
)+f
(b)
M4
M
a+b
2
f (x) dx
(ba) = a (f (x)p(x)) dx 244 a (xa)(x 2 )2 (bx) dx = (ba)
.
6
2880
a
f (x) p(x) =
9.5. y = f (x) [a, b] |f (4) (x)| M4

x [a, b],
(
)
b
y0 + yn + 2(y1 + + yn1 ) + 4 y 1 + + y 2n1 b a
2
2
f (x) dx
.
6
n
a
: ||
1 (ba)5 M4
2880
n4
yk1 +4y 2k1 +yk

xk
(ba)5 M4
ba
2
. [xk1 , xk ] xk1
2880n5 ,
f (x) dx
6
n
yn1 +4y 2n1 +yn )
b

( y0 +4y 12 +y1
ba
2
, a f (x) dx
++
6
6
n
5
M4
n (ba)
2880n5 =
(ba)5 M4
2880n4
.
1.
) y = p(x) 3
(
) + p(b) ba
.
p(a) + 4p( a+b
2
6
b
a
p(x) dx =
2. log 2
2
log 2 = 1 x1 dx Simpson.
3.
1 1
= 4 0 x2 +1 dx Simpson.
356
10
.
(). , . .
. . - . . Cauchy. p- . ,
, , . , . . Taylor . :
, , , -
( Newton).
: , , , .
10.1 .
(xn ),
s1 = x1 , s2 = x1 + x2 , s3 = x1 + x2 + x3 , . . . , sn = x1 + + xn , . . .
(sn ).

+
xn
x1 + x2 + + xn +
n=1
(xn ) , , xn ( ). xn
n- n- sn n-
xn .

, +
n=1 xn
+
+
x
.
x
j=1 j
k=1 k
+
. (1)
n=1 1 1 + 1 + 1 + + 1 + .
(1) s1 = 1, s2 = 1+1 = 2, s3 = 1+1+1 = 3
, , sn = 1| + {z
+ 1} = n n 1.
n
n1
1 + a + a2 + + an1 + .
(2) a 1 + +
n=2 a
n
(a ) s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + a,
s3 = 1 + a + a2 , , sn = 1 + a + + an1 n 2.
1
1
1
1
(3) +
n=1 np 1 + 2p + 3p + + np + , p .
( n1p ) s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + 21p ,
357
s3 = 1 + 21p + 31p , , sn = 1 + 21p + + n1p n 1.
1
+
n=1 n .
(sn ) s, ,
s
+
xn = s .
n=1
(sn ) , . , (sn )
+ , + , ,
+
+
xn = +
n=1
xn = .
n=1
+
,
n=1 xn ,
, . ,
+ , .
, , +
n=1 xn .
, . , (sn )
, , (sn ).
+
. (1)
n=1 1 +, sn = n +. ,

+
1 = +.
n=1
(2) a .
a 1
+
= +,
n1
1
1+
a
= 1a
,
1 < a < 1
n=2
, a 1
10.1.
+
n=1
xn , xn 0.
+
. sn = x1 + + xn . n=1 xn
s, sn s. , , xn = sn sn1 n 2. xn s s = 0.
1 6= 0.
+

n=1 xn (:
) xn 0 . ,
10.1.
+
+
+
10.2. +
n=1 yn
n=1 xn +
n=1 xn n=1 yn
(x
+
y
)
, +
n
n=1 n
.
n
n=1 n+1
n
n+1
358
(xn + yn ) =
n=1
xn +
n=1
yn .
n=1
.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + +
n ,
+ n-
+
y+
sn n=1 xn tn n=1 yn . , n- n=1 (xn + yn )
un = (x1 + y1 ) + + (xn + yn ) = (x1 + + xn ) + (y1 + + yn ) = sn + tn .

+
+
+
+
+
un n=1 xn + n=1 yn . n=1 (xn + yn ) n=1 xn + n=1 yn .
+
+
10.3.
n ,
n=1 x
n=1 xn
+
, n=1 (xn )
+
(xn ) =
n=1
(
xn
6= 0
n=1
)
xn = .
n=1
+
+
. sn = x1 + + xn , sn n=1 xn . n-
n=1 (xn )
wn = x1 + + xn = (x1 + + xn ) = sn .
+
+
+
wn n=1 xn , , n=1 (xn ) n=1 xn .
:
+
(xn + yn ) =
n=1
xn +
n=1
yn .
n=1
,
.
+
+
10.4.
n=1 xn
n=1 yn xn yn
n 1,
+
xn
n=1
yn .
n=1
.
+ sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + + yn ,
+ n-
sn n=1 xn tn n=1 yn . ,
sn = x1 + + xn y1 + + yn = tn
n,
+
n=1
xn
+
n=1
yn .
.
1. (
).
+ (
n=1
1)
,
(1) ,
n=1
n,
n=1
n ,
n=1
(1)n1 n,
n=1
n=1
359
(1)n1 n2 .
+ (
1
1 )

,
n
n+1
n=1
2. .
+
n=1
+ (
n )n
,
n
+
1
n=1
n
,
2n + 1
n,
n=1
n sin
n=1
(
1)
n log 1 +
.
n
n=1
1
,
n
(: n- .)
3. ,
( ).
+ ( )
2 n+2
n=1
+
+ ( )
4 n3
n=1
2
,
n1
3
n=1
(3) ,
n=4
4.
n=1 (bn
(1)n4 ,
+ (
n=1
n=3
+ n1
2
+ 3n+1
n=1
6n
2 )n
,
3
n
+
1 + 22
n=1
2n
bn+1 ) .
sn , ,
limn+ bn
limn+ bn .
limn+ bn ;
(
).
+
n=1
1
,
n(n + 1)
n
log
,
n+1
n=1
+ (
n=1
n1
(1)
n=1
+
n=1
1
,
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
n+1 n
,
n2 + n
)
n
nn + 1
(1)
,
n+1
n+2
n=1
1
,
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
(
n
n
)
n+1 ,
n+1
n=1
+
n=1
(1)n1
2n + 1
.
n(n + 1)
5. 12 13 2.4 , , .
10.2
- .
10.1. xn 0 n 1,
+
n=1 xn
+
+ - . 0 n=1 xn +.
: (sn ) ,
, (sn ) , +.
. xn 0 n 1, sn+1 = x1 + + xn + xn+1 = sn + xn+1 sn
n 1. (sn ) , , + .
, sn = x1 + + xn 0 n 1, limn+ sn 0. ,
+
(sn ) , n=1 xn = limn+ sn , (sn ) ,
+
n=1 xn = limn+ sn = +.
360

+
n=1 xn -

+. ,
+
n=1
xn < +.
10.5. (1) 0 xn yn n 1.
0
xn
n=1
yn .
n=1
+
, , +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn .
( )
(2) xn 0 yn > 0 n 1 xynn , ,
+
. +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 xn .
+
+
. (1) n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
+
+
+
+
10.4 0 n=1 xn n=1 yn . n=1 yn , n=1 yn < +,
+
+
n=1 xn < + , , n=1 xn .
, (2) (1). , u xynn u ,
+
+
, 0 xn uyn n 1. n=1 yn , n=1 (uyn )
+
, n=1 xn .
+ 2n +3
. (1)
n=1 3n1 +n
+ 2n

n=1 3n1 .
2n +3
3n1 +n 2n 3n1 , .
2n +3
+ 2n
+ 2 n1
2n +3
2n 1+32n
3n1 +n
1.
3n1 +n = 3n1 1+3n3n ,
=
2
n1
2n
n=1 3
n=1 ( 3 )
+ 3n1
n
2 +3
.
, n=1 3n1
+n
+ 1
(2) n=1 n! .
n 2
n! = 1 2 n 1 2| {z
2} = 2n1
n1
1
n! 2n1 n = 1 . , 0 n!1 2n1
+ 1
+ 1
n 1. n=1 n! n=1 2n1 = 1 + 12 + 212 + = 2 < + , ,
+ 1
n=1 n! < +.
.
:
+
1
1+
= e.
n!
n=1
(
)n
1
1
+ + n!
tn = 1 + n1 . , Newton,
. sn = 1!
( )
( )
( )
( )
tn = 1 + n1 n1 + n2 n12 + + nk n1k + + nn n1n
(
)
(
)(
) (
)
(
)
(
)
1
1
1
1
n1
1
+ 2!
1 n1 + + k!
1 n1 1 n2 1 k1
+
+
1
.
= 1 + 1!
n
n!
n
n
1
1
+ + n!
= 1 + sn
1, tn 1 + 1!
n 1. , 1 k n, () k-,
(
)
(
)(
) (
)
1
1
1
tn 1 + 1!
1 n1 + + k!
1 n1 1 n2 . . . 1 k1
.
+ 2!
n
361
1
1
1
n +, e 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ + k!
= 1 + sk k 1 ,
, e 1 + sn n 1.
t
1 , , sn e 1. sn n-
n 1 + sn e n
+ 1
+ 1
n=1 n!
, n=1 n!
= e 1.

2 e :
e .
e e =
(n 1)!m = n!e = n!1 +
m
n
m, n.
n!
n!
n!
n!
n!
+ +
+
+
+
+ .
1!
n! (n + 1)! (n + 2)! (n + 3)!
(n 1)!m, n!1, n!
, . . . , n!
,
1!
n!
n!
n!
n!
s = (n+1)! + (n+2)! + (n+3)! + . ,
1
1
1
+
+
+
n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ =
<1
1 =
2
3
n + 1 (n + 1)
(n + 1)
n + 1 1 n+1
n
0<s=
0 1.
, , - .
10.1: .
. (xn ) xn 0
n 1. x = f (t)
[1, +)
+
: f (n) = xn n 1. 1 f (t) dt
+
+
f (t) dt < +,
(i) +
n=1 xn < +
1
+
+
(ii) n=1 xn = + 1 f (t) dt = +.
,
n+1
f (t) dt x1 + + xn x1 +
1
f (t) dt
1
n
362
f (t) dt
1
xn x1 +
f (t) dt.
1
n=1
. t 1 n t ( , [t] + 1).
x = f (t) ,
u = xn 0. , , f (t) 0 t 1,
u f (t) f (n)
u
1 2 f (t) dt 1 1 f (t) dt = u12 f (t) dt 0 u1 u2 1 u1 < u2 .
u
F (u) = 1 f (t) dt u [1, +) , ,
u
+
limu+ F (u) = limu+ 1 f (t) dt, 1 f (t) dt, +.
k t [k, k + 1] f (k + 1) f (t) f (k),
k+1
k+1
f (k + 1) k f (t) dt f (k) , , xk+1 k f (t) dt xk .
n
k = 1, . . . , n 1 k = 1, . . . , n x2 + + xn 1 f (t) dt
n+1
n+1
n
f (t) dt x1 + + xn , . , 1
f (t) dt x1 + + xn x1 + 1 f (t) dt.
1
+
+
n +, 1 f (t) dt n=1 xn
+
x1 + 1 f (t) dt. (i) (ii) .
1
. (1) +
n=1 np , p .
- , -
+.
+
1
p 0, n1p 1 n 1 , , +
n=1 np
n=1 1 = +.
+.
p > 0. ( n1p ) .
x = f (t) = t1p , [1, +) , , f (n) = n1p
+
+
1
n. 1 t1p dt = +, 0 1.
,
{
+
< + , p > 1
1
p
n
= + , p 1
n=1
,

1
n=1 n
1
1
1
1
+
p 1 n=1 np
p1
1
n=1 n2
. ,
log(n + 1) 1 +
(p > 1),
1
1
+ + 1 + log n
2
n
(n + 1)1p 1
1
1
n1p 1
1 + p + + p 1 +
(0 p < 1).
1p
2
n
1p
1
, +
n=1 np 0 < p 1,
+

n=1 xn xn 0.
1
+
n=1 np
.
+ 1
+ 2n1
.
(2)
2
n=1 n
n=1 n +3n+1

+ 2n1
2n1
n1
1
2
2n n , . 2n1 2 , n=1 n2 +3n+1 .
n2 +3n+1
n2 +3n+1
363
n+1
n=1 2n2 +3
(3)
n+1
+
n=1 2n2 +3 .
+
n=1
32
n+1
2n2 +3
3
2
12 ,
Cauchy. (xn ) xn 0

n 1.
+ k
(i) +
n=1 xn < +
k=1 2 x2k < +,
+
k
(ii) n=1 xn = + +
k=1 2 x2k = +.
+ k
+
.
n=1 xn
k=1 2 x2k , .
n 2 2, 2k n < 2k+1 .
(xn ) ,
x1 + + xn = x1 + (x2 + x3 ) + (x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 ) + + (x2k1 + + x2k 1 ) + (x2k + + xn )
+
x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k1 x2k1 + 2k x2k x1 + k=1 2k x2k .
n +,
,
+
n=1
xn x1 +
+
k=1
2k x2k .
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k x2k 2x1 + 2x2 + 2(x3 + x4 ) + + 2(x2k1 +1 + + x2k )

+
= 2(x1 + x2 + + x2k ) 2 n=1 xn .
+
+
k +, 2x1 + k=1 2k x2k 2 n=1 xn .

+
+
+
x1 + 12 k=1 2k x2k n=1 xn x1 + k=1 2k x2k .
+
+
k=1 2k x2k n=1 xn +.
1
. +
.
np
+ 1
n=1
+
p 0 :
n=1 np
n=1 1 = +,
+.
p > 0, ( n1p ) - .
+ k 1
+ ( 1 )k
1
. 2p1
,
k=1 2 (2k )p =
k=1 2p1
1
1
< 1 , , p > 1 +, 2p1 1 , , 0 1, +, p 1.
np
.
1. 10.5.
+
n n + 2n + 1
n=1
2n2 + 1
2n2 + 3n + 1
n=1
n4 n2 + 4
( 1 + n2 n),
n=1
n=1
n=1
n+1 n
,
n
,
n(n + 1)
+
n=1
n1+ n
n=1
,
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1)
log 1 + 2 ,
n
n=1
+ (
+ (
1
1)
1)
sin ,
1 cos
,
n 1 cos
.
n
n
n
n=1
n=1
n=1
+ 1
(:
n=1 np . limx0
1cos x
1
sin x
limx0 x = 1, limx0 x2 = 2 .)
+
1
1
sin ,
n
n
n=1
364
log(1+x)
x
= 1,
2.
( 1
1 )
,
n
n
n
+
1
n=1
n=2
1
na nb
na
n+12 n+ n1 ,
n=1
+
(0 < b < a),
n=1
1
an bn
(0 < b < a).
+ 1
+ n
,
p
n=1 n
n=1 p
p. a, b
.
+ 1
3.
n=1 n(n+1) = 1 ( 4 ).
2
n12 n(n+1)
n
+ 1
10.5, n=1 n2 .
1
n2
1
n(n+1)
1 ,
4. .
. +
.
, Cauchy.
+
n=1
+
n=1
1
,
2
n +1
nen ,
n=2
n
,
2
n +1
n=1
1
,
n log n
n=2
n=1
,
n(n + 1)
1
,
n(log n)2
n=3
n=1
1
,
(n + 1) n
+
1
,
n log n log(log n)
n=3
n=1
en
,
1 + e2n
1
.
n log n(log(log n))2
5. Cauchy

+
n=2
1
,
n(log n)p
n=3
1
)p
n log n log(log n)
p.
1
6. limp1+ (p 1) +
n=1 np = 1.
(
)
log1 n 1 + 21 + + n1 1.
(
0 p < 1, np1 1 + 21p + +
7. log n+1
1
m
1
m+1
+ +
1
1
n1 + n+1
+ + 2n1
+
1
1
1
1
+ n+1 + + pn1 + pn log p.
n
1
2n
1
n1
1
np
1
n
1
m
1
1p
n
+ log m
.
log 2 , , p,
1
1
1
8. p > 1. (p1)n
p1 np + (n+1)p +
(
)
1
1
, np1 n1p + (n+1)
p1
.
p +
365
1
np
1
(p1)np1
9. xn 0 n.
+
n=1
xn ,
+
xn xn+1 .
n=1
(: ab 12 a2 + 12 b2 .)
, , (xn ) , .
+
+
10. xn > 0 n.
n=1 xn ,
n=1
.
xn
n
(: ab 21 a2 + 12 b2 .)
2
11. xn > 0 n. +
xn , +
n=1
n=1 xn ,
+ xn 2
+ xn
n=1 1+xn 2 .
n=1 1+xn
12. (xn ) - . +
n=1 xn < +, nxn 0.
(:
n
x
2 n
x[ n2 ]+1 + + xn .)
13. (xn ) - , xn 0 xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 0

n 1.
+
n=1 (xn xn+1 ) = x1 .
n(xn xn+1 ) 0.
(: .)
+
n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ) = x1 .
n
(: k=1 k(xk 2xk+1 + xk+2 ) = x1 (m + 1)(xm+1 xm+2 ) xm+2 .)
10.3
10.3.1
p- .
p- .
0, 1, . . . , 9 .
, p 2, 0, 1, . . . , p 1 p-
.
. 0, 1 , 0, 1, 2
0, 1, . . . , 15 .
10.6. p 2. x
x = XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + + X1 p + X0
XN , . . . , X0 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}, p- , XN 6= 0.
. N = [logp x]. x 1 p > 1, logp x 0 , , N 0.
[ ]
N pN x < pN +1 , 1 pxN < p. , XN = pxN ,
, , 1 XN p 1. XN
XN pN x < XN pN + pN ,
0
xXN pN
pN 1
< p.
[
N ]
Np
, XN 1 = xX
, , ,
pN 1
0 XN 1 p 1. XN 1
XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 x < XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + pN 1 ,
366
xXN pN XN 1 pN 1
pN 2
< p.
[
N
N 1 ]
N 1 p
, XN 2 = xXN p pX
, , ,
N 2
0 XN 2 p 1. XN 2
XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + XN 2 pN 2 x < XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + XN 2 pN 2 + pN 2 ,
0
xXN pN XN 1 pN 1 XN 2 pN 2
pN 3
< p.
[
]
N
1p
X0 = xXN p pX
,
0
, , 0 X0 p 1. X0
XN pN + + X1 p + X0 x < XN pN + + X1 p + X0 + 1
, XN pN + + X1 p + X0 x ,
XN pN + + X1 p + X0 = x.
YM , . . . , Y0 {0, 1, . . . , p 1} YM 6= 0
x = YM pM + YM 1 pM 1 + + Y1 p + Y0 . N < M ,
x = XN pN + + X1 p + X0 (p 1)pN + + (p 1)p + (p 1) = pN +1 1
x = YM pM + YM 1 pM 1 + + Y1 p + Y0 1pM + 0pM 1 + + 0p + 0 = pM pN +1
. N > M ,
N = M . x = YN pN + YN 1 pN 1 + + Y1 p + Y0 YN 6= 0.
, , n Xn 6= Yn n0 n
, Xn0 6= Yn0 Xn = Yn n = N, . . . , n0 + 1. , , Xn0 < Yn0 ,
Xn0 + 1 Yn0 .
XN pN + + X1 p + X0 = x = YN pN + + Y1 p + Y0

Xn0 pn0 + + X1 p + X0 = Yn0 pn0 + + Y1 p + Y0 .
,
Xn0 pn0 + + X1 p + X0 Xn0 pn0 + (p 1)pn0 1 + + (p 1)p + (p 1) = Xn0 pn0 + pn0 1
Yn0 pn0 + + Y1 p + Y0 Yn0 pn0 + 0pn0 1 + + 0p + 0 = Yn0 pn0 Xn0 pn0 + pn0
. Xn0 > Yn0 ,

YN , . . . , Y0 XN , . . . , X0 , .
XN , . . . , X0 x = XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + + X1 p + X0 p-
x. XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + + X1 p + X0 p-
x hXN XN 1 . . . X1 X0 ip ,

x = hXN XN 1 . . . X1 X0 ip .
. (1) , p = 1p + 0, p- p
1p + 0 = h10ip . , p- p2
1p2 + 0p + 0 = h100ip .
(2) p , 9 + 1,
XN XN 1 . . . X1 X0 hXN XN 1 . . . X1 X0 i9+1 x = XN pN +
XN 1 pN 1 + + X1 p + X0 .

10. , ,
367
10 , 9 + 1.
, 10 + 1 1 10 + 1,
11. 10 + 2 1 10 + 2,
12. , ,
.
(3) 25 = 1 24 + 1 23 + 0 22 + 0 2 + 1, 25
h11001i2 .
(4) 735 = 2 162 + 13 16 + 15, 735
h2 13 15i16 .
p- x 10.6. ,
, . x = a1 p + X0 ,
a1 X0 0 X0 p 1. 0 a1 < x. a1 = 0
, , a1 > 0, a1 = a2 p + X1 , a2 X1
0 X1 p 1. 0 a2 < a1 . a2 = 0 , , a2 > 0,
a2 = a3 p + X2 , a3 X2 0 X2 p 1.
0 a3 < a2 . ,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . - ,
0 . , , N 0
aN +1 = 0,
x = a1 p + X0
a1 = a2 p + X1
aN 1 = aN p + XN 1
aN = 0p + XN = XN .

x = a1 p + X0
= a2 p2 + X1 p + X0
= ............
= aN 1 pN 1 + XN 2 pN 2 + + X1 p + X0
= aN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + XN 2 pN 2 + + X1 p + X0
= XN pN + XN 1 pN 1 + XN 2 pN 2 + + X1 p + X0 .
. (1) 28 :
28 = 14 2 + 0, 14 = 7 2 + 0, 7 = 3 2 + 1, 3 = 1 2 + 1 1 = 0 2 + 1. 28 = h11100i2 .
(2) 32137 : 32137 =
2008 16 + 9, 2008 = 125 16 + 8, 125 = 7 16 + 13 7 = 0 16 + 7. 32137 = h7 13 8 9i16
.
(3) 12 : 12 = 0 15 + 12.
12 = h12i15 .
368
10.3.2
p- [0, 1).
, 0, 25
2
5
20
5
25
1
+
=
+
=
= .
10 100
100 100
100
4
, 0, 5403
2 101 + 5 102 =
5
4
0
3
5403
+
+
+
=
.
10 100 1000 10000
10000
0, 25 0, 5403 0, 25000 . . . 0, 5403000 . . . , 0
.
5403
41 10000
.
, , 37 0, 42857 . . .
0 .
: 37
0, 42857 . . . ; ,
,
5 101 + 4 102 + 0 103 + 3 104 =
4 101 + 2 102 + 8 103 + 5 104 + 7 105 +

37 .
. , , ,

4 101 + 2 102 + 8 103 + 5 104 + 7 105 + =
3
,
7
4 101 + 2 102 + 8 103 + 5 104 + 7 105 +

37 , ,
37 .
10.7 [0, 1)
0, . . . . , 10.7
p- , p 2
0, 1, . . . , p 1. , ,
:
+
p1
n=1
pn
p 1 ( 1 )n1 p 1 1
=
=
p n=1 p
p 1
+
1
p
=1
, , m
+
+
+
p1
p 1 ( 1 )nm p 1 ( 1 )n1 p 1 1
= m
= m
= m
pn
p n=m p
p
p
p 1
n=m
n=1
1
p
1
pm1
10.7. p 2.
(1) p- (xn )
xn
xn p 1. +
n=1 pn
[0, 1).
(2) x [0, 1) p- (xn )
xn p 1
369
x=
xn
n=1
+
. (1) n=1
n,
xn
pn
pn
= x1 p1 + x2 p2 + x3 p3 + .
- , , , 0 xn p 1
0
xn
n=1 pn
p1
n=1 pn
= 1.
n=1 xpnn , x, : 0 x 1.
0 x < 1, , , m xm 6= p 1 , ,
xm p 2.
x=
=1
m1 xn
xn
n=1 pn =
n=1 pn
1
pm < 1.
xm
pm
xn
n=m+1 pn
m1
n=1
p1
pn
p2
pm
p1
n=m+1 pn
p1
n=1 pn
1
pm
(2) 0 x < 1. x1 = [px], x1 px < x1 + 1 , ,

x1
p
x<
x1
p
1
p
0 px < p, x1 {0, 1, . . . , p1}. s1 =

x2 p2 (x s1 ) < x2 + 1,
x1
p
x2
p2
x<
x1
p
x2
p2
1
p2
x2
p2
x3
p3
x<
x1
p
x2
p2
x2 = [p2 (xs1 )].
0 p2 (x s1 ) < p, x2 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. s2 =

x3 p3 (x s2 ) < x3 + 1,
x1
p
x1
p
x3
p3
1
p3
x1
p
+ xp22 x3 = [p3 (x s2 )].
0 p3 (x s2 ) < p, x3 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.

xn , , n. ,
x1 , . . . , xn {0, 1, . . . , p 1}
x1
p
sn =
x1
p
++
x1
p
xn
pn
+ +
xn
pn
x<
x1
p
+ +
xn
pn
1
pn
xn+1 = [pn+1 (x sn )]. xn+1 pn+1 (x sn ) < xn+1 + 1,
+ +
xn
pn
xn+1
pn+1
x<
x1
p
+ +
xn
pn
xn+1
pn+1
1
pn+1
0 pn+1 (x sn ) < p, xn+1 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.

, ,
p- (xn ) sn =
+
xn
x1
xn
1
1
n=1 pn sn x < sn + pn . x pn < sn x
p + + pn
, , sn x. ,
+ xn
n=1 pn = x.
, , xn p 1, m
xn = p 1 n m. m = 1,
+
+
x = n=1 xpnn = n=1 p1
pn = 1,
, , m 2,
+
x = n=1 xpnn = xp1 + +
xm1
pm1
xn
n=m pn
= sm1 +
p1
n=m pn
= sm1 +
1
pm1
, , .
, p- (yn ) , (xn ),
yn p 1
+
x = n=1 pynn .
370
(xn ) (yn ) , n xn 6= yn .
n0 n , xn0 6= yn0 xn = yn n =
1, . . . , n0 1. , , xn0 < yn0 , , xn0 + 1 yn0 . ,
+ xn
+ yn
n=1 pn = x =
n=1 pn

xn
n=n0 pn
yn
n=n0 pn
, m n0 + 1 xm 6= p 1 , , xm p 2.
+ xn
m1
+
m1
+
xn0
xn0
p1
p2
p1
xm
xn
xn
n=n0 pn = pn0 +
n=n0 +1 pn + pm +
n=m+1 pn pn0 +
n=n0 +1 pn + pm +
n=m+1 pn
+
x
xn0
1
1
1
= pnn00 + n=n0 +1 p1
pn pm = pn0 + pn0 pm
yn
n=n0 pn
yn0
pn0
yn
n=n0 +1 pn
yn0
pn0
xn0
pn0
1
pn0
. xn0 > yn0 ,

(xn ) (yn ) .
(xn ) p-
xn p 1
+
xn
x=
,
n
p
n=1
(xn ) p- x , , xn
xn
p- x. , +
n=1 pn p- x
h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip ,
x = h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip .
p = 10 x =
0, x1 x2 x3 . . . x = h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . i10 .
, , 10.9
[0, 1) p-
h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip , p-
p 1.
+ xn
x =
n=1 pn p- x , ,
[0, 1)
sn =

xn
n=1 pn
xn
x1 x2
+ 2 + + n
p
p
p

sn x < s n +
1
.
pn
10.9,
. ,
x=
xn
n=1
pn
xn
n=1
+
m
xn xn
+
= sm .
pn n=m+1 pn
pn
n=1
371
, xn p 1,
k m + 1 xk p 2,
x=
xn
n=1
+
k1
+
xn
xn xk
xn
= sm +
= sm +
+ k +
n
n
n
p
p
p
p
pn
n=m+1
n=m+1
n=k+1
sm +
k1
+
+
p1
1
p1 p2
p1
+
+
=
s
+
m
pn
pk
pn
pn
pk
n=m+1
n=m+1
n=k+1
= sm +
1
1
1
<
s
+
.
m
pm pk
pm
sn x < sn + p1n x p1n < sn x

sn n- p- x.
. 37 0, 42857 . . .
37 .
0, 4
3
< 0, 5 ,
7
0, 4285
0, 42
3
< 0, 43 ,
7
0, 428
3
< 0, 429 ,
7
3
3
< 0, 4286 ,
0, 42857 < 0, 42858 ,
7
7
...............
0, 4, 0, 42, 0, 428, 0, 4285, 0, 42857, . . .

3
4, 2, 8, 5, 7, . . . 37 .
7
10.7
p-

xn
h0, x1 x2 x3 . . . ip = +
x [0, 1).
n=1 pn
p- . x1 = [px] ,
n, x1 , . . . , xn ,
xn+1 = [pn+1 (x sn )], sn = xp1 + + xpnn .
x1 = [px],
xn+1 = [pn+1 (x sn )] (n 1),

(n + 1)- .
. (1)
x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
13
16
[
13 ] [ 65 ]
8
4
= 10
=
= 8, s1 =
= ,
16
8
10
5
[ ( 13 4 )] [ 5 ]
1
81
2
= 10
=
= 1, s2 = s1 + 2 =
,
16 5
4
10
100
[ ( 13
)]
[
]
81
5
2
203
= 103
=
= 2, s3 = s2 + 3 =
,
16 100
2
10
250
[ ( 13 203 )]
5
13
= [5] = 5, s4 = s3 + 4 =
,
= 104
16 250
10
16
[ ( 13 13 )]
0
13
= 105
= [0] = 0, s5 = s4 + 5 =
,
16 16
10
16
[ ( 13 13 )]
0
13
= 106
= [0] = 0, s6 = s5 + 6 =
16 16
10
16
372
. 13
0, 8125000 . . . .
16
s4 13

16
x5 , x6 , . . . 0.
(2) 12 .
[
1 ]
7
x1 = 10 = 7, s1 =
,
10
2
[ ( 1
7 )]
0
7
x2 = 102
= 0, s2 = s1 + 2 =
,
10
10
2 10
[ ( 1
7 )]
7
707
3
x3 = 10
= 7, s3 = s2 + 3 =
,
10
1000
2 10
[ ( 1
7071
707 )]
1
= 1, s4 = s3 + 4 =
,
x4 = 104
10
10000
2 1000
[ ( 1
7071 )]
0
7071
x5 = 105
= 0, s5 = s4 + 5 =
,
10
10000
2 10000
[ ( 1
7071 )]
6
707106
x6 = 106
= 6, s6 = s5 + 6 =
10
1000000
2 10000
. 12 0, 707106 . . . .
(3) 35 .
[ 3]
1
= 1, s1 = ,
x1 = 2
5
2
[ ( 3 1 )]
0
1
x2 = 22
= 0, s2 = s1 + 2 = ,
5 2
2
2
[ ( 3 1 )]
0
1
x3 = 23
= 0, s3 = s2 + 3 = ,
5 2
2
2
[ ( 3 1 )]
1
9
x4 = 24
= 1, s4 = s3 + 4 =
,
5 2
2
16
[ (3
9 )]
1
19
x5 = 25
= 1, s5 = s4 + 5 =
,
5 16
2
32
[ ( 3 19 )]
0
19
= 0, s6 = s5 + 6 =
x6 = 26
5 32
2
32
.
10.3.3
3
5
0, 100110 . . . .
p- - .
p- [0, 1). x 1, x = [x] + (x [x]), [x]

x, , x [x] [0, 1). p-
: hXN . . . X0 ip [x] h0, x1 x2 . . . ip
x [x]. [x] = XN pN + + X1 p + X0 x [x] = x1 p1 + x2 p2 + ,
x = XN pN + + X1 p + X0 + x1 p1 + x2 p2 + .
p- x
hXN . . . X0 , x1 x2 . . . ip
x = hXN . . . X0 , x1 x2 . . . ip .
373
n- p- x
sn = [x] +
x1
xn
x1
xn
+ + n = XN pN + + X1 p + X0 +
+ + n
p
p
p
p
, ,
sn x < sn +
1
pn
n.
p- [0, 1), , ,
0, p- p-
p 1. p- (xn )
xn p 1, m
xn = p 1 n m n0 m.
+
n0 = 1, xn = p 1 n, n=1 xpnn

+
+
xn p 1
=
= 1.
n
n
p
p
n=1
n=1
h0, p 1 p 1 p 1 . . . ip , p-
1, p- h1, 000 . . . ip .
n0 2 xn = p 1 n n0 xn0 1 p 2.
+
xn
n=1 pn
x=
xn
n=1
n
0 2
n=1
pn
n
0 1
n=1
n
n
+
+
0 1
0 1
xn
xn
xn
p1
xn
1
+
=
+
=
+ n0 1
n
n
n
n
n
p
p
p
p
p
p
n=n
n=1
n=n
n=1
xn xn0 1 + 1
+
=
pn
pn0 1
n=1
yn
,
pn
(yn ) p- yn = xn
n = 1, . . . , n0 2, yn0 1 = xn0 1 + 1 yn = 0 n n0 . ,
h0, x1 . . . xn0 1 p 1 p 1 . . . ip , p-
x p- h0, x1 . . . xn0 1 + 1 00 . . . ip p-
p 1.
. (1) 0, 35699999 . . .
357
0, 35700000 . . . , 1000
.
(2) h0, 1010111111 . . . i2
.
h0, 1011000000 . . . i2 , 12 + 213 + 214 = 11
16
10.3.4 p- .
p- hXN . . . X0 , x1 x2 . . . ip
m k xn+k = xn n m.
xm xm+1 . . . , xm+k1 p-
xm xm+1 . . . , xm+k1
. , p-
hXN . . . X0 , . . . xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 . . . ip .
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
|
374
hXN . . . X0 , . . . xm . . . xm+k1 ip .
10.8 p = 10, ,
( , ).
10.8. p 2 x 0. x
p- .
. x p- :
x = hXN . . . X0 , . . . xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 . . . ip .
|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}

x = XN pN + + X0 +
x1
p
+ +
xm1
pm1
= XN pN + + X0 +
x1
p
+ +
xm1
pm1
XN pN +m1 ++X0 pm1 +x1 pm2 ++xm1

pm1
xm
pm
+ +
xm+k1
pm+k1
xm
pm
+ +
xm+k1
pm+k1
)(
)
xm pk1 ++xm+k1
pm1 (pk 1)
1+
1
pk
1
p2k
1
1 1k
p
x .
, x 0 : x = ab a 0 b 1 . p = p1 n1 pr nr ,
p1 , . . . , pr p n1 , . . . , nr . , b =
p1 l1 pr lr b0 , l1 , . . . , lr 0 ( pj b,
lj 0) b0 p , p b0
> 1. m (m 1)nj lj j = 1, . . . , r.
ap1 m1 pr mr
a
a0
mj = (m1)nj lj , mj 0. x = ab = p1 l1 p
l
0 = (p n1 p nr )m1 b0 = pm1 b0 ,
1
r
r rb
a0 0. , p, p2 , p3 , . . . b0 .
0, . . . , b0 1 ,
b0 . , t
s t < s pt = qt b0 + z ps = qs b0 + z, qt qs z
0, . . . , b0 1. pt (pst 1) = ps pt = (qs qt )b0 , b0 pt (pst 1). b0 p
, b0 pst 1, b00 b0 b00 = pst 1.
a0 b00
a00
00
k = s t b0 b00 = pk 1 , , x = pm1
b0 b00 = pm1 (pk 1) , a
00
k
00
k
0. , a p 1, a = w(p 1) + u, w
0 u 0, . . . , pk 2. , p- w u
w = XN pN +m1 + + X0 pm1 + x1 pm2 + + xm1 u = xm pk1 + + xm+k1
xm , . . . , xm+k1 p 1, u = (p 1)pk1 + + (p 1)p + (p 1) = pk 1.

x=
w(pk 1)+u
pm1 (pk 1)
w
pm1
u
pm1 (pk 1)
= XN pN + + X0 +
x1
p
= XN p + + X0 +
x1
p
XN pN +m1 ++X0 pm1 +x1 pm2 ++xm1

pm1
+ +
xm1
pm1
+ +
xm1
pm1
+
(
+
xm
pm
xm
pm
+ +
xm+k1
pm+k1
+ +
xm+k1
pm+k1
xm pk1 ++xm+k1
pm1 (pk 1)
1
1 1k
)(
1+
1
pk
1
p2k
= hXN . . . X0 , . . . xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 xm . . . xm+k1 . . . ip ,

|
{z
}|
{z
}|
{z
}
x p- .
3
. 14
.
3
15
3
14 = 27 = 107 7 10.
101, 102 1, 103 1, . . . 7 106 1 106 1 = 7142857.
15142857
2142855
3
6
= 10(10
14
6 1) = 10(106 1) . 2142855 = 2(10 1) + 142857 ,
375
,
3
2
142857
2
142857 106
=
+
=
+
14
10 10(106 1)
10
107 106 1
(
2
1
4
2
8
5
7 ) 1
=
+
+
+
+
+
+
10
102 103 104 105 106 107 1 1016
( 1
)
2
4
2
8
5
7 )(
1
1
=
+
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10
102 103 104 105 106 107
106 1012
= 0, 2 142857
| {z } 142857
| {z } . . . = 0, 2142857 .
| {z } 142857
.
. p- .
1. , ,
11 87.
2. p 2 N 0. p- pN +1 1.
(: 1023 1.)
3. p 2. XN , . . . , X0 {0, 1, . . . , p 1} XN 6= 0,
pN XN pN + + X1 p + X0 pN +1 1 < pN +1 .
4. p 2. x N - .
p- x N + 1
pN x < pN +1 .
(: .)
5. k1 < k2 < k3 < . . .
0
1
. +
n=1 kn 90.
(: (kn )
10.)

0 ;
. p- [0, 1).
1. ,
7
16
31
32
2. p 2 x, y [0, 1). n n- p-
x, y , |x y| < p1n .
3. p 2 x [0, 1). sn n- p- x,
p- x sn pn (x sn );
4. p 2 x, y [0, 1).
x + y x, y n- p-
p2n .
xy
2
1
p2n
.
pn
376
5. p 2 p- k.
[0, 1) n- p-
k pn1 [a, b).
; ;
(: n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
.)
6. p 2 x [0, 1). x
p-
0 p 1
. ;
+ yn
xn
(: x = +
n=1 pn x =
n=1 pn n0
n xn 6= yn . x
< n0
n = yn n
xn0
n0 1 xn
+
p1
xn0 < yn0 , xn0 + 1 yn0 . x n=1
+
+
n=n0 +1 pn =
pn
pn0
n 0 x n
n0 1 xn
+
n 0 x n
xn0 +1
1
0
1
n=1 pn + pn0 x
n=1 pn + pn0 +
n=n0 +1 pn =
n=1 pn + pn0 .
yn0 = xn0 + 1 xn = p 1 yn = 0
n > n0 .)
x [0, 1) p-
x = pmn , n m < pn .
. p- - .
1.
2.
2. p 2. sn n- p- x 0
tn = sn + p1n , (sn ) , (tn )
x.
. p- .
1. 32, 34 |{z}
239 |{z}
239 |{z}
239 . . . , h2, 0 1201
|{z} 1201
|{z} . . . i3
|{z} 1201
h1001, |{z}
101 |{z}
101 |{z}
101 . . . i2 .
2. ,
313
150
10.4 .
. (bn ) bn 0,
+
n1
(1)
bn = b1 b2 + b3 b4 + .
n=1
. sn = b1 b2 + + (1)n1 bn s2 , s4 , s6 , . . .
. s2k+2 = s2k + b2k+1 b2k+2 s2k , . ,
s2k = b1 b2 + b3 b4 + + b2k1 b2k = b1 (b2 b3 ) (b4 b5 ) (b2k2 b2k1 ) b2k b1
-. s2 , s4 , s6 , . . . , ,
s0 : s2k s0 . s1 , s3 , s5 , . . . .
s2k+1 = s2k1 b2k + b2k+1 s2k1 , . , s2k1 = b1 b2 + b3
b4 + b2k2 + b2k1 = (b1 b2 ) + (b3 b4 ) + + (b2k3 b2k2 ) + b2k1 0
-. s1 , s3 , s5 , . . . , , s00 :
s2k1 s00 . , s2k1 = s2k + b2k s2k , k +, s00 s0 .
, , :
s2 s4 . . . s2k . . . s0 s00 . . . s2k1 . . . s3 s1 .
377
0 s00 s0 s2k1 s2k = b2k b2k1 k 1 , , 0 s00 s0 bn

n 1. n +, s00 s0 = 0, s0 = s00 .
s = s0 = s00 ,
s2 s4 . . . s2k . . . s . . . s2k1 . . . s3 s1 .
0 s s2k s2k1 s2k = b2k 0 s2k1 s s2k1 s2k2 = b2k1 k 1.
,
|sn s| bn n 1 |sn s| 0 , , sn s.
+
n1
bn s.
n=1 (1)
(1)n1
. +
= 1 12 + 13 14 + .
n=1
n
+ (1)n1
n=1 n = 1 12 + 13 14 + .
+
+
n ( - )
n=1 x
n=1 |xn |
, , +
|x
|
<
+.
n
n=1
. +
n=1 xn ,
+
+

xn
|xn |.

n=1
n=1
+
. 0 xn + |xn | 2|xn | n, ,
n=1 2|xn | ,
+
+
+
x
,
,
(x
+
|x
|)
.
,

n
n
n
n=1 xn =
n=1
n=1
+
+
|x
|.
(x
+
|x
|)
n
n
n=1
n=1 n
+
+
+
, |xn | xn |xn | n 1, n=1 |xn | = n=1 (|xn |) n=1 xn
+
+ xn + |xn |.
n=1
n=1
n=1 |xn | , ,
+ |xn | |x1 + x2 | |x1 | + |x2 |,

+
x
n
n=1
n=1
|x1 + x2 + x3 | |x1 | + |x2 | + |x3 | ,
.
(1)n1
. (1) +
. ,
n=1
n2
+ (1)n1 + 1
2 =
n=1
n=1 n2 .
n
(1)n1
(2) +
.
n=1
n+ (1)n1 + 1
= n=1 n +.
, n=1
n
, +
n=1 xn
.
10.9. (1) |xn | yn n 1 +

n=1 yn ,
+
n=1 xn , , . ,
+
+

yn .
xn

n=1
n=1
( )
(2) yn > 0 n |xynn | , , .
+
+
n=1 xn , , .
n=1 yn ,
+
+
. (1) n=1 yn ,
n=1 |xn | ,

+
+ xn + |xn | + yn .
n=1 xn , ,
n=1
n=1
n=1
(2) 10.5 .
378

+ 2 n
(2)n
. +
n=1 3n +2n
n=1 ( 3 ) .
(2)n
| 3n +2n |
(2)n
1, +
n=1 3n +2n , , .
( 2 )n
3

.
d Alembert. limn+ xxn+1
n
xn+1
+
(i) limn+ xn < 1, n=1 xn , , .

> 1, + xn .
(ii) limn+ xxn+1
n=1
n

< 1. a limn+ xn+1 < a < 1.
. (i) limn+ xxn+1
xn
n
xn+1
n0 xn a n n0 . |xn0 +1 | a|xn0 |, |xn0 +2 |
a|xn0 +1 | a2 |xn0 |, |xn0 +3 | a|xn0 +2 | a3 |xn0 | , , |xn | ann0 |xn0 |
n n0 . c = an0 +1 |xn0 | , |xn | can1 n n0 . C =
{
+
|x 1 | }
|xn | Can1 n 1. , n=1 |xn |
max c, |x1 |, |xa2 | , . . . , ann00 2
+
+
C n=1 an1 < + 0 < a < 1. n=1 |xn | < +.

x
> 1. n0 xn+1 1 n n0 . , |xn0 +1 |
(ii) limn+ xn+1
x
n
n
|xn0 |, |xn0 +2 | |xn0 +1 | |xn
0 | , , |xn | |xn0 | > 0 n n0 . , ,
+
xn 0, n=1 xn .
. (1)
(2)
nn
n=1 n!
2n
n=1 n!
2n+1

, (n+1)!
=
2n
n!
2
n+1
0 < 1.
(n+1)n+1

: (n+1)!
= (1 + n1 )n e > 1.
nn
n!

= 1.
limn+ xxn+1
n

.
1
(n+1)2
1
. (1) +
1 1.
n=1 n2
n2

1
n+1
1
(2) +
n=1 n 1 1.
n
n

Cauchy
1.
lim
|xn |.
n+
+
n
(i) limn+ |xn | < 1, n=1 xn , , .
(ii) limn+ n |xn | > 1, +

n=1 xn .
. (i) limn+ n |xn | < 1, a limn+ n |xn | < a < 1. n0
|x 1 |
n |xn | a n n0 , |xn | an n n0 . C = max{a, |x1 |, |xa2 | , . . . , ann00 2
},
+
+
n1
n1
|xn | Ca
n 1.
< + 0 < a < 1.
n=1 |xn | C
n=1 a
+
|x
|
<
+.
n
n=1
(ii) limn+ n |xn | > 1, n0 n |xn | 1 n n0 . |xn | 1

+
n n0 , xn 0 , , n=1 xn .
. (1)
(2)
+
n=1
(2)n
n
n3
n=1 2n
n
: n | (2)
|=
n
nn
| 2nn | =
3
( n n)3
2
1
2
< 1.
2 > 1.
,
,
n
limn+ |xn | = 1.
.
379
1
n=1 n2
. (1)
(2)
1
n=1 n
n | n12 | 1.
n
| n1 | 1.
.
1. .
+
n+2
,
( 2)n
n=1
n!
,
3n
n=1
3 n
ne ,
n=1
(n!)2
,
(2n)!
n=1
(n!)2
n=1
2 n2
+ n
3
n=1
n!
+ n
2
,
nn
n=1
2 5 8 (3n 1)
n=1
1 5 9 (4n 3)
+ n
2 n!
+ n
e n!
nn
n=1
nn
n=1
+ n
3 n!
n=1
nn
+ n
4 (n!)2
(2n)!
n=1
2. .
+ (
n + 1 )n
,
2n 1
n=1
+
n=2
1
,
(log n)n
+ (
3n 1 )2n1
2n + 1
n=1
+
(
n
n=1
n=1
+
n=1
n1 1
n=1 (1)
np
n=1
en
+ n
2
,
nn
n=1
3 n
n2 ,
n=1
n
(
)n ,
n
n+1
(
n
n=1
n3n
)n ,
n+1
( n )n2
e
.
n+1
n=1
n2n
)n ,
(
n
n+1
4. p, q
n=1
)n
n1 ,
+ (
n )n 2
,
n+1
n=1
3. p
+ 3
; ;
pn nq ; ;
5. .
.
+
(1)n1
12
n=1
n 11
n=1
2n
(1)n1 sin
11
n=1
n(n1)
+
(1) 2
n=1
(1)n1
n(n1)
+
(1) 2
n=1
1
,
n
n 12
(1)n
,
n log n
n=2
(1)n1
,
n
n
n=1
( 1 ) 32
(1)n1 sin
,
n
n=1
6.
x
+
n=1 xn sin(nx) .
+
n=1
tan
1
,
n
1
1+xn
380
1
n=1 1+xn
n+1
n=1
(1)n1
,
n+1
n=1
(1)n1
n=1
(1)n1 n
n=1
(1)n1
,
n + (1)n1
(
1)
(1)n1 1cos
.
n
n=1
|xn | < +.
7. x 6= 1
(: x 6= 1
.)
(1)n
,
n(log n)2
n=2
+
n=1
xn cos(nx)

n1 135(2n1)
8. 135(2n1)
( 23 )n n , , +
n=1 (1)
258(3n1)
258(3n1)
.
n+1 1
1
1 2x
dx = log n + 1 . ,
9. (i) 12 + 14 + + 2n
1
1
1
1
1 + x ex , 12 43 65 2n1
e 2 4 2n e log n+1 = n+1
.
2n
n1 135(2n1)
+
.
n=1 (1)
246(2n)
n 1
1
(ii) 1 + 13 + + 2n1
1 + 1 2x1
dx = 1 + log 2n 1 . ,
1
2n
1+x ex , 2 43 56 2n1
e1+ 3 + 5 ++ 2n1
e1+log 2n1 = e 2n 1 .
n1 135(2n1)
+
.
n=1 (1)
246(2n)
n1
10. (bn ) , bn 0, s = +
bn sn = b1 b2 + + (1)n1 bn .
n=1 (1)
0 (1)n (s sn ) bn+1 n.
10.5

a0 +
an (x )n = a0 + a1 (x ) + a2 (x )2 + + an (x )n +
n=1
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . . x . , : x
, , x ( ) .
x : x ,
+ x
.
x
,
, x.
.
n
. (1) 0 + +
n=1 0(x ) 0
, , x 0.
+
n
(2)
1
+
+ n n=1 1(x ) 1
1 + n=1 a , a = x .
1 < x < 1 , , 1 < x < + 1
1
1
= 1(x)
. ,
1a
1+
n=1
(x )n =
1
1 (x )
( 1 < x < + 1).
x
.
.
381

n
10.10. a0 + +
n=1 an (x )
. :
(i) (, +),
(ii) {},
(iii) R > 0 ( R, + R)
( R, + R] [ R, + R) [ R, + R]. ,
x (, +) (i), x {} ( x = )
(ii) x ( R, + R) (iii).

.
+
n
n
. , x = a0 + +
a
(x)
a
+
a
0
=
a
0
0 , ,
n=1 n
n=1 n
.
(i) (ii) 10.10
(iii). (, +) = (
(+), + (+)) ( R, + R) R = +.
{} [ R, + R] R = 0.

. R
0 R +.
. (1) x,
(, +) R = +.
n
(2) 1 + +
n=1 (x ) x ( 1, + 1)
x. ( 1, + 1)
R = 1.
n
n
(3) 1+ +
n=1 n (x) .
x = x1 . nn (x1 )n 0,
M nn |x1 |n M
n
n. |x1 | nM n , n +,
|x1 | 0 , , x1 = .
{} R = 0.
,
. , ,
.

. a0 + + an (x )n
10.11. an+1
n=1
an
1
1
, 0, = +, +, = 0.
. , . 0 < < +,
an+1 (x)n+1

= |x | an+1 |x | , : |x | < 1 , ,
n
an (x)
an
1
1
, . . = 0,
an+1 (x)n+1
an (x)n |x | 0 = 0 < 1 , , x , ,
+ = 1 . , = +, x 6= |x | > 0 , ,
an+1 (x)n+1

|x |(+) = + > 1. x 6= ,
an (x)n
0 = 1 .
|x | >
n
10.12. n |an | . a0 + +
n=1 an (x )
1 , 1 0, = +, +, = 0.
382
.
, . 0 < < +,

n |an (x )n | = |x | n |an | |x | , : |x | < 1 ,
, |x | > 1 , . 1 .
= 0, n |an (x )n | |x | 0 = 0 < 1, x
+ = 1 . , = +, x 6= |x | > 0 , ,
n
|an (x )n | |x |(+) = + > 1. x 6= ,
0 = 1 .
1 n
. (1) +
x
n=1 n
1
n+1
n
1
: 1 = n+1
1 n | n1 | =
n n 1.
n
+ 1
1 , , 0. x = 1
n=1 n
+ (1)n
.
x = 1
n=1
n
[1, 1).
+ (1)n n
(2)
x ,
n=1
n
. ,
, .
(1)n n
1 n
t = x +
x = +
n=1
n=1 n t .
n
t [1, 1),
x (1, 1]. (1, 1].
+ 1 n
(3)
n=1 n2 x . :
1
(n+1)2
n2
1
n
| n12 | = (
1 = (n+1)
n n)2 1. 1
2 1
n2
1
0. x = 1 +
n=1 n2 x = 1
+ (1)n
, , . [1, 1].
n=1 n2
(4)

n
. 1 + +
n=1 x
(1, 1) .

.
. (1)
+
1 n
x
x2 x3
1+
x =1+ +
+
+ .
n!
1!
2!
3!
n=1
1

: (n+1)!
=
1
n!
n!
(n+1)!
0. + (, +).

,

1
limn+ n | n!1 | = limn+
, limn+ n n! .
n
n!

n
. , limn+ n!
. , :
1
n+1
n! +.
383
2
. n , n! = 1 n2 ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1) 2 ( n+1
2 ) ,
n
n
n+1
n1 n+1
n+1
n+1 n+1
n+1
n!
. n , n! = 1 2 2 n 2 n ( 2 ) 2 ( 2 ) 2 ,
2
n
n
n+1
n+1
n+1
n!
.
,
n!
+,
2
2
2
n
n! +.
+.
(2)
1+
(1)k
k=1
(2k)!
x2k = 1
x2 x4 x6
+
+ .
2!
4!
6!
(1)k k
t
t2
t = x2 , 1 + +
k=1 (2k)! t = 1 2! + 4!
t3
6!
+ . .
(1)k+1
k

(2k)!
1
1
k
=
(2k+2)!
=
0.
,
| (1)
| =
0,

k
k
(1)
(2k+2)!
(2k+1)(2k+2)
(2k)!
1
0
k
(2k)!
(2k)!
(2k)!
k
k!
k
k!
0.
+. t,
x , ,
(, +).
.
: xn an = 0, n
n
2
, an = (1)
, n . , (
n!
)
an+1
| an | .
1
n
,
|an | = 0, n
n |an | =
n
n!
1
1
n
. 0 n |an |
n
,
=
0,
|an | = 0
n
n
n!
n!
+.
, , .
(1)k+1 x2k+2
k
(2k+2)!

x2
x2
(1)k 2k = (2k+1)(2k+2) 0 < 1 k | (1)
x2k | =
0 < 1 x. (
k
(2k)!
(2k)!
(2k)!
x2
k
(2k)!
x2
k
k!
k.)
x (, +).
(3)
+
x
x3 x5 x7
(1)k1 2k1
x
=
+
+ .
(2k 1)!
1!
3!
5!
7!
k=1
+ (, +).
(4)
+
(1)k1
k=1
2k 1
x2k1 = x
384
x3 x5
+
.
3
5
x, , , 1 +
+ (1)k 2k
, t = x2 , 1 +
k=1 2k+1 x
(1)k+1
+ (1)k k
k
2k+3
k
2k+1
1
t
.
| (1)
| =
1,
(1)k
k
k=1 2k+1
2k+3
2k+1
2k+1
2k+1
(1)k
1. t = 1, 1 + +
k=1 2k+1

. , t = 1,
+
1
1
1 + k=1 2k+1
1 + +
k=1 k .
+ (1)k k
1 + k=1 2k+1 t t (1, 1]. t = x2 ,
(1)k 2k
x [1, 1],
1 + +
k=1 2k+1 x
x [1, 1].
, ,
(1)k 2k+1
2 1
k1
2k+1 x
2k1 2
k
2
2k1 | = |x|
. (1)k1 2k1 = 2k+1 x x k | (1)

x2 .
x
k
2k1
2k1
2k1
, x < 1, , x2 > 1. x = 1,
(1)k1
+
. x = 1,
k=1 2k1
(1)k1
+
k=1 2k1 , . ,
[1, 1].
n1
2
. xn an = (1)n , n ,
an = 0, n .

( an+1
)
1
n
| an | . ,
|an | =
n n , n
,
n |an | = 0, n .
limn+ n |an | , .
(5)
( )
( )
+ ( )
2
1+
x =1+
x+
x + ,
n
1
2
n=1

()
n

( )
( 1) ( n + 1)
=
n
n!
( )
= 1.
0
( )
( )
n m
,
n
() n m 0 n m. , - ,
= 0 n + 1,
n
( )
( )
(
)
( )

1
1+
x+
x + +
x
+
x = (1 + x) ,
1
2
1
Newton. , -
x
(, +).

( )
| 1,
- , n+1
= | n
n+1
(n)
385
1. : (1, 1), (1, 1],

[1, 1), [1, 1].
(i) 1, (1, 1), (ii)
1 < < 0, (1, 1] (iii) 0 (
- ), [1, 1].
1 .
10.1. , > 1, c1 , c2 > 0, , ,
c1 n (+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) c2 n
n.
. .
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
= (1 +
+1 )(1
+2 ) (1
e +1 + +2 ++ +n = e()( +1 + +2 ++ +n ) .
+n )
, ,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
e()
n 1
1
+1 + 1 +x
dx
= e +1 +() log
+n
+1
= e +1 ( +n
.
+1 )
+ n ( + 2)n,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)

(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
n+1

e +1 ( +2
n
.
+1 )
+n+1
+1
1
+x
dx
= e() log
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1) n
e()
= ( +n+1
+1 )
, + n + 1 n,
.
,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
c2 n ,
1
+2
)
(+1)
c2 e +1 ( +1
1 < 1 < , .
( c1 = c12 ),
.
+ ( ) n
1 + n=1
n x x = 1.
(i) x = 1,
+ ( )
1 + n=1
n .
()
( )
< 0, n = (1)n ||(||+1)(||+n1)
. 1, |
n!
n | 1, . 1 < <
||(||+1)(||+n1)
0,
, n , ||(||+1)(||+n1)
c2 n||1 ,
n!
n!
||(||+1)(||+n1)
0. , 1 < < 0, .
n!
( )
||(||+1)(||+n1)
, |
c1 n||1 , .
n |=
n!
0, - , m < < m+1, m = [] - .
( )
(m)(m+1)(n1)
(m+1)(n1)
1
n m + 1 |
= (m)
c2 (m)
n | =
n!
1(m+1)
(m+2)n
1(m+1) n1+ .
.
(ii) x = 1,
+ ( )
n
1 + n=1
n (1) .
( )
||(||+1)(||+n1)
1
n
c1 n1||
, .
< 0,
n!
n (1) =
0, m < < m + 1, m = [] - . n m + 1
( )
(m)(m+1)(n1)
(m+1)(n1)
1
n
|
= (m)
c2 (m)
n (1) | =
n!
1(m+1)
(m+2)n
1(m+1) n1+
.
+ ( ) n
, , 1 + n=1
n x
.
386
.
1. .
.
1+
n n
2 x ,
n=1
1 n
1+
x ,
2n
n=1
(1)n1 n n
x ,
3+1
n
n=1
1+
+ (
n=1
2n +
+ n
x
n=1
n2
1 n
x ,
n
n2
n=1
3n ) n
x ,
n
n=1
+ n n
2 x
3 n
nx ,
n=1
n=1
1 n
x ,
n
n
n=1
1
xn ,
n
2 + 3n
n=1
1+
n2
+ 3
n=1
n!xn ,
3n
1+
n=1
nn
xn ,
(n + 1)n
x ,
n=1
nn xn ,
n=1
+ n
2
n=1
n!
xn ,
nn
xn .
(n + 1)n+1
2. .
.
;
+
n=1
1
x2n1 ,
2n 1
n=1
1
x2n ,
2n 1
n=1
2n
x3n ,
4n 3
+ n2
3
2
xn .
n
n=1
3. .
+
(2n)!
n=1
(n!)
xn ,
2
1 ( 1 3 5 (2n 1) )3 n
x .
n
2
2
(2n)
n=1

10.1.
n
4. p, q, 0, a0 + +
n=1 an x
an+2 = pan+1 + qan n 0.
(1) f (x) x
(1 px qx2 )f (x) =
a0 + (a1 pa0 )x.
(: an+2 = pan+1 + qan xn+2 , +

n=0
.)
(2) .
(: 5 2.1.)
5.
1+
ab
a(a + 1)b(b + 1) 2 a(a + 1)(a + 2)b(b + 1)(b + 2) 3
x+
x +
x + ,
1c
1 2 c(c + 1)
1 2 3 c(c + 1)(c + 2)

y =
F (a, b, c; x).
a, b, c.
(: 10.1.)
387
10.6
Taylor.
n
a0 + +
n=1 an (x ) . R
I, {}, R = 0,
(, +), R = +, R,
0 < R < +. R > 0, I
.
x I f (x) ,
+
a0 + n=1 an (x )n , I
y = f (x) = a0 +
an (x )n
(x I)
n=1
n
y = f (x) a0 + +
n=1 an (x)
.
n
. 1+ +
n=1 x (1, 1)
+ n
1
1
x 1 + n=1 x = 1x
. y = 1x

+ n
(1, 1) 1 + n=1 x (1, 1).
1
n
: y = 1x
( 1 + +
n=1 x )
(, 1) (1, +) (1, 1),
.
. y = f (x)
. I ,
+ n ,
y = f (x)
a
+
0
n=1 an (x )
+
n
x I f (x) = a0 + n=1 an (x ) x I,
n
a0 + +
n=1 an (x ) Taylor y = f (x) .
1
. y = 1x
(, 1) (1, +).
n
(1, 1) 0
1 + +
n=1 x
1
n
x (1, 1) 1 + +
n=1 x = 1x x (1, 1). ,
+ n
1
1 + n=1 x Taylor y = 1x
0.
n
. a0 + +

n=1 an (x
)
+
I. , y = f (x) = a0 + n=1 an (x )n x
I.
; ,
+ n
+
n
1 + n=1 x (1, 1) y = f (x) = 1 + n=1 x
1
y = f (x) = 1x
.

.

n
a0 + k=1 ak (x )k
n +.
n+1
1
1 + x + x2 + + xn = 1x
, , 1x
1 < x < 1. ,
1x
1 n
, , , , 1 + +
n=1 n! x
.
. y = f (x) .
Taylor ( ) ;
388
, .
10.13. y = f (x) I,
. x I n

f (n) ()
f 0 ()
(x ) + +
(x )n + Rn (x; ; f ),
f (x) = f () +
1!
n!
Rn (x; ; f ) Lagrange .
Rn (x; ; f ) 0 x I, Taylor
f (n) ()
f () + +
(x )n .
n=1
n!
f (x) = f () +
+ (n)
f ()
n=1
n!
(x )n
(x I).
, Taylor y = f (x) a0 = f ()
(n)
an = f n!() (n 1).
10.13 Taylor
9. : Rn (x; ; f ) 0 x I,
0
(n)
f (n) ()
f ()+ f 1!() (x)+ + f n!() (x)n f (x) , , f ()+ +
(x)n = f (x)
n=1
n!
x I.
. (1) p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + aN xN
N .
x n N p(n+1) (x) = 0, Lagrange Rn (x; ; p) =
p(n+1) ()
(x )n+1 = 0. Rn (x; ; p) 0 x Taylor y = p(x)
(n+1)!
0
(N )
p(n) ()
(x )n = p() + p 1!() (x ) + + p N !() (x )N .
p() + +
n=1
n!
p(x) = p() +
p0 ()
p(N ) ()
(x ) + +
(x )N .
1!
N!
x ( x). ,
0
(N )
= 0 p(x) = p(0) + p 1!(0) x + + p N !(0) xN .
(2) y = ex ,

d n ex
d n ex
x
(, +) , , dxn = e n x. , dxn x=0 = 1
1 n
n, Taylor y = ex 0 1 + +
n=1 n! x .
e
x
= 0 Lagrange Rn (x; 0; e ) = (n+1)!
xn+1 ,
e
0 x. x 0, |Rn (x; 0; ex )| = (n+1)!
|x|n+1
x
e
1
e
|x|n+1 , x 0, |Rn (x; 0; ex )| = (n+1)!
|x|n+1 (n+1)!
|x|n+1 .
(n+1)!
a
an
0.
n!

.
+
1 + n=1 n!1 xn x,
1 n
x = a. 1 + +
n=1 n! a .
389
an! 0 . m = [|a|], n m + 1
n
m
|a|m |a|
|a|
(m+1)m
|a| n
|a|
|a| n
= |a| |a| |a|
( m+1
) . 0 m+1
< 1, ( m+1
) 0.
0 |a|
n m! m+1 m+1 =
m!
an n! |a|n m! m+1
n
a
=
0
,
,
0.
n!
n!
n!
, |Rn (x; 0; ex )|
0 , , Rn (x; 0; ex ) 0
1 n
x. Taylor y = ex 0 1+ +
n=1 n! x (, +).
ex = 1 +
1 n
x
x2 x3
x =1+ +
+
+
n!
1!
2!
3!
n=1
( < x < +).
1 n
1 + +

n=1 n! x
(, +)
.
1 n
1+ +
n=1 n! x .
(3) y = cos x
(, +)

dn cos x
dn cos x
= 1 0 1 0 n
=
cos
x
sin
x.
,
dxn
dxn
x=0
4 0 1 2 3, . Taylor
(1)k 2k
y = cos x 0 1 + +
k=1 (2k)! x .
cos n+1
= 0 Lagrange Rn (x; 0; cos x) = (n+1)!
x
|x|
, 0 x. |Rn (x; 0; cos x)| (n+1)!
,
Rn (x; 0; cos x) 0 x. Taylor y = cos x 0 1 +
+ (1)k 2k
(, +).
k=1 (2k)! x
sin n+1
x
(n+1)!
n+1
cos x = 1 +
(1)k
k=1
(2k)!
2k
x2 x4 x6
=1
+
+
2!
4!
6!
( < x < +).
(1)k 2k
1 + +
(, +)
k=1 (2k)! x
y = cos x.
Taylor y = sin x 0:
+
(1)k1 2k1
x
x3 x5 x7
sin x =
x
=
+
+
(2k
1)!
1!
3!
5!
7!
k=1
( < x < +).
(1)k 2k
1 + +
+
k=1 (2k)! x
k=1
.
(1)k1 2k1
x
(2k1)!
(4) y = log(1 + x) (1, +)

n1
n
dn log(1+x)

= (1)(1+x)(n1)!
n x (1, +). , d log(1+x)
=
n
dxn
dxn
x=0
n1
(1)
(n1)! n
(1)n1 (n1)! Taylor y = log(1+x) 0 +
x =
n=1
n!
+ (1)n1 n
x . , , (1, 1]. n=1
n

log(1 + x) =
(1)n1
n=1
xn = x
x2 x3 x4
+
+
2
3
4
390
(1 < x 1).
Lagrange y = log(1 + x) = 0 Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) =

(1)n
n+1
,
(1+)n+1 (n+1) x
xn+1
1
(1+)n+1 (n+1) n+1 ,
(1)n n!
n+1
(1+)n+1 (n+1)! x
0 x. 0 < x 1, |Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x))| =

Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) 0.
x (1)n n!
x (xt)n
1
Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) = n!
(x t)n dt = (1)n 0 (1+t)
n+1 dt.
0 (1+t)n+1
0 (tx)n
0 (tx)n
1 < x 0, Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) = x (1+t)n+1 dt, |Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x))| = x (1+t)n+1 dt.
1
n
n
n 0 1
( tx
dt = |x|n log 1+x
.
1+t ) |x| t [x, 0], |Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x))| |x|
x 1+t
Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) 0.
, , Rn (x; 0; log(1 + x)) 0 x 1 < x 1.
x x ,
1
1
x2 x3 x4
log
=
xn = x +
+
+
+
1 x n=1 n
2
3
4
+
(1 x < 1).

1 1 1
+ + .
2 3 4

1 n
+
n=1 n x [1, 1)
1
[1, 1) y = log 1x
.
log 2 = 1
Taylor y = log(1 + x) (1, 1]

10.13. ,
10.13.
n
1(t)
= 1 + (t) + + (t)n1 , t 6= 1,
1+t
1
tn
1+t
= 1 t + + (1)n1 tn1 + (1)n 1+t
. ,
x 1
x
x
x
x tn
dt = 0 1 dt 0 t dt + + (1)n1 0 tn1 dt + (1)n 0 1+t
dt
0 1+t
x > 1,
log(1 + x) = x 21 x2 + +
(1)n1 n
x
n
+ (1)n
tn
0 1+t
dt
x > 1.

x tn x tn
x
x tn
n+1
1
0 x 1, (1)n 0 1+t
dt = 0 1+t dt 0 tn dt = xn+1 n+1
, , (1)n 0 1+t
dt 0.

n
n+1
n
x
0
0
|t|
|x|
t
1
1
1 < x 0, (1)n 0 1+t
dt = x 1+t dt 1+x
|t|n dt = (n+1)(1+x) (n+1)(1+x)
,
x
n x tn
(1) 0 1+t dt 0.
x tn
n1
x (1, 1] (1)n 0 1+t
dt 0, x 12 x2 + + (1)n xn log(1 + x).
n1
+
log(1 + x) = n=1 (1)n xn x (1, 1].
(5) Taylor y = arctan x 0

[1, 1].
arctan x =
(1)n1
n=1
1
1
1
x2n1 = x x3 + x5 x7 +
2n 1
3
5
7
n=1
(1)n1 2n1
x
2n1
(1 x 1).

[1, 1].
x = 1
1 1 1
= 1 + + .
4
3 5 7
391
y = arctan x x21+1
10.13.
.
2 n
)
1
t2n
2
4
n1 2n2
1(t
= 1 t2 + t4 + + (1)n1 t2n2 , 1+t
t
+ (1)n 1+t
2 = 1 t + t + (1)
2
1+t2
t. ,
x
1
0 1+t2
dt =
x
0
1 dt
x
0
t2 dt +
x
0
t4 dt + (1)n1
x
0
t2n2 dt + (1)n
t2n
0 1+t2
dt.
x t2n
n1
2n1
arctan x = x 13 x3 + 15 x5 + (1)
+ (1)n 0 1+t
2 dt.
2n1 x

2n+1
x t2n
|x| t2n
|x| 2n
1
n x t2n

dt = |x|
|x| 1, (1)n 0 1+t
dt 0.
2 dt = 0
1+t2 dt 0 t
2n+1 2n+1 , (1)
0 1+t2
n1
n1
+
(1)
(1)
x 31 x3 + 15 x5 + 2n1 x2n1 arctan x x [1, 1], n=1 2n1 x2n1 = arctan x
x [1, 1].
n
(6) y = (1 + x) . y = (1 + x) d (1+x)
=
dxn

dn (1+x)
n
(1) (n+1)(1+x)
, , dxn x=0 = (1) (n+1) . ,
+ () n
(1)(n+1) n
Taylor y = (1+x) 0 1+ +
x
=
1+
n=1
n=1 n x .
n!
- , y = (1 + x)
(, +)

()
( ) 1
()
1 + 1 x + + 1 x
+ x .

( )
(
)
( )
1
(1 + x) = 1 +
x + +
x
+
x
1
1
Newton , , ,
, Taylor y = (1 + x) 0 (, +).
- , Taylor y = (1 + x)
() n
(1)(n+1) n
x = 1+ +
0 1+ +
n=1 n x .
n=1
n!
y = (1 + x) (i) (1, 1), 1, (ii) (1, 1], 1 < < 0,
(iii) [1, 1], 0 ( - ).
+ ( )
(1 + x) = 1 +
x
n
n=1
1 < x < 1, 1,
1 < x 1, 1 < < 0,

1 x 1, 0 Z.
( )
n1
xn+1 = n+1
(1 + )n1 xn+1
Lagrange Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) ) = (1)(n)(1+)
(n+1)!
0 x.
( )
(1 + ) ( x )n+1 .
0 x 1, x 1 1 + 2 , , |Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )| = n+1
1+
, a > 0, 10.1, n > [] |Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )|
( )
c2 []+1
(n [])1 2 , Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) ) 0. 1 < < 0, 10.1
|Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )| c2 (n + 1)1 , Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) ) 0.
( ) n+1
x
0 x < 1 1, 10.1 |Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )| n+1
1 n+1
c2 (n + 1)
x
, Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) ) 0.
x
(1+t)n1 (xt)n dt,
1 < x 0, Rn (x; 0; (1+x) ) = (1)(n)
n!
0

0
(1)(n)
tx
n1
n
(1+t)
|Rn (x; 0; (1+x) )| =
(tx) dt. 1+t x x t 0,
n!
( ) n
n 1(1+x)
(1)(n)

x
n 0
1
|x|

|x|

= (n + 1) n+1
|x| x (1 + t)
|Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )|
dt = (1)(n)
n!
n!
(
)
1(1+x)
1(1+x)
. > 0, n > [] |Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )| c2 (n + 1) []+1 (n [])1 |x|n

,
1
Rn (x; 0; (1+x) ) 0. < 0, |Rn (x; 0; (1+x) )| c2 (n+1) |x|n (1+x)
, Rn (x; 0; (1+x) ) 0.
|| ( )
( )
n
: 1 + 1 x + + n x (1 + x) , ,
+ ( ) n
1 + n=1
n x = (1 + x) .
392
x = 1 > 0. , ,
Taylor, . 1 < x 0

( )
( ) n
( )
(1 + x) 1 1 x
x = |Rn (x; 0; (1 + x) )| c2 (n + 1) []+1
(n [])1 |x|n 1(1+x)
.
n

( )
()
( )
n
1 1

x 1+ , 0 1 1 (1) n (1) c2 (n + 1) []+1 (n [])
.
()
( )
n
1 + 1 (1) + + n (1) 0. x = 1 > 0
+ ( ) n
1 + n=1
n x = (1 + x) .
. =
1+x=1+
+ ( 1 )
n=1
xn = 1 +
1
2
(1)n1
n=1
1 3 (2n 1) xn
2 4 (2n) 2n 1
1
1 2
13 3
135 4
=1+ x
x +
x
x +
2
24
246
2468
x [1, 1]. = 12
+ ( 1 )
+
1
2 n
1 3 (2n 1) n
=1+
x =1+
x
(1)n
2 4 (2n)
n
1+x
n=1
n=1
1
13 2 135 3 1357 4
=1 x+
x
x +
x
2
24
246
2468
x (1, 1].
.
1. 1 + 2x x2 4x3 + x4 x 1.
2. . ,
n+1
1 + x + + xn = 1x
.
1x
+
nx ,
n=1
2 n
nx ,
n=1
n3 x n .
n=1
3. Taylor
.
+
)
1 (2)n xn ,
n=1
n=1
n1
n=1
+
n=1
n!
xn ,
(n + 1)2
n!
n=1
(1)n1 22n1 2n
x ,
(2n)!
1+
n=1
1
x2n1 ,
2n 1
(1)
n1
xn ,
n=1
1+
n=1
1 2n
x ,
2n
n=1
1
x2n1 ,
(2n 1)!
(log a)n n
x ,
n!
4 7 (3n 2) n
x ,
3 6 9 (3n)
393
n=1
1+
(1)n
n=1
1+
n=1
n!
x2n ,
1 2n
x ,
(2n)!
(1)n1 ( x 1 )2n1
,
2n 1 x + 1
(2n)! n
1+
x .
2n (n!)2
n=1
4. Taylor y = sin x y = cos x .

Taylor,
(i) sin x = sin cos(x ) + cos sin(x )
(ii) cos x = cos cos(x ) sin sin(x )

.
5. Taylor 0 .
y = cosh x,
y = sinh x.
6. Taylor 0 .
y = tan x,
y=
1
,
cos x
y = arcsin x,
y = arccos x.
7. .
+
(1)n1
,
21
(2n)
n=1
n=1
(1)n1
.
(2n + 1)2 1
{ 1
e x , x > 0
8. 18 6.11 y = h(x) =
0,
x 0
(n)
(, +) h (0) = 0
h(n) (0) n
x Taylor y = h(x) 0;
n. h(0) + +
n=1
n!
9. f (0) +
+
n=1
f (n) (0) n
x
n!
Taylor y = f (x) 0.
y = f (x) 0
Taylor x , , .
10.7 ,
.
10.7.1 .
1 n
10.5 1+ +
n=1 n! x x (, +)
10.6 y = ex . , , !
, , y = ex (, +)
ex = 1 +
1 n
x
n!
n=1
( < x < +).
e0 = 1. , , ex 1 x > 0.
x
y = ex ddxe = ex (, +).
. .
394
10.2. x h 6= 0 |h| 1 n 2
(x+h)n xn

nxn1 n(n 1)(|x| + 1)n2 |h|.
h
. , (x+h)h x = n(x + )n1 0 h.
(x + )n1 xn1 = (n 1)(x + )n2 0 , ,

n
n
0 h. (x+h)h x nxn1 = |n(x + )n1 nxn1 | = n(n 1)|x + |n2 ||
n(n 1)(|x| + 1)n2 |h|.
n
d ex
dx
= ex : h 6= 0 |h| 1
ex+h ex
+ 1 (x+h)n xn + 1
+ 1 ( (x+h)n xn
)

ex = n=2 n!
n=2 (n1)! xn1 = n=2 n!
nxn1
h
h
h
+ 1
+ 1 (x+h)n xn
n=2 n!
nxn1 n=2 n!
n(n 1)(|x| + 1)n2 |h| = e|x|+1 |h|.
h
limh0
ex+h ex
h
= ex , ,
d ex
dx
= ex .
, ea+b = ea eb a, b. y = h(x) =
e
e , h0 (x) = ea+bx ex + ea+bx ex = 0 , , y = h(x)
(, +). ea+bx ex = h(x) = h(0) = ea+b0 e0 = ea+b x x = b
ea+b = ea eb . , ex ex = e0 = 1, ex 6= 0 x.
e0 = 1 > 0, ex > 0
ex
= ex y = ex (, +).
x. ddx
y = ex ex x x 0, limx+ ex =
+. , limx ex = limt+ et = limt+ e1t = 0. y = ex
(, +) (0, +).
, e
a+bx x
e = e1 = 1 +
1
.
n!
n=1
, y = log x x = ey .
,
y = log x

x = ey .
y = log x (0, +) (, +),
log x
d dx
= d ey 1
= x1 (0, +). log(ab) = log a + log b
dy
y=log x
. , c = log a d = log b ab = ec ed =
ec+d . log(ab) = c + d = log a + log b. , y = h(x) =
1
x1 = 0 x. y = h(x) ,
log(xb) log x h0 (x) = b xb
log(xb) log x = h(x) = h(1) = log b log 1 = log b x. x = a
log(ab) = log a + log b.
, a > 0 x
ax = ex log a .
a1 = e1log a = elog a = a a0 = e0log a = e0 = 1.

ax .
, ,
1
8.6.1. 8,
395

. , ,

8
1. .
- : , -,
8. , ,
, ,
,
(!)
.
10.7.2 , .
, , ax
x, , ,
.
a > 1 x > 0. (sn )
x, (sn ) , sn < x n
sn x. s > x, s = [x] + 1,
asn < as n. (asn )
, , . ax ,
ax = lim asn .
n+
, x < 0,
ax =
1
ax
, , (sn ) x > 0, sn x
1
asn = as1n ax
= ax .
, , x
(tn ) tn x atn ax . , ,
x. ,
(tn ) tn = x n , , tn x
atn ax .
: x (tn )
tn x atn ax .
(rn ) rn 0
arn 1. 2.1.
] + 1 .
0 < < 1 N = [ a1

rn 0, n0 |rn | < N1 n n0 . n n0
1
(1 + )N 1 + N > 1 + a1
= a , , arn < a N < 1 + . , n n0

1
1
1 < 1+
< a N < arn . , n n0
1 < arn < 1 + .
(rn ) rn x
x arn ax . , rn x rn x 0,
arn = arn x ax 1 ax = ax .
396
(rn ) rn x
x arn ax . ,
(tn ) tn x atn ax .
rn tn rn tn x x = 0, arn = arn tn atn 1 ax = ax .
: x (rn ) rn x arn ax .
a > 1. 1x = 1
x , 0 < a < 1, ax = ( a1 )x x.
, , x
a = 1 0 < a < 1.
.
x, y a, b > 0. (rn ) (un ) rn x
un y. (rn + un ) rn + un x + y. , (rn un )
rn un xy.
ax ay = lim arn lim aun = lim arn aun = lim arn +un = ax+y .
n+
n+
n+
n+
,
ax bx = lim arn lim brn = lim arn brn = lim (ab)rn = (ab)x .
n+
x y
n+
n+
n+
xy
(a ) = a . , , :
xn > 0 n, xn 1 (yn ) , xn yn 1.
n xn 0 = min{xn , x1n } =
xn + x1 +|xn x1 |
n
n
xn + x1 |xn x1 |
n
n
2
xn 00 =
max{xn , x1n } =
. xn 0 xn xn 00 xn 0 x1n xn 00 n ,
2
0
00
, xn 1 xn 1. , (yn ) ,
N yn N n. (xn 0 )N xn yn (xn 00 )N n
xn yn 1. , !
xy
rn un
rn un
( arn
)un
= lim a
= lim (a ) = lim
a
n+
n+
n+
ax
( arn )un
= lim
lim (ax )un = 1 (ax )y = (ax )y .
n+
n+
ax
, a > 1 x > 0. x , ax > 1.

x . , , (sn )
x. sn x, n0 sn0 > 0.
asn0 > 1. asn ax (asn )
, ax asn n. n = n0 ax > 1.
.
- : , ,
1.
:
. , ,
, .

. ,
, Lectures on Physics (vol I, chapter 22) R. Feynman.
397
10.7.3 .
, , y = cos x
y = sin x. :
cos x = 1 +
(1)k
k=1
(2k)!
x2k ,
sin x =
(1)k1 2k1
x
.
(2k
1)!
k=1
10.5 x,
x
cos x sin x x. ddxe = ex
cos x
sin x
10.7.1, , d dx
= sin x d dx
= cos x.
cos x x , y = cos x
. , y = sin x . , cos 0 = 1 sin 0 = 0.
y = h(x) = cos(a + b x) cos x sin(a + b x) sin x,
(, +), cos(a + b x) cos x sin(a + b x) sin x = h(x) = h(0) =
cos(a + b) x. x = b cos a cos b sin a sin b = cos(a + b).
, b = a, (cos a)2 + (sin a)2 = 1
y = cos x y = sin x : | cos x| 1 | sin x| 1 x.
cos x 6= 0 x,
cos 0 = 1, cos x > 0 x. y = sin x
, sin x sin 1 > sin 0 = 0 x 1. , ,
x > 1 [1, x] cos x cos 1 = (x 1) sin (x 1) sin 1.
cos x sin 1 x + cos 1 + sin 1 , , limx+ cos x = ,
y = cos x . x
cos x = 0. y = cos x , x > 0
cos x = 0. , , ,
x > 0 cos x = 0.
.
= 2 cos x = 0.
, , cos 2 = 0 cos x > 0 x [0, 2 ). y =
sin x [0, 2 ], sin 2 > sin 0 = 0 (sin 2 )2 +(cos 2 )2 =
1 sin 2 = 1. y = sin x [0, 2 ] [0, 1]. o
sin x > 0 (0, 2 ) y = cos x [0, 2 ],
y = cos x [0, 2 ] [0, 1]. cos x = sin(x 2 )
sin x = cos(x 2 ), cos a cos b sin a sin b = cos(a + b),
y = cos x y = sin x
] [ 3
, 2] , , [0, 2].
[ 2 , ], [, 3
2
2
, , cos(x + 2) = cos x sin(x + 2) = sin x x,
2.
,
, , 8.6.2,
, 1,
, .
- : ... ,

1 .
398

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1

|x2 7x| > x2 7x,

[2, 4] [6, +),

(, 2) (1, 4) (7, +),

[1, 4) (4, 8],

(, 2] [1, 4) [7, +).

6. [x] + [x + 12 ] = [2x], [x] + [x + 13 ] + [x + 32 ] = [3x] , ,

(ax )y = (ay )x = axy .

x < 0 < y x+y > 0, 0 < x < y, ay = a

: x < 0 < y, y < 0 < x, x, y < 0, x = 0 y = 0.

(( n a)m )nl = ( n a)mnl = (( n a)n )ml = aml ,

(3) (2)0 = 1 2 2 = 25 = 32. (2) 3 (2) 2 .

105 105 106 106 .

7. a > 0, a 6= 1. logaz (y z ) = loga y y > 0 z 6= 0.

(cos(x + y) 1)2 + (sin(x + y) 0)2 = (cos x cos(y))2 + (sin x sin(y))2 .

. (1) arccos 1 = 0, arccos 0 =

(3) arctan 0 = 0 arccot 0 =

arccos y, arcsin y, arctan y arccot y , , -, , - - y.

cos x = y [, 0], arccos y.

tan x = y R arctan y + k (k Z).

cot x = y 0 < x < .

cot x = y R arccot y + k (k Z).

sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x,

2 cos x cos y = cos(x y) + cos(x + y),

2 sin x cos y = sin(x y) + sin(x + y).

3. y y = cos(arccos y) y = sin(arcsin y);

xn+2 = xn+1 + xn (n 1),

xn+2 = 2xn+1 xn (n 1),

xn+2 = xn+1 xn (n 1).

2.3: x  < xn < x +  n n0 .

 > 0 n0 | n1a 0| < 

n n0 n > 12 + 21 1 + 4 , , | n21+n 0| < .

n > 35000 ; 188 > 35000 (

(5) (n) (n2 ). a > 0

M > 0 loga n > M

2, 22 , 23 , 24 , . . . 10, 102 , 103 , 104 . . . .

n2 + (1 M )n 3M > 0 n > M21 + 12 (M 1)2 + 12M n <

) n > M21 + 21 (M 1)2 + 12M . M21 + 12 (M 1)2 + 12M

n n0 n > M2 , , n7 + 2n2 n > M .

. xn x.  > 0, n0 |xn x| < 

(3) n + 1n . nn2 = n(1n) (+)() = .

lim cxn = c lim xn

, limn+ xn k = limn+ (xn xn ) = limn+ xn limn+ xn = (limn+ xn )k .

(2) n5 2n2 + n 7 +. (n5 2n2 + n 7)8 (+)8 = +.

. (1) a > 1, loga n +,

. (1) (1) 2.8 .

7. (xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) .

(iii) xn 15n + 6n2 n3 n.

(: [a] a < [a] + 1.)

10. Fibonnaci (xn ),

(3) log(y z ) = z log y y > 0 z.

4. 0 < x1 < 1 xn+1 = 1 1 xn n. (xn )

5. > 0, x1 > 0 xn+1 = + xn n. ,

x3 + sin(e2x + log2 (x + 3)),

(3) y = e2x (, +).

(0, +). , y < 0 y = 1, x = y211

(, 4), (4, +).

3.3: y = ax + b. : a > 0 a < 0.

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), I.

x = y [0, +). [0, +) [0, +).

3.10: y = f (x) y = f (x).

(2) (x, f (x)) = (x0 , f (x0 )) y = f (x)

[0, +) [0, +).

. (1) y = p(x) (, +). , y = p(x) p(x) + 1y = 0,

2.3: x < xn < x + n n0 .

> 0 n0 | n1a 0| <

n n0 n > 12 + 21 1 + 4 , , | n21+n 0| < .

. xn x. > 0, n0 |xn x| <

1 + < x < 1 1 < x < 1 + (:

, > 12 , 12 < x+1

4.7: < f (x) < + x < x < < x < + .

. limx f (x) = > 0. > 0, > 0