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 Numerical
and
Statistical Methods
for COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Gujarat Technological University 2017
Second Edition
 About the Authors
Ravish R Singh is presently Academic Advisor at Thakur
Educational Trust, Mumbai. He obtained a BE degree from
University of Mumbai in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT
Bombay in 2001, and a PhD degree from Faculty of Technology,
University of Mumbai, in 2013. He has published several books
with McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited on varied
subjects like Engineering Mathematics (I and II), Applied
Mathematics, Electrical Engineering, Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional
curricula of some universities like Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University,
Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Anna University,
Uttarakhand Technical University, and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University
(formerly known as UPTU). Dr Singh is a member of IEEE, ISTE, and IETE, and has
published research papers in national and international journals. His fields of interest
include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and Engineering Mathematics.

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

Humanities and Sciences, at Thakur College of Engineering
and Technology, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics)
from H N B Garhwal University in 1992. She has published
several books with McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited on Engineering Mathematics (I and II) and Applied
Mathematics for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula
of some universities like Gujarat Technological University,
Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand
Technical University, and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University (formerly known
as UPTU). She has seventeen years of teaching experience at various levels in
engineering colleges in Mumbai and her fields of interest include Integral Calculus,
Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of ISTE.
 Numerical
and
Statistical Methods
for COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Gujarat Technological University 2017
Second Edition

Ravish R Singh
Academic Advisor
Thakur Educational Trust
Mumbai, Maharashtra

Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Sciences
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Numerical and Statistical Methods for COMPUTER ENgiNEERiNg
(Gujarat Technological University 2017)
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 Dedicated
To Our Parents
Late Shri Ramsagar Singh
and
Late Shrimati Premsheela Singh
Ravish R Singh

Late Shri Ved Prakash Sharma

and
Late Shrimati Vidyavati Hemdan
Mukul Bhatt
 Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
1. Error Analysis 1.1–1.18
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Accuracy and Precision 1.1
1.3 Types of Errors 1.2
1.4 Sources of Errors 1.2
1.5 Significant Figures 1.3
Points to Remember 1.17
2. Roots of Equations 2.1–2.73
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Bisection Method 2.2
2.3 Regula Falsi Method 2.15
2.4 Newton–Raphson Method 2.22
2.5 Secant Method 2.39
2.6 Successive Approximation Method (Iteration Method) 2.49
2.7 Descartes’ Rule of Signs 2.55
2.8 Budan’s Theorem 2.58
2.9 Bairstow’s Method 2.62
Points to Remember 2.72
3. Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations 3.1–3.63
3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Solutions of a System of Linear Equations 3.2
3.3 Elementary Transformations 3.2
3.4 Numerical Methods for Solution of a System of Linear Equations 3.3
3.5 Gauss Elimination Method 3.4
3.6 Gauss Elimination Method with Partial Pivoting 3.15
3.7 Gauss–Jordan Method 3.20
3.8 Gauss–Jacobi Method 3.31
3.9 Gauss–Siedel Method 3.37
3.10 Ill-Conditioned Systems 3.61
Points to Remember 3.62
viii Contents

4. Interpolation 4.1–4.100
4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Finite Differences 4.2
4.3 Different Operators and their Relations 4.6
4.4 Interpolation 4.19
4.5 Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formula 4.19
4.6 Newton’s Backward Interpolation Formula 4.30
4.7 Central Difference Interpolation 4.39
4.8 Gauss’s Forward Interpolation Formula 4.40
4.9 Gauss’s Backward Interpolation Formula 4.44
4.10 Stirling’s Formula 4.48
4.11 Interpolation with Unequal Intervals 4.55
4.12 Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula 4.56
4.13 Divided Differences 4.70
4.14 Newton’s Divided Difference Formula 4.71
4.15 Inverse Interpolation 4.84
4.16 Cubic Spline Interpolation 4.86
Points to Remember 4.99
5. Curve Fitting 5.1–5.27
5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.2 Least Square Method 5.2
5.3 Fitting of Linear Curves 5.2
5.4 Fitting of Quadratic Curves 5.10
5.5 Fitting of Exponential and Logarithmic Curves 5.18
Points to Remember 5.26
6. Numerical Integration 6.1–6.41
6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Newton–Cotes Quadrature Formula 6.1
6.3 Trapezoidal Rule 6.2
6.4 Simpson’s 1/3 Rule 6.9
6.5 Simpson’s 3/8 Rule 6.19
6.6 Gaussian Quadrature Formulae 6.31
Points to Remember 6.40
7. Ordinary Differential Equations 7.1–7.64
7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Taylor’s Series Method 7.2
7.3 Euler’s Method 7.9
7.4 Modified Euler’s Method 7.16
7.5 Runge–Kutta Methods 7.28
7.6 Milne’s Predictor-Corrector Method 7.53
Points to Remember 7.63
 Contents ix

8. Statistical Methods 8.1–8.98

8.1 Introduction 8.1
8.2 Data Analysis 8.2
8.3 Classification of Data 8.2
8.4 Frequency Distribution 8.3
8.5 Graphical Representation 8.4
8.6 Measures of Central Tendency 8.15
8.7 Arithmetic Mean 8.15
8.8 Median 8.24
8.9 Mode 8.31
8.10 Standard Deviation 8.36
8.11 Moments 8.49
8.12 Random Variables 8.62
8.13 Discrete Probability Distribution 8.63
8.14 Discrete Distribution Function 8.64
8.15 Measures of Central Tendency for a Discrete Probability
Distribution 8.78
Points to Remember 8.93
9. Correlation and Regression 9.1–9.58
9.1 Introduction 9.1
9.2 Correlation 9.2
9.3 Types of Correlations 9.2
9.4 Methods of Studying Correlation 9.3
9.5 Scatter Diagram 9.4
9.6 Simple Graph 9.5
9.7 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation 9.5
9.8 Properties of Coefficient of Correlation 9.6
9.9 Rank Correlation 9.22
9.10 Regression 9.29
9.11 Types of Regression 9.30
9.12 Methods of Studying Regression 9.30
9.13 Lines of Regression 9.31
9.14 Regression Coefficients 9.31
9.15 Properties of Regression Coefficients 9.34
9.16 Properties of Lines of Regression (Linear Regression) 9.35
Points to Remember 9.56
10. Trend Analysis 10.1–10.31
10.1 Introduction 10.1
10.2 Objectives of Time-Series 10.1
10.3 Components of a Time-Series 10.2
10.4 Measurement of Trend 10.3
10.5 Freehand or Graphic Method 10.3
x Contents

10.6 Method of Semi-Averages 10.5

10.7 Method of Moving Averages 10.7
10.8 Method of Least Squares 10.16
10.9 Measurement of Seasonal Variations 10.23
10.10 Method of Ratio to Moving Average 10.23
Points to Remember 10.31

Index I.1–I.3
 Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.

Users
This book is designed for the 4th semester GTU Computer Engineering students
pursuing the course Numerical and Statistical Methods (CODE 2140706). It covers
the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Numerical and Statistical Methods for
computer engineering branches.

Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.

Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point-of-view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
is well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set following a
‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background to easily
grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved examples
enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain logical
understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving similar
exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface

Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Numerical and Statistical
Methods (Regulation 2014)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination papers from 2010 to 2015 present appropriately
within the chapters
∑ Solution of 2016 GTU examination paper can be accessible through weblink.
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
ã Solved Examples within chapters: 420
ã Solved GTU questions tagged within chapters: 112
ã Unsolved Exercises: 148

Online Learning Center

All the C Programs included in Numerical and Statistical Methods (Computer
Engineering) are available on OLC link http://www.mhhe.com/singh/nsm2e/cse/gtu2017

Chapter Organization
The content spans the following ten chapters which wholly and sequentially cover
each module of the syllabus.
o Chapter 1 introduces Error Analysis.
o Chapter 2 discusses Roots of Equations.
o Chapter 3 presents Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations.
o Chapter 4 covers Interpolation.
o Chapter 5 deals with Curve Fitting.
o Chapter 6 presents Numerical Integration.
o Chapter 7 explains Ordinary Differential Equations.
o Chapter 8 discusses Statistical Methods.
o Chapter 9 deals with Correlation and Regression.
o Chapter 10 introduces Trend Analysis.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed various chapters of the script
and generously shared their valuable comments:

Ramesh S Damor L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad

Jyotindra C Prajapati Marwadi Education Foundation Group of Institutions,
Rajkot
 Preface xiii

Vijay Solanki Government Engineering College, Patan

Prakash Vihol Government Engineering College, Rajkot
Manokamna Agarwal Silver Oak College of Engineering and Technology,
Ahmedabad
Som Sahni Babaria Institute of Technology, Vadodara
Bhumika Maheshwari Gandhinagar Institute of Technology, Kalol
Urvi Trivedi SAL Institute of Technology and Engineering Research,
Ahmedabad

We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Piyali Chatterjee, Anuj Kr. Shriwastava, Koyel Ghosh, Satinder Singh Baveja,
and Vibha Mahajan for coordinating with us during the editorial, copyediting, and
production stages of this book.
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of
all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt

Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback,
comments, and ideas to enhance the quality of this book. You can reach us at
info.india@mheducation.com. Please mention the title and authors’ name as the
subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
RoAdmAP to the SyllAbuS
This text is useful for
Numerical and Statistical Methods (Code 2140706)
For Computer Engineering
Module 1: Mathematical Modelling and Engineering Problem-Solving
Approximations and errors; Significant figures; Accuracy and precision; Errors;
Round-off and truncation errors; Error propagation

GO TO
CHAPTER 1: Error Analysis

Module 2: Roots of Equations

Mathematical background; Bisection; Regula falsi method; Newton–Raphson
method; Secant method; Successive approximation method; Budan’s theorem;
Barristow’s method; Case studies

GO TO
CHAPTER 2: Roots of Equations

Module 3: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

Mathematical background; Gauss elimination; Pitfalls and techniques for
improvement; Matrix inversion and Gauss–Seidel methods; Ill-conditional
equations; Predictor-corrector methods; Case studies

GO TO
CHAPTER 3: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

Module 4: Curve Fitting

Mathematical background; Least squares method; Linear and polynomial
regression; Lagrange’s interpolating polynomials; Spline interpolation; Case
studies

GO TO
CHAPTER 4: Interpolation
CHAPTER 5: Curve Fitting
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus

Module 5: Numerical Integration

Newton–Cotes integration formulae; Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rules;
Interpolation; Case studies

GO TO
CHAPTER 6: Numerical Integration

Module 6: Ordinary Differential Equations

Euler’s method; Runge–Kutta methods; General methods for boundary-value
problems; Case studies

GO TO
CHAPTER 7: Ordinary Differential Equations

Module 7: Statistical Methods

Frequency distributions; Data analysis; Expectations and moments; Corelation
and regression; Trend analysis; Seasonal effects; Cyclical fluctuation; Moving
average; MSE; Predictions; Non-parametric statistics; Computer-based
resampling techniques; Confidence intervals and statistical significance

GO TO
CHAPTER 8: Statistical Methods
CHAPTER 9: Correlation and Regression
CHAPTER 10: Trend Analysis
CHAPTER
1
Error Analysis

chapter outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Accuracy and Precision
1.3 Types of Errors
1.4 Sources of Errors
1.5 Significant Figures

1.1 IntroductIon
The main goal of numerical analysis is to develop efficient algorithms for computing
precise numerical values of mathematical quantities, including functions, integrals,
solutions of algebraic equations, solutions of differential equations, etc. Often the
numerical data and the methods used are approximate ones. Hence, the error in a
computed result may be caused by the errors in the data, or the errors in the method, or
both. In any numerical computation, there are four key sources of errors:
(i) Inexactness of mathematical model for the underlying physical phenomenon
(ii) Errors in measurements of parameters entering the model
(iii) Round-off errors in computer arithmetic
(iv) Approximations used to solve the mathematical systems

1.2 AccurAcy And PrecIsIon

Measurements and calculations can be characterized with regard to their accuracy and
precision. Accuracy refers to how closely a computed or measured value agrees with
the true value. Precision refers to how closely individually computed or measured
values agree with each other. Inaccuracy is the systematic deviation from the truth.
Imprecision refers to the magnitude of scatter. Figure 1.1 illustrates the concepts of
accuracy and precision.
1.2 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

Fig. 1.1
The term error represents the imprecision and inaccuracy of a numerical
computation.

1.3 tyPes oF errors

There are various types of errors in measurements and calculations:

(i) Absolute error
(ii) Relative error
(iii) Percentage error
Absolute error It is the difference between the measured or calculated value and
true value. If xexact is the true or exact value and xapprox is the measured or calculated or
approximate value, the absolute error dx is given by
Œa = d x = xexact - xapprox

relative error It is the ratio of absolute error and true value of the quantity.

dx xexact - xapprox
Œr = =
x xexact

Percentage error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

dx xexact - xapprox
Œp = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100
x xexact

1.4 sources oF errors

There are three sources of errors, namely, inherent error, truncation error, and round-
off error.
Inherent error It is the error that pre-exist in the problem statement itself before
its solution is obtained. Such errors arise in the values of data from the real world or
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.3

by uncertainty in measurements or due to the given data being approximate or due to

the limitations of mathematical tables, calculators, digital computer, etc. These errors
cannot be completely eliminated but can be minimized if better data is selected or
high-precision computer computations are employed, e.g., representation of irrational
numbers such as p, e, 2 cannot be represented with a finite number of digits. Even
a simple fraction in many cases has no exact representation, such as a rational number
1
.
3
truncation error It is the error that results from using an approximation in place
of exact mathematical expressions. It is caused by truncating a finite number of terms.
The most common example is the truncation of an infinite series to a finite number of
terms, e.g., sin x is represented by the Maclaurin series as

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x - + - + -  • = xexact
3! 5! 7! 9!

But, if sin x is calculated by terminating the series up to x7 or x9,

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x - + - + = xapprox
3! 5! 7! 9!
Hence, truncation error = xexact – xapprox
round-off error It is the error that results due to chopping or rounding or arithmetic
operations using normalized floating-point numbers. It is due to the inaccuracies that
arise because of a finite number of digits of precision used to represent numbers. All
computers represent numbers, except for integer and some fractions, with imprecision.
Digital computers use floating-point numbers of fixed word length. This type of
representation will not express the exact or true values correctly. Error introduced by
the omission of significant figures due to computer imperfection is called round-off
error.

1.5 sIgnIFIcAnt FIgures

The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to its
measurement resolution. This includes all digits except (i) all leading zeros, and (ii) all
trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the number.

Rules for Identifying Significant Figures

(i) All nonzero digits are considered significant, e.g., 93 has two significant
figures, i.e., 9 and 3, while 135.76 has five significant figures, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7,
and 6.
(ii) All zeros between two nonzero digits are significant, e.g., 205.1308 has seven
significant figures, i.e., 2, 0, 5, 1, 3, 0 and 8.
1.4 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

(iii) Leading zeros are not significant, e.g., 0.00075 has two significant figures,
7 and 5.
(iv) Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant, e.g.,
13.4000 has six significant figures, i.e., 1, 3, 4, 0, 0, and 0. The number
0.000134000 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are
not significant). The number 120.00 has five significant figures since it has
three trailing zeros. The number of significant figures in 8200 is at least two,
but it could be three or four because it is not clear if the zeros are significant
or not. To avoid uncertainty, scientific notation is used to place zeros behind a
decimal point, i.e., 8.200 × 103 has four significant figures, whereas 8.2 × 103
has two significant figures.

example 1
Find the relative error and percentage error if 0.005998 is truncated to
three decimal digits.
Solution
xexact = 0.005998
xapprox = 0.005
xexact - xapprox
Relative error =
xexact
0.005998 - 0.005
=
0.005998
= 0.1664
xexact - xapprox
Percentage error = ¥ 100
xexact
= 0.1664 ¥ 100
= 16.64%

example 2
For a = 3.141592 and an approximation value of a as 3.14, evaluate
absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.
Solution
aexact = 3.141592, aapprox = 3.14
Absolute error = da = aexact – aapprox = 3.141592 – 3.14 = 0.001592
d a 0.001592
Relative error = = = 5.0675 ¥ 10 -4
a 3.141592
da
Percentage error = ¥ 100 = 5.0675 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 100 = 0.05067%
a
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.5

example 3
If the approximate solution of a problem is x0 = 35.25 with relative error
of at the most 2%, find the range of values correct up to four decimal
digits in which the exact value of the solution lies.
Solution
x0approx = 35.25
Œr = 2% of 35.25 = 0.705
x0exact - x0approx
Œr =
x0exact
x0exact - 35.25
0.705 =
x0exact
(1 - 0.705) x0exact = 35.25
x0exact = 119.4915

The range of values correct up to four decimal digits in which the exact value of the
solution lies is [119.4915, 119.50].

example 4
The approximate solution of a problem is 3.436. If the absolute error in
the solution is less than 0.01 then find the interval within which the exact
solution lies.
Solution
xapprox = 3.436
d x < 0.01
xexact - xapprox
dx =
xexact
xexact - 3.436
< 0.01
xexact
xexact (1 - 0.01) < 3.436
xexact < 3.4707

Hence, the exact solution lies in the interval [3.47, 3.48].

1.6 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

example 5
If u = 2v6 – 5v, find the percentage error in u at v = 1 if the error in v is
0.05.
Solution
u = 2 v 6 - 5v
d u = 12 v 5 d v - 5d v
du 1
¥ 100 = ÈÎ12 v 5 d v ¥ 100 - 5 d v ¥ 100 ˘˚
u u
1 ÈÎ12 v 5 d v ¥ 100 - 5 d v ¥ 100 ˘˚
= 6
2 v - 5v
Putting dv = 0.05, v=1
du 1 ÈÎ12 (1)5 (0.05) (100) - 5(0.05) (100)˘˚
¥ 100 = 6
u 2(1) - 5(1)
= -11.67%
Hence, the percentage error in u = –11.67%.

example 6
Given the trigonometric function f (x) = sin x,
(i) expand f (x) about x = 0 using the Taylor series
(ii) truncate the series to n = 6 terms
p
(iii) find the relative error at x = due to truncation.
4
Solution
(i) f (x) = sin x
By the Taylor series,
x3 x5 x7 x9
f ( x ) = sin x = x - + - + -
3! 5! 7! 9!
(ii) Truncation of the Taylor series to n = 6 terms
x3 x5
f6 ( x ) = x - +
3! 5!
p
(iii) Relative error at x = due to truncation
4
Êpˆ Êpˆ
f Á ˜ = sin Á ˜
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.7

3 5
Êpˆ Êpˆ
Á ˜ ÁË ˜¯
Êp ˆ p Ë 4¯ 4
f6 Á ˜ = - +
Ë 4¯ 4 3! 5!
Êpˆ Êpˆ
f Á ˜ - f6 Á ˜
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
Œr =
Êpˆ
fÁ ˜
Ë 4¯

Ê p ˆ Ê p p3 p5 ˆ
sin Á ˜ - Á - +
Ë 4 ¯ Ë 4 384 122880 ˜¯
=
Êpˆ
sin Á ˜
Ë 4¯

= 5.1286 ¥ 10 -5

example 7
Given the function f (x) = e–x,
(i) expand f (x) about x = 0 using the Taylor series
(ii) truncate the series to n = 5 terms
(iii) find the relative error at x = 1 due to truncation.
Solution
(i) f (x) = e–x
By the Taylor series,
x2 x3 x 4 x5
e- x = 1 - x + - + - +
2! 3! 4! 5!
(ii) Truncation of the Taylor series to n = 5 terms
x2 x3 x 4
f5 ( x ) = 1 - x + - +
2! 3! 4!
(iii) The relative error at x = 1 due to truncation
1 1 1 3
f5 (1) = 1 - 1 + - + =
2! 3! 4! 8
f (1) = e -1
f (1) - f5 (1)
Œr =
f (1)
3
e -1 -
= 8
e -1
= 0.0194
= 1.94%
1.8 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

example 8
If R = x3 y2 z2 and 0.03, 0.01, 0.02 are errors in x, y, z respectively at
x = 1, y = 1, z = 2. Calculate the absolute error and percentage error in
calculation of R.
Solution
R = x3 y2 z2
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log R = log x 3 + log y 2 + log z 2
= 3 log x + 2 log y + 2 log z
1 3 2 2
dR = d x + d y + d z
R x y z
dR dx dy dz
=3 +2 +2
R x y z
Putting dx = 0.03, dy = 0.01, dz = 0.02, x = 1, y = 1, z = 2,
R = (1)3(1)2(2)2 = 4
dR Ê 0.03 ˆ Ê 0.01ˆ Ê 0.02 ˆ
= 3Á ˜¯ + 2 ÁË ˜¯ + 2 ÁË ˜
4 Ë 1 1 1 ¯
dR
= 0.15
4
d R = 0.6
Hence, absolute error = 0.6.
dR
Percentage error in R = ¥ 100
R
= 0.15 ¥ 100
= 15%

example 9
Find the percentage error in calculating the area of a rectangle when an
error of 3% is made in measuring each of its sides.
Solution
Let a and b be the sides of the rectangle and A be its area.
A = ab
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log A = log a + log b
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.9

1 1 1
d A = da + db
A a b
dA da db
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
A a b
da db
Putting × 100 = 3, × 100 = 3,
a b
δA
× 100 = 3 + 3
A
=6
Hence, percentage error in calculating area = 6%.

example 10
Find the percentage error in the area of an ellipse when errors of 2%
and 3% are made in measuring its major and minor axes respectively.
Solution
Let 2a and 2b be the major and minor axes of the ellipse and A be its area.
A = p ab
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log A = log p + log a + log b
1 1 1
d A = 0 + da + db
A a b
dA da db
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
A a b

da db
Putting × 100 = 2, × 100 = 3,
a b
dA
¥ 100 = 2 + 3
A
=5
Hence, percentage error in area of ellipse = 5%.

example 11
2 1 1
The focal length of a mirror is found from the formula = - . Find
f v u
the percentage error in f if u and v are both in error by 2% each.
1.10 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

Solution
2 1 1
= -
f v u
2 1 1
− 2
δ f = − 2 δv + 2 δu
f v u
2δf 1 δv 1 δu
− × 100 = − × 100 + × 100
f f v v u u
du dv
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, ¥ 100 = 2,
u v
2df 1 1
- ¥ 100 = - (2) + (2)
f f v u
Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
= -2 Á - ˜ = -2 Á ˜
Ë v u¯ Ë f¯
df
¥ 100 = 2
f
Hence, percentage error in f = 2%.

example 12
Find the possible percentage error in computing the parallel resistance
R of two resistances R1 and R2 if R1, R2 are each in error by 2%.
Solution
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
- 2
dR = - d R1 - d R2
R R12 R22
1 dR 1 d R1 1 d R2
¥ 100 = ¥ 100 + ¥ 100
R R R1 R1 R2 R2
d R1 dR
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, 2 ¥ 100 = 2,
R1 R2
1 dR 1 1
¥ 100 = (2) + (2)
R R R1 R2
Ê 1 1 ˆ
= 2Á + ˜
Ë R1 R2 ¯
Ê 1ˆ
= 2Á ˜
Ë R¯
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.11

dR
\ ¥ 100 = 2
R
Hence, percentage error in R = 2%

example 13
The resonant frequency in a series electrical circuit is given by
1
f = . If the measurement of L and C are in error by 2% and
2p LC
−1% respectively, find the percentage error in f.
Solution
1
f =
2p LC
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
1 1 1
log f = log - log L - log C
2p 2 2
1 11 1 1
df = 0 - dL - dC
f 2L 2C
df 1 dL 1 dC
¥ 100 = - ¥ 100 - ¥ 100
f 2 L 2 C
dL dC
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, ¥ 100 = -1
L C
df 1 1
¥ 100 = - (2) - (-1)
f 2 2
= - 0.5
Hence, percentage error in f = − 0.5%

example 14
In calculating the volume of a right circular cone, errors of 2% and
1% are made in the height and radius of base respectively. Find the
percentage error in the calculating the volume.
Solution
Let r and h be the radius of base and height of the right circular cone and V be its
volume.
1
V = p r2h
3
1.12 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

Taking logarithm on both the sides,

p
log V = log + 2 log r + log h
3
1 2 1
dV = 0 + d r + d h
V r h
dV dr dh
¥ 100 = 2 ¥ 100 + ¥ 100
V r h
dr dh
Putting ¥ 100 = 1, ¥ 100 = 2,
r h
dV
¥ 100 = 2(1) + 2
V
=4
Hence, percentage error in volume = 4%

example 15
In calculating the volume of a right circular cylinder, errors of 2% and
1% are found in measuring the height and base radius respectively. Find
the percentage error in the calculated volume of the cylinder.
Solution
Let r and h be the base radius and height of the right circular cylinder and V be its
volume.
V = p r2 h
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log V = log p + 2 log r + log h
1 2 1
dV = 0 + d r + d h
V r h
dV dr dh
¥ 100 = 2 ¥ 100 + ¥ 10
00
V r h
dr dh
Putting ¥ 100 = 1, ¥ 100 = 2,
r h
dV
¥ 100 = 2(1) + 2
V
=4
Hence, percentage error in volume = 4%.
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.13

example 16
1
Evaluate [(3.82)2 + 2(2.1)3 ] 5 using the theory of approximation.
Solution
1
2 3
Let z = (x + 2y )5
4 4
1 2 - 1 -
dz = ( x + 2 y3 ) 5 (2 x ) d x + ( x 2 + 2 y3 ) 5 (6 y 2 )d y
5 5
4
1 2 -
= 2 x d x + 6 y 2 d y)
( x + 2 y3 ) 5 (2
5
Putting x = 4, y = 2,
d x = 3.82 − 4 = − 0.18,
d y = 2.1 − 2 = 0.1
(x2 + 2y3) = 42 + 2(2)3
= 32
4
1 -
and d z = ◊ (32) 5 [2 (4)(-0.18) + 6 (2)2 (0.1)]
5
= 0.012
Approximate value = z + d z
= (32)1/5 + 0.012
= 2.012

example 17
1
Find the approximate value of ÈÎ(0.982 + (2.01)2 + (1.94)2 ˘˚ 2 .
Solution
Let u = x 2 + y2 + z2
u2 = x2 + y2 + z2
2ud u = 2xd x + 2yd y + 2zd z
ud u = xd x + yd y + zd z
Putting x = 1, y = 2, z = 2,
d x = 0.98 − 1 = − 0.02,
d y = 2.01 − 2 = 0.01,
d z = 1.94 − 2 = − 0.06
1.14 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

u = 12 + 22 + 22
=3
and ud u = 1(-0.02) + 2(0.01) + 2(-0.06)
= - 0.12
d u = - 0.04
Approximate value = u + d u
= 3 − 0.04
= 2.96

example 18
1
2 3 10
Evaluate (1.99) (3.01) (0.98) using approximation.
Solution
1
Let u = x 2 y3 z 10
1
log u = 2 log x + 3 log y +
log z
10
1 1 1 1 1
du = 2 d x + 3 d y + dz
u x y 10 z
Putting x = 2, y = 3, z = 1,
d x = 1.99 − 2 = − 0.01,
d y = 3.01 − 3 = 0.01,
d z = 0.98 − 1 = − 0.02
1
u = 22 33 110 = 108
1 Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ 1 Ê 1ˆ
and du = 2 ◊ Á ˜ (- 0.01) + 3 Á ˜ (0.01) + Á ˜ (- 0.02)
108 Ë 2¯ Ë 3¯ 10 Ë 1¯
du = -0.216
Approximate value = u + d u
= 108 − 0.216
= 107.784.
 1.5 Significant Figures 1.15

eXercIse 1.1
1. Round off the following numbers to 4-significant digits:
(i) 2.36345 (ii) 0.34176 (iii) 3.40087 (iv) 0.000143479
[Ans.: (i) 2.363 (ii) 0.3417 (iii) 3.401 (iv) 0.0001435]
2. Find the error and relative error in the following cases:
(i) xexact = 1000000, xapprox = 999996
(ii) xexact = 0.000012, xapprox = 0.000009
[Ans.: (i) 4, 0.000004 (ii) 0.000003, 0.25]
3. Find the relative error of x – y for x = 12.05 and y = 0.802 having
absolute error dx = 0.005 and dy = 0.001.
[Ans.: 0.00029]
2
4. Find absolute error, relative error, and percentage error if is
3
approximated to 4-significant digits.
[Ans.: 0.000033, 0.0000495, 0.005%]
p
5. If the approximate value of is 0.7854, calculate (i) absolute error,
4
(ii) relative error, and (iii) percentage error.
[Ans.: (i) 0.00031, (ii) 0.00039, (iii) 0.04%]
6. If dx = 0.005 and dy = 0.001 be the absolute errors in x = 2.11 and
y = 4.15, find the relative error in computation of x + y.
[Ans.: 0.000958]
7. In calculating the volume of right circular cone, errors of 2.75% and
1.25% are made in height and radius of the base. Find the percentage
error in volume.
[Ans.: 5.25%]
8. The height of a cone is H = 30 cm, the radius of base R = 10 cm. How
will the volume of the cone change if H is increasing by 3 mm while R
is decreasing by 1 mm?
[Ans.: decreased by 10p cm3]
9. Find the percentage error in calculating the area of a rectangle when
an error of 2% is made in measuring each of its sides.
[Ans.: 4%]
1.16 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

10. If R1 and R2 are two resistances in parallel, their resistance R is given by

1 1 1
= + . If there is an error of 2% in both R1 and R2, find percentage
R R1 R2
error in R.
[Ans.: 2%]
11. One side of a rectangle is a = 10 cm and the other side b = 24 cm. How
will the diagonal l of the rectangle change if a is increased by 4 mm
and b is decreased by 1 mm?
È 4 ˘
Í Ans.: 65 cm˙
Î ˚
E
12. The resistance R of circuit was found by using the formula I = . If there
R
is an error of 0.1 ampere in reading I and 0.5 volts in reading E, find the
corresponding percentage error in R when I = 15 amperes and E = 100
volts.
[Ans.: − 0.167%]
13. The voltage V across a resistor is measured with error h, and the
resistance R is measured with an error R. Show that the error in
V2 V
calculating the power W = is (2Rh - VR). If V can be measured to
R R2
an accuracy of 0.5% and to an accuracy of 1%, what is the approximate
possible percentage error in W?
[Ans.: 0%]
14. The radius and height of a cone are 4 cm and 6 cm respectively. What
is the error in its volume if the scale used in taking the measurement
is short by 0.01 cm per cm?
[Ans.: 0.96p cm3]
15. Show that the error in calculating the time period of a pendulum at
any place is zero if an error of µ% is made in measuring its length and
gravity at that place.
16. The diameter and the altitude of a right circular cylinder are measured
as 24 cm and 30 cm respectively. There is an error of 0.1 cm in each
measurement. Find the possible error in the volume of the cylinder.
[Ans.: 50.4p cm]
17. If the measurements of base radius and height of a right circular cone
are changed by −1% and 2%, show that there will be no error in the
volume.
 Points to Remember 1.17

1
18. If f = x 2 y 3 z 10 , find the approximate value of f when x = 1.99, y = 3.01
and z = 0.98.
[Ans.: 107.784]
19. If f = x3 y2 z4, find the approximate value of f when x = 1.99, y = 3.01,
z = 0.99.

1
[Ans.: 68.5202]
3 3 3
20. If f = (160 − x − y ) , find the approximate value of f (2.1, 2.9) − f (2, 3)
[Ans.: 0.016]
xyz
21. If f = e , find the approximate value of f when x = 0.01, y = 1.01,
z = 2.01. [Ans.: 1.02]
1

22. Find [(2.92)3 + (5.87)3 ]5 approximately by using the theory of

approximation.

1
[Ans.: 2.96]
2 2 2
23. Find [(11.99) + (5.01) ] approximately by using the theory of
approximation. [Ans.: 12.99]
24. Find (1.04)3.01 by using theory of approximation.
[Ans.: 1.1253]
1

25. If f(x, y) = (50 – x2 – y 2) find the approximate value of [f(3, 4) – f(3.1, 3.9)]
2

[Ans.: – 0.018]

26. Find log ÈÎ 3 1.04 + 4 0.97 - 1˘˚ approximately by using the theory of
approximation. [Ans.: 0.0058]

Points to remember
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy refers to how closely a computed or measured value agrees with the true
value. Precision refers to how closely individually computed or measured values
agree with each other.
Types of Errors
Absolute Error It is the difference between the measured or calculated value and
true value.
Œa = d x = xexact - xapprox
1.18 Chapter 1 Error Analysis

Relative Error It is the ratio of absolute error and true value of the quantity.
dx xexact - xapprox
Œr = =
x xexact

Percentage Error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

dx xexact - xapprox
Œp = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100
x xexact

Sources of Errors
Inherent Error It is the error that pre-exist in the problem statement itself before
its solution is obtained.
Truncation Error It is the error that results from using an approximation in place
of exact mathematical expressions.
Round-off Error It is the error that results due to chopping or rounding or
arithmetic operations using normalized floating-point numbers.

Significant Figures
The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to its
measurement resolution. This includes all digits except (i) all leading zeros, and
(ii) all trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the
number.
CHAPTER
2
Roots of Equations

chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bisection Method
2.3 Regula Falsi Method
2.4 Newton–Raphson Method
2.5 Secant Method
2.6 Successive Approximation Method
2.7 Descartes’ Rule of Signs
2.8 Budan’s Theorem
2.9 Bairstow’s Method

2.1 IntroductIon
n n -1 n-2
An expression of the form f ( x ) = a0 x + a1 x + a2 x +  + an -1 x + an , where a0,
a1, a2, ..., an are constants and n is a positive integer, is called an algebraic polynomial
of degree n if a0 π 0. The equation f (x) = 0 is called an algebraic equation if f (x)
is an algebraic polynomial, e.g., x3 – 4x – 9 = 0. If f (x) contains functions such as
trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, etc., then f (x) = 0 is called a transcendental
equation, e.g., 2x3 – log (x + 3) tan x + ex = 0.
In general, an equation is solved by factorization. But in many cases, the method of
factorization fails. In such cases, numerical methods are used. There are some methods
to solve the equation f (x) = 0 such as
(i) Bisection method
(ii) Regula Falsi method
(iii) Newton–Raphson method
(iv) Secant method
2.2 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations

2.2 BIsectIon Method

Let f (x) = 0 be the given equation. Let x0
and x1 be two real values of x at P and Q
respectively such that f (x1) is positive and
f (x0) is negative or vice versa (Fig. 2.1).
Then there is one root of the equation f (x)
= 0 between x0 and x1. Now, this interval
[x0, x1] is divided into two sub-intervals
x +x
[x0, x2] and [x2, x1], where x2 = 0 1 .
2
If f (x0) and f (x2) are of opposite signs
then the interval [x0, x2] is divided into
x + x2
[x0, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 0 .
2 Fig. 2.1
However, if f (x0) and f (x2) are of the same
sign then f (x1) and f (x2) will be opposite signs and the interval [x1, x2] is divided into
x +x
[x1, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 1 2 . This process is continued till the desired
2
accuracy is obtained.

example 1
Find the positive root of x3 – 2x – 5 = 0, correct up to two decimal
places.
Solution

Let f (x) = x3 – 2x – 5

f (1) = –6 and f (2) = –1, f (3) = 16

Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = 5.625
Since f (2.5) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 2.
2.5 + 2
x2 = = 2.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.25) = 1.8906
Since f (2.25) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.25 and 2.
 2.2 Bisection Method 2.3

2.25 + 2
x3 = = 2.125
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.125) = 0.3457
Since f (2.125) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.125 and 2.
2.125 + 2
x4 = = 2.0625
2
f ( x4 ) = f (2.0625) = -0.3513
Since f (2.0625) < 0 and f (2.125) > 0, the root lies between 2.0625 and 2.125.
2.0625 + 2.125
x5 = = 2.09375
2
f ( x5 ) = f (2.09375) = -0.0089
Since f (2.09375) < 0 and f (2.125) > 0, the root lies between 2.09375 and 2.125.
2.09375 + 2.125
x6 = = 2.109375
2
f ( x6 ) = f (2.109375) = 0.1668
Since f (2.109375) > 0 and f (2.09375) < 0, the root lies between 2.109375 and
2.09375.
2.109375 + 2.09375
x7 = = 2.10156
2
Since x6 and x7 are same up to two decimal places, the positive root is 2.10.

example 2
Find a root of x3 – 5x + 3 = 0 by the bisection method correct up to four
decimal places. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 5x + 3
f (0) = 3 and f (1) = –1
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = 0.625
Since f (0.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = -0.3281
2.4 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations

Since f (0.75) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = 0.1191
Since f (0.625) > 0 and f (0.75) < 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = -0.1125
Since f (0.6875) < 0 and f (0.625) > 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.625.
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.65625
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.65625) = 0.00137
Since f (0.65625) > 0 and f (0.6875) < 0, the root lies between 0.65625 and 0.6875.
0.65625 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.67188
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.67188) = -0.0561

Since f (0.67188) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.67188 and 0.65625.
0.67188 + 0.65625
x7 = = 0.66407
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.66407) = -0.02750
Since f (0.66407) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.66407 and 0.65625.
0.66407 + 0.65625
x8 = = 0.66016
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.66016) = -0.01309
Since f (0.66016) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.66016 and 0.65625.
0.66016 + 0.65625
x9 = = 0.65821
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.65821) = -0.00589
Since f (0.65821) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65821 and 0.65625.
0.65821 + 0.65625
x10 = = 0.65723
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.65723) = -0.0023
Since f (0.65723) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65723 and 0.65625.
 2.2 Bisection Method 2.5

0.65723 + 0.65625
x11 = = 0.65674
2
f ( x11 ) = f (0.65674) = -0.00044
Since f (0.65674) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65674 and 0.65625.
0.65674 + 0.65625
x12 = = 0.6565
2
f ( x12 ) = f (0.6565) = 0.00044
Since f (0.6565) > 0 and f (0.65674) < 0, the root lies between 0.6565 and 0.65674.
0.6565 + 0.65674
x13 = = 0.6566
2
f ( x13 ) = f (0.6566) = 0.00075
Since f (0.6566) > 0 and f (0.65674) < 0, the root lies between 0.6566 and 0.65674.
0.6566 + 0.65674
x14 = = 0.65667
2
Since x13 and x14 are same up to four decimal places, the root is 0.6566.

example 3
Perform the five iterations of the bisection method to obtain a root of the
equation f(x) = x3 – x – 1 = 0.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – x – 1
f (1) = –1 and f (2) = 5

Since f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.875
Since f (1.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 1.5 and 1.
1.5 + 1
x2 = = 1.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.25) = -0.2968
Since f (1.25) < 0 and f (1.5) > 0, the root lies between 1.25 and 1.5.
1.25 + 1.5
x3 = = 1.375
2
f ( x3 ) = f (1.375) = 0.2246
2.6 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations

Since f (1.375) > 0 and f (1.25) < 0, the root lies between 1.375 and 1.25.
1.375 + 1.25
x4 = = 1.3125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (1.3125) = -0.0515
Since f (1.3125) < 0 and f (1.375) > 0, the root lies between 1.3125 and 1.375.
1.3125 + 1.375
x5 = = 1.3438
2
Hence, the root is 1.3438 up to five iterations.

example 4
Find the approximate solution of x3 + x – 1 = 0 correct to three decimal
places. [Winter 2013]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 + x – 1
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 1
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = -0.375
Since f (0.5) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.1719
Since f (0.75) > 0 and f (0.5) < 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = -0.1309
Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = 0.01245
Since f (0.6875) > 0 and f (0.625) < 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.625.
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.6563
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.6563) = -0.0644
 2.2 Bisection Method 2.7

Since f (0.6563) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6563 and 0.6875.
0.6563 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.6719
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.6719) = -0.0248
Since f (0.6719) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6719 and 0.6875.
0.6719 + 0.6875
x7 = = 0.6797
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.6797) = -0.0141
Since f (0.6797) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6797 and 0.6875.
0.6797 + 0.6875
x8 = = 0.6836
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.6836) = 0.0031
Since f (0.6836) > 0 and f (0.6797) < 0, the root lies between 0.6836 and 0.6797.
0.6836 + 0.6797
x9 = = 0.6817
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.6817) = -0.0015
Since f (0.6817) < 0 and f (0.6836) > 0, the root lies between 0.6817 and 0.6836.
0.6817 + 0.6836
x10 = = 0.6827
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.6827) = 0.00089
Since f (0.6827) > 0 and f (0.6817) < 0, the root lies between 0.6827 and 0.6817.
0.6827 + 0.6817
x11 = = 0.6822
2
Since x10 and x11 are same up to three decimal points, the root is 0.682.

example 5
Find a root of the equation x3 – 4x – 9 = 0 using the bisection method in
four stages.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 4x – 9
f (2) = –9 and f (3) = 6
Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
2.8 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations

2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = -3.375
Since f (2.5) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 3.
2.5 + 3
x2 = = 2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.75) = 0.7969
Since f (2.75) > 0 and f (2.5) < 0, the root lies between 2.75 and 2.5.
2.75 + 2.5
x3 = = 2.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.625) = -1.4121
Since f (2.625) < 0 and f (2.75) > 0, the root lies between 2.625 and 2.75.
2.625 + 2.75
x4 = = 2.6875
2
Hence, the root is 2.6875 up to four stages.

example 6
Find the negative root of x3 – 7x + 3 by the bisection method up to three
decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 7x + 3
f (–2) = 9 and f (–3) = –3
Since f (–2) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2 and –3.
-2 - 3
x1 = = -2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (-2.5) = 4.875
Since f (–2.5) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.5 and –3.
-2.5 - 3
x2 = = -2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (-2.75) = 1.4531
Since f (–2.75) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.75 and –3.
-2.75 - 3
x3 = = -2.875
2
f ( x3 ) = f (-2.875) = -0.6387
 2.2 Bisection Method 2.9

Since f (–2.875) < 0 and f (–2.75) > 0, the root lies between –2.875 and –2.75.
-2.875 - 2.75
x4 = = -2.8125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (-2.8125) = 0.4402
Since f (–2.8125) > 0 and f (–2.875) < 0, the root lies between –2.8125 and –2.875.
-2.8125 - 2.875
x5 = = -2.8438
2
f ( x5 ) = f (-2.8438) = - 0.0918
Since f (–2.8438) < 0 and f (–2.8125) > 0, the root lies between –2.8438 and –2.8125.
-2.8438 - 2.8125
x6 = = -2.8282
2
f ( x6 ) = f (-2.8282) = 0.1754
Since f (–2.8282) > 0 and f (–2.8438) < 0, the root lies between –2.8282 and –2.8438.
-2.8282 - 2.8438
x7 = = -2.836
2
f ( x7 ) = f (-2.836) = 0.0423
Since f (–2.836) > 0 and f (–2.8438) < 0, the root lies between –2.836 and –2.8438.
-2.836 - 2.8438
x8 = = -2.8399
2
f ( x8 ) = f (-2.8399) = - 0.0246
Since f (–2.8399) < 0 and f (–2.836) > 0, the root lies between –2.8399 and –2.836.
-2.8399 - 2.836
x9 = = -2.838
2
f ( x9 ) = f (-2.838) = 0.0081
Since f (–2.838) > 0 and f (–2.8399) < 0, the root lies between –2.838 and –2.8399.
-2.838 - 2.8399
x10 = = -2.8389
2
Since x9 and x10 are same up to three decimal places, the negative root is –2.838.

example 7
Perform three iterations of the bisection method to obtain the root of the
equation 2 sin x – x = 0, correct up to three decimal places.
[Summer 2015]
2.10 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations

Solution
Let f (x) = 2 sin x – x
f (1) = 0.6829 and f (2) = – 0.1814
Since f (1) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.4949
Since f (1.5) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1.5 and 2.
1.5 + 2
x2 = = 1.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.75) = 0.2179
Since f (1.75) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1.75 and 2.
1.75 + 2
x3 = = 1.875
2
Hence, the root is 1.875 up to three iterations.

example 8
Solve x = cos x by the bisection method correct to two decimal places.
[Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x) = x – cos x
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 0.4597
Since f (0) < 1 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = - 0.3776
Since f (0.5) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.0183
Since f (0.75) > 0 and f (0.5) < 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = - 0.186
 2.2 Bisection Method 2.11

Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = - 0.0853
Since f (0.6875) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.75.
0.6875 + 0.75
x5 = = 0.71875
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.71875) = - 0.0338
Since f (0.71875) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.71875 and 0.75.
0.71875 + 0.75
x6 = = 0.7344
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.7344) = - 0.0078
Since f (0.7344) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.7344 and 0.75.
0.7344 + 0.75
x7 = = 0.7422
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.7422) = 0.0052
Since f (0.7422) > 0 and f (0.7344) < 0, the root lies between 0.7422 and 0.7344.
0.7422 + 0.7344
x8 = = 0.7383
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.7383) = -0.0013
Since f (0.7383) < 0 and f (0.7422) > 0, the root lies between 0.7383 and 0.7422.
0.7383 + 0.7422
x9 = = 0.74025
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.74025) = 0.00195
Since f (0.74025) > 0 and f (0.7383) < 0, the root lies between 0.74025 and 0.7383.
0.74025 + 0.7383
x10 = = 0.7393
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.7393) = 0.0004
Since f (0.7393) > 0 and f (0.7383) < 0, the root lies between 0.7393 and 0.7383.
0.7393 + 0.7383
x11 = = 0.7388
2
Since x 10 and x11 are the same up to two decimal places, the root is 0.73.
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