Tyre Road Friction Modeling PDF

Tyre/road friction modeling
Literature survey
R. van der Steen

DCT 2007.072
Coaches:
I. Lopez
B. de Bruijn
A.J.C. Schmeitz
Supervisor:
H. Nijmeijer
Eindhoven University of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamics and Control group
Eindhoven, May, 2007
Contents
List of symbols
1 Introduction
2 Materials
11
2.1
Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.2
Visco-elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3 Friction models and surface roughness
15
3.1
Amontons-Coulomb friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.2
Friction of viscoelastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.3
Surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4 Finite Element Method
21
4.1
Contact and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.2
Literature related to FEM and tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5 Validation and modeling methods
31
5.1
LAT1OO and Tekscan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.2
Eplexor and DIK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.3
Flat plank and tyre test trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.4
Tyre modeling in ABAQUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
6 Conclusions
35
6.1
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
6.2
FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
A 32th Tire Mechanics Short Course
39
A.1 Strength, wear and friction of rubber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
A.2 The tire as a vehicle component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
A.3 Tire materials and manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
A.4 Rules and regulations governing tires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
A.5 Advanced tire modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
A.6 Tire wear, traction and force generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
A.7 Tire stresses and deformation analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
Bibliography
53
List of symbols
Symbol
Unit
Description
cr
cr
k
f
r
s
T
[rad]
[m]
[m/s]
[rad]
[]
[-]
[m]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[Hz]
[rad/s]
Slip angle
Elastic slip
Elastic slip rate
Loss angle
Field variable
Longitudinal slip
Length scale
Poissons ratio
Coefficient of friction
Kinetic friction coefficient
Maximum friction coefficient
Rolling friction coefficient
Static friction coefficient
Segmental jump rate at temperature T
Spinning velocity
aT
ci
d
f
gN
gT
g T
h
k
l
pN
tT
z
[-]
[]
[m]
[Hz]
[m]
[m]
[m/s]
[-]
[-]
[m]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m]
WLF shift factor

Constant
Mean plane distance
Frequency
Normal gap distance
Relative tangential displacement
Relative tangential velocity
Fit parameter
Material constant
Characteristic surface length
Normal pressure
Shear stress
Distance to wheel center
Symbol
Unit
Description
A
E
E
Fn
Fx
Ft
Fr
G
G0
G00
G
K
M
Mz
R
T
Tg
Vs
W
[m2 ]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[N]
[N]
[N]
[N]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[N/m]
[N/m]
[m]
[K]
[K]
[m/s]
[N]
Contact area
Youngs modulus
Complex Youngs modulus
Normal force
Longitudinal force
Tangential force
Rolling friction force
Shear modulus
Dynamic shear modulus
Dynamic loss modulus
Complex shear modulus
Bulk modulus
Torque
Self aligning moment
Radius
Temperature
Glass temperature
Sliding velocity
Normal load
B
C
D
E
Ff
G
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[Pa/m]
Magic formula coefficient

Slip tolerance
Penalty coefficient
Chapter 1
Introduction
This literature report has been written in the scope of the CCAR project FEM Tyre Modelling.
This project aims to realize a thorough base in modeling of a tyre using a finite element method.
An import aspect is the development of a robust friction model to include tyre/road interaction.
The report has been written to obtain a basic understanding in the field of (rubber) friction and
the finite element method. An overview is presented with respect to friction models and surface
roughness, contact and friction in the finite element method, and tyre analyses using the finite
element method. It can therefore be used as a reference guide for future steps within the CCAR
project.
Since the patent on a pneumatic tyre, by John Boyd Dunlop in 1888, the development of pneumatic tyres started and is still going on today. The worldwide tyre production is now greater than
1 billion units per year with a market value exceeding US $100 billion. Around 73% are passenger
cartyres and 70% of these tyres are replacement tyres. There are basically two types of tyres, the
bias ply and, since 1948, radial ply tyres. Nowadays most of the passenger car tyres are radial
tyres. The main difference is the orientation of the body plies, see figure 1.1.
(a) Bias tyre.
(b) Radial tyre.
Figure 1.1: Difference between bias and radial tyres (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
The tyre construction, such as aspect ratio, belt construction and tread compound, depends
on the size and target market (speed rating). This information is printed on every tyre, e.g.,
215/55 R 16 97 V. The first number (215) is the nominal section width in mm, the second number (55) is the percentage of the height/width ratio of the cross-section. The R (radial) stands
for the tyre construction code. Then the rim diameter (16) is given in inches and 97 is the load
capacity index, which indicates the maximum load capacity. The last symbol (V) is the speed
symbol, which stands for the maximum speed. On winter tyres an additional logo is printed together with the mud and snow (M&S) symbol. See table 1.1 for an overview of load indices and
the speed symbols for cars.
Table 1.1: Load indices and speed symbols for car tyres.
Load index
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Load (kg)
290
300
307
315
325
335
345
355
365
375
387
400
412
425
index
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
kg
437
450
462
475
487
500
515
530
545
560
580
600
615
630
index
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
kg
650
670
690
710
730
750
775
800
825
850
875
900
925
950
index
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
kg
975
1000
1030
1060
1090
1120
1150
1180
1215
1250
1285
1320
1360
1400
Symbol
K
L
M
N
P
Q
R
S
T
U
H
V
W
Y
Speed (km/h)
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
240
270
300
Basically a tyre should carry load and transmit forces. However the design of a tyre is a complex
trade-off problem, because a tyre needs to perform under varying conditions. In figure 1.2 the
main components of a radial tyre can be seen. All these different components provide specific
properties.
For example the tread should have good traction for all weather conditions, low rolling resistance
and low wear. But low rolling resistance and a long lifetime require a hard compound, which has
less traction. For good wet traction groves in the tread are required to drain off water, but this
means less dry traction since the contact area is decreased. And softer compounds, which provide
more traction than harder compounds, also wear faster.
Besides the engineering aspects, economical factors, (limitations of) the manufacturing process
(Walter, 2007a) and government regulations (Walter, 2007b) have to be taken into account.
To model a tyre and the interaction with the environment different modeling approaches can be
used: analytical models, empirical models or physical models. In the following the focus is on
physical models to be used in a Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Information of the used materials
and geometry of the tyre and an interaction with the road is required for the Finite Element
Method (FEM).
The basic materials used in tyres and material models are described in chapter 2. In chapter 3
an overview of different friction models is given and the relation with surface roughness is shown.
Chapter 4 covers the basics of FEM and numerical methods related to contact. Some aspects of
contact in ABAQUS are mentioned and an overview of different types of tyre problems is given.
Validation possibilities are given in chapter 5 and finally conclusions are presented in chapter 6.
An additional appendix, which is a short summary of the 32th tire mechanics short course is also
included.
1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.2: Components of a radial tyre (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
10
Chapter 2
Materials
Different materials are used in tyres. The rubber compounds are the most complex parts of the
tyre. The principal tyre elastomers are natural rubber (NR), polyisoprene (IR, this is synthetic
NR), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), butyl rubber (IIR) and butadiene (BR). A compound can
be defined as the formulation of a mixture of rubber and additives which meets the needs of the
tyre component application. Usually a compound consists of one or more polymers, vulcanizing
agents, accelerators, reinforcing fillers, antidegradents, plasticizers, softeners and tackifiers (used
to bond pieces together). This explains why the properties of a compound can deviate from a pure
elastomer. Bead wires are usually made of steel. Belt ply cords consist of steel or rayon, while
body plies cords can be made of nylon or polyester. For a FE model the geometry of the parts,
the applied loading and boundary conditions and the material behavior of each of the different
materials is required. In this chapter the basics of elastic and visco-elastic material behavior are
mentioned.
2.1
2.1.1
Elastic
Small strains
For small strains the material properties can be defined by the shear modulus G and the modulus
of bulk compression K, which are related to the tensile or Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio
as follows:
E
2(1 + )G,
1 3K 2G
.
2 3K + G
(2.1)
(2.2)
When a material behaves elastically, there is no permanent deformation and dissipation. This
means that if the stress is released the strain will become zero. Furthermore there is no time or
path history, thus the stress can be calculated if the strain is known.
The strains in the belt and body plies cords, under normal conditions, are in the linear elastic
range, which means that they can be described by either G and K or E and .
2.1.2
Large strains
Rubber is an elastic, soft and virtually incompressible material, but it can usually be stretched
more than 500%. Its molecular structure consists of long, linear flexible molecules forming random
coils. The molecular segments are mobile, so-called Brownian motion (rate of segmental jumps,
12
2.1. ELASTIC
Figure 2.1: Polymer properties as function of temperature (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
which depends strongly on temperature), and the molecules are interlinked into a 3D network.
Chemical crosslinks are usually made by sulfur linkages also known as vulcanization. The rubbery
state of a polymer is determined by the so-called glass transition temperature Tg . If the temperature is above Tg the polymer is rubbery, below Tg the polymer is glassy, see figure 2.1. For rubbers
the Tg is below room temperature.
For rubber typically K G and it follows that E = 3G and = 0.5. If a rubber block with
= 0.5 is compressed, it is sheared outwards and generates an internal pressure. This effect
causes a compression modulus, which is generally greater than E. To model this behavior other
constitutive models have to be used. Hyperelastic material models are based on energy functions,
which define the strain energy stored in the material per unit of reference volume, instead of the
Youngs modulus (E) and poisson ratio () for isotropic linear elastic materials. In ABAQUS
several hyperelastic material models are available, an overview can be seen in table 2.1. A specific
material model is usually chosen based on available test data, however it is also possible to enter
specific material constants directly. It is possible to fit material models on experimental data, such
as uniaxial, biaxial, planar and volumetric test data. For more details see the ABAQUS Analysis
users manual, chapter 17.
2.1.3
Filled rubbers
In tyres rubbers are usually filled with particles like carbon black or silica. This creates two
additional effects. The so-called Payne effect and Mullins effect, see e.g. Diani et al. (2006), which
are both softening effects. The Payne effect is a softening effect for small strains (0.1%), attributed
to breaking apart aggregates of filler particles. The Mullins effect is a substantial softening effect
at higher strains, attributed to progressive detachment of rubber molecules from filler particles.
The Mullins effect can be modeled in ABAQUS, but it cannot be used together with visco-elasticity
or hysteresis options. In Bergstrom (2005) a new constitutive material model is presented, which is
compared with the standard ABAQUS material models. In Becker et al. (1998) a material model
2. MATERIALS
13
Table 2.1: Available material models in ABAQUS.

Material model:
Neo-Hookean
Mooney-Rivlin
Ogden
Marlow
Arruda-Boyce
Yeoh
Van der Waals
Polynomial
Reduced polynomial
User defined
for filled rubbers is presented, which is implemented into an in-house FE code and compared to
experiments.
2.2
Visco-elastic
The constitutive laws for large strains cannot be used to fully describe the stress-strain relation,
since rubbers do not follow reversible stress-strain relations. When rubber is dynamically stretched
and released the returned energy is less than the energy that is put into the rubber. This viscoelastic effect cannot be described by the perfect elastic shear modulus G, but a dynamic shear
modulus G0 and a dynamic shear loss modulus G00 is introduced to describe this hysteresis. Another
00
term that is frequently used is the loss angle, which is defined as tan = G
G0 . For an elastic solid
the strain is in phase with the stress, while for a visco-elastic solid the strain lags behind the stress
with a delay of , where is the frequency (rad/sec).
The universal WLF relation, named after Williams, Landel and Ferry, (Williams et al., 1955)
describes the dependence of the segmental jump rate on temperature,
log
17.5(T Tg )
T
=
,
Tg
52 + T Tg
(2.3)
where Tg is defined as 0.1/sec. Some polymers, such as butyl rubber, behave according to a
different relation
T
17.5(T Tg )
=
.
(2.4)
log
Tg
100 + T Tg
This is possibly due to unusually long moving segments. The WLF relation can by used to predict
results at other temperatures, e.g. the frequency f at temperature T is equivalent to a frequency
f at T , using the following relation
T
f
=
= aT ,
f
T
(2.5)
where aT is known as the shift factor, this equivalence also holds for strain rates or velocities.
To create master curves of material properties of most (pure) polymers this transformation can
be used. Normally experiments can only be done for a limited range of frequencies. If the same
experiments are conducted at different temperatures, a master curve can be made for a chosen
reference temperature by shifting the measurements using (2.5). An example is shown in figure
2.2.
Details of a FE implementation of 3D visco-elastic behavior for small and finite strains can be
found in an article of Kaliske and Rothert (1997).
14
2.2. VISCO-ELASTIC
Figure 2.2: Creation of master curve for E using WLF shifts (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
Chapter 3
Friction models and surface

roughness
In this chapter several friction models are discussed. Friction is present in all mechanical systems
and originates at an interface between bodies, which are in contact with each other. This contact
enables solids to transmit forces through the surfaces. The resultant force can be resolved into
a normal and a tangential force. This is referred to as the normal force and the friction force
respectively. Friction can now formulated as the ratio between the tangential and normal contact
force. Forces can only be transmitted if there is contact, therefore the contact area plays an
import role in describing friction aspects. Several theories have been developed to describe surface
roughness and the relation to the real contact area.
It is well-known that contaminations have a strong effect on friction, e.g. lubricants. One of the
classical works on friction and lubrication is the book of Bowden and Tabor (2001).
3.1
Amontons-Coulomb friction
This is the most used friction model, usually referred to as the Coulomb friction model. It is based
on the two basic laws of friction (Bowden and Tabor, 2001). When a block is pressed upon a plane
with a normal force and is pulled in the horizontal direction, there is a threshold value such that
the block starts to move if the tangential force is bigger than this value. This threshold value is
proportional to the normal force Ft = Fn , with the so-called coefficient of friction.
The friction force always works in opposite direction of the moving velocity.
Coulomb also showed that kinetic friction could be significantly lower than static friction, which
is sometimes referred to as the third friction law.
3.1.1
Deviations from Coulomb friction
Experiments often show deviations from the basic Coulomb friction model. Variants of the basis
model are the difference between a static s and a kinetic k friction coefficient, see figure 3.1 for
some examples. This transition can be discontinuous or continuous, using an exponential decaying
function between the static and kinetic coefficient. More general, friction varies with sliding
velocity. An example is the so-called Stribeck curve, first the coefficient decreases to a minimum
value and after that it increases with higher sliding velocities. The review paper of Olsson et al.
(1998) describes several static and dynamic friction models. The static models include Coulomb
friction, viscous friction and the models of Karnopp, where a zero velocity interval (deadzone) is
introduced, and Armstrong, where stiction and sliding are decoupled in two separate equations.
The dynamic models include the reset integrator model, the Dahl model and two variants of this
16
3.2. FRICTION OF VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS
s
k
Vs
Vs
Vs
Vs
Figure 3.1: Coulomb friction model and some variations.
model, the Lugre model and the model of Bliman and Sorine.
More details on the transition between sliding and sticking can be found in an article of Rabinowicz
(1951). All of these models are often used in control systems, in such a way that they can be used
for friction compensation.
3.1.2
Magic Formula
In the book of Pacejka (2006) the empirical magic formula tyre model is explained. This model is
widely used for vehicle handling simulations and based on the magic formula
F (x) = Dsin(C arctan((1 E)Bx + E arctan(Bx))),
(3.1)
where x is an input, e.g. or and F an output such as Fx or Mz . The coefficients B, C, D

and E are fitted using experimental data. This model can accurately capture the global force and
moment characteristics of a tyre.
Another frequently used model is the brush model, more details can be found in the sheets of
Besselink (2003) and the book of Pacejka (2006). This model is useful for a qualitative analysis
of tyre behavior when limited measurement data is available.
3.2
Friction of viscoelastic materials
Friction of polymers is closely related to their viscoelastic behavior. Generally speaking, the
coefficient of friction increases with sliding velocity until a maximum value is reached at a certain
speed, followed by a decrease of the friction coefficient. This is caused by the flexibility of the
polymer chains.
3.2.1
Grosch
The article of Grosch (1963) is one of the early reports, which describes a relation between the
dependence of the friction coefficient due to sliding velocity and temperature and the viscoelastic
deformation on strain rate and temperature. In this work experimental results of different vulcanized rubbers are presented. Experiments are conducted at different temperatures and shifted
to a master curve using the WLF equation. This gives a relation between the sliding velocity and
temperature in a similar way as the rate and temperature dependence of viscoelastic polymers
above their glass temperature, see figure 3.2. Grosch indicated that friction is due to energy dissipated when rubber is compressed and released by asperities. For dry sliding on a smooth surface
the curve for vs. sliding speed resembles again the curve for tan versus frequency f . But now
it is displaced to much lower speeds than before. Friction in dry sliding on a smooth surface is
due to energy dissipated as rubber sticks and slips on a molecular scale. In the case of sliding
on a rough dry surface the two dissipative processes appear at different speeds, corresponding to
3. FRICTION MODELS AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS
17
different length scales: asperities and molecules, see figure 3.3. Several contributions to can
arise at the same sliding speed from stick-slip processes occurring at different length scales. An
early theory to describe the experiments of Grosch has been developed by Schallamach (1963).
An unified approach to the entire subject of friction and wear in rubbers and tyres can be found
in an article of Moore (1980).
Figure 3.2: Grosch interpretation (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
Figure 3.3: Combined effect of sliding on a rough and dry surface (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
3.2.2
Savkoor
Savkoor proposed a model, based on results of Grosch, where he described the shape of an isothermal master curve with an empirical relation (Lemaitre, 2001, chapter 8),
2

h
|Vs |
2
k (Vs ) = s + (m s )exp
log
2
Vmax
(3.2)
where s is the static coefficient of friction and m the maximal coefficient for |Vs | = Vmax . h is
a dimensionless parameter reflecting the width of the speed range in which friction varies significantly. More details on dry adhesive friction can be found in (Savkoor, 1965, 1966, 1986) and in
the thesis of Savkoor (1987). The advantage of (3.2) is that it can be evaluated easily for a given
sliding velocity.
18
3.2.3
3.3. SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Rolling friction
Rolling friction Fr can be seen as M

R , where M is a torque and R the radius of the rolling body.
For an elastic wheel the reaction force acts through the wheel center and therefore the moment
M = 0. For a visco-elastic wheel the reaction force moves towards the loading side, because
stresses are lower in unloading, M = W z where W is the normal load and z the distance from the
wheel center, see figure 3.4.
Displacement of the center of pressure, and hence the coefficient of friction r , depend on speed
and temperature in the same way as the loss factor tan . A formulation for r as proposed by
Greenwood et al. (1961),
13

W
tan ,
(3.3)
r = 0.33
G R 2
where G is the complex shear modulus. Rolling friction is mainly due to energy dissipated as
rubber is compressed and released in the contact patch.
Figure 3.4: Rolling friction (picture taken from Gent (2007)).
3.2.4
Persson
Persson has published many papers (Persson, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001a,b, 2002a,b;
Persson and Tosatti, 2000; Persson and Volokitin, 2000, 2002, 2006; Persson et al., 2002, 2003,
2005) on the subject of rubber friction and the role of the surface, which is in contact with the
rubber. These theories are a continuation of the early studies of Grosch, taking into account that
sliding friction of rubber has the same temperature dependence as that of the complex elastic
modulus. He states that the friction force (under normal circumstances) is related to the internal
friction of the rubber, which is a bulk property. The hysteretic friction component is determined
by sliding of the rubber over asperities of a rough surface. These oscillating forces lead to energy
dissipation. These contributions can be described with a fractal description of the surface. Every
length scale , up to the largest particles of asphalt, can be related to a frequency: f Vs .
As a result of energy dissipation heat is generated, in a recent article (Persson, 2006a) he also takes
the local heating of rubber into account, since the viscoelastic properties are strongly temperature
dependent. At very low sliding velocities the temperature increases are negligible because of
heat diffusion, but already for velocities in the order of 0.01 m/s local heating plays a role. He
shows that in a typical case the temperature increase results in a decrease in rubber friction with
increasing sliding velocity, if the sliding velocity is above 0.01 m/s.
3.3
Surface roughness
There is a long history on this subject, since it is well-known that almost all surfaces are rough at
a certain length scale. This has great influence on the real contact area and therefore it is closely
related to friction. The real contact area is in most cases different from the apparent contact area
3. FRICTION MODELS AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS
19
and high local contact pressures can give rise to plastic deformation. The two often used methods
to describe surface roughness are statistical and fractal methods.
In Archard (1957) it is shown that in order to obey the Coulomb friction law for elastic deformation
a rough surface is actually needed. In elastic contact the area A is related to the load W by
2
A kW 3 ,
(3.4)
where k is a constant. It is supposed that the friction force is proportional to the contact area,
therefore it can not hold that the friction force is proportional to the load. For increasing load
the friction coefficient has to decrease. To show this, Archard used a flat surface in contact with a
spherical surface with large radius. However if instead of one spherical contact, several spherical
protuberances on this initial sphere are modeled and thus multiple contact areas are created, the
following relation is derived
44
(3.5)
A W 45 .
He showed that is now constant for an increasing load until all the local protuberances are flat
and than drops again if the load is still increased further. This explains that for soft rubber
sliding on a smooth surface (perfect contact) the frictional force is more or less constant, independent of the load W . Thus the coefficient of friction decreases continuously as the pressure
increases. However there is also a coefficient of friction, independent of pressure, for harder rubber
compounds, sliding on a rough surface. Apparently in this case contact is incomplete. An increase
in pressure creates a larger true area of contact and hence a larger frictional force.
The Greenwood and Williamson (GW) contact model (Greenwood and Williamson, 1966) was
published in 1966 and since then many revisions to this model have been made by several researchers. It is now known that some of the assumptions of the original model were incorrect
(Greenwood and Wu, 2001).
The GW model is based on contact between a rough surface and a flat rigid plane. It is a statistical
description of a rough surface, where the surface is covered with asperities. All these asperities
have a spherical shape with the same radius of curvature. Further the summit surface density,
the surface roughness and the surface height need to be specified. The surface height is supposed
to follow a Gaussian or exponential distribution. Relations for the number of contacts, the real
contact area and the applied load are obtained.
The model of Bush, Gibson and Thomas (BGT) (Bush et al., 1975) uses elliptical paraboloids
asperities with random aspect ratio and orientation, a comparison between these models can be
found in an article of McCool (1986).
Fractal descriptions to describe a rough surface first appeared in the papers of Majumdar and
Bhushan (1990, 1991) and Majumdar and Tien (1990). If a surface exhibits geometrical selfsimilarity, also referred to as self-affinity, the surface appears the same under different degrees of
magnification.
This can be described by the Weierstrass-Mandelbrot function, which satisfies continuity, nondifferentiability and self-affinity. The advantage of this approach is that the parameters, which
determine the isotropic rough surface, are independent of the roughness length scale and the
resolution of the measuring instruments. This is in contrast to statistical parameters where the
height, slope and curvature of asperities depend on the the resolution of the measuring instrument.
Fractal models are now widely used and compared by a great number of authors, e.g. Kl
uppel
and Heinrich (2000); Gal et al. (2005); Morrow (2003); Jackson and Streator (2006); Ciavarella
et al. (2006a,b); Zavarise et al. (2007).
Besides his work on rubber friction, Persson has also made a large contribution to the field of
contact mechanics (Persson, 2002a; Persson et al., 2002; Peressadko et al., 2005; Persson, 2006b;
Yanga et al., 2006; Persson, 2006c). An extensive overview of contact mechanics and rubber
friction can be found in a review paper of Persson (2005). A comparison of experiments and the
predictive capabilities of current physical theories is presented in Westermann et al. (2004). This
demonstrates the close interaction between rubber friction and surface roughness.
20
3.3. SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Chapter 4
Finite Element Method

The development of non-linear Finite Element Method (FEM) started about forty years ago together with the development of the digital computer, with one of the first text books of Zienkiewicz
and Cheung (1967). Although there are many books related to FEM nowadays, this book or later
editions are still cited in almost every article related to FEM.
There are two distinctive methods to solve FE problems, implicit and explicit. The implicit method
solves for a statical or dynamical equilibrium, while the explicit method solves transient dynamic
response problems using an explicit direct-integration procedure.
Besides the geometrical, material and interaction issues additional computational problems arise.
Since the start of non-linear FEM many different types of elements and solution algorithms have
been developed and implemented in specialized software such as ABAQUS, MARC, ANSYS, LSDYNA or NASTRAN. This raises the question why one should study non-linear FEM if it is
already available in many commercial packages? The answer to this is that a commercial package
is basically a black box program providing an interface for simulations. The user has to make
several choices in the model formulation, i.e., the discretization of the mesh, the element types,
the solution procedure, the solver tolerances etc. These selections (may) have a tremendous effect
on the final result and can even lead to non-physical, thus meaningless, results (see Kouznetsova,
2006).
There are four different sources of non-linearity in solid mechanics, geometrical, material, force
boundary conditions and displacement boundary conditions, see also figure 4.1.
Unfortunately all four play a role in tyre modeling. One example is incompressible material behavior of rubber. When the material response is incompressible, the solution to such a problem
cannot be obtained in terms of the displacement history only, since a purely hydrostatic pressure
can be added without changing the displacements.
In ABAQUS this is solved by removing this singular behavior in the system by treating the pressure stress as an independently interpolated basic solution variable, coupled to the displacement
solution through the constitutive theory and the compatibility condition, with this coupling implemented by a Lagrange multiplier. This independent interpolation of pressure stress is the basis
of the so-called hybrid elements. More precisely, they are mixed formulation elements, using a
mixture of displacement and stress variables with an augmented variational principle to approximate the equilibrium equations and compatibility conditions. The hybrid elements also remedy
the problem of volume strain locking. Volume strain locking occurs if the finite element mesh
cannot properly represent incompressible deformations. Volume strain locking can be avoided
in regular displacement elements by fully or selectively reduced integration (ABAQUS Analysis
22
4.1. CONTACT AND FRICTION
users manual).
Figure 4.1: Schematic view of non-linearities in solid mechanics (picture taken from Kouznetsova
(2006)).
Two aspects are considered here, the mathematical formulations of contact and friction and implementation issues in ABAQUS, and computational models for tyres found in literature to give
an overview of current possibilities.
4.1
Contact and friction
Starting points for this subject are the article of Doghri et al. (1998), the book of Laursen (2002)
and especially the book of Wriggers (2006) on computational contact mechanics. Contact is split
into normal contact and tangential contact.
4.1.1
Normal contact
pN
gN
Figure 4.2: Schematic view of Signorini conditions.
Normal contact can be formulated as a geometrical constraint, which describes the non-penetration
condition of two bodies in contact, also known as low contact precision. This is the so-called
Signorini contact description, which models the non-penetrability of the bodies in contact with
the following relations. For contact it holds that gN = 0 and pN < 0, where gN is the gap distance
and pN is the normal pressure. If there is a gap between the bodies, than the pressure is equal to
zero, see figure 4.2. This can be formulated as
gN 0,
pN 0,
pN gN = 0.
(4.1)
4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
23
This formulation states that only compressive forces can be transmitted if there is contact (no
adhesion) and forms the basis of frictionless contact problems.
If for a contact problem knowledge of the micromechanical surface is essential to describe the physical phenomena (high contact precision) an interface law is needed to capture this phenomena.
Instead of a geometrical constraint a constitutive equation is used, where the contact pressure is
given by a general non-linear function of the mean plane distance
pN = f (d).
(4.2)
An example, taken from Wriggers (2006), of this general non-linear function:

pN =
c1 (1617646.152 cc34 )c2

5.5891+0.0.0711c2

1 + 0.0.0711c2 2
exp
d ,
(1.363c3 )2
(4.3)
where c1 and c2 are mechanical constants which express the nonlinear distribution of the surface
hardness and c3 and c4 are statistical parameters of the surface profile.
4.1.2
Tangential contact
Usually friction is present between two interacting bodies and this leads to tangential forces.
Tangential contact is described by constitutive laws. The response in tangential direction can be
divided into two cases. The first case is no tangential displacement in the contact zone (stick) and
in the second case there is relative displacement (slip).
Stick corresponds to a situation where the relative velocity (g T ) is zero and thus a zero relative
displacement
g T = 0 gT = 0,
(4.4)
which poses a constraint on the motion in the contact interface.
If the tangential forces reach a certain limit the contacting bodies will no longer stick, but sliding
will occur. In the case of Coulomb friction this can be formulated as
tT = |pN |
g T
,
||g T ||
if ||tT || > |pN |,
(4.5)
where tT is the shear stress.

Since the friction coefficient usually depends on more parameters, a constitutive law can be written
as a non-linear function of several parameters,
= (g T , pN , , . . .),
(4.6)
where is defined as a field variable, e.g. temperature.

An example from Wriggers (2006) of a velocity and pressure dependent constitutive relation for
rubber friction is the following
c

pN 7
Vs
Vs
(vT , pN ) = c5
+ c8 ln
c10 ln
.
(4.7)
c6
c9
c11
Besides the Coulomb law (4.5), it is possible to formulate tangential constitutive equations by
regularization of the stick-slip behavior. This is to avoid the non-differentiability of Coulombs
law at zero velocity, which can prevent numerical problems, some examples of this are square
root, hyperbolic tangent of piecewise polynomial regularizations. Other formulations are in the
framework of elasto-plasticity, where the key idea is to split the tangential slip in an elastic (stick)
24
4.1. CONTACT AND FRICTION
part and a plastic (slip) part.

Articles of Huemer et al. (2001a); Liu et al. (2000) and Huemer et al. (2001b) are related to
frictional behavior of rubber, where a phenomenological friction law for rubber tread blocks on
snow and concrete is presented for use in a macroscopic model. The coefficient of friction depends on normal pressure, sliding velocity and temperature. The friction coefficient itself is only
a function of normal pressure and sliding velocity. Temperature effects are incorporated using the
WLF transformation, i.e., if the current temperature is different than the reference temperature,
an equivalent new sliding velocity for the reference temperature is calculated.
This research has been continued by Hofstetter et al. (2003), where a thermo-mechanical coupling
has been introduced. Energy dissipation during sliding is converted into heat and this heat flux
causes a temperature rise of the rubber and road. In (Hofstetter et al., 2006) also simulations of
abrasion of the tread block are added.
Dorsch et al. (2002) derived a phenomenological friction law using data obtained from experiments
on the LAT100.
The modeling and calculation of the transient rolling contact of tyres on road tracks is the subject
of a large multidisciplinary research project (FOR492) at the University of Hannover. One of
the projects focusses on computational homogenization procedures, to develop a friction law at a
macroscopic level, based on effects on a microscopic level. More details on this subject can also
be found in the book of Wriggers (2006).
4.1.3
Constraint handling in ABAQUS
The aforementioned constraints, imposed by contact and friction, can be handled by Lagrange
multipliers, which satisfies the constraint exactly, or with penalty methods, which penalize violation of constraints. All the constraint and interaction methods of ABAQUS can be found in
the ABAQUS Analysis users manual, chapters 28-32. One can find here that normal contact is
handled by Lagrange multipliers, penalty methods or an augmented Lagrange method. Friction,
in ABAQUS/standard, is normally handled by the penalty method.
While the surfaces are sticking, a certain elastic slip cr is allowed and the magnitude of sliding is
limited to this elastic slip. The allowable elastic slip is given as
cr = Ff l,
(4.8)
where Ff is an user-defined slip tolerance and l is the characteristic surface length. The slope G,
which is a penalty stiffness, is adapted depending on the normal pressure, see figure 4.3. One can
see that the smaller cr , the steeper the slope of G. Exact sticking, G = , can be obtained by
enforcing a Lagrange multiplier.
However there is one important exception: If a so-called Steady-State Transport Analysis (which
is commonly used in tyre simulations) is performed, the penalty constraint is based on a maximum
allowable slip rate
cr = Ff 2R,
(4.9)
where is the spinning velocity and R the radius of the object. This introduces discontinuities if a
Steady-State Transport Analysis is combined with other ABAQUS standard analyses and should
therefore be avoided.
4.1.4
Contact possibilities in ABAQUS
Several contact models are available in ABAQUS. In this section the import features are given.
There are two contact discretizations, node-to-surface and surface-to-surface contact and two
tracking approaches, small sliding and finite sliding.
25
2
cr
= p2
cr = p
cr = Ff l
G2
1
cr
G=
cr
cr
= p1
G1
cr
Figure 4.3: Adapting penalty stiffness, based on a maximal allowable slip.
Some of the mechanical contact property models available in ABAQUS/Standard include: Softened
contact, friction and user-defined constitutive models for surface interaction. Surface interaction
in thermal or coupled thermal-mechanical contact simulations can include heat exchange by conduction and radiation as well as the generation of frictional heat in coupled simulations.
During an increment in which the contact status has changed, ABAQUS/Standard will use the
default hard contact criterion to determine whether the change should be reversed. In other words,
if the contact status changes from open to closed during an increment, the contact pressure must
remain positive for the changed status to persist. In subsequent increments the contact point can
again sustain tensile pressures up to a specified value before the surfaces separate. This contact
pressure-overclosure relationship is useful for cases where negative pressure values (such as surface
cohesion) may be allowed physically. It can also be useful in overcoming numerical problems in
difficult contact simulations and in obtaining solutions without excessive iteration. Another possibility to oppose the relative motion between the interacting surfaces is to specify damping.
The friction models available in ABAQUS:
Include the classical isotropic Coulomb friction model, which in ABAQUS: in its general form
allows the friction coefficient to be defined in terms of slip rate, contact pressure, average
surface temperature at the contact point, and field variables; and provides the option to
define a static and a kinetic friction coefficient with a smooth transition zone defined by an
exponential curve.
Allow the introduction of a shear stress limit, which is the maximum value of shear stress
that can be carried by the interface before the surfaces begin to slide.
Include an anisotropic extension of the basic Coulomb friction model in ABAQUS/Standard;
Include a model that eliminates frictional slip when surfaces are in contact.
Include a softened interface model for sticking friction in ABAQUS/Explicit in which the
shear stress is a function of elastic slip.
Can be implemented with a stiffness (penalty) method, a kinematic method (in ABAQUS/Explicit),
or a Lagrange multiplier method (in ABAQUS/Standard), depending on the contact algorithm used.
26
4.2. LITERATURE RELATED TO FEM AND TYRES
Can be defined in user subroutine FRIC (in ABAQUS/Standard) or VFRIC (in ABAQUS/Explicit
for the contact pair algorithm only), which allows modeling of very general frictional surface
conditions.
Besides the friction models it is also possible to make use of user-defined interfacial constitutive
behavior. This is provided so that any constitutive behavior across an interface can be added to
the library of existing models. To use this the constitutive model (or a library of models) for the
interface has to be programmed in user subroutine UINTER(ABAQUS/Standard) or VUINTER.
It is available only for a surface-based contact definition involved in stress/displacement, coupled
temperature-displacement, or heat transfer analysis. According to the manual the feature is very
general and powerful, but it requires considerable effort and expertise and is intended for advanced
users.
4.2
Literature related to FEM and tyres
Together with the development of non-linear FEM the use of FEM in tyre development started.
There is a lot of literature, somehow related to tyres, on computational developments in the framework of FE and quite some work is also incorporated into ABAQUS. Examples are the works of
Oden on friction and rolling contact (Oden and Pires, 1983, 1984; Oden and Martins, 1985; Oden
and Lin, 1986; Oden et al., 1988; Faria et al., 1989), Laursen and Simo in the field of contact
problems with friction (Simo and Laursen, 1992; Laursen and Simo, 1993a,b) and Padovan on
rolling visco-elastic cylinders (Zeid and Padovan, 1981; Padovan, 1987; Kennedy and Padovan,
1987; Nakajima and Padovan, 1987; Padovan et al., 1992). A special issue (Vol 177, nr 3/4) of the
journal Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering is devoted to computational
modeling of contact and friction. More recent are the works of Wriggers (Wriggers et al., 1990;
Zavarise et al., 1992; Haraldsson and Wriggers, 2000; Bandeira et al., 2004; Wriggers, 2006) on
constitutive interface laws with friction.
Literature specifically related to tyres usually does not provide detailed information. The main
reason is that most tyre manufacturers use own (in-house) finite element codes and specific methods are kept confidential. Even in the publications where ABAQUS is used not much background
information can be found. Besides this, most research at universities is done in cooperation with
a tyre manufacturer and therefore still not much model details are given, more information can
be obtained from articles where specific subjects related to tyres are treated. However the found
literature provides insight in the trends and developments of tyre modeling throughout the past
decades.
According to Padovan (2007), the following list of tyre problems are successfully handled by virtual
CAE modeling methodologies
Static rim mounting, inflation and axle load/deflection analysis
States of stress/deflection/strain in all tyre components
Force and moment, on center feel
Definition of footprint shape as a function of axle load state and pressure
Rolling/handling models both quasi-static and dynamic including braking and cornering
effects
Thermal analysis/rolling resistance under rolling conditions
Model cure press, and other manufacturing steps
27
Fatigue life prediction models under full duty cycle

Natural frequencies, handling and critical speed analysis
Hydroplaning models, snow traction, in mud performance
Geometry, and cord layout optimization
Tread lug design
Acoustical analysis
Suspension models incorporating tyres
In one of his presentations it is stated that the overall tyre performance is usually measured by
global actions, such as force & moment, ride comfort or dynamic response and therefore gross FEA
models can be employed to establish such characteristics. In contrast to this some aspects, such as
tyre failure, require very localized models. In this sense a form of multi length scale methodology
can be used, i.e., a global model is used to drive a local model.
A summary according to Padovan of advantages and disadvantages for global and local models:
An one scale model has one contiguous mesh and a refined mesh is placed in locations of interest,
transition meshes are needed to link refined and coarse zones. It is in general difficult to build a
mesh with reliable local refinements. The models tend to be very large and time consuming and
are not very adoptable making mesh modifications. The transition areas tend to yield unreliable
results.
Multiple scales suffer the so-called localization syndrome: localization always requires further localization, so a localization cut-off criteria is needed. Besides that stress and strain take on a
random character as localization brings on the probabilistic nature of such scale levels. While
probabilistic variances can be very significant, generally the mean is close to the nominal design
value and since stiffness of cord or metallic/plastic subcomponents are orders of magnitude higher
than rubber, local actions of such subcomponents dominate; rubber is hence strictly a geometric
place holder. Also every new level should be correlated with experiments to assess accuracy and
sensitivity to meshing.
Most of the mentioned tyre problems require a specific type of modeling approach, in this sense
there is no universal tyre model. This totally depends on the kind of problem one wants to solve.
An overview is given according to some points of the above list, although most articles fit in more
than one category. Besides the journal of Tire Science and Technology, a good starting point are
the two overview papers of Mackerle (1998, 2004) about rubber and rubber-like materials, finite
element analyses and simulations, where an extensive reference list can be found.
4.2.1
Static analysis
One of the first overview papers, where FE models and the contact problem for tyres are described,
is the paper of Noor and Tanner (1985). In this article, for a NASA research program for the
space shuttle tyres, the current status and developments of computational models for tyres are
summarized. This review has been made again by Danielson et al. (1996). Basically all early tyre
models are axi-symmetric, with no tread pattern or only circumferential groves due to the limits
of computational resources.
Another popular way to reduce the number of degrees of freedom is the application of the globallocal analysis. In this approach, an analysis of the complete structure is first performed with a
coarse mesh. After that a part of the structure is meshed finer and interpolated displacements are
applied at the boundaries of this region. Such an approach can be used to compute the forces in
the contact area of a deflected tyre (see Gall et al., 1995 and Meschke et al., 1997). Although a
28
local model is able to give detailed numerical results corresponding to a tread block, the accuracy
is strongly influenced by the simple global model.
With the ever increasingly computational power it is now possible to mesh a part of even the
whole tread with a detailed pattern (e.g. Cho et al., 2004) and perform all kinds of static analysis
such as footprint shapes as function of axle load state and pressure.
4.2.2
Force & Moment
In an article of Kabe and Koishi (2000) a comparison between ABAQUS standard, explicit and
experiments for steady state cornering tyres is made. Although the results of both implicit and explicit are closer to each other than to the experiments, the implicit method is significantly faster, 6
hours and 8 days respectively. The prediction of tyre cornering forces is given in a paper of Ton
uk
usoy (2001), where MARC is used. An comparison with experiments is also presented.
and Unl
The application of a new type of non-linear 3D finite element tyre model for simulating tyre spindle
force and moment response during side slip is described by Darnell et al. (2002). The simulation
model is composed of shell elements, which model the tread deformation, coupled to special purpose finite elements that model the deformation of the sidewall and contact between the tread
and the ground. Despite the (seemingly) simple model the results corresponds quite well with
experiments.
A FE simulation with ABAQUS, in which the effect of tyre design parameters on lateral forces
and moments is studied is presented in a paper of Olatunbosun and Bolarinwa (2004). Parametric
studies are performed on a simplified tyre (no tread, negligible rim compliance and viscoelastic
properties, shear forces modeled with Coulomb friction with constant ).
Explicit simulations to predict tyre cornering forces, using PAM-SHOCK, are presented by Koishi
et al. (1998). Besides a comparison with experiments, parametric studies on the effect of inflation
pressure, belt angle and rubber modulus are performed.
Rao et al. (2003) simulated the dynamic behavior of a pneumatic tyre using ABAQUS/Explicit.
A study on a passenger car radial tyre to simulate cornering behavior, braking behavior, and combined cornering & braking behavior is presented. Further the effect of camber angle and grooved
tread on tyre cornering behavior is studied. To reduce computational load two tyre models are
used, one treadless tyre and a tyre with five circumferential groves.
A cleat test with a half rotational response treadless tyre model can be found in a paper of Olatunbosun and Burke (2002), where NASTRAN has been used. An comparison with experiments shows
deviations as the traverse speed increases above 20 kph. The prediction of the radial force seems
better than the longitudinal force. In an article of Cho et al. (2005) the dynamic response of a
fully patterned tyre rolling over a cleat is presented, using ABAQUS/Explicit. To decrease the
computational load the fiber-reinforced rubber is modeled with composite shell elements, instead
of rebar elements.
The effect of plysteer for steady-state rolling tyres is investigated by Mundl et al. (2005), where a
global-local analysis is used, and by Ohishi et al. (2002), where a detailed tread pattern is used in
the contact area.
4.2.3
Thermo-mechanical approaches
More recently thermo-mechanical models for prediction of the temperature inside tyres have been
presented (Allen et al., 1996a,b; Park et al., 1997; Futamura and Goldstein, 2004; Lin and Hwang,
2004). Besides the prediction of steady state temperatures for rolling tyres a small literature
overview is given by Rao et al. (2006). Experimental results of the temperature rise in an actual
contact area between the pavement and the tread of a cornering tyre can be found in an article of
Fujikawa et al. (1994). It is shown that a significant temperature rise occurs for severe slip angles.
4.2.4
29
Hydroplaning
Another phenomenon is hydroplaning, where the interaction with fluid (water) is taken into account by coupling FEM and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). For examples see Seta et al.
(2000), Nakijima et al. (2000) and Cho et al. (2006).
4.2.5
Component modeling
Besides complete tyre models a lot of work focusses on the specific components of a tyre, e.g. the
tyre cord reinforcements, which can be modeled using so-called rebar elements (Huh and Kwak,
1990; Helnwein et al., 1993; Mesehke and Helwein, 1994). This is also incorporated in ABAQUS.
Asperity modeling to simulate rubber sliding on rough surfaces is considered by Bui and Ponthot
(2002) for the 2D case and by Faulkner and Arnell (2000) for two 3D hemispherical asperities.
Recently a comparison between experimental and explicit FEM has been published (Kuwajima
et al., 2006) to examine the interfacial phenomena between rubber and abrasive papers, such as the
real contact length, partial slip, and apparent friction coefficient under vertical load and tangential
force. Other examples are optimization of the carcass (Cho et al., 2002) and the optimum shape
of the tread to avoid lateral slippage (Ahmed et al., 2005).
30
Chapter 5
Validation and modeling methods

5.1
LAT1OO and Tekscan
The LAT100 (VMI) is a test machine originally developed by Dr. Grosch. It is designed to relatively rank tread compounds with respect to dry traction, wet traction, ice traction, abrasion
and rolling resistance. Under certain test conditions it should be possible to relate these indoor
experiments with outdoor tyre tests. On this machine a small rubber wheel, see figure 5.1(b), is
placed on a spinning disk which represents a road surface. The temperature, speed, surface of the
disk, the slip angle and normal load on the sample can be varied. More details of the LAT100 can
be found in the documentation system of Vredestein (Doclib).
(a) LAT100 machine.
(b) Sample wheel.
Figure 5.1: The Laboratory Abrasion and skid Tester.
The Tekscan machine can be used to obtain the normal contact pressure distribution for a statically
deformed or slow rolling tyre under zero slip angle. More details on the principle of Tekscan and
possibilities of using small LAT100 samples on the Tekscan can be found in the report of Broeze
(2007).
5.2
Eplexor and DIK
Material test data of rubber compounds can be acquired from the Deutsches Institut f
ur Kautschuktechnologie (DIK). Visco-elastic material properties can be measured using the Eplexor available
at Vredestein or at the university in cooperation with the section of Materials Technology.
32
5.3. FLAT PLANK AND TYRE TEST TRAILER
5.3
Flat plank and tyre test trailer
The global tyre deformation characteristics and cleat experiments can be measured on the flat
plank machine in the automotive lab at the TU/e. The global force and moments can be measured
with the tyre test trailer of TNO. More details are presented in the report of Cremers (2005).
5.4
Tyre modeling in ABAQUS
Guidelines for tyre analyses in ABAQUS can be found in the ABAQUS Example problems manual,
chapter 3.1 and in the course notes on Tire modeling using ABAQUS.
The way to obtain the global force and moment characteristics of a tyre under different driving
conditions, such as free rolling or slip and chamber angles, in ABAQUS/Standard is the following:
Start with a 2D cross-section of the tyre.
Perform a static analysis in which the inflation pressure (and rim mounting) is simulated.
Revolve the axi-symmetric cross-section about the axis of revolution, with a nonuniform
discretization along the circumference, to obtain a 3D model.
Apply a vertical load, which represents the weight of a vehicle.
Perform a static full 3D footprint analysis of the tyre in contact with a flat road.
Transfer these results to perform steady-state rolling analysis under different driving conditions.
The great advantage of the steady-state transport analysis is that it uses a moving reference
frame in which rigid body rotation is described in an Eulerian manner and the deformation is described in a Lagrangian manner (the so-called ALE-formulation), see also articles of Nackenhorst
(2004); Ziefle and Nackenhorst (2005); Laursen and Stanciulescu (2006). This kinematic description converts the steady moving contact problem into a pure spatially dependent simulation. Thus
the mesh need to be refined only in the contact region, the steady motion transports the material
through the mesh. Frictional effects, inertia effects, and history effects in the material can all be
accounted for.
The limitation of a steady-state transport simulation is that the circumference of the tyre must be
continuous (in the current version). As a result only circumferential groves can be used, instead
of a detailed tread pattern.
If an uniform discretization along the circumference is used, it is possible to transfer steady-state
rolling results to ABAQUS/Explicit and perform dynamic/impact simulations. This is computationally expensive and usually a coarse mesh and a simplified tyre model is used to handle these
kind of simulations.
Contact must be divided into normal and tangential contact as mentioned in chapter 4. Both
normal and tangential contact or friction can accounted for by using the available algorithms or
by own user subroutines.
Temperature effects can be accounted for in different ways. A similar procedure for steadystate solutions can be followed as in Huemer et al. (2001b), where a reference temperature is
used and WLF transformations are used to calculate equivalent sliding velocities at the reference
temperature. In an implicit thermo-mechanical approach it is possible to convert energy dissipation
due to friction into heat. If this option is used, one should be aware that material properties can
be affected by temperature changes and ideally this should be taken into account as well. This
also holds for the friction law, if temperature effects are taken into account the friction law should
be an explicit function of temperature.
5. VALIDATION AND MODELING METHODS
33
To incorporate transient dynamical effects, such as local temperature rise for severe slip angles,
ABAQUS explicit can be used, although this probably takes a very long time to simulate and no
records of this has been found in literature sofar. Guidelines for heat-transfer problems can be
found in the ABAQUS Example problems manual, chapter 5.
34
5.4. TYRE MODELING IN ABAQUS
Chapter 6
Conclusions
To model a tyre and interaction with the environment using the finite element method not only
knowledge of materials, geometry and interaction is required, but also a thorough knowledge of
the computational mechanics behind the finite element method is required.
However the most important conclusion is that the often used Coulomb friction model with a
constant coefficient of friction is in general not realistic in the case of rubber friction.
6.1
Friction
Friction of polymers is closely related to their viscoelastic behavior. Generally speaking, the coefficient of friction increases with sliding velocity until a maximum value is reached at a certain
speed, followed by a decrease of the friction coefficient. The viscoelastic properties of polymers
depend strongly on temperature. Grosch showed the relation between the dependence of the friction coefficient due to sliding velocity and temperature and the viscoelastic deformation on strain
rate and temperature.
The friction force for soft rubber sliding on a smooth surface (perfect contact) is more or less
constant, independent of the load. Thus the coefficient of friction decreases continuously as the
pressure increases. However there is also a coefficient of friction, independent of pressure, for
harder rubber compounds, sliding on a rough surface. Apparently in this case contact is incomplete. An increase in pressure creates a larger true area of contact and hence a larger frictional
force. This shows the influence of the temperature, sliding velocity and real contact area.
The current theory of rubber friction and surface roughness, which capture all these properties can
be found in the publications of Persson, (see review paper Persson, 2005). The surface roughness
is characterized by a fractal description, which exhibits geometrical self-similarity. These results
are based on the early studies of Grosch, taking into account that sliding friction of rubber has
the same temperature dependence as that of the complex elastic modulus. He states that the
friction force is related to the internal friction of the rubber, which is a bulk property. The
hysteretic friction component is determined by sliding of the rubber over asperities of a rough
surface. These oscillating forces lead to energy dissipation. Every length scale up to the largest
particles of asphalt, can be related to an excitation frequency. As a result of energy dissipation
heat is generated, in a recent article this local heating of the rubber is also taken into account.
Although this theory provides knowledge of the physical origin of rubber friction it has some
drawbacks. Exact knowledge of the contribution of each length scale is needed. Therefore it has,
at the moment, limited practical use, since variable amounts of unknown foreign materials in
the interfacial region makes it almost impossible to derive quantitative estimates of the absolute
magnitude of friction from physical properties of the rubber and surface. So assumptions must
still be made.
36
6.2
6.2. FEM
FEM
There are two distinctive methods to solve FE problems, implicit and explicit. The implicit method
solves for a statical or dynamical equilibrium, while the explicit method solves transient dynamic
response problems using an explicit direct-integration procedure.
Although a lot of procedures are implemented in ABAQUS, the user still has to make several
choices in the model formulation, i.e., the discretization of the mesh, the element types, the solution procedure, the solver tolerances etc. These selections may have a tremendous effect on the
final result, so care must be taken.
Contact problems in FEM are divided into normal and tangential contact and interfacial laws must
be chosen to solve the contact problem. If the tangential forces reach a certain limit bodies will no
longer stick, but start sliding. Normally a local Coulomb law is used to calculate the shear stress
in this case, but it is also possible to formulate tangential constitutive equations by regularization
of the stick-slip behavior, e.g. to avoid the non-differentiability of Coulombs law at zero velocity.
Besides a fixed friction coefficient in ABAQUS some build-in constitutive laws can used to make
the coefficient of friction dependent on pressure, sliding velocity or other field variables. ABAQUS
also provides the possibility to use own interfacial laws.
With the standard options in ABAQUS it is nowadays possible to include a detailed tread pattern
on a (part of a) tyre global model, instead of the global-local approach, and perform analyses to
capture footprints as a function of axle load and inflation pressure. The stress and strain in all
tyre components and the force and moment on a center feel can be calculated.
The steady state option in ABAQUS makes it possible to efficiently calculate steady state solutions
for different driving conditions, since the mesh need to be refined only in the contact region. With
this option frictional effects, inertia effects, and history effects in the material can all be accounted
for. This makes it a powerful approach to obtain steady state solutions and determine the global
forces and moments for several variables, such as inflation pressure, normal load, velocity, slip and
chamber angle.
A limitation of this so-called steady state transport simulation is that the circumference of the
tyre and the road must be continuous. As a result only circumferential groves can be used in these
kind of simulations. This also implies that a macroscopic friction law is required, in which surface
roughness is embedded in the friction model.
A phenomenological approach could be used to derive a macroscopic friction law, which depend on
normal pressure, sliding velocity, temperature and surface roughness. The articles of Huemer et al.
(2001a,b) are related to this context, a friction law for rubber tread blocks on snow and concrete is
presented for use in a macroscopic model. The coefficient of friction depends on normal pressure,
sliding velocity and temperature. The friction coefficient itself is only a function of normal pressure and sliding velocity. Temperature effects are incorporated using the WLF transformation.
Hofstetter et al. (2003) introduced a thermo-mechanical coupling where energy dissipation during
sliding is converted into heat and this heat flux causes a temperature rise of the rubber and road
and this influences the friction coefficient.
Dorsch et al. (2002) derived a phenomenological friction law using data obtained from experiments
on the LAT100.
Despite the still increasingly computational power there are still limitations in the kind of simulations one can perform. Especially explicit simulations, where transient dynamic effects are
captured, require a lot of time and as a result coarse meshes are often used to solve these problems.
A way to perform explicit simulations is to use an uniform discretization along the circumference.
It is than possible to transfer steady state rolling results to ABAQUS/Explicit and perform dy-
6. CONCLUSIONS
37
namic/impact simulations such as rolling over a cleat.

To incorporate transient local temperature effects at severe slip angles, ABAQUS explicit can be
used as well in theory, although this probably takes a very long time to simulate and no records
of this has been found in literature sofar. However experimental results of the temperature in an
actual contact area between the pavement and the tread of a cornering tyre show a significant
temperature rise (Fujikawa et al., 1994).
38
6.2. FEM
Appendix A
32th Tire Mechanics Short Course

A.1
Strength, wear and friction of rubber.
The presentation of Gent (2007) deals with the mechanical properties of rubber. Four subjects
are addressed: Elasticity and visco-elasticity, strength of rubber components, rolling and sliding
friction, and abrasion of rubber and wear of tyres.
A.1.1
Elasticity and visco-elasticity
Elastic
Rubber is an elastic, soft and virtually incompressible material. Its molecular structure consists of
long, linear flexible molecules forming random coils. The molecular segments are mobile (so-called
Brownian motion) and the molecules are interlinked into a 3D network. Chemical crosslinks are
usually made by sulfur linkages also known as vulcanization. The rubbery state of a polymer is
determined by the so-called glass transition temperature Tg . If the temperature is above Tg the
polymer is rubbery, below Tg the polymer is glassy. For rubbers the Tg is below room temperature.
The Brownian motion (rate of segmental jumps) depends strongly on temperature (sheet 6).
Small strains
For small strains the material properties can be defined by the shear modulus G and the modulus
of bulk compression K, which are related to the tensile or Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio
as follows:
E
2(1 + )G,
1 3K 2G
.
2 3K + G
(A.1)
(A.2)
For rubber typically K G and it follows that E = 3G and = 0.5. If a rubber block with
= 0.5 is compressed, it is sheared outwards and generates an internal pressure. This effect causes
a compression modulus, which is generally greater than E. An example can be found on sheet 10.
Large strains
For large strains the deformation is usually described by stretch ratios 1 , 2 , 3 in the principle directions. Instead of a modulus a strain energy density function is used. Several forms (constitutive
models) are available.
40
A.1. STRENGTH, WEAR AND FRICTION OF RUBBER.
Filled rubbers
In tyres rubbers are usually filled with particles like carbon black or silica. This creates two additional effects. The so-called Payne effect and Mullins effect, which are both softening effects. The
Payne effect is a softening effect for small strains (0.1%), attributed to breaking apart aggregates
of filler particles. The Mullins effect is a substantial softening effect at higher strains, attributed
to progressive detachment of rubber molecules from filler particles.
The constitutive laws for large strains cannot be used to fully describe the stress-strain relation,
because rubbers do not follow reversible stress-strain relations.
A.1.2
Visco-elastic
When rubber is dynamically stretched and released the returned energy is less than the energy
that is put into the rubber, see sheet 21. This visco-elastic effect cannot be described by the perfect
elastic shear modulus G, but a dynamic shear modulus G0 and a dynamic shear loss modulus G00
is introduced to describe this hysteresis. Another term that is frequently used is the loss angle,
00
which is defined as tan = G
G0 . For an elastic solid the strain is in phase with the stress, while for
a visco-elastic solid the strain lags behind the stress with a delay of , where is the frequency
(rad/sec).
The dependence of segmental jump rate on temperature is described by the universal WLF relation
(Williams et al., 1955),
T
17.5(T Tg )
log
=
,
(A.3)
Tg
52 + T Tg
where Tg = 0.1/sec. Some polymers such as butyl rubber behave according a different relation
log
17.5(T Tg )
T
=
.
Tg
100 + T Tg
(A.4)
This is possibly due to unusually long moving segments. The WLF relation can by used to predict
results at other temperatures, the frequency f at temperature T is equivalent to a frequency f
at T , where
T
f
=
= aT
(A.5)
f
T
aT is known as the shift factor, this also holds for strain rates or velocities. An example is given
on sheets 27-30. However the following remark should be taken into account: These shifts are
only valid for pure rate (viscous) processes.
Strength of rubber components
In this section the tear strength and fracture energy are discussed. Also the visco-elastic contribution to strength effects of rate and temperature is treated. However this is not so important at
this moment.
A.1.3
Friction
The coefficient of friction is defined as:
F
,
(A.6)
N
where N is the normal force and F the tangential force. For soft rubber sliding on a smooth
surface (perfect contact) the frictional force F is more or less constant, independent of the load
N . Thus the coefficient of friction decreases continuously as the pressure increases, see figure
A.1. However, there is also a coefficient of friction, independent of pressure, for harder rubber
compounds, sliding on a rough surface. Apparently in this case contact is incomplete. An increase
in pressure creates a larger true area of contact and hence a larger frictional force.
=
A. 32TH TIRE MECHANICS SHORT COURSE
(a) Friction definition.
41
(b) Friction law.
Figure A.1: Friction on smooth surface.
A.1.4
Rolling friction
Rolling friction Fr can be seen as M

R , where M is a torque and R the radius. For an elastic
wheel the reaction force acts through the wheel center and therefore the moment M = 0. For a
visco-elastic wheel the reaction force moves towards the loading side, because stresses are lower
in unloading, M = N z where N is the normal load and z the distance from the wheel center, see
figure 3.4.
Displacement of the center of pressure, and hence the coefficient of friction r , depend on speed
and temperature in the same way as the loss factor tan . A formulation for r as proposed by
Greenwood et al. (1961),

13
N
r = 0.33
tan ,
(A.7)
G R 2
where G is the complex shear modulus. Rolling friction is mainly due to energy dissipated as
rubber is compressed and released in the contact patch.
Figure A.2: Rolling friction.
Sliding friction
Grosch (1963) noted that the curve for vs. sliding speed on a lubricated rough surface resembles
the curve for tan vs. frequency f (and they both obey WLF temperature shifts), see figure
A.3. He claims that friction is due to energy dissipated as rubber is compressed and released by
asperities. For dry sliding on a smooth surface the curve for vs. sliding speed Vs resembles again
the curve for tan vs. frequency f . But now it is displaced to much lower speeds than before.
Friction in dry sliding on a smooth surface is due to energy dissipation as rubber sticks and slips on
a molecular scale. In the case of sliding on a rough dry surface the two dissipative processes appear
42
A.2. THE TIRE AS A VEHICLE COMPONENT.
Figure A.3: Grosch interpretation.
at different speeds, corresponding to different length scales: asperities and molecules, see figure
A.4. Conclusion: Several contributions to can arise at the same sliding speed from stick-slip
processes occurring at different length scales.
Figure A.4: Combined effect of sliding on a rough and dry surface.
Abrasion
Some general remarks can be found on sheets 64-65. This is not relevant at this moment.
A.2
The tire as a vehicle component.
The presentation of Potts (2007) consists of vehicle dynamics and can be compared with the book
of Pacejka (2006) or the lecture notes on vehicle dynamics (Besselink, 2003). The presentation
actually starts more or less at sheet 44 with the definition of a tyre: A Compliant roller bearing with tractive properties. Further load support and the so-called carpet plots are explained.
The importance of vehicle understeer and the contribution of the tyre is treated in sheets 67-79.
Testing equipment and results of forces and moments measurements as well as eigenfrequencies
are presented in the remainder of the presentation. The tyre models used for vehicle handling are
(semi-)analytical dynamic models.
A.3
43
Tire materials and manufacturing.
The materials and manufacturing processes used for pneumatic tyres are discussed in this presentation (Walter, 2007a). The worldwide tyre production is greater than 1 billion units with a
market value exceeding US $100 billion. Around 73% of this is contributed by passenger tyres and
70% of these tyres are replacement tyres.
The presentation is divided in four subjects: the tyre components, tyre elastomers, the cord reinforcements and factory processing.
A.3.1
Tyre components
There are basically two types of tyres: bias and radial tyres, however the focus in this report will
be on radial tyres, since these are manufactured at Vredestein. The main difference is the orientation of the plies, see figure A.5. Every rubber component in a tyre requires specific properties.
(a) Bias tyre.
(b) Radial tyre.
Figure A.5: Difference between bias and radial tyres.
An overview of these components can be found on sheet 10. Further the tyre construction, such as
aspect ratio, belt construction and tread compound, depends on the target market (speed rating).
The principal tyre elastomers are natural rubber (NR), polyisoprene (IR, this is synthetic NR),
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), butyl rubber (IIR) and butadiene (BR). The reinforcement materials are: a) The fillers, such as carbon black and silica. b) The organic textile plies, such as
polyester or rayon bodies, nylon cap or kevlar. And c) Steel, which is used in the belt cord and
the bead wires. Some details and definitions are given on sheets 1523.
The definition of a compound (sheet 24) is the following: the formulation of a mixture of rubber
and additives which meets the needs of the tyre component application. Usually a compound consists of one or more polymers, vulcanizing agents, accelerators, reinforcing fillers, antidegradents,
plasticizers, softeners and tackifiers (used to bond pieces together). This explains why the properties of a compound can deviate from a pure elastomer.
44
A.4. RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING TIRES.
A.3.2
Tyre elastomers
In this part (sheet 2964) the aforementioned rubbers are described in detail and the effect of
fillers is discussed. Some sheets deal with the dynamic mechanical properties, this overlaps with
Gent et al. (2007).
A.3.3
Cord reinforcements and Factory processing
In the last part the different cord reinforcements, textile and steel, are discussed. Different types of
steel cord constructions are explained and finally the manufacturing processes is described. This
will not be discussed here, however is should be noted that (limitations of) the manufacturing
process greatly affects the final tyre. So it is worthwhile to scroll through this slides.
A.4
Rules and regulations governing tires.
This is an interesting presentation of Walter (2007b) about all the rules, which again affect tyre design. Although this presentation is focussed on the US federal government regulations, it provides
a background on the fair amount of rules, which tyre manufactures have to cope with.
A.5
Advanced tire modeling.
The presentation of Padovan (2007) introduces the course goals of finite element analysis in tyre
analysis. There are in total 12 presentations with over 600 sheets, so in the remainder of this
chapter references to a presentation are made using the number (#) shown in table A.1. In this
overview Ill give some remarks to highlight interesting parts. In the introduction presentation
Table A.1: Presentations of Padovan.
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Title
Advanced tire modeling
Intro to FEA modeling
Multilength scale FEA model of tire
Dynamic elastomer properties
Critical speed
Rolling resistance
FEA modeling of tires stochastic effects
Optimization of cord spacing
Fracture mechanics
Modeling stochastic effects on durability
Overal fatigue analysis procedure
Hydroplaning analysis
there is, besides the outline of the other presentations, one sheet giving an overview of tyre
problems, which are successfully handled by virtual CAE modeling methodologies (1):
Static rim mounting, inflation and axle load/deflection analysis
States of stress/deflection/strain in all tyre components
Force and moment, on center feel
45
Definition of footprint shape as a function of axle load state and pressure

Rolling/handling models both quasi-static and dynamic including braking and cornering
effects
Thermal analysis/rolling resistance under rolling conditions
Model cure press, and other manufacturing steps
Fatigue life prediction models under full duty cycle
Natural frequencies, handling and critical speed analysis
Hydroplaning models, snow traction, in mud performance
Geometry, and cord layout optimization
Tread lug design
Acoustical analysis
Suspension models incorporating tyres
The second presentation is the introduction to finite elements, this presentation is more elaborate
than the other presentations. These sketch the general problem and show the FE solution.
It is important to determine the levels of deformation/strain to use appropriate stress-strain (linear
vs. nonlinear) relations (2). In general tyre problems are large deformation/strain problems:
Small deformation
Deformation <<<<< Characteristic length
Small strain
Strain = Deformation/Characteristic length <<<<< 1.
Large deformation
Deformation = O( Characteristic length)
Large strain
Strain = Deformation/Characteristic length = O(1.)
In the third presentation it is stated that the overall tyre performance is usual measured by global
actions, such as force & moment, ride comfort or dynamic response and therefore gross FEA models can be employed to establish such characteristics. In contrast to this some aspects, such as tyre
failure, require very localized models. In this sense a multi length scale methodology can be used,
i.e., a global model is used to drive a local model. A summary of advantages and disadvantages
for global and local model is given in this presentation and also stated here.
A one scale model has one contiguous mesh and a refined mesh is placed in locations of interest,
transition meshes are needed to link refined and coarse zones. It is in general difficult to build a
mesh with reliable local refinements. The models tend to be very large and time consuming and
are not very adoptable making mesh modifications. The transition areas tend to yield unreliable
results.
Multiple scales suffer the so-called localization syndrome: localization always requires further localization, so a localization cut-off criteria is needed. Besides that stress and strain take on a
random character as localization brings on the probabilistic nature of such scale levels. While
probabilistic variances can be very significant, generally the mean is close to the nominal design
value and since stiffness of cord or metallic/plastic subcomponents are orders of magnitude higher
than rubber, local actions of such subcomponents dominate; rubber is hence strictly a geometric
place holder. Also every new level should be correlated with experiments to assess accuracy and
46
A.5. ADVANCED TIRE MODELING.
sensitivity to meshing.
Sheets 30-36 give an example of a global-local approach to investigate local cord-rubber interaction.
It is however stated here that with a global model the usual performance characteristics are usable.
Presentation 4 deals with material properties of elastomers, such as stress-strain and creep, and
friction. The friction depends on interfacial pressure and dynamic effects, see figures A.6 and A.7.
1000 psi
Interfacial pressure
Figure A.6: Quasi static.
O(10 20% slip)
dry
icy/wet
100%
Percentage slip
Figure A.7: Dynamic effect for average roughness road.
Presentation 5 is about critical speeds of tyres and describes four methodes to analyze this, but
it is not relevant at the moment.
Rolling resistance is the subject of presentation 6 and is primary caused (95%) by mechanical work
stored in rubber that is partially converted to heat and secondary cause (5%) is the mechanical
work stored in cords that is converted to heat and friction work induced in the footprint area
during rolling, which generates heat in addition to wear. Two different approaches are given to
determine the rolling resistance.
The other presentations go into specific subjects and are not relevant at the moment.
A.6
47
Tire wear, traction and force generation.
The footprint is the subject of the presentation by Pottinger (2007). A footprint is a complex
object, since the tyre is a doubly curved surface and is pneumatically pre-stressed. And friction
affects the deformation of the tyre.
Contact leads to a stress distribution across the interface, with normal component Z , and shear
components at each point, X and Y . The nature of this distribution has a complex dependence
on conditions of use. Two distinctive measurement techniques can be identified: Measure Z at
ever finer resolutions or examine the entire stress field at somewhat coarser resolutions. A method
for measuring Z is pressure sensitive film (like the Fuji-film) for a static case. Electronic pressure
mats (like Tekscan) can be used for static and slow rolling cases. These cannot be used for large
shears, which occur in cornering, braking or accelerating. The dramatic difference between static
and slow rolling is shown in figure A.8, this shows why static footprints can be misleading. Sheets
18-30 give some examples of machines and concepts for measuring footprints.
Figure A.8: Static and slow rolling footprint.
Temperature plays a great role in the footprint. The surface temperature, in particular the change
through contact, is related to wear. The bulk temperature determines the stiffness of the tread
compound, see also chapter A.1. Both wear resistance and handling depend on tyre temperature
in the footprint because it influences abradability, stiffness and also the coefficient of friction. In
figure A.9 the effect of temperature rise on different surfaces is shown. It can be seen that the
conductivity of the surface has great influence on the tread surface temperature, note that the slip
angle is 6 . This slip angle is a very severe condition for wear and will cause gumming in racing
tyres. Some years ago Michelin published data showing that over 99% of all driving in the United
States occurred at less than 6 slip angle. The low slip angles involved in actual operation are
why tyres have a reasonable wear life.
Figure A.10 shows basic passenger tyre footprint longitudinal and lateral stress characteristics.
These figures are for zero slip and chamber angle. It can be seen that X is positive at the front
and negative at the back. The shoulders have a larger effective radius than the crown in this figure.
The lateral stresses are pointed outwards. The effect of slip angle can be seen in figure A.11. A
48
A.6. TIRE WEAR, TRACTION AND FORCE GENERATION.
Figure A.9: Temperature effects.
slip angle reshapes the footprint into a rough trapezoid. One of the shoulders becomes longer, for
example, the right shoulder, when turning left, and the other grows shorter (the left shoulder in
this case). The normal stress increases on the long shoulder and falls on the short shoulder.
(a) Longitudinal stress.
49
(b) Lateral stress.
Figure A.10: Longitudinal and lateral stress.
Figure A.11: Effect of slip angle.
50
A.7. TIRE STRESSES AND DEFORMATION ANALYSIS.
The tread pattern on tyres exist only as traction aids for contaminated surfaces, such as water or
snow. These grooves cause uneven wear and noise. A remarkable citation from sheet 61: Industrial
design of the pattern is artistic icing on an engineering necessity.
For good dry traction one should put as much rubber on the road as possible. The following
traction summary shows the trade-off in tread design:
Dry
Maximize contact area
Keep Z low
Use soft compound
Wet
Medium-hard compound
Maximize groove volume fraction
Minimize element size
Long narrow footprint
Ice
Low TG rubber
Lots of element edges
Snow
Large void projection times void width product perpendicular to direction of required
force
Flexible tread elements to insure cleaning, so void doesnt clog
Sheets 73-97 shows different aspects of wear. A relation between wear and shear energy intensity
is presented. Some guidelines for outdoor and indoor testing are given. The last part (98-116) of
the presentation focusses on the limits of force generation for several conditions, mostly based on
experimental data, such as pavement texture, hydroplaning, compounds and snow traction.
This outlines again that a lot of environmental issues influence the force generation, and as a result
friction and wear.
A.7
Tire stresses and deformation analysis.
This last presentation given by Trinko (2007) gives an overview of the stresses and strains in tyres.
It consists of three parts: Force topics, composite properties and stresses and strains.
A.7.1
Force topics
This section (sheets 349) is divided into 5 topics: Load transfer, cord tension, bead calculation,
Purdy equations and air diffusion. Interesting part is air diffusion, which is equivalent to a heat
transfer problem.
A.7.2
Composite properties
In this part of the presentation (sheets 51-86) the laminate theory is explained. This theory can
probably be used to do some basic calculations to rubber/cord laminates and compare that to the
so-called rebar elements in ABAQUS.
A.7.3
51
Stress and strain
The last part gives some FE results about slip velocity and friction. Although this is another
program than ABAQUS, it shows that a rolling tyre with friction and different slip angles is
possible. In figure A.12 the slip and friction for 0 and 1 slip angle are shown. There are two
(a) Slip 0 .
(b) Friction 0 .
(c) Slip 1 .
(d) Friction 1 .
Figure A.12: Difference between 0 and 1 slip angle.
approaches to rolling tyres. First a Lagrangian approach, where the mesh rolls. To use this
approach equal segments around the whole tyre must be used. This allows a full tread pattern.
The second one is a mixed Euler-Lagrange approach, where the material flows through the mesh.
The mesh can deform, but does not roll. This can only be used for steady state solutions. The
main advantage is that a fine mesh is only needed in the contact area, however this requires
an axi-symmetric model with a smooth or circumferential grooved tread pattern. The proposed
frictional stress for steady state rolling is
F = (P, V )P,
(A.8)
where V is Vtyre Vroad and P the normal pressure. Two friction laws are given, the first one
as function of pressure,
(P ) = CP ,
(A.9)
where C and are constants and the second one as a function of V , see figure A.13. The
power law (A.9), see also figure A.6, seems reasonable, according to Trinko, however the aligning
moments are wrong compared to experiments. Trinko thinks this is due to a wrong friction law,
52
A.7. TIRE STRESSES AND DEFORMATION ANALYSIS.
but hes not aware of improved friction laws. Another remark is that there is still no conclusive
correlation with wear. After the end of the presentation some additional sheets (143-169) are
V
Figure A.13: Friction law as function of V for rolling tyre.
added. These describe some measurement techniques and explanations behind calculations.
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Tyre/road friction modeling

R. van der Steen

Eindhoven University of Technology

3 Friction models and surface roughness

Friction of viscoelastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Finite Element Method

Contact and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Literature related to FEM and tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 Validation and modeling methods

LAT1OO and Tekscan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eplexor and DIK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Flat plank and tyre test trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tyre modeling in ABAQUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A 32th Tire Mechanics Short Course

A.1 Strength, wear and friction of rubber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.2 The tire as a vehicle component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.3 Tire materials and manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.4 Rules and regulations governing tires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.5 Advanced tire modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.6 Tire wear, traction and force generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.7 Tire stresses and deformation analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

WLF shift factor

Magic formula coefficient

(a) Bias tyre.

(b) Radial tyre.

Table 2.1: Available material models in ABAQUS.

Friction models and surface

Deviations from Coulomb friction

3.2. FRICTION OF VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS

Figure 3.1: Coulomb friction model and some variations.

where x is an input, e.g. or and F an output such as Fx or Mz . The coefficients B, C, D

Friction of viscoelastic materials

3. FRICTION MODELS AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Figure 3.2: Grosch interpretation (picture taken from Gent (2007)).

3.3. SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Rolling friction Fr can be seen as M

Figure 3.4: Rolling friction (picture taken from Gent (2007)).

3. FRICTION MODELS AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

3.3. SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Finite Element Method

4.1. CONTACT AND FRICTION

Contact and friction

Figure 4.2: Schematic view of Signorini conditions.

4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

An example, taken from Wriggers (2006), of this general non-linear function:

c1 (1617646.152 cc34 )c2

if ||tT || > |pN |,

where tT is the shear stress.

where is defined as a field variable, e.g. temperature.

4.1. CONTACT AND FRICTION

part and a plastic (slip) part.

Constraint handling in ABAQUS

Contact possibilities in ABAQUS

4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Figure 4.3: Adapting penalty stiffness, based on a maximal allowable slip.

4.2. LITERATURE RELATED TO FEM AND TYRES

Literature related to FEM and tyres

4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Fatigue life prediction models under full duty cycle

4.2. LITERATURE RELATED TO FEM AND TYRES

Force & Moment

4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

4.2. LITERATURE RELATED TO FEM AND TYRES