Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Second edition
Robert W. Erickson
Dragan Maksimovic
University of Colorado, Boulder

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1.

Introduction to power processing

1.2.

Some applications of power electronics

1.3.

Elements of power electronics

Summary of the course

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Power Processing

Power
input

Switching
converter

Power
output

Control
input

Dc-dc conversion:
Ac-dc rectification:
Dc-ac inversion:

Change and control voltage magnitude

Possibly control dc voltage, ac current
Produce sinusoid of controllable
magnitude and frequency
Ac-ac cycloconversion: Change and control voltage magnitude
and frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Control is invariably required

Power
input

Switching
converter

Power
output

Control
input
feedforward

feedback
Controller
reference

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

High efficiency is essential

1

Pout
Pin

0.8

1 1
Ploss = Pin Pout = Pout
0.6

High efficiency leads to low

power loss within converter
Small size and reliable operation
is then feasible
Efficiency is a good measure of
converter performance

0.4

0.2
0

0.5

1.5

Ploss / Pout

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

A high-efficiency converter

Pin

Converter

Pout

A goal of current converter technology is to construct converters of small

size and weight, which process substantial power at high efficiency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

DT

Resistors

Capacitors

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Magnetics

s
s
Linearmode
Switched-mode
Semiconductor devices

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

DT

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

s
s
Linearmode
Switched-mode
Semiconductor devices

Signal processing: avoid magnetics

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

DT

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

s
s
Linearmode
Switched-mode
Semiconductor devices

Power processing: avoid lossy elements

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Power loss in an ideal switch

Switch closed:
Switch open:

v(t) = 0

i(t) = 0

In either event: p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0

Ideal switch consumes zero power

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

10

i(t)

v(t)

Chapter 1: Introduction

A simple dc-dc converter example

I
10A
+
Vg
100V

Dc-dc
converter

R
5

V
50V

Input source: 100V

Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W
How can this converter be realized?

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

11

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dissipative realization

Resistive voltage divider

I
10A
+
Vg
100V

50V

Ploss = 500W

R
5

V
50V

Pin = 1000W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Pout = 500W

12

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dissipative realization
Series pass regulator: transistor operates in
active region
+

I
10A

50V

+
Vg
100V

linear amplifier
and base driver
Ploss 500W

Pin 1000W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Vref

R
5

V
50V

Pout = 500W

13

Chapter 1: Introduction

Use of a SPDT switch

I
10 A

+
Vg
100 V

vs(t)

vs(t)

v(t)
50 V

Vg
Vs = DVg

switch
position:
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

DTs

0
(1 D) Ts

14

Chapter 1: Introduction

The switch changes the dc voltage level

vs(t)

switch
position:

Vg
Vs = DVg

D = switch duty cycle

0D1

DTs

0
(1 D) Ts

Ts = switching period

fs = switching frequency
= 1 / Ts

DC component of vs(t) = average value:

Vs = 1
Ts

Ts

vs(t) dt = DVg
0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

15

Chapter 1: Introduction

Addition of low pass filter

Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for
removal of switching harmonics:
i(t)

+
Vg
100 V

vs(t)

v(t)

Pin 500 W

Ploss small

Pout = 500 W

Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than switching

frequency fs

This circuit is known as the buck converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

16

Chapter 1: Introduction

Addition of control system

for regulation of output voltage
Power
input

Switching converter

Load
+

vg

v
H(s)

Transistor
gate driver

Error
signal
ve

(t)

dTs Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Pulse-width vc G (s)
c
modulator
Compensator

Sensor
gain

Hv

Reference
vref
input

17

Chapter 1: Introduction

The boost converter

L
1

Vg

5Vg
4Vg

3Vg
2Vg
Vg
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

D
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

18

Chapter 1: Introduction

A single-phase inverter
vs(t)
1

Vg

v(t)

load

H-bridge

vs(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

19

Modulate switch
duty cycles to
obtain sinusoidal
low-frequency
component

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.2 Several applications of power electronics

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters

less than 1 W in battery-operated portable equipment
tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power supplies for
computers or office equipment
kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives
1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission
lines

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

20

Chapter 1: Introduction

A laptop computer power supply system

Inverter

iac(t)
vac(t)

Display
backlighting

Charger
Buck
converter

PWM
Rectifier

ac line input
85265 Vrms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Boost
converter

Lithium
battery

21

Microprocessor
Power
management
Disk
drive

Chapter 1: Introduction

Power system of an earth-orbiting spacecraft

Dissipative
shunt regulator

+
Solar
array

vbus

Battery
charge/discharge
controllers

Dc-dc
converter

Dc-dc
converter

Payload

Payload

Batteries

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

22

Chapter 1: Introduction

An electric vehicle power and drive system

ac machine

Inverter

ac machine

Inverter

control bus

battery

P
system
controller

+
3ac line

Battery
charger

50/60 Hz

DC-DC
converter

vb

Low-voltage
dc bus
Inverter

Inverter

ac machine

ac machine

Vehicle
electronics

Variable-frequency
Variable-voltage ac

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

23

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.3 Elements of power electronics

Power electronics incorporates concepts from the fields of

analog circuits
electronic devices
control systems
power systems
magnetics
electric machines
numerical simulation

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

24

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

Inductor waveforms
vL(t)

Averaged equivalent circuit

RL

V
1

iL(t)

Vg V
L

Vg

iL

Predicted efficiency
100%

V
L
DTs

iL(DTs)

I
iL(0)

D' : 1

D'Ts

DTs

switch
position:

D' RD

Vg V

D' VD

D Ron

0.002

90%

0.01

Ts

80%

0.02

70%

0.05

60%

50%

RL/R = 0.1

40%

Discontinuous conduction mode

30%
20%

Transformer isolation

10%
0%
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

25

Chapter 1: Introduction

Switch realization: semiconductor devices

The IGBT

collector

Switching loss

iA(t)
transistor
waveforms

Qr
Vg

gate

iL

vA(t)
0

emitter

Emitter

diode
waveforms

iL

iB(t)
vB(t)

Gate

0
t

n-

area
Qr

Vg

minority carrier
injection

tr

pA(t)

= vA iA

area
~QrVg

Collector

area
~iLVgtr
t0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

26

t1 t2

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

2. Principles of steady state converter analysis

3. Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling, losses, and efficiency
4. Switch realization
5. The discontinuous conduction mode
6. Converter circuits

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

27

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

Closed-loop converter system
Power
input

Averaging the waveforms

Switching converter

Load

gate
drive

+
vg(t) +

v(t)

R
feedback
connection

(t)

compensator
pulse-width vc G (s)
c
modulator

(t)

v
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts
with ripple neglected

voltage
reference vref

vc(t)

dTs Ts

actual waveform v(t)

including ripple

transistor
gate driver

Controller

Small-signal
averaged
equivalent circuit

1:D

Vg V d(t)

D' : 1
+

vg(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

I d(t)

I d(t)

v(t)

28

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

7.

Ac modeling

8.

Converter transfer functions

9.

Controller design

10.

Input filter design

11.

Ac and dc equivalent circuit modeling of the discontinuous

conduction mode

12.

Current-programmed control

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

29

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part III. Magnetics

n1 : n2

transformer
design

iM(t)

i1(t)

i2(t)

the
proximity
effect

LM
R1

R2

3i

layer
3

2i
2

layer
2

2i
i

ik(t)

layer
1

Rk

current
density
J

: nk

4226

Pot core size

3622

0.1

2616

2616
2213

2213
1811

0.08
0.06

1811

0.04

Bmax (T)

transformer
size vs.
switching
frequency

0.02
0
25kHz

50kHz

100kHz

200kHz

250kHz

400kHz

500kHz

1000kHz

Switching frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

30

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part III. Magnetics

13.

Basic magnetics theory

14.

Inductor design

15.

Transformer design

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

31

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics
Pollution of power system by
rectifier current harmonics

A low-harmonic rectifier system

boost converter
i(t)

ig(t)
+

iac(t)
vac(t)

vg(t)

Q1

vcontrol(t)

vg(t)
multiplier

D1
C

v(t)

ig(t)

Rs

PWM
va(t)

v (t)
+ err
Gc(s)
vref(t)
= kx vg(t) vcontrol(t)
compensator
controller

Harmonic amplitude,
percent of fundamental

100%

100%
91%

80%

THD = 136%
Distortion factor = 59%

73%

60%

iac(t)
+

52%

40%

32%
19% 15% 15%
13% 9%

20%
0%
1

Ideal rectifier (LFR)

11

13

15

17

19

Model of
the ideal
rectifier

vac(t)

p(t) = vac / Re
Re(vcontrol)

+
v(t)

ac
input

Harmonic number

i(t)

dc
output
vcontrol

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

32

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics

16.

Power and harmonics in nonsinusoidal systems

17.

Line-commutated rectifiers

18.

Pulse-width modulated rectifiers

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

33

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part V. Resonant converters

The series resonant converter
Q1

Q3

D1

1:n

D3

+
Vg

Q2

Q4

D2

Zero voltage
switching

D4

vds1(t)

Q = 0.2

Vg

0.9
Q = 0.2

0.8
0.35

M = V / Vg

0.7

0.75

0.5

0.2
0.1
0

0.5

0.4
0.3

Dc
characteristics

0.5

0.35

0.6

0.75
1
1.5
2
3.5
5
10
Q = 20

1.5

conducting
devices:

Q1
Q4
turn off
Q 1, Q 4

X D2
D3

commutation
interval

2
3.5
5
10
Q = 20

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

F = fs / f0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

34

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part V. Resonant converters

19.
20.

Resonant conversion
Soft switching

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

35

Chapter 1: Introduction

Appendices
RMS values of commonly-observed converter waveforms
Simulation of converters
Middlebrooks extra element theorem
L
1
2
Magnetics design tables
50 H
2 CCM-DCM1

28 V

20 dB

|| Gvg ||

Vg

Open loop, d(t) = constant

20 dB

60 dB
80 dB
5 Hz

R = 25

Closed loop

vx

50 Hz

500 Hz

5 kHz

85 k

R3

C3

120 k
6

vz

vy

LM324

1.1 nF

+12 V
5

vref
+

value = {LIMIT(0.25 vx, 0.1, 0.9)}

C2

2.7 nF

Epwm

50 kHz

VM = 4 V

R2

L = 50
fs = 100 kz

40 dB

R1
11 k
4

Xswitch

R=3

0 dB

iLOAD

500 F

A.
B.
C.
D.

R4
47 k

5V

.nodeset v(3)=15 v(5)=5 v(6)=4.144 v(8)=0.536

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

36

Chapter 1: Introduction