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Mathematics Complex Algebra 2001 PDF
Mathematics Complex Algebra 2001 PDF
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Natural is the most fertile source of Mathematical Discoveries
- Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
a + ib ac + bd bc ad
=
+ i
.
c + id c 2 + d 2 c 2 + d 2
Remark
(a). Observe that if a + ib = 1, then we have
1
c d
= 2
+ i
.
c + id c + d 2 c 2 + d 2
(b). For any nonzero complex number z, we define
1
z 1 = ,
z
1
where z is called the reciprocal of z.
(c). For any nonzero complex number z, we now define the negative integral
power of a complex number z as
1
z 1 = , z 2 = z 1 z 1 , z 3 = z 2 z 1 , ! , z n = z n +1 z 1 .
z
1
(d). i 1 = = i , i 2 = 1, i 3 = i , i 4 = 1.
i
3.
z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 ,
(ii).
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2 ,
(iii). z1 z 2 = z1 z 2 ,
z1 z1
(iv). = , provided z 2 0,
z2 z2
(v).
z = z,
(xi). zz = ( Re z ) + ( Im z ) .
2
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2 ,
z1
z1
=
, provided z 2 0,
z2
z2
(iv). z = z = z ,
(v). z = zz ,
(vi). z Re z Re z ,
(vii). z Im z Im z ,
(iii).
z1 z 2 z1 + z 2 .
The plane is named for Jean Robert Argand, a Swiss mathematician who proposed the representation of complex numbers in
1806.
x2 + y2 ,
y
.
x
We called the argument of z and write = arg z. The angle will be expressed
in radians and is regarded as positive when measured in the counterclockwise
direction and negative when measured clockwise. The distance r is never negative.
For a point at the origin; z = 0, r becomes zero. Here is undefined since a ray like
that cannot be constructed. Consequently, we now defined the polar for m of a
complex number z = x + iy as
(1)
z = r (cos + i sin )
Clearly, an important feature of arg z = is that it is multivalued, which means for a
nonzero complex number z, it has an infinite number of distinct arguments (since
sin( + 2 k ) = sin , cos( + 2 k ) = cos , k Z ) . Any two distinct arguments of z
differ each other by an integral multiple of 2 , thus two nonzero complex number
z1 = r1 (cos1 + i sin 1 ) and z 2 = r2 (cos2 + i sin 2 ) are equal if and only if
r1 = r2 and 1 = 2 + 2 k ,
where k is some integer. Consequently, in order to specify a unique value of arg z ,
we
tan =
may restrict its value to some interval of length. For this, we introduce the concept of
principle value of the argument (or principle argument) of a nonzero complex number
z, denoted as Arg z, is defined to be the unique value that satisfies
Arg z < .
Hence, the relation between arg z and Arg z is given by
arg z = Arg z + 2 k , k Z .
1.
Division
Similarly, dividing z1 by z2 we obtain
z1 r1
= (cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )).
z 2 r2
The modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is the quotient of their
modulus, and the argument of the quotient is the argument of the numerator less
the argument of the denominator, thus
z1
z1
r1
,
= =
z2
r2
z2
z1
arg = 1 2 = arg( z1 ) arg( z 2 ).
z2
e = 1+ +
+
+ ! , < < ,
2 ! 3!
Thus, it seems reasonable to define
(i ) 2 (i ) 3
e = 1 + i +
+
+ !.
2!
3!
i
In fact, this series approach was adopted by Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) in his
development of the complex variable theory. By (2), we have
(i ) 2 (i ) 3 (i ) 4 (i ) 5
e i = 1 + i +
+
+!
+
+
2!
3!
4!
5!
2
3 4
5
+i
+!
= 1 + i
i
+
2!
3! 4 !
5!
2 4
3 5
= 1
+
+ ! + i
+
+ ! = cos + i sin .
2! 4!
3! 5!
2
Now, we obtain the very useful result known as Eulers formula or Eulers identity
e i = cos + i sin .
(2)
Consequently, we can write the polar representation (1) more compactly in
exponential form as
z = re i .
Moreover, by the Eulers formula (2) and the periodicity of the trigonometry
functions, we get
e i = 1 for all real ,
e i ( 2 k ) = 1
de Moivres Theorem
In the previous section we learned to multiply two number of complex quantities
together by means of polar and exponential notation. Similarly, we can extend this
method to obtain the multiplication of any number of complex numbers. Thus, if
z k = rk e ik , k = 1,2," , n, for any positive integer n, we have
z1 z 2 ! z n = r1r2 ! rn (e i (1 +2 +!+n ) ).
In particular, if all values are identical we obtain
(e i )n = e in
(3)
for any positive integer n. By the same argument, it can be shown that (3) is also true
for any nonpositive integer n. Which is known as de Moivres3 formula, and more
precisely, we have the following theorem:
Theorem: (de Moivres Theorem)
For any and for any integer n,
( cos + i sin ) n = cos n + i sin n .
In term of exponential form, it essentially reduces to
(e i )n = e in .
where
This useful formula was discovered by a French mathematician, Abraham de Moivre (1667 - 1754).
1.
2.
Definition:
Let z = x + iy be complex number. The complex exponential function e z is defined
to be the complex number
e z = e x +iy = e x (cos y + i sin y ).
Immediately from the definition, we have the following properties:
For any complex numbers z1 , z 2 , z = x + iy , x , y R, we have
(i).
(ii).
e z1 e z2 = e z1 + z2 ,
e z1 e z2 = e z1 z2 ,
(iii).
(iv).
ez = ex ,
(v). e z = e z ,
(vi). arg(e z ) = y + 2 k , k Z ,
(vii). e z 0,
Trigonometric Functions
From the Eulers identity we know that
e ix = cos x + i sin x ,
e ix = cos x i sin x
for every real number x; and it follows from these equations that
e ix e ix = 2i sin x.
e ix + e ix = 2 cos x ,
Hence it is natural to define the sine and cosine functions of a complex variable z as
follows:
Definition:
Given any complex number z, the complex trigonometric functions sin z and cos z in
terms of complex exponentials are defines to be
e iz e iz
sin z =
,
2i
e iz + e iz
cos z =
.
2
Let z = x + iy , x , y R. Then by simple calculations we obtain
sin z =
e y + ey
e y ey
e i ( x +iy ) e i ( x +iy )
= sin x
+ i cos x
.
2i
2
2
Hence
Similarly,
Also
sin z = sin 2 x + sinh 2 y ,
2
Therefore we obtain
(i). sin z = 0 if and only if z = k , k Z ;
(ii). cos z = 0 if and only if z = ( 2) + k , k Z .
The other four trigonometric functions of complex argument are easily defined in
terms of sine and cosine functions, by analogy with real argument functions, that is
sin z
1
tan z =
,
sec z =
,
cos z
cos z
where z ( 2) + k , k Z ; and
cot z =
where z k , k Z .
cos z
,
sin z
csc z =
1
,
sin z
As in the case of the exponential function, a large number of the properties of the real
trigonometric functions carry over to the complex trigonometric functions. Following
is a list of such properties.
For any complex numbers w, z C , we have
(i). sin 2 z + cos 2 z = 1,
1 + tan 2 z = sec 2 z ,
1 + cot 2 z = csc 2 z;
(ii). sin( w z) = sin w cos z cos w sin z ,
cos( w z ) = cos w cos z $ sin w sin z ,
tan w tan z
tan( w z ) =
;
1 $ tan w tan z
(iii). sin( z ) = sin z ,
tan( z) = tan z ,
csc( z ) = csc z ,
cot( z ) = cot z ,
cos( z ) = cos z ,
sec( z) = sec z;
(iv). For any k Z ,
sin( z + 2k ) = sin z ,
cos( z + 2k ) = cos z ,
sec( z + 2 k ) = sec z ,
csc( z + 2 k ) = csc z ,
tan( z + k ) = tan z ,
cot( z + k ) = cot z ,
(v). sin z = sin z ,
sec z = sec z ,
cos z = cos z ,
csc z = csc z ,
tan z = tan z ,
cot z = cot z ;
Hyperbolic Functions
The complex hyperbolic functions are defined by a natural extension of their
definitions in the real case.
Definition:
For any complex number z, we define the complex hyperbolic sine and the complex
hyperbolic cosine as
e z e z
sinh z =
,
2
ez + ez
cosh z =
.
2
Let z = x + iy , x , y R. It is directly from the previous definition, we obtain the
following identities:
sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y ,
cosh z = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y ,
sinh z = sinh 2 x + sin 2 y ,
2
Hence we obtain
(i). sinh z = 0 if and only if z = i ( k ), k Z ,
Now, the four remaining complex hyperbolic functions are defined by the equations
sinh z
1
tanh z =
,
sech z =
,
cosh z
cosh z
for z = i + k , k Z ;
2
coth z
1
coth z =
,
csch z =
,
sinh z
sinh z
for z = i ( k ), k Z .
Immediately from the definition, we have some of the most frequently use identities:
For any complex numbers w, z C ,
(i). cosh 2 z sinh 2 z = 1,
1 tanh 2 z = sech 2 z ,
coth 2 z 1 = csch 2 z;
(ii). sinh( w z ) = sinh w cosh z cosh w sinh z ,
cosh( w z ) = cosh w cosh z sinh w sinh z ,
tanh w tanh z
tanh( w z ) =
;
1 tanh w tanh z
(iii). sinh( z ) = sinh z , tanh( z) = tanh z ,
csch( z ) = cschz , coth( z ) = coth z ,
cosh( z ) = cosh z ,
sech( z ) = sech z;
(iv). sinh z = sinh z ,
sech z = sech z ,
cosh z = cosh z ,
csch z = csch z ,
tanh z = tanh z ,
coth z = coth z ;
Remark
(i). Complex trigonometric and hyperbolic functions are related:
sin iz = i sinh z , cos iz = cosh z , tan iz = i tanh z ,
sinh iz = i sin z, cosh iz = cos z , tanh iz = i tan z.
(i). The above discussion has emphasized the similarity between the real and their
complex extensions. However, this analogy should not carried too far. For
example, the real sine and cosine functions are bounded by 1, i.e.,
sin x 1 and cos x 1 for all x R ,
but
sin iy = sinh y and cos iy = cosh hy
which become arbitrary large as y .
The Logarithm
Complex Exponents
Definition:
For any fixed complex number c, the complex exponent c of a nonzero complex
number z is defined to be
z c = e c log z for all z C \ {0}.
Observe that we evaluate e c log z by using the complex exponential function, but since
the logarithm of z is multivalued. For this reason, depending on the value of c, z c
may has more than one numerical value.
The principle value of complex exponential c, z c occurs when log z is replaced by
principle logarithm function, Log z in the previous definition. That is,
z c = e cLog z
e iw = iz + (1 z 2 ) 2 ,
where (1 z 2 )
sin 1 z = i log iz + (1 z 2 )
i log z + z 2 1 .
2
Here, we have the five remaining inverse trigonometric, as multiple-valued relations
which can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as follows:
=
cos 1 z = i log z + z 2 1 ,
tan 1 z =
1
i z
log
, z i,
i + z
2i
cot 1 z =
1
i z
log
, z i,
i + z
2 2i
1+ 1 z2
sec 1 z = i log
z
csc 1 z =
, z 0,
1 + 1 z2
, z 0.
i log
z
2
1
i z
Log
, z i,
i + z
2i
Arc cot z =
1
i z
Log
, z i,
i + z
2 2i
1 + 1 z2
Arc sec z = i Log
z
Arc csc z =
, z 0,
1 + 1 z2
+ i Log
z
2
, z 0.
Definition:
For any complex number z, the inverse hyperbolic, archyp z or hyp 1 z is defined by
w = hyp 1 z if z = hyp w.
Here hyp denotes any of the complex hyperbolic functions such as sinh z, cosh z , etc.
These relations, which are multiple-valued, can be expressed in term of natural
logarithms as follows:
(
(
)
)
log z + z 2 + 1 ,
sinh z =
2
log z + z + 1 + i ,
1
cosh 1 z = log z + z 2 1 ,
1 1 z
tanh 1 z = log
, z 1,
1+ z
2
1
1+ z
coth 1 z = i log
, z 1,
1 z
2
1 + 1 z2
, z 0,
sech z = log
1+ 1 + z2
,
log
z 0,
csch 1 z =
1 + 1 + z2
+ i , z 0.
log
z
(
Arc cosh z = Log( z +
)
1) ,
Arc tanh z =
1
1 z
Log
, z 1,
1+ z
2
Arc coth z =
1
1+ z
, z 1,
i Log
1 z
2
1 + 1 z2
Arcsech z = Log
z
, z 0,
1 + 1 + z2
Arccsch z = Log
z
, z 0.