REEC001

March 1999
Process Industry Practices

Machinery
PIP REEC001
General Guidelines for Compressor Selection
PURPOSE AND USE OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PRACTICES

In an effort to minimize the cost of process industry facilities, this Practice has
been prepared from the technical requirements in the existing standards of major
industrial users, contractors, or standards organizations. By harmonizing these technical
requirements into a single set of Practices, administrative, application, and engineering
costs to both the purchaser and the manufacturer should be reduced. While this Practice
is expected to incorporate the majority of requirements of most users, individual
applications may involve requirements that will be appended to and take precedence over
this Practice. Determinations concerning fitness for purpose and particular matters or
application of the Practice to particular project or engineering situations should not be
made solely on information contained in these materials. The use of trade names from
time to time should not be viewed as an expression of preference but rather recognized as
normal usage in the trade. Other brands having the same specifications are equally
correct and may be substituted for those named. All practices or guidelines are intended
to be consistent with applicable laws and regulations including OSHA requirements. To
the extent these practices or guidelines should conflict with OSHA or other applicable
laws or regulations, such laws or regulations must be followed. Consult an appropriate
professional before applying or acting on any material contained in or suggested by the
Practice.
Process Industry Practices (PIP), Construction Industry Institute, The

University of Texas at Austin, 3208 Red River Street, Suite 300, Austin,
Texas 78705. PIP member companies may copy this practice for their internal
use.
Not printed with State funds
March 1999

Machinery
PIP REEC001
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ..................................2
1.1 Purpose...............................................2
1.2 Scope..................................................2
2. References....................................2
2.1 Process Industry Practices (PIP) .........2
2.2 Industry Codes and Standards.............2
2.3 Other References................................3
3. Nomenclature and Definitions ....3

4. General..........................................5
5. Types of Compressors ................6
5.1 Dynamic Compressors ......................12
5.2 Positive Displacement Compressors .16
6. Basic Principles of
Compression ..............................18
6.1 General .............................................18
6.2 Centrifugal Compressors...................19
6.3 Reciprocating Compressors...............23
7. Selection Considerations ..........25

7.1 Safety ...............................................25
7.2 Process .............................................25
7.3 Site and Location ..............................26
8. Lubrication and Seal Systems ..26

8.1 Lubrication Systems ..........................26
8.2 Seal Systems ....................................27
9. Ancillary Equipment...................29
List of Tables
1a. Summary of Typical Operating
Characteristics of Compressors
(English)........................................... 7
1b. Summary of Typical Operating
Characteristics of Compressors
(Metric)............................................. 8
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Different Compressors.................... 11
List of Figures
1. Types of Compressors...................... 6
2a. Typical Operating Envelopes of
Compressors (English) ..................... 9
2b. Typical Operating Envelopes of
Compressors (Metric) ..................... 10
3. Typical Single-Stage Compressor... 13
4. Typical Multi-Stage Compressor..... 14
5. Typical Axial Compressor............... 15
6. Typical Piston-Type Reciprocating
Positive Displacement Compressor 16
7. Typical Diaphragm-Type
Reciprocating Positive Displacement
Compressor.................................... 17
8. Typical Flooded Screw-Type Rotary
Compressor.................................... 18
9. Pressure-Volume Diagram for
Compression Processes ................. 19
10. Typical Performance Map of a
Centrifugal Compressor.................. 22
11. Pressure-Volume Diagram for
Reciprocating Compressor ............. 23
12. Ancillary and Supporting Systems for
Compressor Applications ................ 30
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1.
March 1999
Introduction
1.1
Purpose
The purpose of this Practice is to provide an initial reference for engineers preparing to
deal with compressor vendors, for process engineers, and for project managers.
1.2
Scope
This Practice provides overall guidelines for selecting an appropriate compressor for a
specific process service. This Practice is neither a procurement document nor a
specification.
2.
References
The following references are a set of applicable standards and documents that the reader of this
Practice can use in selecting, specifying, purchasing, and testing compressors and their
auxiliary components for a given application. Short titles will be used herein when appropriate.
2.1
2.2
Process Industry Practices (PIP)

PIP REIE686 - Recommended Practices for Machinery Installation and
Installation Design
PIP RESC001 - Specification for Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air

Compressor Packages
PIP RESE003 - Application of General Purpose Non-Lubricated Flexible

Couplings
Industry Codes and Standards
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American Petroleum Institute (API)
API 11P - Packaged High Speed Separable Engine-Driven Reciprocating

Gas Compressors
API 611 - General-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and

Gas Industry Services
API 612 - Special-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and

API 613 - Special-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services
API 614 - Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems for SpecialPurpose Applications
API 617 - Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas

Service Industries
API 618 - Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas

Industry Services
PIP REEC001
March 1999
API 619 - Rotary-Type Positive Displacement for Petroleum, Chemical, and

API 670 - Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring

Systems
API 671 - Special-Purpose Couplings for Refinery Service
API 672 - Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for

Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services
API 677 - General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services
American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)
ASME B19.3 - Safety Standard for Compressors for Process Industries
ASME PTC-10 - Performance Test Codes - Compressors and Exhausters
Association of German Engineers (VDI)
Gas Processors Suppliers Association
2.3
3.
VDI 2045 - Acceptance and Performance Test of Dynamic and Positive

Displacement Compressors
Engineering Data Book
Other References
Compressors: Selection and Sizing, 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing Co., Royce N.
Brown
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 1, Compression Equipment,

Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 2, Drivers for Rotating

Equipment, Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Leak-Free Pumps & Compressors, Elsevier Advanced Technology, Gerhard

Vetter
Nomenclature and Definitions

Absolute Pressure: Pressure measured from absolute zero (i.e., from an absolute vacuum).
Absolute pressure is equal to the algebraic sum of the atmospheric pressure and the gauge
pressure.
Absolute Temperature: Temperature above absolute zero
Actual Volumetric Vlow Rate: The volume throughput per unit time at the compressor inlet
Adiabatic Compression: Compression process where no heat transfer takes place (process
may be irreversible)
Aftercooling: Removal of heat from the gas after the final stage of compression
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March 1999
Altitude: Elevation above sea level

Capacity: Volume rate of flow of gas compressed and delivered, expressed at inlet conditions
Density: Mass of the gas per unit volume
Discharge Pressure: Pressure at the discharge flange of the compressor
Discharge Temperature: Gas temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor
Displacement: Average volume displaced per unit time by the piston of reciprocating
compressors or by vanes, screws and lobes of rotary compressors. When used to indicate size
or rating, displacement must be related to a specified speed. For multistage machines, it refers
to the first stage cylinder(s) only.
Inlet (Suction) Pressure: Pressure at or near the inlet flange of the compressor. In an air
compressor without inlet pipe or duct, absolute inlet pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
Inlet Temperature: Gas temperature at the inlet flange of the compressor
Intercooling: Removal of heat from the gas between compressor sections
Isentropic Compression: Reversible (constant entropy) compression process where no heat
transfer takes place
Isentropic Efficiency: Ratio of the isentropic work to the actual work required for the
compression process
Isentropic Head: Work required to compress a unit mass of gas in an isentropic process from
the inlet pressure and temperature to the discharge pressure
Isentropic Power: Power required to isentropically compress and deliver the volume rate of
flow of gas represented by the capacity from the temperature and pressure at the compressor
inlet to the discharge pressure of the compressor with no friction or leakage and with inlet and
discharge pressure constant. For a multi-stage compressor, the isentropic power is the sum of
the isentropic power of each of the stages.
Kinetic Energy (of a Mass): Total work which must be done to bring a mass from a state of
rest to a velocity, v. For rectilinear motion, the kinetic energy equals mv2.
Molecular Weight: Relative weight of a molecule of a substance referred to that of an atom of
Carbon-12 as 12.000
Polytropic Compression: Reversible compression process which follows a path such that
between any two points on the path, the ratio of the reversible work input to the enthalpy rise is
constant
Polytropic Efficiency: Ratio of the polytropic work to the actual work required for the
compression process
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PIP REEC001
Polytropic Head: Reversible work required to compress a unit mass of the gas in a polytropic
compression process
Pressure (Compression) Ratio: Ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet
pressure
Relative Humidity: Ratio of actual vapor pressure to the pressure of saturated vapor at the
prevailing dry-bulb temperature
Section (of a Centrifugal Compressor): Group of stages (impellers and associated stationary
parts) in series. In other words, the term section defines all the compression components
between inlet and discharge flanges. A compressor case (body) may contain multiple sections if
the gas is removed for cooling and returned for further compression.
Shaft Power: Measured power input to the compressor. The term shaft power is expected to
replace the more commonly used term brake horsepower.
Specific Gravity: Ratio of the density of the gas at a standard pressure and temperature to the
density of dry air at the same pressure and temperature and a molecular weight of 28.970
Specific Volume: Volume occupied by a unit mass of the gas.
Stage of Compression (in Centrifugal Compressors): Refers to a single impeller with the
associated stationary parts. For axial machines, each set of blades (one rotating row followed
by one stationary row) represents a stage of compression. In reciprocating compressors, a
cylinder, piston, and associated valves and parts comprise a stage. Compressor stages for other
types of compressors can be defined in a similar manner.
Standard Conditions: Several definitions depending on the particular engineering society or
industry defining it. It is important to define clearly the standard that is being used be it in
SI units or English units.
Standard Volumetric Flow Rate: Volume throughput per unit time where the pressure and
temperature for defining the volume are standard values
Stonewall (Choke) Point: Occurs when flow in a centrifugal compressor cannot be increased
further. In this condition, sonic flow is approached in some part of the gas path within the
compressor.
Surge Point: Minimum flow point in a centrifugal or axial compressor. When flow is reduced
below this point, cyclic variation (and even reversal) of gas flow and discharge pressure
occurs.
Volumetric Efficiency: Ratio of the capacity of the compressor cylinder to the displacement of
the cylinder
4.
General
Compressors are the prime movers of gas and air in process industries. They are used to
increase the static pressure of the gas and deliver it at the specified pressure and flow rate in a
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process application. Part of the increase in static pressure is required to overcome frictional
resistance in the process. Compressors are available in a variety of types, models and sizes,
each of which fulfills a given need. The selection should represent the best available
configuration to meet a prescribed set of requirements.
Selection requires matching compressor capabilities to process requirements. Mechanical
integrity and process safety are very important considerations. The process requirements and
criteria must be established prior to selecting a compressor system. The compressor system
includes lubrication and seal systems and ancillary equipment such as drivers, couplings,
gearboxes and control systems. All components of the compressor system determine its
capacity, reliability and life-cycle costs. Life-cycle costs include initial capital, operating and
maintenance costs.
In general, field-proven equipment should be selected. However, where justifiable, newly
developed equipment may be selected with appropriate technical scrutiny and follow-up. In
some cases, more than one type or size of compressor may initially appear suitable for a given
application. In that case, a more detailed analysis may be justified to make a final, appropriate
selection.
5.
Types of Compressors
The two basic categories of compressors are dynamic (centrifugal and axial) and positive
displacement (reciprocating and rotary types). Figure 1 shows the various types of
compressors that fall into these two categories. Tables 1a and 1b and Figures 2a and 2b show
typical operating characteristics. Table 2 shows the general advantages and disadvantages of
the different types of compressors.
Compressors
Positive Displacement
Dynamic
Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Rotary
Axial
Piston
Screw (Wet/Dry)
Diaphragm
Lobe (Straight/Helical)
Thermal/Jet
Liquid Ring
Sliding Vane
Figure 1. Types of Compressors
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Table 1a. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (English)
Inlet
Capacity
(acfm)
Maximum
Discharge
Pressure
(psig)
Efficiency
(%)
Centrifugal
100 200,000
10,000
Axial
30,000 500,000
Operating
Speed
(rpm)
Maximum
Power
(HP)
70 - 85
1,800 50,000
50,000+
Process gas & air
250
85 - 90+
2,000 10,000
100,000
Mainly air
10 - 20,000
60,000
80 - 90
200 - 900
20,000
Air & process gas
Diaphragm
0.5 - 150
20,000
60 - 70
300 - 500
200
Corrosive & hazardous process

gas
Rotary Screw (Wet)
50 - 7,000
350
65 - 70
1,500 - 3,600
2000
Air, refrigeration & process gas
Rotary Screw (Dry)
300 - 25,000
15 - 600
55 - 65
1,000 15,000
7000
Air & dirty process gas
Rotary Lobe
15 - 30,000
5 - 25
55 - 65
300 - 4,000
500
Pneumatic conveying, process

gas & vacuum
Sliding Vane
10 - 3,000
150
40 - 70
400 - 1,800
450
Vacuum service & process gas
Liquid Ring
5 - 10,000
80 - 150
25 - 50
200 - 3,600
400
Vacuum service & corrosive

process gas
Application
Dynamic
Compressors
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating (Piston)
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Table 1b. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (Metric)
Inlet Capacity
3
(m /h)
Maximum
Discharge
Pressure
(bar)
Adiabatic
Efficiency
(%)
Operating
Speed
(rpm)
Maximum
Power
(MW)
170 - 340,000
690
70 - 80
1,800 - 50,000
38
Process gas & air
50,000 850,000
14
85 - 90+
2,000 - 10,000
75
Mainly air
20 - 34,000
4,150
80 - 90
200 - 900
15
Air & process gas
0 - 250
1,400
60 - 70
300 - 500
0.15
Corrosive & hazardous process

gas
Rotary Screw (Wet)
100 - 12,000
24
65 - 70
1,500 - 3,600
0.15
Air, refrigeration & process gas
Rotary Screw (Dry)
500 - 42,000
1 41
55 - 65
1,000 - 15,000
Rotary Lobe
25 - 50,000
0.3 - 1.7
55 - 65
300 - 4,000
0.4
Pneumatic conveying, process

gas & vacuum
Sliding Vane
15 - 5,000
10
40 - 70
400 - 1,800
0.35
Vacuum service & process gas
Liquid Ring
10 - 17,000
5.5 - 10.5
25 - 50
200 - 3,600
0.3
Vacuum service & corrosive

process gas
Application
Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal
Axial
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating (Piston)
Diaphragm
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Air & dirty process gas
PIP REEC001
March 1999
100000
Reciprocating Compressor
Diaphragm Compressor
1000
100
Centrifugal Compressor
Rotary Screw
Compressor (Dry)
Axial Compressor
Liquid Ring
Compressor
10
Rotary Lobe
Compressor
Sliding Vane
Compressor
Discharge Pressure (psi)
10000
Rotary Screw
Compressor (Wet)
0
0
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
Inlet Capacity (ACFM)
Figure 2a. Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (English)
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100000
Reciprocating Compressor
10000
1000
100
Liquid Ring
Compressor
Sliding Vane
Compressor
10
Rotary Screw
Compressor (Dry)
Axial Compressor
Diaphragm Compressor
Discharge Pressure (bar)
Centrifugal Compressor
Rotary Lobe
Compressor
Rotary Screw
Compressor (Wet)
0
0
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
Inlet Capacity (m3/h)
Figure 2b. Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (Metric)
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Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Compressors
Advantages
Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal
Axial
Thermal/Jet
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating
(Piston)
Diaphragm
Screw
Lobe
Sliding Vane
Liquid Ring
Wide operating range

High reliability and low maintenance
High capacity for a given size and high efficiency

Heavy duty and low maintenance
No moving parts and low maintenance
High pressure ratio
Wide pressure ratios

High efficiency
Very high pressure

Available in special materials
No moving seals
Low flow
Wide range of applications
Wet screw has high efficiency and high pressure ratio
Dry screw insensitive to changes in gas composition
and can handle dirty gases
Simple in design and construction
Low cost
Simple in design
High single-stage pressure ratio
High vacuum capability
High single-stage pressure ratio
High reliability
Disadvantages
Instability at reduced flow

Sensitive to changes in gas composition
Susceptible to rotor-dynamics problems
Low compression ratios
Limited turndown
Very low efficiency
Narrow range of application
Heavy foundations required due to unbalanced forces

Flow pulsation can cause vibration and structural
problems
High maintenance compared to dynamic compressors
Limited capacity range
Periodic replacement of diaphragms required
Flow pulsation problems
Noisy
Wet screw not suitable for corrosive or dirty gases
Limited operating range and pressure ratio

Capacity control limited to suction throttling
Generally unsuitable for process gases
Low reliability
Sealing liquid/process gas compatibility required
Sealing liquid separation equipment required
Limited suction pressure
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5.1
March 1999
Dynamic Compressors
5.1.1
General
Dynamic compressors function by imparting velocity to a gas, and
subsequently converting the kinetic energy of the moving gas to an increase in
static pressure. Two primary types of dynamic compressors are centrifugal
and axial. A combination of the two types may be used to satisfy a given set
of process requirements.
5.1.2
Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors impart velocity to the gas through rotating impellers.
The gas is introduced at the eye of the impeller and discharged radially at the
outer circumference (impeller tip) at a higher velocity and kinetic energy. The
gas then passes through a stationary diffuser where its velocity is reduced, and
its kinetic energy is converted to static pressure. Part of the static pressure rise
occurs in the impeller and part in the diffuser. Impeller diameter and width,
rotational speed and the angle of the vanes that make up the impeller are
important parameters in the design of centrifugal compressors.
One or more impellers (stages) may be required to obtain the desired discharge
pressure. The temperature of the gas increases as it is being compressed. If the
discharge temperature is likely to increase beyond the maximum allowable
temperature before the desired discharge pressure is achieved, the gas must be
cooled before it can be compressed further. Heat exchangers, called
intercoolers, may be required to cool the gas. Typically, these intercoolers are
installed between compressor sections (one or more stages typically make up a
compressor section). Maximum allowable temperature is determined by:
1. Design or materials of the compressor
2. Avoiding excessive temperatures in the process
3. Fouling
4. Polymerization of the process
A seal system contains the process gas within the compressor as well as
prevents any contamination of the gas by bearing lubricants. Cross-sectional
views of a typical single-stage compressor and a typical multi-stage
compressor are shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. These compressors can
be designed to be non-lubricating if the process gas is required to be
oil-free.
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PIP REEC001
Figure 3. Typical Single-Stage Compressor
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Figure 4. Typical Multi-Stage Compressor
5.1.3
Axial Compressors
Gas moves axially along the compressor shaft (parallel to the machine axis)
through alternating rows of rotating and stationary blades. Each set of blades
(one rotating row followed by one stationary row) represents a stage of
compression. The rotating blades impart velocity to the gas; the stationary
blades slow the gas and direct it into the next row of rotating blades. As the
gas passes through each stage, its pressure and temperature are further
increased until it finally exits the compressor at the required pressure and
associated temperature.
Axial compressors require more stages to develop the same pressure rise as
centrifugal compressors, but can handle very high flows at very high
efficiency. Axial compressor design does not lend itself to intercooling, and
attainable discharge pressures are generally limited by temperature and
bearing span (which limits the number of blade rows). A typical axial
compressor cross-sectional view is shown in Figure 5.
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PIP REEC001
Figure 5. Typical Axial Compressor
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5.2
March 1999
Positive Displacement Compressors

5.2.1
General
Positive displacement compressors include reciprocating (piston and
diaphragm) and rotary (screw, lobe, sliding vane and liquid ring) compressors.
This category of compressor functions by enclosing an initial volume of gas
and reducing that volume mechanically thereby increasing its pressure.
Volume reduction is accomplished by one of the following:
5.2.2
Piston reciprocating in a cylinder
Reciprocating flexing of a diaphragm
Eccentric rotation of a volume sealed by sliding vanes
Matched rotating lobes in a volume cavity
Matched male and female helical screws
Rotor operating in a sealing liquid in an eccentric casing
Reciprocating Positive Displacement

Reciprocating positive displacement compressors have a piston in a cylinder
or a diaphragm operating in a shaped cavity to compress the gas. These
compressors have suction and discharge valves that control the gas flow.
They require special process and piping design considerations because of the
pulsating nature of the flow. Other considerations may include foundation
design, compressor valve speed, piston rod loads, intercooling and safety relief
valves. Figure 6 shows a piston-type compressor and Figure 7 shows a
diaphragm-type compressor.
Figure 6. Typical Piston-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor
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Figure 7. Typical Diaphragm-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor
5.2.3
Rotary
Rotary compressors generally have no suction or discharge valves, and use
suction and discharge ports that are alternately exposed and covered by the
rotating elements or sliding elements. Screw, rotary lobe, liquid-ring and
sliding vane-type compressors fall into this category. Most of the rotary
machines are specialized with limited applications. A typical flooded screwtype rotary compressor, cross-sectional view is shown in Figure 8.
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March 1999
Figure 8. Typical Flooded Screw-Type Rotary Compressor
6.
Basic Principles of Compression

6.1
General
The basic principles underlying the compression of gases in centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors are discussed briefly below. These two types cover the
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majority of compressors currently in operation. Discussion about other types of

compressors can be found in the references listed in Section 2.
In general, the compression of gases is based upon the following:
Boyles Law
Charles Law
Avagadros Law
Ideal Gas Law
Bernoullis Equation
The thermodynamics of gas compression is derived from these laws. Few gases used in
the process industry, such as air, follow ideal gas relationships. Therefore, real gas
equations of state are used to characterize the behavior of most process gases.
6.2
In a centrifugal compressor, gas compression is most accurately modeled by a
polytropic path defined by the relationship:
n
PV = constant
Where:
P
= Absolute Pressure
V = Specific Volume
n
= Polytropic Exponent
The above relationship is depicted on a pressure-volume diagram shown in Figure 9.

An adiabatic process is also shown on this diagram.
Absolute Pressure, P
Discharge
Polytropic Path
Adiabatic Path
Suction
Specific Volume, V
Figure 9. Pressure-Volume Diagram for Compression Processes
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The compression of gas from suction to discharge conditions may be accomplished

using a single impeller or multiple impellers depending upon the pressure rise required,
the need to improve efficiency and to limit pressure and temperature differentials. In
either case, the polytropic curve in the Figure represents the pressure-volume path that
the gas follows as it flows through the compressor. A section of a compressor may
consist of multiple impellers. As the gas is compressed, its temperature increases. The
gas may have to be cooled (using gas intercoolers) between compressor stages or
compressor sections in order to keep its final discharge temperature below the
maximum allowable temperature.
The efficiency of compression depends on the aerodynamic design and operating
condition of the impellers and the stationary gas passages and elements. This
efficiency can be defined as follows:
Polytropic Efficiency, p =
Reversible Work Input

Enthalpy Rise
The enthalpy rise of a gas can be obtained from a Mollier chart of the gas being
compressed if it is a single component. Frequently, however, process gases are a
mixture of several hydrocarbon gas elements. Computer programs are available to
calculate required thermodynamic properties of gas mixtures.
The polytropic exponent is not a constant during the compression cycle. However, for
most practical applications, it can be assumed to be a constant. Therefore, along a
polytropic path, the ratio of the reversible work input to the enthalpy rise is constant.
The exponent n is related to the ratio k of specific heats Cp/Cv and the polytropic
efficiency p approximately as follows:
n -1
k -1
k
1
p
The work input per unit mass is typically referred to as polytropic head and can be
evaluated as follows:
Polytropic Head, H p
n 1
Pd n
- 1

MW(n - 1) / n Ps
Z avg R Ts
Where:
Zavg = Average Compressibility Factor of the gas
R = Universal Gas Constant (English: 1545 ft-lbf/lbm-R; SI: 8314 J/kg-K)
MW = Gas Molecular Weight
T = Absolute Gas Temperature
P = Absolute Gas Pressure
Note: Subscripts s and d refer to suction and discharge conditions
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The gas power can be calculated using the following relationship:

wH p
Gas Power = C
p
Where:
C = a constant (English: 1/33000; SI: 1/3600) depending on units used
w = Mass Flow Rate
The shaft power is the sum of the gas power and frictional losses in bearings, seals and
gearing (if present).
Typically, the adiabatic process is suitable to define the compression of gases such as
air that exhibit ideal gas behavior. In all other cases, the polytropic process should be
used. It is of interest to note that:
Adiabatic Head < Polytropic Head
Adiabatic Efficiency < Polytropic Efficiency
The performance of centrifugal compressors is typically represented by head-flow

curves and efficiency-flow curves. A typical example is shown in Figure 9. Some
manufacturers also provide curves of pressure ratio and shaft power versus volumetric
flow rate. The end points of the curves represent two important limits of centrifugal
compressors surge and stonewall or choke point. Surge is characterized by
cyclic variation (and even reversal) of gas flow and discharge pressure, and it occurs
when the flow is reduced below the surge point. It is usually accompanied by abnormal
noise and vibration and it can lead to significant damage if the compressors operating
condition is not changed quickly to increase the flow. A stonewall or choke
condition is encountered when the gas flow reaches sonic conditions somewhere in the
compressor passages. In this condition, flow through the compressor cannot be
increased further. These performance curves vary typically with operating speed and
gas composition (density, molecular weight, etc.).
A gas being compressed in a centrifugal compressor approximately follows the Fan
Law which states that:
Volumetric flow rate is approximately proportional to the impeller rotating

speed
Head is approximately proportional to speed squared
Shaft power is approximately proportional to speed cubed
These relationships govern the behavior of centrifugal compressors as operating

parameters change. However, deviation from the Fan Law increases as the number of
stages increases.
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Efficiency, %
March 1999
Volumetric Flow Rate, acfm
Polytropic Head
Increasing Speed
Surge Point
Choke Point
Shaft Power
Volumetric Flow Rate, acfm
Volumetric Flow Rate
Figure 10. Typical Performance Map of a Centrifugal Compressor
Page 22 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
6.3
Reciprocating Compressors
Compression in a reciprocating compressor can be depicted on a pressure volume
diagram shown in Figure 11. For the most part, the process can be represented as an
adiabatic process using the adiabatic exponent k. In this process:
k
PV = constant
Clearance Volume
Cylinder Pressure, P
Pd
Ps
Actual Capacity
Piston Displacement
Cylinder Volume, V
Figure 11. Pressure-Volume Diagram for Reciprocating Compressor
The adiabatic process was also depicted in the pressure-volume diagram shown in the
previous section.
Typically, reciprocating compressors do not have a performance curve like the one for
centrifugal units. These compressors can deliver whatever pressure is required to
overcome the discharge back pressure unless some material or design limit is reached.
Therefore, these machines must be provided with discharge relief valves to protect
against exceeding safety parameter. Compression stage ratios are typically 3:1.
Reciprocating compressors also do not have surge and choke limitations which are
associated with centrifugal compressors.
Page 23 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
The work required for adiabatic compression is obtained in a manner similar to the
polytropic process. However, the exponent n is replaced with the ratio of specific
heats, k.
Therefore:
Adiabatic Head, H ad =
Pd
MW( k 1) / k Ps
Z avg R Ts
k-1
k
- 1
The volumetric efficiency Ev is defined as the ratio of the gas handled at inlet
conditions to the theoretical volume displaced by the compressor expressed as a
percent.
Ev
Actual Capacity
Piston Displacement
100 - {(Zs/Zd)rp1/k - 1}c - L
Where:
rp = Pressure Ratio
c = Clearance Volume (see Figure 11)
L = Effects from internal leakage, gas friction, pressure drop through valves, etc.
(approximately 5% for lubricated compressors)
The volumetric efficiency defines the volume flow capability of a cylinder in terms of
inlet volume flow rate under a specific set of operating conditions. It is important to
recognize that the volumetric efficiency of a given cylinder configuration (fixed
diameter, stroke, speed, internal clearance volume) is not a constant parameter.
Volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing pressure ratio across the cylinder.
Additionally, volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing internal cylinder
clearance volume. Thus, the volumetric efficiency (hence, capacity) of a given cylinder
configuration can be altered by varying the internal clearance within the cylinder
control volume. This clearance can be varied through the use of fixed or variable
volume clearance pockets which add internal clearance volume to the cylinder when
manually or automatically actuated for capacity control.
The theoretical discharge temperature is given by:
k - 1
k 1
Note: Temperatures are in absolute units. The equipment manufacturers should be

able to provide estimates of predicted discharge temperature and shaft power for
given operating conditions.
P
Td = Ts d
Ps
Page 24 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
7.
Selection Considerations
The following major areas should be considered when establishing compressor system selection
requirements:
7.1
Safety
Safety attributes include:
Limiting gas properties (e.g., decomposition, flammability, toxicity)

Note: Normal compressor operation should not violate these limiting gas
properties.
7.2
Compatibility of process gas with materials of construction (e.g., H2S with

copper, ethylene oxide with brass, oxygen)
Containment, collection and disposal of seal and vent gases
Over-pressure protection
Process and economic issues listed below should also be evaluated for safety
implications
Process
Key process variables which must be considered include:
Mass flow rate
Suction pressure and temperature
Discharge pressure and temperature
Gas physical properties (e.g., composition, molecular weight, ratio of specific

heats, compressibility)
Effects of process gas on the compressor system (e.g., corrosion, erosion,

fouling, chemical reaction, coking, polymerization, condensation and liquid
removal)
Machinery interaction with the process gas (e.g., lubricants, buffer fluids, seal
media)
Startup and shutdown process/mechanical conditions

Note: These conditions are sometimes very different than normal operating
conditions and may significantly influence the selection process.
Preferred and acceptable methods of capacity controls
Typically, a normal operating point is specified in the selection process. This is the
point at which the process is expected to operate. However, it is common to expect
variations in operating conditions. It is, therefore, important to establish an expected
range of the above variables during normal operating, startup and shutdown
conditions.
Page 25 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
Economic issues include:
7.3
Life-cycle cost (trade-off between capital, operating cost and maintenance costs
over life of equipment)
User and vendor capabilities and facilities for maintaining the equipment
Expected equipment reliability
Level of sparing dictated by production needs (e.g., warehoused or installed)
Standardization of equipment and lubricants
Project life expectancy
Site and Location
Available utilities
Accessibility to services and support
Environmental conditions
The above represent the most common, but important, attributes. Depending on the
application, other variables may have to be considered as well. The relative importance
of these variables should also be established to ensure that the best type and size of
compressor is selected.
8.
Lubrication and Seal Systems

8.1
Lubrication Systems
8.1.1
General
Compressors usually require oil for bearing lubrication and bearing cooling.
Oil is supplied by the lubrication system. Components in a lubrication system
include an oil reservoir or tank, lube oil pump or pumps, oil filters, oil coolers,
and associated piping and instrumentation. The cleanliness of the lubrication
system is critical to long term reliability of the compressor system.
Lubrication systems should be constructed of stainless steel. If carbon steel
components are used, then provision for cleaning and passivating should be
included. Flushing and cleaning of the lubrication system constitute major
commissioning activities.
8.1.2
Lubrication oil is required for the journal and thrust bearings. Lubrication oil
is supplied from a reservoir by a lube oil pump. This pump may be
compressor shaft-driven or independent. An independent main oil pump and an
auxiliary oil pump are preferred for centrifugal compressors.
8.1.3
Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressor cylinders may be lubricated or non-lubricated.
Lubricated reciprocating compressor cylinders utilize forced feed mechanical
Page 26 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
lubricators. Cylinders should be pre-lubricated prior to starting the

compressor. If contamination of compressed gas by lubrication cannot be
tolerated, non-lubricated cylinder designs are available that use piston rings
and rod packing which do not require cylinder lubrication. To prevent carryover of oil from frame crankcase to cylinder, a distance piece should be used
between the frame and cylinder. The compressor crankcase also contains the
oil for the frame lubrication. A wiper packing is installed between the
crankcase and the distance piece to wipe excess crankcase oil from the piston
rod.
8.1.4
Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors may be lubricated or non-lubricated. Flooded screw
compressors use common oil systems for lubricating the rotors, sealing
clearances, removing heat of compression and lubricating bearings. A large
amount of oil is circulated through the compressor. This oil is in contact with
process gas and must be separated from the gas and returned to the lubricating
points as well as to the compressor inlet.
Vane compressors inject a minimum amount of oil to lubricate the sliding
vanes in the cylinder.
Straight lobe and dry screw compressors do not use liquid for sealing the rotor
clearances and driving the non-coupled rotor. Lubrication is required for
bearings and gears. The compressors are furnished with seals which separate
the lubrication from the process. The size and complexity of the lubrication
and seal oil systems vary considerably with compressor size, type and
application. The rotor-to-rotor relationship is maintained by timing gears on
each rotor.
8.2
Seal Systems
8.2.1
General
Compressor seals are furnished to restrict or prevent process gas leaks to the
atmosphere or seal fluid leaks into the process stream over a specified
operating range, including start-up and shut-down conditions. Depending on
the application, the seals may be of a dry or liquid lubricated type. In
applications where leakage can be tolerated, a labyrinth seal may be used.
Seals may require a buffer gas, seal oil, or both. Manufacturers provide a
variety of seals and sealing systems to meet the intended service. If seals
require higher pressure oil than required by bearings, seal oil requirements
may be met by booster pumps or a separate system. Seal selection also
depends on whether the shaft is rotating or reciprocating.
If completely separate seal oil and lubrication systems are required, major
items such as coolers, filters, reservoirs and pumps must be furnished for each
of the seal oil and lubrication systems. If gas handled by compressor causes
contamination, chemical reaction or any other deterioration of oil, sealing
systems must completely isolate gas from lubrication.
Page 27 of 30
PIP REEC001
8.2.2
March 1999
Dry Shaft Seals

Dry shaft seals are available in five general types:
Labyrinth
Bushing (Carbon Ring)
Film-Riding Face Seal
Contacting Face Seal
Circumferential Seal
Sometimes a combination of two or more types is used to achieve the required

result. Labyrinth seals are used where high leakage rate can be managed or
tolerated. Labyrinth seals have no pressure or speed limits and may
incorporate buffer gas. Bushing seals function by inhibiting flow through a
close clearance around the shaft. The leakage rate is relatively high. They may
be used as a single bushing or a series of bushings and may incorporate buffer
gas and vents. Film-riding face seals (also known as mechanical seals) can
seal high pressures and allow high shaft speeds. They are used in single,
tandem, or double arrangement and require clean process, flush, or buffer gas.
Double seals with buffer gas pressure higher than process gas pressure
prevent any leakage of process gas past the seal. Contacting face seals and
circumferential seals are less commonly used in compressors. They have
limited shaft speed capability and shorter life.
8.2.3
Liquid Film Seal (Oil Film Seal)

Liquid film seals are available in eight general types:
Labyrinth
Bushing (Carbon Ring)
Windback (Reversed Helical Groove Bushing)
Restricted Bushing (Trapped Bushing)
Film-Riding Face Seal
Contacting Face Seal
Circumferential Seal
Lip Seal
The liquid film seal or oil film seal is particularly applicable to high speed
machines. The actual seal is accomplished by a thin oil film supplied by the
seal oil pump to a space between the rotating and stationary seal elements.
This oil contacts process gas and must be degassed before return to the oil
reservoir. Contaminated oil must be reconditioned or discarded.
When handling hazardous, toxic, or emission-regulated gases, the seal also
must prevent gas leakage to the atmosphere after the compressor has tripped
due to seal oil system failure. Various devices within the seal support system
Page 28 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
are available to assure that the compressor seal contains the gas at a standstill,
even if no seal oil is being pumped to the seal. Elevated seal oil tanks can
provide for the necessary static differential pressure of the fluid above the
sealing pressure for a sufficient time to allow the compressor to be
depressurized before the elevated tank oil supply is depleted.
8.2.4
Packing Glands
Packing glands are another type of sealing system and are used in
reciprocating compressors to control gas leakage from the cylinders. The
packing gland contains a series of segmented packing rings around the piston
rod. A purge gas, such as nitrogen, may be used to provide a positive seal
from the atmosphere and improve the venting of the process gas from the
sealing area. The leakage is usually vented to a low pressure vent system or to
a low pressure flare header. Care should be exercised to ensure that the
packing gland pressure is compatible with the flare header pressure.
9.
Ancillary Equipment
Ancillary equipment and supporting systems that are part of the selection and operation of
compressors include the following:
Drivers
Couplings
Gearboxes
Cooling Systems (inter- and aftercoolers)
Pulsation Suppressors
Separators (process gas, seal and lube oil)
Control Systems including Anti-Surge Systems
Monitoring Systems (performance and vibration)
Piping Systems including Safety Valves
Foundation, Grouting and Mounting Plates
Suction Strainers and Filters
Silencers
Discussion of the above topics is beyond the intended scope of this Practice. However, all of
them play a very important role in the selection, design, installation and reliable operation of
compression systems. Figure 12 summarizes the important sub-elements of these items. Details
may be obtained through the practices and standards listed in Section 2.
Page 29 of 30
PIP REEC001
March 1999
Gear Box
Driver
Turbine
Motor
Engine
Coupling
Coupling
Compressor
(If Required)
Reducing/Increasing
Transmission
Clutch
Dynamic
Bearings
Bearings
Lubrication
Lubrication System
System
Bearing
Bearing Lubrication/Cooling
Lubrication/Cooling
Oil
Oil Reservoir/Filtration
Reservoir/Filtration
Lube
Lube Oil
Oil Pumps
Pumps
Piping/Instrumentation
Piping/Instrumentation
Shaft
Shaft Bearings
Bearings
(Journal,
(Journal, Pressure
Pressure Dam,
Dam,
Monitoring System
Vibration Condition
Process Control
Driver Load
Seal
Seal System
System
Seal
Seal
Sealing
Sealing Fluid
Fluid Supply
Supply System
System
Seal
Leakage
Control
Seal Leakage Control System
System
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Drain
Drain System
System
Operational
Operational and
and Control
Control Systems
Systems
Acoustical
Acoustical Control
Control
Cooling
Cooling System
System
Compressor
Compressor Cylinder
Cylinder
Lube/Seal
Lube/Seal Oil
Oil
Interstage/Aftercooler
Interstage/Aftercooler
Driver
Driver
Operating
Operating Limits
Limits (Surge,
(Surge, Choke)
Choke)
Capacity
Capacity Variance
Variance (Variable
(Variable Speed,
Speed, Inlet
Inlet Guide
Guide Vanes,
Vanes,
Suction
Suction Throttling,
Throttling, Discharge
Discharge Throttling)
Throttling)
Pulsation
Pulsation Suppressors
Suppressors
Tilt-Pad)
Tilt-Pad)
Thrust
Thrust Bearings
Bearings
Emergency
Emergency Shutdown
Shutdown (Overspeed
(Overspeed Trip,
Trip, High
High Thrust,
Thrust,
High
High Vibration)
Vibration)
(For
(For Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Compressors only)
only)
Coupling
Coupling
Lubricated
Lubricated
Non-Lubricated
Non-Lubricated (Flexible
(Flexible
Element,Disc,
Disc,Diaphragm)
Diaphragm)
Element,
Special
Special
Figure 12. Ancillary and Supporting Systems for Compressor Applications
Page 30 of 30

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March 1999

Process Industry Practices

PURPOSE AND USE OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PRACTICES

Process Industry Practices (PIP), Construction Industry Institute, The

Not printed with State funds

Process Industry Practices

3. Nomenclature and Definitions ....3

7. Selection Considerations ..........25

8. Lubrication and Seal Systems ..26

Process Industry Practices

Process Industry Practices (PIP)

PIP RESC001 - Specification for Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air

PIP RESE003 - Application of General Purpose Non-Lubricated Flexible

Industry Codes and Standards

American Petroleum Institute (API)

API 11P - Packaged High Speed Separable Engine-Driven Reciprocating

API 611 - General-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and

API 612 - Special-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and

API 617 - Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas

API 618 - Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas

Process Industry Practices

API 619 - Rotary-Type Positive Displacement for Petroleum, Chemical, and

API 670 - Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring

API 671 - Special-Purpose Couplings for Refinery Service

API 672 - Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for

American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)

ASME B19.3 - Safety Standard for Compressors for Process Industries

ASME PTC-10 - Performance Test Codes - Compressors and Exhausters

Association of German Engineers (VDI)

Gas Processors Suppliers Association

VDI 2045 - Acceptance and Performance Test of Dynamic and Positive

Engineering Data Book

Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 1, Compression Equipment,

Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 2, Drivers for Rotating

Leak-Free Pumps & Compressors, Elsevier Advanced Technology, Gerhard

Nomenclature and Definitions

Process Industry Practices

Altitude: Elevation above sea level

Process Industry Practices

Process Industry Practices

Process Industry Practices

Table 1a. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (English)

Process gas & air

Air & process gas

Corrosive & hazardous process

Rotary Screw (Wet)

Air, refrigeration & process gas

Rotary Screw (Dry)

Air & dirty process gas

Pneumatic conveying, process

Vacuum service & process gas

Vacuum service & corrosive

Process Industry Practices

Table 1b. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (Metric)

Process gas & air

Air & process gas

Corrosive & hazardous process

Rotary Screw (Wet)

Air, refrigeration & process gas

Rotary Screw (Dry)

Pneumatic conveying, process

Vacuum service & process gas

Vacuum service & corrosive

Air & dirty process gas