Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PA R T II Theoretical Perspectives 59
Chapter 3 Media Content: Studying the Making of Meaning 60
Chapter 4 Perspectives on Media and Audiences 86
Chapter 5 Advertising and Promotional Culture 113
Chapter 6 Communication Technology and Society: Theory and Practice 142
Glossary 321
References 332
Index 352
Contents
List of Boxes xi
Preface xii
Acknowledgments xv
From the Publisher xvi
PA R T II Theoretical Perspectives 59
3 Media Content: Studying the Making Agency and Structure: A Key Concern in
of Meaning 60 the Study of Communication 70
Introduction 61 Perspectives on the Study of Content 71
Representation and Signification 61 Summary 84
Intertextuality, Polysemy, and the Key Terms 84
Indeterminacy of Representation 62 Related Websites 85
Communication Theory as Social Theory 65 Further Readings 85
The Encoding/Decoding Model 66 Study Questions 85
Contents | ix
Glossary 321
References 332
Index 352
List of Boxes
Box 1.1 Canadians Are #1 in Internet Usage on Box 8.1 Telecommunications Act, Section 7 198
the Planet According to the World Atlas 4 Box 8.2 Broadcasting Act, Section 3:
Box 1.2 The Various Ways We Communicate 17 “Broadcasting Policy for Canada” 202
Box 1.3 O Canada: Our Home and Naïve Land 21 Box 8.3 The MAPL System—Defining a
Box 1.4 The Two-Step Flow of Communication 22 Canadian Song 208
Box 1.5 What Is Capitalism? 25 Box 8.4 Copyright, by Sara Bannerman 209
Box 2.1 The Commodity and Communication 38 Box 8.5 The Video-Game Industry in Canada:
Box 2.2 A Dark Side of Canadian History 47 A Snapshot, by Greig de Peuter and
Box 2.3 Economies of Scale 48 Chris J. Young 213
Box 2.4 Broadcasting and Nation-Building 49 Box 9.1 The Canadian Market 227
Box 2.5 The Economics of Media Representation 50 Box 9.2 The Myth of Meritocracy 229
Box 3.1 Media/Culture Binding 69 Box 9.3 The Means of Production 232
Box 3.2 On Orson Welles’s War of the Worlds81 Box 9.4 Public Ownership 234
Box 4.1 The Language of Movies and Television 94 Box 9.5 Precarious Labour, by Errol Salamon 242
Box 4.2 Feminism and Media Studies, Box 10.1 Networked Journalism 249
by Tamara Shepherd 100 Box 10.2 Pushing and Pulling 252
Box 4.3 Fan Studies, by Steve Bailey 104 Box 10.3 Fake News 254
Box 4.4 The Audience Commodity 108 Box 10.4 John Milton’s Areopagitica 255
Box 4.5 Monetizing the Web: Turning the Box 10.5 Freedom of the Press 256
Audience into Media Professionals 109 Box 10.6 Ethnocultural Media, by April Lindgren 260
Box 5.1 Word of Mouth Marketing 116 Box 10.7 The Marriage between Journalism and
Box 5.2 Identity Politics, by Kisha McPherson 121 Marketing266
Box 5.3 Ratings, Analytics, and Click Farms 130 Box 10.8 Journalism without Journalists? 267
Box 5.4 The Internet of Things 133 Box 10.9 Podcasting, by Andrea Hunter 268
Box 5.5 Smart Cities and Surveillance Box 10.10 Will Canadians Pay for Online News? 269
Capitalism139 Box 11.1 Canada’s Changing Profile 277
Box 6.1 Time Bias 145 Box 11.2 Indigenous Media Activity 279
Box 6.2 Space Bias 146 Box 11.3 Second Thoughts about Globalization 281
Box 6.3 Cyborgs 149 Box 11.4 The Digital Divide 292
Box 6.4 Platforms or Walled Gardens?, Box 11.5 The Age of Migration 294
by Fenwick McKelvey 153 Box 12.1 The Media Co-op 301
Box 6.5 Edward Snowden: Hero or Traitor? 163 Box 12.2 Advocating for Change 304
Box 6.6 A Panoptic Society? 164 Box 12.3 National Campus and Community Radio
Box 7.1 Defining Terms: Legislation, Regulation, Association/Association Nationale des
Policy171 Radios Étudiantes et Communautaires
Box 7.2 Charles Dickens 174 (NCRA/ANREC)308
Box 7.3 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 175 Box 12.4 Kondratiev Waves: Tracking
Box 7.4 Major Communication Policy Documents 176 Technological Change 312
Box 7.5 Canadian Radio League 179 Box 12.5 The Radical Fringes of the Long Tail 317
Box 7.6 Deregulation or Reregulation? 189
Preface
G
iven the rapidly changing mediascape, This is not to suggest that in this time of tran-
every revision of this textbook ends up sition everything is new. Certainly, one of the
as a significant overhaul. This time we challenges in revising this textbook is separating
have even changed the title. If, as outlined in what is fundamentally new and different from
Chapter 1, mass communication is still a key ele- what only appears new. Yes, there are always new
ment of Canadian media digitization, the new gadgets, new apps, or new services. But which
media forms that have accompanied digitization of these truly alters how we communicate, and
have restructured the field to the extent that which is simply old wine in a new bottle?
we thought that it was time to acknowledge the The increase in our access to information is
changes in the name of the book itself. So we typically celebrated, but one of the things we
have changed the title from Mass Communication believe to be fundamentally new is the extent
in Canada to Media and Communication in Canada. to which we are under constant surveillance,
If digitization has altered our communication as both government agencies and corporations
habits, redrawn the map of our communications exploit new media technologies to track, store,
world, changed how we engage with media, and analyze, influence, and act upon our communica-
shaken to the core the communications indus- tions and our behaviours. One new development
tries themselves, digitization has also had an in this area is the extensive use of social media
impact on every chapter in this book. Think, for networks by foreign states, extremist groups, and
example, of how anachronistic some of our ter- their proxies to intervene in political debates and
minology has become. Is it adequate any more otherwise democratic elections.
to talk about media consumers, when many Working conditions in the media industries
of us are also engaged in some form of media have also changed fundamentally, in both the
production, whether that entails posting and private and public sectors; secure and perma-
sharing content on social media sites, contrib- nent positions are being replaced by precarious
uting reviews of movies and TV shows, sub- contract work, employers are demanding greater
mitting online comments about news stories, rights to sell and distribute that work across
or developing our own podcasts and websites? numerous platforms and through digital archiv-
When we talk about radio, television, film, ing, and workers are being asked to produce their
books, magazines, or newspapers, do we mean work for multiple platforms while at the same
the analog version, the online version, or the time facing greater competition from the under-
mobile version? What does watching TV or lis- paid labour of freelancers and the free labour of
tening to music mean, when these activities can interns and amateurs.
take place almost anywhere and anytime, using What is not new is the power that media cor-
different devices? What, exactly, are we talking porations exert in an increasingly commercial-
about? These questions preoccupied us at every ized mediasphere. If there remains considerable
stage of revising and updating this edition of talk about the democratization of communica-
the book. tion thanks to the accessibility of digital media,
Preface | xiii
corporations continue to consolidate their shifts. Perhaps the biggest single challenge has
power by growing larger, by integrating their been to document and analyze the growing influ-
operations across the full range of analog and ence that digitization and new media are having
digital media, by using their human and capital on our society; while we take digital media for
resources to produce and distribute content with granted today, they remain relatively new—for
high production values, and by employing their instance, the World Wide Web is only 30 years
promotional and marketing power to grab the old—and they still coexist with analog versions.
attention of audiences and advertising markets. This is not to say that technology is the primary
In other words, the tools available to citizens are driver of social change, but media are certainly
also available to corporations, governments, and implicated in the shifting social, political, and
other organizations with the resources to fully economic dimensions of our society, and under-
exploit these tools. standing their role in that regard is a key focus of
Another thing that is not new is the way in this book.
which this book focuses on communication in A notable part of this edition’s new content
Canada and adopts a critical perspective. With is a chapter devoted to advertising and promo-
the Canadian population being relatively small tional culture. Previous editions have discussed
and spread thinly across a vast geography bor- advertising and marketing, of course, but given
dering the United States, the media in this the ubiquity of advertising and related forms of
country are fundamental to understanding our promotional messages carried by the media, we
friends, neighbours, and fellow citizens, as well felt it deserved much more thorough treatment.
as our place in the world. They are key to visualiz- Part I, “The Sociocultural Context,” situates
ing the unique circumstances that drive our prob- media and mass communication within this lar-
lems, challenges, and ambitions. In other words, ger context, and revisions in this section largely
media sit at the heart of the forces that animate focus on how digitization and new media are
the Canadian polity. From this perspective, they implicated in the ways in which our daily lives
are central to the democratic process, revealing and society are being restructured along social,
and accommodating difference, and building political, economic, and geographic dimensions.
common vision and goals. At the same time, Can- We have also revised the theoretical elements of
adian governments at all levels draft laws, enforce these chapters, more fully integrating them with
regulations, fund institutions, and enact policies the historical context of their development.
that shape our mediascape in fundamental ways. In Chapter 1, we provide a broad introduction
This can include prohibitions on things ranging to the themes and ideas presented in the book,
from hate speech and online bullying to state and defining terms such as communication, mass com-
corporate surveillance, and it can include support munication, and convergence. Here, we introduce
instruments for particular media sectors and the key models for understanding the social dimen-
production of certain kinds of content. sions of communication, and we consider the
For all these reasons, having a Canadian focus, ways in which communication systems are cen-
like the one we take in Media and Communication tral to orienting us within the world.
in Canada, Ninth Edition, is key to understanding Chapter 2 takes a historical look at the rela-
the place and role of media in Canadian society. tionships between communication, society, and
Not only is this edition of Media and Communi- culture. Terms such as culture, society, capitalism,
cation fully updated with new examples, illustra- and information and communication technology
tions, and statistics, but it is also loaded with new (ICT) are defined and discussed, and the roles of
content, reflecting both the shifting dimensions media and communication in the political and
of the field of media and mass communication cultural dimensions of society are further elab-
and the social and political implications of these orated. We examine different theories of the
xiv | Preface
political role of media in this context, and we go updated to provide a better link between the
on to consider the ways in which the distinctive approaches that characterized policy for most of
elements of the social, political, and physical the twentieth century and government responses
geographies of the Canadian state have nuanced to the circumstances facing the various com-
the form and structure of the Canadian media. munications sectors today. Chapter 8 surveys the
Part II, “Theoretical Perspectives,” surveys challenges and policy responses across the vari-
prominent theories pertaining to content, audi- ous communication sectors. The ongoing conver-
ences, and media as vehicles for advertising and gence of Canada’s cultural industries is central to
promotional culture, and technology. this discussion, as are its impacts on what were
In Chapter 3, we introduce terms that once the separate media silos of telecommunica-
describe some basic characteristics of the process tions, broadcasting, music recording, film, new
of communication and media content. Working media, publishing, and the postal service.
with a model that describes communication as a Chapter 9 addresses media ownership and the
process of encoding and decoding, we introduce economics of mass communication in a period
a number of common theoretical and methodo- when new business models are being explored,
logical perspectives used to study media content changing the game for media organizations,
and illustrate how these theories relate to the those who work for them, and audience mem-
production of meaning and the larger social prac- bers. In Chapter 10, we bring together a number
tice of communication. of themes in the book by providing a concrete
Chapter 4 addresses the dynamic interaction discussion of journalism as a particular, and sig-
between media and audiences, such that audience nificantly transformed, means of content pro-
members actively and selectively interpret media duction. We situate the practice of journalists in
content based on frameworks of understanding an evolving media environment that brings into
they bring to that content. Such a perspective pro- play ideals, laws, settings, storytelling conven-
vides a means for explaining how media, audiences, tions, and economic imperatives.
and culture interact in a non-deterministic fashion Part IV, “An Evolving Communications
and, particularly, how audiences engage with media. World,” is the last section of the book. It situ-
Chapter 5 examines how advertising and pro- ates Canadians’ communications within a global
motional culture are deeply tied to the workings context. In Chapter 11, we define what globaliz-
of both our economy and our culture, especially ation means and survey a number of theoretical
given their ubiquity and their symbiotic relation- currents while, at the same time, underscoring
ship with the media. the point that the activities and institutions we
We have revised Chapter 6 to further empha- have described throughout the book are not,
size the point that technology refers not merely and have never been, cut off from the rest of the
to communications hardware and software, but world. Chapter 12 provides the conclusions and
as well to ways in which production practices includes a concise summary of the ideas and per-
are organized and, relatedly, to the point that all spectives covered in the book, while pointing the
technologies are embedded within a social, cul- way to future study and directions of growth and
tural, political, and economic context. development in the mass communication field.
Our discussion of technology serves as a nice While the renamed Media and Communication
bridge to Part III, “The Communication Environ- in Canada continues to evolve from the first edi-
ment,” where we explore the structured context tion published under the title Mass Communica-
within which mass communication in Canada tion in Canada in 1987, it also continues to bear
takes place today. the stamp of the vision and foresight of its ori-
In Chapter 7, we review the history of cul- ginal authors, Rowland “Rowly” Lorimer and
tural policy development in Canada. It has been Jean McNulty. Their goal of providing a rigorous,
Preface | xv
theoretically informed introduction to the field of Association for Research on the Cultures of
communication studies from a Canadian perspec- Young People, and is completing a SSHRC-funded
tive continues to be the guiding force behind this research project entitled The Embodied Tween:
book. Canadians’ experience of media is unique, Living Girlhood in Global and Digital Spaces. She is
and we believe it is critical that those studying the author of Tweening the Girl: The Crystalliza-
the media in Canada understand and appreciate tion of the Tween Market (2014), co-editor of the
the particularities of the Canadian mediascape. special issue, “Locating Tween Girls,” of the jour-
Those who have used this book in the past nal Girlhood Studies (2018), and co-editor of the
have no doubt noticed that Rowly’s name has been collection Youth Mediations and Affective Relations
replaced by a new author, Natalie Coulter. Rowly (2018). Natalie has used earlier editions of Mass
has retired from the School of Communication at Communication in Canada as a textbook numer-
Simon Fraser University and, after serving as the ous times in courses she taught at both the col-
guiding force through the first eight editions of lege and university levels.
what came to be known as “the Lorimer book,” has
entrusted us with continuing, and building upon,
its legacy. Aside from conceiving of the book’s Acknowledgments
approach and its initial structure, Rowly was also
a mentor to his co-authors. Mike Gasher had been We—Mike, David, and Natalie—would like to
an undergraduate student in the Canadian Stud- thank our colleagues who provided the special-
ies program that Rowly directed, and Rowly later ized box material included with the chapters, as
supervised Mike’s MA thesis in Simon Fraser’s well as our partners Dianne Arbuckle, Jennefer
communication program. When Mike completed Laidley, and Troy Hammond for their constant
his PhD in communication studies at Concordia support. We appreciate the helpful comments of
University in 1999 and joined Concordia’s journal- both the named and anonymous reviewers of the
ism department as an assistant professor, Rowly text, including
invited him to co-author the fourth edition. David
Skinner was an undergraduate student of Rowly’s Darren Blakeborough, University of the
at Simon Fraser and had taught various versions Fraser Valley
of Mass Communication in Canada as a lecturer and Andrea Braithwaite, University of Ontario
later as a professor in the Department of Com- Institute of Technology
munication Studies at York University. David Lisa Broda, University of Saskatchewan
became a co-author as of the sixth edition, pub- Rita Isola, Capilano University
lished in 2008. Mike and David have learned a great Sandra Jeppesen, Lakehead University
deal from Rowly Lorimer over the years: about all Ravindra N. Mohabeer, Vancouver Island
facets of the Canadian mediascape to be sure, but University
also how best to convey that information to stu- Wade Nelson, University of Winnipeg
dents, both directly, as an instructor in the class- Kathryn Pallister, Red Deer College
room, and through a textbook such as this. Gregory Taylor, University of Calgary
With Rowly’s retirement, Mike and David
invited Natalie Coulter to join the team. Nat- We also thank the editorial, management,
alie, also a Simon Fraser alum, is an assistant and sales teams at Oxford University Press Can-
professor in the Department of Communication ada for their work and continued support of this
Studies at York University. Her central research book. We are particularly thankful to acquisitions
interests include girls’ studies, critical adver- editor Stephen Kotowych and the editor of the
tising studies, and the media of children and ninth edition, Lauren Wing, for their efforts in
young people. She is a founding member of the shepherding us through this revision.
From the Publisher
T
he ninth edition of Media and Communi- and communication systems by examining trad-
cation in Canada builds on the successful itional and new media, and a wealth of current
approach used in the previous editions media issues and trends. Highlighting historical
that has served instructors and students well. and social contexts, theoretical perspectives, and
It gives first-time students a comprehensive, cutting-edge research and debates, Media and
engaging, and clear introduction to the study of Communication in Canada will help students think
media and communication, ensuring that they critically about the place and role of media and
understand the subject matter in sociological, communication in their own lives and in Can-
political, technological, and economic terms. adian society.
The coverage of the topics in the text retains Contributed boxes from Canadian communi-
the best features of the previous edition while cation scholars give students an in-depth yet
adding new information on current trends and accessible look into the latest studies, media
changes in media: issues, and trends in the field:
• New discussion of franchise formats in media Box 4.2 “Feminism and Media Studies” by
(Chapter 3) Tamara Shepherd
• New analysis of the changing nature of TV Box 4.3 “Fan Studies” by Steve Bailey
(Chapter 4) Box 5.2 “Identity Politics” by Kisha
• A brand new chapter on advertising and pro- McPherson
motional media (Chapter 5) Box 6.4 “Platforms or Walled Gardens?” by
• New discussion of the regulation of music Fenwick McKelvey
streaming services (Chapter 8) Box 8.4 “Copyright” by Sara Bannerman
• Increased content on indigenous media and Box 8.5 “The Video-Game Industry in Canada:
reconciliation (Chapters 8, 11) A Snapshot” by Greig de Peuter and
• New discussion of fake news and the post- Chris J. Young
truth era (Chapter 10) Box 9.5 “Precarious Labour” by Errol
• Increased content on diversity, representa- Salamon
tion, and ethnocultural media (Chapter 10) Box 10.6 “Ethnocultural Media” by April
Lindgren
Thoroughly revised and updated, this authori- Box 10.9 “Podcasting” by Andrea Hunter
tative guide explores the shifting nature of media
From the Publisher | xvii
5
Advertising and Promotional Culture
Advertising is capitalism’s way of saying “I love you” to itself.
—Michael Schudson
Opening Questions
• How are advertising and promotion a cultural • How do advertising and promotion change in 136 | Part II Theoretical Perspectives
force? digital media?
• What theoretical perspectives are used to study • What are some of the ways that the media
and understand the relationships between functions as a system to deliver audiences to
advertising and promotion and the media? advertisers?
• How is advertising a form of ideology?
10.3
And finally, they instigate by encouraging follow- such as Starbucks and General Motors have also
Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel have described
ers to generate or recreate content by uploading capitalized on this trend of having consumers/
journalism as a “discipline of verification” as
videos onto websites or feeds (2016). Abidin sug- fans produce digital content. If nothing else, the
opposed to a “discipline of assertion.” They write, gests that followers become “a network of adver- hype around such contests in itself generates
“In the end, the discipline of verification is what torial capillaries by duplicating, amplifying, and an excitement for the brand and strengthens
separates journalism from entertainment, propa- multiplying” the influencer content to their own audience attention to those ads. In Canada, the
Fake News ganda, fiction, or art” (2001: 71). circle of friends (2016: 4). What this means is that brand Hotels.com famously had people create and
Methods of verification have taken on renewed it is not simply the influencers themselves but also upload videos of themselves as Captain Obvious,
The proper functioning of democratic society importance given the increasingly open access their followers whose digital labour is exploited. the brand spokesperson. The winning video was
depends on a number of institutions providing its to media networks, and social media in particu-
citizens with information that is factual, accurate, lar. The Knight Foundation (Hindman and Barash,
verifiable, trustworthy, and credible: government 2018) conducted a study of “the fake news eco-
(through agencies such as Statistics Canada), the system” in the aftermath of the 2016 US presi-
legal system (courts, police), the education system dential election, which was subjected to numerous
(through both research and teaching), the medical and sophisticated disinformation campaigns. Ana-
gas33218_ch05_113-141.indd 136 12/14/19 05:49 PM
establishment (from doctors to researchers), and lyzing 10 million tweets from 700,000 Twitter
journalism. Factual information forms the basis of accounts linked to more than 600 “fake and con-
every kind of decision-making process. spiracy news outlets” in a 30-day period in spring
If fake news has a long history—think of the 2017, the Knight Foundation concluded that “dis-
trashy tabloid newspapers and celebrity maga- information continues to be a substantial problem
zines displayed at supermarket checkouts—it has postelection.” It tracked 4 million tweets linked to
become a much more serious problem given the
ease with which social media networks can be
fake news and conspiracy producers, estimating
that 70 per cent of the sites were automated (3–4).
New boxed content appears throughout
deployed to fabricate or distort news reports and
images.
The subsequent Donald Trump presidency in
the United States has been noteworthy in prompt-
to promote further learning.
The erosion of public trust is a serious threat, ing news organizations like the Washington Post
as media theorist Roger Silverstone argues: “For (see Rizzo, 2018) and the New York Times (see Qiu,
the media to be viable they have to be trusted by 2018) to publish regularly the results of fact-check-
their addressees” (2007: 124). Once that trust is ing White House statements. And, of course, news
lost, Silverstone maintains, it is almost impossible consumers have greater capacity to do their own
to restore. fact-checking (see Silverman, 2007).
chapter by asking the questions that the —American essayist Sam Smith
Study Questions at the end of each • What were the Renaissance and the
Enlightenment? Why are they important to
• How do libertarian theory, the social
responsibility theory of the press, the mass
izusek/iStockphoto
Opening Questions
• What is communication? • How have shifts in communication media
• What are communication media? contributed to changing our understanding
of the world?
• How important are media to our knowledge and
understanding of the world? • What are some of the larger social roles of
media?
1 Defining the Field | 3
(CRTC, 2017); 90 per cent of Canadians use the our culture. From maple leaves to hockey
internet, 74 per cent spend 3–4 hours a day to health care and beyond, they create what
online, and 42 per cent of households have five Benedict Anderson (1983) calls an “imagined
or more internet-connected devices (CIRA, 2018). community” and help construct and feed our
But not only are communication media key conceptions about Canada and what it means to
to our individual lives, they are also central to be Canadian. Media are the major means through
the larger organization and functioning of our which governments—federal, provincial, and
society. Media help bind Canadians together municipal—communicate with residents and
with common ideas and understandings of citizens. (It may surprise you to know that gov-
ernment is the largest single advertiser in this
country!) They are the primary way that busi-
1.1
nesses develop and communicate with customers.
Media are also key agents in globalization. They
are the central vehicle for controlling the world
economy and the movement of goods and servi-
Canadians Are #1 in ces around the globe—for example, coordinat-
Internet Usage on the ing centres of production in China with markets
in Canada. And media also introduce people to
Planet According to the different cultures and keep immigrants in touch
World Atlas with the countries from which they moved.
Media also work to generate a global cultural con-
Canadians spend an average of 43.5 hours
online per month, making us the top users of the
sciousness through blanket coverage of political
internet globally. As we discuss in Chapter 11, and economic news from around the world, mass
however, what this average masks is how people sports events such as the Olympics and soccer’s
living in urban centres, and those with higher World Cup, and global tragedies such as airline
incomes, have better access to the internet disasters, earthquakes, and hurricanes. They also
than those living in rural areas or those with
help raise our consciousness about our roles in
lower incomes.
impending environmental disasters, like global
warming. In this heavily mediated world, where
Average Hours Spent Online per the implications of one person’s or country’s
Person per Month actions can span the globe, “think globally, act
Country Hours locally” has become the new universal mantra,
Canada 43.5 and media are the vehicles through which such
United States 35.3 actions are coordinated.
United Kingdom 32.3 Twenty-five years ago, the internet was
South Korea 27.7 largely the purview of scientists and research-
France 26.6
ers. Today, along with the more traditional
Brazil 25.8
media—such as television broadcasting, film,
newspaper and book publishing, and sound
Germany 24.1
recording (music)—the internet is a key element
Russia 21.8
of our lives. But while some writers argue that
Japan 18.4
new internet-based media are making old media
China 13.5
obsolete, the internet isn’t so much replacing
India 11.9
traditional media industries as it is incorporating
Source: World Atlas, 2017. them and serving as another vehicle for their dis-
tribution. Almost two decades ago, downloading
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Voyant que le pouvoir réside entre les mains des Six Cents, et
non dans le Vice-Roi ou ailleurs, j’ai durant tout mon séjour
recherché l’ombre de ceux qui bavardent le plus et le plus
extravagamment. Ils mènent le vulgaire, et en reçoivent l’autorisation
de sa bonne volonté. C’est le désir de quelques-uns de ces hommes
— en fait, d’à peu près autant que ceux qui causèrent la pourriture
de l’armée britannique — que nos terres et peuples devraient
ressembler exactement à ceux des Anglais d’aujourd’hui même.
Puisse Dieu, le Contempteur de la Folie, nous en préserver ! Moi-
même, je passe parmi eux pour un phénomène, et de nous et des
nôtres ils ne savent rien, les uns m’appelant Hindou et d’autres
Radjpout, et usant à mon égard, par ignorance, de propos
d’esclaves et d’expressions de grand irrespect. Quelques-uns
d’entre eux sont bien nés, mais la plupart sont de basse naissance,
ont la peau rude, agitent leurs bras, parlent fort, manquent de
dignité, ont la bouche relâchée, le regard furtif, et comme je l’ai déjà
dit, se laissent mener par le vent d’une robe de femme.
Voici maintenant une histoire qui ne date que de deux jours. Il y
avait une société à un repas, et une femme à la voix perçante me
parla, en présence des hommes, des affaires de nos femmes. Son
ignorance faisait de chaque mot un outrage acéré. Me rappelant
cela, je me contins jusqu’au moment où elle en vint à édicter une
nouvelle loi pour la direction de nos zénanas [29] et de toutes celles
qui sont derrière les rideaux.
[29] Harems.
Alors moi : « As-tu jamais senti la vie frémir sous ton cœur ou
tenu un petit fils entre tes seins, ô très déshéritée ? » Là-dessus elle,
avec feu et l’œil hagard : « Non, car je suis une femme libre, et non
une bonne d’enfants. » Alors moi doucement : « Dieu te traitera avec
indulgence, ma sœur, car tu as eu une servitude plus pesante
qu’aucun esclave, et la moitié de la terre la plus abondante te reste
cachée. Les premiers dix ans de la vie d’un homme appartiennent à
sa mère, et du crépuscule à l’aurore la femme peut à coup sûr
commander à son mari. Est-ce une grande chose que de rester là
durant les heures de veille tandis que les hommes s’en vont au
dehors sans que tes mains les retiennent par la bride ? » Alors elle
s’étonna d’entendre un païen parler ainsi : c’est pourtant une femme
honorée parmi ces hommes et elle professe ouvertement n’avoir pas
de profession de foi dans la bouche. Lis ceci dans l’oreille du Rao
Sahib et demande-lui comment il en irait pour moi si je lui rapportais
une pareille femme pour son usage. Ce serait pis que cette fille
jaune du désert de Cutch qui, par simple divertissement, excitait les
filles à se battre, et qui souffleta le jeune prince sur la bouche. Te
souviens-tu ?
En vérité, la source principale du pouvoir est corrompue d’être
restée tranquille longtemps. Ces hommes et ces femmes voudraient
faire de l’Inde entière un gâteau de bouse et aspireraient à laisser
dessus la trace de leurs doigts. Et ils ont le pouvoir et la gestion des
finances, et c’est pourquoi je suis si détaillé dans ma description. Ils
ont autorité sur l’Inde entière. Ce dont ils parlent, ils n’y comprennent
rien, car l’âme d’un homme de basse naissance est limitée à son
champ et il ne saisit pas la liaison des affaires d’un pôle à l’autre. Ils
se vantent ouvertement que le Vice-Roi et les autres sont leurs
serviteurs. Quand les maîtres sont fous, que feront les serviteurs ?
Les uns prétendent que toute guerre est un péché, et la mort la
plus grande menace devant Dieu. D’autres déclarent avec le
Prophète qu’il est mal de boire, enseignement auquel leurs rues
apportent un évident témoignage ; et il en est d’autres,
particulièrement de basse naissance, qui estiment que toute
domination est perverse et la souveraineté de l’épée maudite. Ceux-
ci me firent des protestations, s’excusant pour ainsi dire que les
gens de leur race fussent en possession de l’Hindoustan, et
espérant qu’un jour ils en partiraient. Connaissant bien la race
d’hommes blancs qu’il y a dans nos frontières, j’aurais volontiers ri,
mais m’en abstins, me rappelant que ces discoureurs avaient du
pouvoir dans l’opération de compter les têtes. D’autres encore
déclament bien haut contre les impositions de la partie de
l’Hindoustan soumise à la loi du Sahib. A ceci j’acquiesce, me
rappelant la générosité annuelle du Rao Sahib lorsque les turbans
des soldats circulent parmi les blés flétris, et que les bracelets des
femmes vont chez le fondeur. Mais je ne suis pas un bon discoureur.
C’est là le devoir des gars du Bengale… ces ânes montagnards au
braiment oriental… Mahrattes de Pouna, et autres semblables.
Ceux-ci, se trouvant parmi des sots, se font passer pour des fils de
personnages, alors que, élevés par charité, ils sont les rejetons de
marchands de grains, de corroyeurs, de vendeurs de bouteilles et de
prêteurs d’argent, comme tu sais. Or, nous autres de Jagesur ne
devons rien, en dehors de l’amitié, aux Anglais qui nous ont conquis
par l’épée et, nous ayant conquis, nous laissent libres, assurant pour
toujours la succession du Rao Sahib. Mais ces gens de basse
naissance qui ont acquis leur savoir grâce à la générosité du
gouvernement, poussés par l’appât du gain se vêtent de costumes
anglais, abjurent la foi de leurs pères, répandent des bruits
contraires au gouvernement, et sont en conséquence très chers à
certains des Six Cents. J’ai entendu ce bétail parler en princes et en
meneurs de peuples, et j’ai ri, mais pas tout à fait.
Il arriva une fois que le fils de quelque marchand de grain, attiré
et parlant à la façon des Anglais, s’assit à table à côté de moi. A
chaque bouchée il commettait un parjure à l’encontre du sel qu’il
mangeait : hommes et femmes l’applaudissaient. Après avoir, par
d’habiles travestissements, glorifié l’oppression et inventé des griefs
inédits, tout en reniant ses dieux à ventre en tonneau, il demanda au
nom de son peuple le gouvernement de tout notre pays et, se
tournant vers moi, me posa la main sur l’épaule et dit : « Voici
quelqu’un qui est avec nous, bien qu’il professe une autre religion : il
confirmera mes paroles. » Cela il le proféra en anglais, et m’exhiba
pour ainsi dire à la société. Gardant une mine souriante, je lui
répondis dans notre langue à nous : « Retire ta main, homme sans
père, ou sinon la folie de ces gens ne te sauvera pas, et mon silence
ne sauvegardera pas ta réputation. Recule-toi, bétail. » Et dans leur
langage je repris : « Il dit vrai. Quand la faveur et la sagesse des
Anglais nous accordera une part encore un peu plus grande dans le
fardeau et la récompense, les Musulmans s’entendront avec les
Hindous. » Lui seul comprit ce qu’il y avait dans mon cœur. Je fus
généreux envers lui parce qu’il accomplissait nos vœux ; mais
souviens-toi que son père est un certain Durga Charan Laha, à
Calcutta. Pose ta main sur son épaule à lui, si jamais le hasard te
l’envoie. Il n’est pas bon que des vendeurs de bouteilles et des
commissaires-priseurs portent la main sur des fils de princes. Je me
promène parfois en public avec cet homme afin que tout ce monde
sache qu’Hindou et Musulman ne sont qu’un, mais quand nous
arrivons dans les rues moins fréquentées je lui ordonne de marcher
derrière moi, ce qui est pour lui un honneur suffisant.
Et pourquoi ai-je mangé de la poussière ?
Ainsi, mon frère, semble-t-il à mon cœur, qui s’est presque brisé
en assistant à ces choses. Les Bengalis et les gars élevés par
charité savent bien que le pouvoir de gouverner du Sahib ne lui vient
ni du Vice-Roi ni du chef de l’armée, mais des mains des Six Cents
de cette ville, et en particulier de ceux qui parlent le plus. Chaque
année donc ils s’adresseront de plus en plus à cette protection, et
agissant sur la chlorose de la terre, selon leur coutume invariable, ils
feront en sorte à la fin, grâce à l’intervention perpétuellement
inspirée aux Six Cents, que la main du gouvernement de l’Inde
deviendra inefficace, en sorte qu’aucune mesure ni ordre ne puisse
être exécuté jusqu’au bout sans clameur et objection de leur part ;
car tel est le plaisir des Anglais à cette heure. Ai-je excédé les
bornes du possible ? Non. Tu dois même avoir appris que l’un des
Six Cents, n’ayant ni savoir ni crainte ni respect devant les yeux, a
fait par jeu un nouveau plan écrit touchant le gouvernement du
Bengale et le montre ouvertement à tous, tel un roi qui lirait sa
proclamation de couronnement. Et cet homme, se mêlant des
affaires d’État, parle dans le Conseil pour un ramassis de
corroyeurs, de faiseurs de bottes et de harnais, et se vante
ouvertement de n’avoir pas de Dieu. Un ministre quelconque de
l’Impératrice, l’Impératrice elle-même, le Vice-Roi ou quelque autre,
ont-ils élevé la voix contre cet homme-cuir ? Son pouvoir n’est-il
donc pas à rechercher avec celui des autres qui pensent comme
lui ? Tu vas en juger.
Le télégraphe est le serviteur des Six Cents, et tous les sahibs de
l’Inde, sans en excepter un, sont les serviteurs du télégraphe.
Chaque année aussi, tu le sais, les gens élevés par charité vont tenir
ce qu’ils appellent leur Congrès, d’abord en un lieu puis en un autre,
excitant dans l’Hindoustan des bruits, conformément au bavardage
de la populace d’ici, et réclamant pour eux, à l’instar des Six Cents,
la direction des finances. Et ils feront retomber chaque détail et lettre
sur la tête des gouverneurs et des lieutenants-gouverneurs, et de
quiconque détient l’autorité, et la jetteront à grands cris aux pieds
des Six Cents d’ici ; et certains de ces confondeurs de mots et les
femmes stériles acquiesceront à leurs demandes, et d’autres se
lasseront de les contredire. Ainsi une nouvelle confusion sera jetée
dans les conseils de l’Impératrice pendant même que l’île ici proche
est aidée et soutenue dans la guerre sourde dont j’ai parlé. Alors
chaque année, comme ils ont commencé à le faire, et comme nous
l’avons vu, les hommes de basse naissance des Six Cents désireux
d’honneurs s’embarqueront pour notre pays, et, y restant un peu de
temps, amasseront autour d’eux et feront les flatteurs devant les
gens élevés par charité, et ceux-ci en partant d’auprès d’eux ne
manqueront pas d’informer les paysans, et les guerriers pour qui il
n’est pas d’emploi, qu’il y a un changement proche, et qu’on vient à
leur secours d’au delà des mers. Cette rumeur ne s’amoindrira pas
en se répandant. Et, surtout, le Congrès n’étant pas sous l’œil des
Six Cents — lesquels, bien qu’ils fomentent la discorde et la mort,
affectent un grand respect de la loi qui n’est pas une loi — va, dans
sa marche oblique, débiter aux paysans des paroles troublantes,
parlant, comme il l’a déjà fait, de diminuer les impôts, et permettant
une nouvelle constitution. Cela est à notre avantage, mais la fleur du
danger réside dans la graine de celui-ci. Tu sais quel mal une
rumeur peut faire ; bien que dans l’Année Noire où toi et moi étions
jeunes, notre fidélité aux Anglais ait procuré du bénéfice au Jagesur
et élargi nos frontières, car le gouvernement nous a donné du
territoire des deux côtés. Du Congrès lui-même rien n’est à craindre
que dix miliciens ne pourraient écarter ; mais si ses paroles troublent
trop tôt les esprits de ceux qui attendent ou des princes dans
l’oisiveté, une flamme peut naître avant le temps, et comme il y a
maintenant beaucoup de mains blanches pour l’étouffer, tout
reviendra à son état premier. Si la flamme est tenue cachée, nous
n’avons rien à craindre, parce que, suant et pantelant, et l’un foulant
l’autre aux pieds, les blancs d’ici creusent leurs propres tombes. La
main du Vice-Roi sera liée, les cœurs des sahibs seront abattus, et
tous les yeux se tourneront vers l’Angleterre en dépit de tous les
ordres. Jusque-là, notant le compte sur la poignée de l’épée, jusqu’à
l’heure où l’on pourra régler par le fer, il est de votre rôle de
seconder les Bengalis et de leur montrer beaucoup de bon vouloir,
afin qu’ils puissent acquérir la direction des finances et les fonctions.
Il nous faut même écrire en Angleterre que nous sommes du même
sang que les gens d’école. L’attente ne sera pas longue ; non, par
ma tête, elle ne sera pas longue ! Ces gens-ci sont pareils au grand
roi Ferisht, lequel, rongé par les gales d’une longue oisiveté, arracha
sa couronne et dansa nu parmi les amas de bouse. Mais moi je n’ai
pas oublié le but profitable de ce conte. Le vizir le mit sur un cheval
et le conduisit à la bataille. Bientôt il recouvra la santé et il fit graver
sur sa couronne :
J’ai l’espoir qu’il restera dans notre pays quelques sahibs non
désireux de regagner l’Angleterre. Ceux-ci, nous devons les choyer
et les protéger, afin que leur adresse et leur ruse nous permette de
maintenir et de sauvegarder l’unité en temps de guerre. Les rois
hindous n’oseront jamais introduire un sahib au sein de leurs
conseils. Je répète que si nous de la Foi avons confiance en eux,
nous foulerons aux pieds nos ennemis.
Tout ceci est-il un songe pour toi, renard gris de la portée de ma
mère ? Je t’ai écrit ce que j’ai vu et entendu, mais de la même argile
deux hommes ne façonneront jamais assiettes semblables, pas plus
qu’ils ne tireront mêmes conclusions des mêmes faits. Une fois de
plus, il y a une chlorose sur tous les gens de ce pays. Dès à présent
ils mangent de la poussière pour satisfaire leurs envies. La
pondération et l’honneur ont abandonné leurs conseils, et le couteau
de la dissension a fait tomber sur leurs têtes la moustiquaire de la
confusion. L’Impératrice est vieille. On parle irrespectueusement
d’elle et des siens dans la rue. On méprise l’épée et on croit que la
langue et la plume dirigent tout. Leur ignorance et leur crédulité
dépassent en grandeur la sagesse de Salomon, fils de David. J’ai vu
toutes ces choses, moi qu’ils considèrent comme une bête sauvage
et un phénomène. Par Dieu Illuminateur de l’Intelligence, si les
sahibs de l’Inde pouvaient produire des fils qui vivent assez
longtemps pour fonder leurs maisons, j’irais presque jeter mon épée
aux pieds du Vice-Roi, en disant : « Combattons ici à nous deux pour
un royaume, le tien et le mien, sans nous soucier des cancans
d’outre-mer. Écris aux Anglais une lettre disant que nous les aimons,
mais que nous voulons nous séparer de leur camp et tout nettoyer
sous une nouvelle couronne. » Mais dans notre pays les sahibs
meurent à la troisième génération, et il se peut que je fasse des
rêves. Pas tout à fait cependant. Jusqu’à ce qu’un éclatant fléau
d’acier et de carnage, le poids des fardeaux, la crainte pour sa vie,
et la fureur brûlante de l’outrage — car la pestilence les
démoraliserait, si les yeux assez habitués aux hommes voient clair
— accable ce peuple, notre chemin est sûr. Ils sont malades. La
Source du Pouvoir est un ruisseau que tous peuvent souiller : et les
voix des hommes sont couvertes par les cris des mulets et les
hennissements des juments stériles. Si l’adversité les rend sages,
alors, mon frère, frappe avec et pour eux, et plus tard, quand toi et
moi serons morts, et que la maladie se développera de nouveau (les
jeunes hommes élevés à l’école de la crainte et du tremblement et
de la confusion des mots ont encore à vivre leur temps prescrit),
ceux qui ont combattu aux côtés des Anglais pourront demander et
recevoir ce qu’ils voudront. A présent efforce-toi en secret de
troubler, de retarder, d’éluder, et de rendre inefficace. Dans ces
choses six douzaines des Six Cents sont nos vrais alliés.
Maintenant la plume et l’encre et la main me défaillent à la fois,
comme te défailliront les yeux à cette lecture. Fais connaître à ceux
de ma maison que je reviendrai bientôt, mais laisse-leur ignorer
l’heure. Des lettres anonymes me sont parvenues concernant mon
honneur. L’honneur de ma maison est le tien. Si elles sont, comme je
le crois, l’œuvre d’un valet renvoyé, Futteh Lal, qui courait à la
queue de mon étalon katthiawar couleur lie de vin, son village est au
delà de Manglôt ; veille à ce que sa langue cesse de s’exercer sur
les noms de celles qui sont miennes. S’il en est autrement, mets une
garde sur ma maison jusqu’à mon retour, et veille spécialement à ce
que nuls vendeurs de joaillerie, astrologues ou entremetteurs n’aient
accès aux appartements des femmes. Nous nous élevons par nos
esclaves, et par nos esclaves nous tombons, comme il est dit. A tous
ceux qui sont de ma connaissance j’apporte des présents selon
qu’ils en sont dignes. J’ai parlé deux fois du présent que je voudrais
faire donner à Bahadur Shah.
La bénédiction de Dieu et de son Prophète soit sur toi et les tiens
jusqu’à la fin qui est prescrite. Donne-moi aussi du bonheur en
m’informant de l’état de ta santé. Je mets ma tête aux pieds du Rao
Sahib ; mon épée est à son côté gauche, un peu plus haut que mon
cœur.
Suit mon sceau.
JUDSON ET L’EMPIRE
Dobson.