Complex Numbers

A complex number z is an ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers and we write z = (a, b). The first
component a is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z) and the second component of z
is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Img(z). The set of all complex numbers is
denoted by C.
Equality of Complex Numbers
Two complex numbers z1 = (a1 , b1 ) and z2 = (a2 , b2 ) are equal only when their real and imaginary
parts are equal, i.e. z1 = z2 if and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .
Arithmetical Operations on Complex Numbers
Let z1 = (a1 , b1 ) and z2 = (a2 , b2 ) be two complex numbers. Then
1. z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ).
2. z1 − z2 = (a1 − a2 , b1 − b2 ).
3. z1 .z2 = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 , a1 b2 + b1 a2 ).
 
z1 a1 a2 + b1 b2 −a1 b2 + b1 a2
4. = , .
z2 a22 + b22 a22 + b22
Properties of Complex Numbers Under Addition and Multiplication
If z, z1 , z2 are complex numbers, then:
1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 .
2. z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
3. If 0 = (0, 0) then z + 0 = z.
4. z1 .z2 = z2 .z1 .
5. z1 .(z2 .z3 ) = (z1 .z2 ).z3 .
6. If 1 = (1, 0) then z.1 = z.
7. If z1 .(z2 + z3 ) = z1 .z2 + z1 .z3 .
Real Complex Numbers
If a is any real number, then we regard a as the complex number (a, 0) and the complex number
(a, 0) has all the properties of the real number a. Thus the set of real numbers is a subset of the
set of complex numbers.
The Imaginary Unit
The complex number (0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is denoted by i. The number i
satisfies i2 = −1.
Normal Form of a Complex Number
Let z = (a, b) be a complex number. Then z = (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) = (a, 0) + (0, 1)(b, 0) = a + ib.
The notation z = a + ib is called the normal form of the complex number (a, b). Addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers in normal form are done in the same
way as they are done for binomial expressions in i.
Conjugate of a Complex Number
Let z = a + ib be a complex number then the conjugate of z is denoted by z and is defined by
z = a − ib.
Properties of the Conjugate of a Complex Number
1. z = z.
z+z z−z
2. = Re(z), = Img(z).
2 2i
3. z = z if and only if z is real.
4. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
5. z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 .
6. z1 .z2 = z1 .z2 .
 
z1 z1
7. = provided z2 6= 0.
z2 z2
Modulus of a Complex Number
If z =√a + ib be a complex number, then the modulus of z is denoted by |z| and is defined by
|z| = a2 + b2 .
Properties of the Modulus of a Complex Number

1. |z| = 0 if z = 0 and |z| > 0 if z 6= 0.

2. |z| = |z|.
3. |z| = | − z|.

4. z.z = |z|2 .
5. |z1 .z2 | = |z1 |.|z2 |.
 
 z1  |z1 |
6.   = provided z2 6= 0.
z2 |z2 |
7. |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
8. |z1 − z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 || .
9. |z| ≥ Re(z) and |z| ≥ Img(z).

Argument of a Complex Number

Theorem: If x and y are any two real numbers which are not both zero, then there exists a real
x y
number θ such that cos θ = √ 2 and sin θ = √ 2 .
x + y2 x + y2
Corollary: For any complex number z = x + iy 6= 0 there exists a real number θ such that
z = |z| (cos θ + i sin θ).
Definition: If z = x + iy 6= 0 be any complex number then any real number θ such that
z = |z| (cos θ + i sin θ) is called an argument of z or amplitude of z and is denoted by arg(z) or
amp(z). If z = 0 then arg(z) is not defined.
Theorem: If θ is an argument of a complex number z, then (θ + 2kπ) where k is any integer, is
also an argument of z.
Definition: The value of arg(z) that satisfies −π < argz ≤ π is unique and is called the principal
argument of z and is denoted by Arg(z).
Properties of the Argument of a Complex Number
If z1 , z2 are non-zero complex numbers, then:

1. Arg(z1 .z2 ) = Arg(z1 ) + Arg(z2 ) + 2πδ where δ takes one of the values 0, 1, −1.
 
z1
2. Arg = Arg(z1 ) − Arg(z2 ) + 2πδ where δ takes one of the values 0, 1, −1.
z2
Polar form of a Complex Number
Let z be a non-zero complex number. Let |z| = r and arg(z) = θ. Then z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). This
is called the polar form of the complex number z.
Theorem: If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) be non-zero complex numbers
then:

1. z1 = z2 if and only if r1 = r2 and θ2 = θ1 + 2kπ, where k is any integer.

2. z1 .z2 = r1 .r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )].
z1 r1
3. = [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )]
z2 r2
1 1
4. = [cos (−θ1 ) + i sin (−θ1 )]
z1 r1
Exponential form of a complex number
If θ is real, the symbol ei θ or exp(iθ) is called the exponential of iθ and is defined by
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ. Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) be a complex number, then z = reiθ . This is called
the exponential form of the complex number z.
Theorem: If z1 = eiθ1 = (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = eiθ2 = (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) be non-zero complex
numbers then:
1. z1 .z2 = (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) = cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 ) = ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .
z1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )
2. = = cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 ) = ei(θ1 −θ2 )
z2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
1 1
3. (i) ez = ex+iy = ex [cos y + i sin y] (ii) = [cos (θ1 ) − i sin (θ1 )]
z1 r1
Integral powers complex number
If n is a positive integer and z is any complex number, then we define z n = z.z . . . z (n factors).
1
Also if z 6= 0 then we define (i) z 0 = 1 (ii) z −n = n .
z
Theorem: If m and n are integers and z and z 0 are complex numbers then, provided each term is
defined, the following results hold
1. Laws of indices: (i) z m .z n = z m+n (ii) z n .(z 0 )n = (z.z 0 )n (iii) (z n )m = z nm
2. (i) z n = (z)n (ii) |z n | = |z|n (iii) Arg(z n ) = n Arg(z) + 2kπ where k is some integer.
n
X
3. Binomial Theorem: If n is any positive integer, (z + z 0 )n = n
Cr (z)n−r (z 0 )r
r=0

De Moivre’s Theorem
If θ is any real number and n is any integer then (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ. If n is any
fraction then cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n .
Roots of a complex number
Let n be a given positive integer and z any given non-zero complex number, then any number w
that satisfies the equation wn = z is called an nth root of z.
Theorem: Let z be a non-zero complex number and n a positive integer. Let |z| = r and
th
Arg(z)
 =θ. Then  z = r(cosθ + i sin θ)
has exactly n distinct complex n roots given by
√ θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
n
r cos + i sin for k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
n n
Definition: The unique nth root of z obtained by 
taking
 k = 0is called the principal nth root
√ √ √

θ θ
of z and is denoted by n z. Thus n z = n r cos + i sin .
n n
Functions of a complex number
Let D ⊆ C. A complex valued function f defined on the set D, is a rule that associates with each
complex number z ∈ D a unique complex number w. We write w = f (z). D is called the domain
of the function f and w is called the image of f . The set of images of all elements of D under
the function f is called the range of f . Range of f = {w ∈ C : w = f (z), where z ∈ D}. When
the domain is not explicitly stated we assume the domain to be the set of all complex numbers z
for which f (z) is defined.
Let w = f (z) be a complex function, let z = x + iy and w = u + iv. Then
w = f (z) = f (x + iy) = u + iv. Both u and v are real valued functions of the two real variables
x, y i.e. f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). The functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are called the real and
imaginary parts of f .
The Complex Exponential Function
∞
X zn z2 z3
Definition: If z is a complex number then exp(z) = ez = =1+z+ + + ···.
n=0
n! 2! 3!
Theorem: Algebraic properties of the complex exponential function

1. If z = x + iy then, ez = ex+iy = ex [cos y + i sin y].

Thus, |ez | = ex and arg(ez ) = y + 2nπ, where n is some integer.
 ez1
2. (i) e0 = 1 (ii) ez1 +z2 = ez1 .ez2 . (iii) ez = ez̄ . (iv) ez 6= 0 for any z (v) = ez1 −z2
ez2
3. (i) ez = 1 iff z = 2nπ i, (ii) ez1 = ez2 iff z1 − z2 = 2nπi, where n is some integer
(iii) ez+2π i = ez , thus the complex exponential function is periodic with period 2π i.

Trigonometric functions of a complex variable

Definition: Let z be a complex number then
1 1 iz sin z
cos z = [eiz + e−iz ] sin z = [e − e−iz ] tan z = where cos z 6= 0.
2 2i cos z
Theorem:
∞ ∞
X (−1)n z 2n z2 z4 X (−1)n z 2n+1 z3 z5
1. (i) cos z = = 1 − + + · · · , (ii) sin z = = z− + +···
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5!

2. (i) sin z = 0 iff z = nπ (ii) cos z = 0 iff z = (2n + 1) π2 , where n is some integer.
3. The identities true for trigonometric functions of a real variable also hold for trigonometric
functions of a complex variable.
4. (i) sin(x + i y) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y, (ii) cos(x + i y) = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
q q
5. (i) | sin(x + i y)| = sin2 x + sinh2 y (ii) | cos(x + i y)| = cos2 x + sinh2 y
Note: Some properties of trigonometric functions of a real variable are not satisfied by their
complex counterparts. For instance, if x is any real number then | sin x| ≤ 1 and | cos x| ≤ 1 but
| cos i| = 1.5431 and | sin i| = 1.1752.
Hyperbolic functions of a complex variable
Definition: Let z be a complex number then
1 1 sinh z
cosh z = 2 [ez + e−z ] sinh z = 2 [ez − e−z ] tanh z = cosh z where cosh z 6= 0.
Theorem:
∞ ∞
X z 2n z2 z4 X z 2n+1 z3 z5
1. (i) cosh z = = 1+ + +··· , (ii) sinh z = = z+ + +···
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5!

2. (i) sinh z = 0 iff z = nπi, (ii) cosh z = 0 iff z = (2n + 1) π2 i, where n is some integer.
3. (i) sinh(x + i y) = cos y sinh x + i sin y cosh y, (ii) cosh(x + i y) = cos y cosh x − i sin y sinh x
Logarithm of a complex number
Let z 6= 0 be a given complex number. If there exists a complex number w such that ew = z, then
w is called a logarithm of z. If z = 0 logarithm of z is not defined.
Theorem: If z 6= 0, and w is a logarithm of z then w = ln |z| + i Argz + 2nπi, where n is some
integer. Thus logarithm of a complex number exists for all non-zero complex numbers z and has
infinitely many values.
Definition: Let z 6= 0, then the unique complex number ln |z| + i Argz is called the principal
value of logarithm of z and is denoted by Log z. Any arbitrary value of logarithm of z is denoted
by log z.
Theorem: If z 6= 0 then log z = Log z + 2nπ i
Complex powers
If z 6= 0 and w is any complex number, then z w is a complex number defined by
z w = ew log z = ew(ln |z|+i Argz+2kπi) . The principal value of z w is defined to be ew Logz .
Theorem:

1. If z 6= 0 and w1 , w2 are any two complex numbers then z w1 .z w2 = z w1 +w2 .

2. If z1 6= 0, z2 6= 0 and w is any complex number then
 w
z1 zw 0
= 1w .e2πδ w i where δ, δ 0 takes one of the values 0,1,-1.
w
(i) (z1 .z2 ) = z1w .z2w .e2πδw i (ii)
z2 z2
3. Inverse Trigonometric functions of a complex variable
Definition: Let z be any given complex number. Let w be any given complex number such
that sin w = z, then w is called an inverse sine of z or arc sine of z. In this case we write
w = sin−1 z or arcsin(z).
1 iw
Let sin w = z then [e − e−iw ] = z, or, e2iw − (2iz)eiw − 1 = 0.
2i
h i
1
Solving for w we get sin−1 z = −i log i z + (1 − z 2 ) 2 .
 
h
1
i i i+z
Similarly, we can show (i) cos−1 z = −i log z + i (1 − z 2 ) 2 (ii) tan−1 z = log .
2 i−z
4. Inverse Hyperbolic functions of a complex variable
Definition: Let z be any given complex number. Let w be any given complex number such
that sinh w = z, then w is called an inverse hyperbolic sine of z. In this case we write
w = sinh−1 z.
1
Let sinh w = z then [ew − e−w ] = z, or, e2w − (2z)ew − 1 = 0.
2
h i
1
Solving for w we get sinh−1 z = log z + (1 + z 2 ) 2 .
 
−1
h
2 1
i
−1 1 1+z
Similarly, we can show (i) cosh z = log z + i (z − 1) (ii) tanh z = log
2 .
2 1−z
5. Geometric Representation of Complex Functions
Suppose y = f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable defined on a set D ∈ R. The
graph of f is defined to be the set of points {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D} in the two-dimensional
Cartesian plane. However, if w = f (z) where z = x + iy is a complex function defined on a
set S ∈ C then to represent the set of points {(z, f (z)) : z ∈ S} we would require four axes
in a four dimensional plane (two dimensions to represent z and two dimensions to represent
w). Thus we cannot draw the graph of the points {(z, f (z)) : z ∈ S}. A geometric
representation of f (z) is obtained as follows:
Suppose w = f (z) is a complex function defined on a set S ∈ C. Let z0 ∈ S and w0 = f (z0 ).
Then w0 is called the image of the point z0 under f . We draw two complex planes side by
side, one called the z-plane and the other w-plane. On the z-plane we represent the set S
and on the w-plane we represent the images of the points in S.
6. Limit of a Complex Function
Let f (z) be a complex function of a complex variable z, that is defined for all values of z in
some neighbourhood of a point z0 except possibly at the point z0 . We say f (z) has limit A
as z approaches z0 , provided the value of f (z) can be made as close to A as we want, by
taking z sufficiently close to z0 but different from z0 . When this happens we write
lim f (z) = A.
z→z0
Thus, f (z) has limit A as z approaches z0 , if |f (z) − A| can be made arbitrarily small, for
all values of z for which |z − z0 | are sufficiently small but non-zero. Accordingly we have the
following definition:
Definition: Suppose that a complex function is defined in a neighbourhood of of a point z0
except possibly at the point z0 and suppose A is a complex number. The limit of f (z) as z
tends to z0 exists and is equal to A, written as lim f (z) = A, if for every  > 0, no
z→z0
matter how small, there exists a δ > 0 such that |f (z) − L| <  whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.
Criterion for the nonexistence of limit:
If lim f (z) exists and is equal to A then no matter along which line, straight or curved, z
z→z0
approaches z0 , the function value f (z) will always approach A. However, if f (z) approaches
two different complex numbers as z approaches z0 along two different curves, then lim f (z)
z→z0
does not exist.
Theorem: Properties of complex limits:
(a) If lim f (z) exists then it is unique.
z→z0

(b) Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), z0 = x0 + i y0 and A = u0 + i v0 . Then lim f (z) = A, if
z→z0
and only if x→x
lim u(x, y) = u0 and x→x
lim v(x, y) = v0 .
0 0
y→y0 y→y0
 (c) Suppose f and g are complex functions. If lim f (z) = L and lim g(z) = M , then
z→z0 z→z0

i. lim cf (z) = cL, where c is a complex constant,

z→z0
ii. lim (f (z) ± g(z)) = L ± M ,
z→z0
iii. lim f (z).g(z) = L.M ,
z→z0
f (z) L
iv. lim = , privided M 6= 0.
z→z0 g(z) M
7. Continuity
Let f (z) be a complex function defined for all values of z in some neighbourhood of z0 . f is
said to be continuous at z0 if lim f (z) = f (z0 ). If f (z) is not continuous at z0 , then it is
z→z0
said to be discontinuous at z0 . A function that is continuous at every point of its domain
is called a continuous function.
Theorem: Properties of continuous functions:
(a) Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and z0 = x0 + i y0 , then the complex function f (z) is
continuous at z0 if and only if both the real part u(x, y) and the imaginary part v(x, y)
are continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ).
(b) If f and g are continuous at z0 . Then the functions cf (where c is a constant), Re(f),
Img(f), f , |f |, f+g, fg are continuous at z0 . Also if g(z0 ) 6= 0 then fg is continuous at z0 .
(c) Let f and g be complex valued functions having domains A and B respectively, such
that f (A) ⊆ B. If f (z) is continuous at z0 and g(z) is continuous at w0 = f (z0 ), then
the composite function g ◦ f is continuous at z0 . In particular, if f and g are
continuous functions then g ◦ f is a continuous function.
8. Differentiability and Analyticity
Suppose the complex function f is defined in a neighbourhood of a point z0 . The
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
derivative of f at z0 , denoted by f 0 (z0 ), is defined by f 0 (z0 ) = lim ,
h→0 h
provided the limit exists. If the above limit exists f (z) is said to be differentiable at z0 . A
function f (z) is said to be differentiable on a set, if it is differentiable at every point of the
set.
Rules of Differentiation:

(a) If f (z) = c, a constant, then f 0 (c) = 0.

(b) [f (z) ± g(z)]0 = f 0 (z) ± g 0 (z)
(c) [f (z).g(z)]0 = f 0 (z)g(z) + g 0 (z)f (z)
0
f 0 (z)g(z) − g 0 (z)f (z)

f (z)
(d) = , provided g(z) 6= 0.
g(z) (g(z))2
(e) f (g(z))0 = f 0 (g(z))g 0 (z)
Differentiability Implies Continuity:
Theorem: If a function is differentiable at a point z0 then it is continuous at z0 .
Analytic Functions:
A point z0 is called an interior point of a set E if there exists a neighbourhood of z0
which lies entirely within E. If every point of a set E is an interior point it is called an open
set. If any pair of points z1 and z2 in a set E can be connected connected by a polygonial
line that consists of a finite number of line segments joined end to end that lies entirely in
the set, then the set E is said to be connected. An open connected set is called a domain.
A complex function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if it is differentiable at z0
and at every point in some neighbourhood of z0 .
Let E be a non-empty open set in the complex plane, and f a complex valued function
whose domain set contains E and f is differentiable at every of E, then f is said to be
analytic in E.
A complex function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if it is differentiable at z0
and at every point in some neighbourhood of z0 .
Let E be a non-empty open set in the complex plane, and f a complex valued function
defined on E. If f is differentiable at every point of E, then f is said to be analytic in E.
A function that is analytic at every point of the complex plane is called an entire function.
Properties of Analytic Functions:
(a) If a function f (z) is analytic in an open region U, then it is continuous in U.
(b) If a function f (z) is analytic in an open region U then
f (z), f 0 (z), f 00 (z), . . . , f (n) (z), . . . all exist in U.
(c) If the functions f (z) and g(z) are analytic in an open region U, then so too are the
f (z)
functions c f (z), where c is a constant, f (z) + g(z), f (z) g(z), while the function
g(z)
is analytic in on the set {z ∈ U : g(z) 6= 0}.
(d) Let f and g be complex valued functions defined on open sets U and V respectively,
such that f (U ) ⊆ V . If f (z) is analytic in U and g(z) is analytic in V then g ◦ f is
analytic in U.
(e) (L’Hôpital’s Rule) If f (z) and g(z) are functions that are analytic at a point z0 , and
f (z) f 0 (z0 )
f (z0 ) = g(z0 ) = 0 and g 0 (z0 ) 6= 0, then lim = 0 .
z→z0 g(z) g (z0 )
More generally, if f and g and their first (n-1) derivatives are zero at z0 and
f (z) f (n) (z0 )
g (n) (z0 ) 6= 0 then lim = (n) .
z→z0 g(z) g (z0 )
Cauchy-Riemann Equations:
Definition: Let u(x, y) be a function of two variables x, y. Then the partial derivatives of f
with respect to x and y are defined as follows:
∂u u(x + h, y) − u(x, y)
= ux (x, y) = lim ,
∂x h→0 h
∂u u(x, y + k) − u(x, y)
= uy (x, y) = lim .
∂y k→0 k
Necessary Condition for Differentiability:
If a function f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is differentiable at z0 = x0 + iy0 , then the partial
derivates of the functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) with respect to the variables x and y exist at
the point (x0 , y0 ) and the following equations hold:

∂u(x0 , y0 ) ∂v(x0 , y0 ) ∂u(x0 , y0 ) ∂v(x0 , y0 )

= and =− . (1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Also,
f 0 (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + i vx (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) − i uy (x0 , y0 ). (2)
Remark:

(a) The system of equations ux = vy and uy = −vx are called the Cauchy-Riemann
equations or the C-R equations.
(b) If f is differentiable at z0 then the Cauchy-Riemann equations must be satisfied at z0 .
(c) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at a point z0 , the function is not
differentiable at z0 .
(d) Even if the Cauchy-Riemann equations at a point z0 , the function may not be
differentiable at z0 .
Criterion for Non-analyticity:
If the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at every point z in a open set D, then
the function f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) cannot be analytic in D.
Sufficient Criterion for Differentiability:
Suppose that f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is a continuous function defined in some
neighbourhood of a point z0 = x0 + i y0 . If each of the first order partial derivatives
ux , uy , vx , vy is continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ) and if the Cauchy-Riemann equations are
satisfied at z0 , then f (z) is differentiable at z0 and f 0 (z0 ) can be computed using Equation
(2).
Sufficient Condition for Analyticity:
Suppose that f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is a function continuous on an open set U ⊆ C. If
each of the first order partial derivatives ux , uy , vx , vy is continuous in U and if u(x, y) and
v(x, y) satisfy the C-R equations at all points of U, then the function f (z) is analytic in U.
Consequences of Cauchy-Riemann equations:
(a) Suppose that the function f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is analytic in a domain D. If any
one of the functions u(x, y), v(x, y), or |f | is constant in D then f is itself constant in D.
(b) Suppose that the function f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is analytic in a domain D, and
f 0 (z) = 0 for every z in D. Then f is constant in D.
9. Integration of a Complex Valued Function of A Real Variable:
Let f1 and f2 are real valued functions of a real variable t which are integrable on a
common interval [a, b], then we define the integral of the complex-valued function
f (t) = f1 (t) + i f2 (t) on [a, b] in terms of the definite integrals of the real and imaginary
parts as
Z b Z b Z b
f (t) dt = f1 (t) dt + i f2 (t) dt (3)
a a a
.
Z b Z b
Note: (i) If f1 and f2 are continuous on [a, b], then f1 (t) dt, f2 (t) dt both exist and
Z b a a

hence f (t) dt exists.

a
(ii) If the real valued functions f1 and f2 are piecewise continuous on [a, b] i.e. if there is a
partition P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } of [a, b] where a = t0 < t1 < t2 < · · · < tn = b such that the
functions f1 and f2 are continuous on each of the intervals (tk−1 , tk ) where 1 ≤ k ≤ n, then
Z b Z b Z b
f1 (t) dt, f2 (t) dt both exist and hence f (t) dt exists.
a a a
Z b Z t1 Z t2 Z tn
Also, f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt + · · · + f (t) dt.
a t0 t1 tn−1
Properties of Complex-Valued Functions of a Real Variable
If f (t) = f1 (t) + i f2 (t) and g(t) = g1 (t) + i g2 (t) are complex-valued functions of a real
variable t continuous on the interval [a, b] then
Z b Z b
(a) k f (t) dt = k f (t) dt, where k is a complex constant.
a a
Z b

Z b Z b
(b) f (t) + g(t) dt = f (t) dt + g(t) dt.
a a a
Z b Z c Z b
(c) f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt, where a ≤ c ≤ b.
a a c
Z b Z a
(d) f (t) dt = − f (t) dt.
a b
(e) If g(t), G(t) are continuous functions in [a, b] such that G0 (t) = g(t) for all t ∈ (a, b)
Z b
b
then g(t) dt = [G(t)]a = G(b) − G(a).
a

10. Contour Integral

Definitions:

(a) Suppose the continuous real valued functions x = x(t), y = y(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b are
parametric equations of a curve C in the complex plane. Then the points z on the
curve C can be represented by a complex valued function of a real variable

z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) where a ≤ t ≤ b. (4)

The function z(t) is called a parametrization of C. The point z(a) = x(a) + i y(a) or
A : (x(a), y(a)) is called the initial point of C and the point z(b) = x(b) + i y(b) or
B : (x(b), y(b)) is called the terminal point of C.
(b) If the derivative z 0 (t) = x0 (t) + i y 0 (t) is continuous and never zero in the interval
a ≤ t ≤ b, then the curve C is called a smooth curve. A smooth curve can have no
sharp corners or cusps.
(c) A piecewise smooth curve is one that can be expressed as the union of a finite
number of smooth curves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , where the initial point of Ck+1 is the terminal
point of Ck for k = 1 : n − 1.
(d) A piecewise smooth curve is called a contour or a path.
(e) The curve C is called closed curve if its initial and terminal points coincide, i.e. if
z(a) = z(b).
(f) A simple curve is one which does not intersect itself anywhere between its
end-points. Thus the curve z(t) defined by Equation 1 is simple if z(t1 ) 6= z(t2 ) for
t1 6= t2 , except possibly for t = a and t = b.
 (g) The curve C defined by Equation 1 is called a simple closed curve if z(t1 ) 6= z(t2 )
for t1 6= t2 and z(a) = z(b).
(h) A given parametrization C : z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, determines an
orientation of the curve C. As t increases from a to b, z(t) varies continuously from
z(a) to z(b). The direction in which z(t) traces out the curve C is called the positive
direction or positive orientation of the curve C. In case C is a simple closed curve
the positive direction corresponds to the anticlockwise direction or is the direction for
which the region D bounded by C is to the left as a variable point P traces out C. The
negative direction on a contour C is the direction opposite to the positive direction.
If C is an oriented curve then the curve with opposite orientation is called the
opposite curve and is denoted by −C. If C is defined by Equation 1 then −C is
defined by z(a + b − t) where a ≤ t ≤ b.
Evaluation of a Contour Integral
If a function f is continuous on a smooth curve C given by the parametrization
z(t) = x(t) + i y(t), where a ≤ t ≤ b then
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t)) z 0 (t) dt (5)
C a

Note: Suppose z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) and z 0 (t) = x0 (t) + i y 0 (t). Then the integrand
f (z(t)) z 0 (t) is a complex-valued function of a real variable t. Hence the integral
Z b
f (z(t)) z 0 (t) dt is evaluated as in Equation 1.
a
Properties of Contour Integrals:
Theorem: Suppose the functions f and g are continuous in a domain D and C is a smooth
curve lying entirely in D.
Z Z
(a) k f (z) dz = k f (z) dz, where k is a complex constant.
C C
Z Z Z


(b) f (z) + g(z) dz = f (z) dz + g(z) dz.
C C C
(c) Suppose C is a piecewise smooth curve i.e. C can be expressed as the union of a finite
number of smooth curves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , where the initial point of Ck+1 is the terminal
point of Ck for k = 1 : n − 1. Then the contour integral of f along C is the sum of the
contour integrals
Z Z of f alongZ each of the smooth Z pieces of C i.e.
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz + · · · + f (z) dz
C C1 C2 Cn

(d) If −C denotes the curve consisting as the same points as C but with opposite
orientation
Z (fromZinitial point B : z(b) to terminal point A : z(a)) then,
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz.
−C C
Z  Z
 
(e)  f (z) dz  ≤ |f (z)|dz
C C

Note: The five parts of the above theorem also hold if C is a piecewise smooth curve in D.
Length of a Smooth Curve
Theorem: Let C : z(t) = x(t) + i y(t), where a ≤ t ≤ b be a smooth curve, then the length L
Z bp Z b
of C is given by L = [x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 dt = |z 0 (t)| dt.
a a
M-L inequality
Theorem:
Z If f is continuous on a smooth curve C, and if |f (z)| ≤ M for all z on C then
f (z) dz ≤ M L, where L is the length of C.
C
 Simply and Multiply Connected Domains
A domain is an open connected set. A domain D is said to be simply connected if every
simple closed contour C contained in D is can be shrunk to a point without leaving D. In
other words, a domain D is simply connected if the interior of any simple closed contour C,
lying entirely in D, is also contained in D. A domain that is not simply connected is called
multiply connected.
11. Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Suppose that a function f is analytic in a simply connected domain D. If C is a simple
closed contour that lies in D then Z
f (z) dz = 0 (6)
C
.
Corollary: If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple closed contour C, then
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C

Remark: ez , sin z, cos z, z nZare entire functions.

Z Cauchy’s
Z theorem implies that for any
z
simple closed contour C, e dz = 0, sin z dz = 0, z n dz = 0.
C C C

Positive and negative orientation

A given parametrization C : z(t) = x(t) + i y(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, determines an orientation of
the curve C. As t increases from a to b, z(t) varies continuously from z(a) to z(b). The
direction in which z(t) traces out the curve C is called the positive direction or positive
orientation of the curve C. In case C is a simple closed curve the positive direction
corresponds to the anticlockwise direction or is the direction for which the region D
bounded by C is to the left as a variable point P traces out C. The negative direction on
a contour C is the direction opposite to the positive direction.
Principle of deformation of contour
Theorem: Let C1 and C2 be two positively oriented contours such that C1 is interior to C2 .
Suppose that a function f is analytic in a domain D that contains both C1 and C2 and the
region between them, then I I
f (z) dz = f (z) dz (7)
C1 C2
.
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for Multiply connected Domains
Suppose C, C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn are simple closed positively oriented contours such that
C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn are interior to C but the interior of Ck has no point in common with the
interior of Cj if k 6= j. If f is analytic on each contour and at each point interior to C but
exterior to all Ck , for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, then
I n I
X
f (z) dz = f (z) dz. (8)
C Ck
k=1

12. Cauchy Integral Formula

Theorem: Let f (z) be analytic in a simple connected domain D and let C is any simple
closed positively oriented contour that lies entirely within D. If z0 is any point within C,
then I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz. (9)
2πi C z − z0
Also the nth derivative of f (z) at z0 is given by
I
n! f (z)
f n (z0 ) = dz. (10)
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1
Remark: If f is analytic within
I and on a simple closed contour C, and z0 is any point
1 f (z)
within C, then f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C z − z0
Some Consequences of Cauchy Integral Formula
(a) (Morera’sZTheorem) Suppose f is a continuous function in a simply connected domain
D and if f (z) dz = 0 for every closed contour C in D, then f is analytic in D.
C

Remark: Morera’s Theorem gives us a sufficient condition for analyticity and is taken
to be the converse of the Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
(b) (Cauchy’s Inequality) Suppose f is an analytic function in a simply connected domain
D and suppose that a circle C having center at z0 and radius r, lies entirely in D. If
|f (z)| ≤ M for all points on C, then

n!M
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ . (11)
rn

(c) (Liouville’s Theorem) If f is an entire function that is bounded for all values of z in
the complex plane then f is constant.
(d) (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) If p(z) is a non-constant polynomial then the
equation p(z) = 0 has atleast one root.
(e) (Maximum Modulus Theorem) Suppose that f is analytic and non-constant on a
closed region R bounded by a simple closed curve C. Then the modulus |f (z)| attains
its maximum value on C (i.e. does not attain the maximum value at any point of
interior of C).
(f) (Gauss’ Mean Value Theorem) If f is analytic within and on a circle C, having center
at z0 and radius r, then
Z 2π
1
f (z0 ) = f (z0 + reiθ ) dθ. (12)
2π 0

Remark: This theorem shows that the value of f at the center z0 of the circle is the
average of all the values of f on the circumference of C.