1

PH 3001 - Quantum Mechanics I

Tutorial Solutions
The Uncertainty Principle
1. (a) Heisenberg Uncertainty principle, x p x 2 , where x is the uncertainty in a
position measurement and px is the uncertainty in a linear momentum measurement
in the x -direction.//
If

px
and
if p x 0
x 0
x
Physical Interpretation: If one has a very precise measurement of the position of an
object, at the same time he will have a very imprecise measurement of its linear
momentum in that direction and vice versa.//
Time-energy Uncertainty principle, t E 2 , where t is the lifetime of a
stationary state of a particle and E is the uncertainty in an energy measurement of
that state.//
If

t
E 0 and if t finite x
Physical Interpretation: If the lifetime of a stationary state is infinite (the ground
state), the energy of that state can be measured exactly and, if the lifetime of a
stationary state is finite (an excited state), the energy of that state cannot be measured
exactly and the uncertainty of the energy measurement will be E (2t ) .//
(b) Refer lecture notes.
(c) (i) The uncertainty in the linear momentum of the photon can be obtained by
differentiating

p h

h
h
//
p 2
2

(The sign appearing in the answer is due to inverse proportionality, and hence, can be ignored.)

(ii) The uncertainty in the location of the photon can be obtained by applying the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

x p 2

2
2
2
h
//
x

4 h
4

(iii) The uncertainty in energy of the photon can be obtained by differentiating

E hc

hc
hc
//
E 2
2

(iv) The uncertainty in energy of the emitted photon may be assumed to be of the same
order of the uncertainty in energy of the excited state.
The average time that the atomic system remains in the corresponding excited
state can be obtained by applying the time-energy uncertainty principle.

t E 2

h
t
4

2
2
2

//

hc
4 c c

2. Answer to this problem can be found in the details of the thought experiment Diffraction by
a slit in the Section Illustration of the HUP using thought experiments.//
3. Answer to this problem can be found in the details of the thought experiment Heisenberg ray microscope in the Section Illustration of the HUP using thought experiments.//
4.

The orbital angular momentum, L r p

L rp

L r p

The arc length, s r

H.u.p.,

s. p

s r

r
2

//
2

5. Lifetime of the laser pulse, t 109 s , Wavelength of the laser pulse, 6.3 10 7 m

t.E ~ h
E h

E hc

E ~ h t h 109 6.63 1034 109 6.63 10 25 J

E h

E h 6.63 1025 6.63 1034 109 Hz //

E hc 2

2 (E ) hc (6.3 10 7 ) 2 6.63 1025 6.63 10 34 3 108 = 1.32 1012 m //

(The sign in E is due to the fact that E is inversely proportional to , and can be ignored.)

6. The kinetic energy of the electron, T = 1 keV = 1 103 1.6 1019 J

As the electrons kinetic energy is not very high, it can be treated non-relativistically.
i. e. T p x2 2me

p x 2meT

me 9.1 10 31 kg and T = 1.6 1016 J

px 2meT = 1.70 1023 kg m s 1

p x h x 6.63 10 24 kg m s 1

x.px ~ h with x ~ 1 A 1 10 10 m

3
Percentage uncertainty of its momentum

p x
6.63 1024
%
% ~ 66% //
px
1.7 1023

Note: If one wants to treat the electron relativistically, (but, this will be a waste of time)
use p

1
1
(T mec 2 )2 (mec 2 )2
T 2 2T me c 2
c
c

with c = 3 108 m s 1 and me c 2 0.51 MeV .

7. The standard relation for the diffraction by a slit is d sin n , where d is the slit
width, is the angle of diffraction and n 1, 2, 3, . . . . . . is the order of diffraction.

105 m , d 104 m , and n 1 for the central maximum of the diffraction pattern.

sin d 10 5 10 4 0.1

5.7

Angular spread = 2 11.4

OR

For small , sin

Angular spread = 2 0.2 Rad. =

180
0.2 = 11.5 //

8. T 40 keV = 40 103 1.6 1019 J

Electrons can be treated non-relativistically even at this kinetic energy.
Find p using p 2meT .
De Broglie wavelength,

h
p

Resolving power ~ ? //

9.

1
6
10

106

Wavelength of the X-ray photon, h p , where 1 A 1 10 10 m

ph

p h 2 h 2 106 h 106 10 10 h 10 4

(The sign is due to the fact that p is inversely proportional to , and can be ignored.)

x.px ~ h

x ~

h
h

10 4 m //
4
p
h 10

10. Kinetic energy (non-relativistic), T

T 0.1

T
100

1
2

mev 2 12 9.1 1031 (100)2 J = 4.55 10 27 J

0.1T
100

In this non-relativistic case, the total energy E T V , and the potential energy V can
be assumed to be constant.

E T

The time-energy uncertainty principle, t.E ~ h

t ~

t.T ~ h

h 100h 100 6.63 1034

1.46 10 4 s
T 0.1T 0.1 4.55 10 27

Distance travelled in the time interval, t = v . t 100 1.46 104 1.46 102 m //
(b) Repeat the above work, for m 1 g = 1 10 3 kg and v 100 m s 1 .
11. The term particle energy means the particles kinetic energy.
Diameter of the nucleus ~ 1014 m

Size of the probe ~

1014
m 1015 m
10

Uncertainty in position of the particles used for probing, x 1015 m

x.p x ~ h

p x ~ 6.63 1034 10 15 ~ 1020 kg m s 1

We may assume that the momentum itself is at least of the order of its uncertainty,

p x ~ p x

p x ~ 10 20 kg m s 1

(a) For photons, using the relation E pc 1020 3.0 108 J = 3.0 1012 J
Note: The relation E pc can only be applied for particles of zero rest mass, such as photons.

(b) For electrons, with rest mass me 9.1 10 31 kg and p x ~ 10 20 kg m s 1 .

Relativistic momentum p mvv mev

1 v 2 c 2 , the velocity, v 0.9999c .

As this speed is almost equal to the speed of light, electrons will have to be treated
relativistically and hence the relativistic energy expressions will have to be used for
calculations.
Total energy, E

p 2 c 2 me2 c 4 3 10 12 J = 18.75 MeV

5
Kinetic energy, T E me c 2 18.75 MeV 0.51 MeV = 18.24 MeV (same as E )
(c) For neutrons, with rest mass mn 1.67 1027 kg and p x ~ 10 20 kg m s 1 ,

1 v 2 c 2 , v 0.02c .

Relativistic momentum p mvv mn v

As this speed is much smaller than the speed of light, neutrons can be treated classically
and hence the classical energy expressions can be used for calculations.

1020
p2
Kinetic energy, T

3 1014 J = 0.18 MeV

2 mn 2 1.67 1027
12. For the proton, vx ~ 107 m s 1
p x mvx

p x m vx m 107 , m 1.6 10 27 kg

(a) Along the x-axis, position uncertainty is governed by the H.u.p., x.p x ~ h x ?
(b) Along the y-axis, position uncertainty can be made as small as possible, i.e. y 0 .
Now repeat Part (a) with me 9.1 10 31 kg for electrons.
13. Diameter of the nucleus ~ 1014 m
p 5 1020 kg m s 1

x ~ 1014 m

p x

2 x

p ~ 5 1020 kg m s 1

The electron speed ( 0.99c ) is relativistic and hence the total energy E will be
significantly large. By neglecting the rest mass energy,

E ~ pc and

T ~E

T ~ pc .

T ~ 5 1020 kg m s 1 3 108 m s 1 ~ 10 12 J ~ 20 MeV

(The rest mass energy of the electron, me c 2 = 0.51 MeV << 20 MeV )
For an electron to be a nuclear constituent, its kinetic energy must be ~ 20 MeV . But,
the experimentally measured values of kinetic energies of electrons emitted (as -rays)
from radioactive atoms are found to be much less than this value. Therefore, electrons
cannot be present within nuclei permanently.
Note: Using similar arguments, it can be shown that neutrons and protons can present
within nuclei permanently.
14. (a) t.E ~ h
E ~ h t h 108 6.63 10 34 108 6.63 1026 J = 4 107 eV //
(b) According to the law of conservation of energy, the spread in energy of the photon
emitted in the de-excitation process must be equal to the spread in energy of the excited
state.

6
For a photon, E h E h

E h h 10 8

h 108 Hz //

(c) c with 5893 A 3 108 5893 10 10 Hz = 5 1014 Hz

(d)

108

2 107 //
14

5 10

h
E

h
E

E 4 107 2 107 2 eV //

15. At t 0 , the momentum is uncertain by at least p

The uncertainty in velocity, v

The distance

x t v

2 x0

m
2 m x0

travelled by the particle in time

t
. Note that, as
2m x0

x0

will be uncertain by

x .

16. (a) In order to hit the crack, ideally, the boy wants to hold each marble directly above the
crack and drop it vertically down so that the marble acquires a non-zero linear
momentum only in the y -direction and zero linear momentum in the x -direction.
Although he wants to make p x 0 exactly, in reality, it is not possible, because the
H.U.P. is responsible for introducing some uncertainty p x in that direction (if px
were made zero, then, H.U.P. would imply that x and hence the initial position
of the marble would become largely uncertain). As a result, there will be a position
uncertainty initially. Also, corresponding to the finite value of p x , the marble will
initially have a non-zero velocity component in the x -direction and as a result, it will
follow a curved path and hit the floor at a position away from the crack..
Boy
vx

t=0

y
Ladder
x
H

Crack

t=t
X
At t 0 , p x mvx

p x m v x

Floor

7
The H.U.P. x.p x ~

p x ~ x

vx ~ m x

Applying the relation d ut 12 at 2 in the x -direction, we obtain

d v x t

(as a 0 ).

Applying the relation d ut 12 at 2 in the y -direction, we obtain

H 12 at 2

12

t 2H g

(as u 0 and a g )
12

d v x t

2H

m x g

12

2H

The total uncertainty in the position, X x d x

.

m x g
The value of x that minimizes X is given by

dX
0
d x

12

1 2H
1
.

2m g

12

.(1). x

1
x 1 2
2 m

14

2H
.

For this value of x , the value of X will reach its minimum.

14

12

X min

1
x d 1 2
2 m
12

X min

1
12
2 m

14

2H
.

12

2H
.

m g

2H
.

g
12

14

2H
.

g
12

X min ~
m

12

14

21 2 m g

1 2H
12

21 2 1

1 4 23 4
1
2
m

14

H
.
g

14

H
.
g

In obtaining the above answer, we have omitted the numerical factor because we have
been asked to find only an order of magnitude value. Since the boy drops several
marbles, that value must only be an average value.
(b) Use H ~ 2 m and m ~ 25 g = 0.025 kg with ~ 1034 J s and g = 10 m s 2 in the
above expression and estimate a value for X min .

8
17.

Parabolic Reflector
Bulb

1 mm

Laser Beam

Filament
p

For the laser beam y 1 mm 1 103 m and 650 nm

The HUP, y p y ~ h

p y ~ h y h 10 3

The transverse momentum component = p y ~ p y ~ h 103

Linear momentum of a laser photon, p h
So, the angular spread of the laser beam
tan

p y
p

650 109

650 106
3
3
3
h 10
10
10

0.037 3 10 2

As we know, when a point source is placed at the focal point of a parabolic reflector, a wellcollimated beam in the forward direction can be obtained. If the object has a finite width
(perpendicular to the axis of the reflector), the reflected beam becomes diverged from the
axis of the parabolic mirror. Therefore, in the case of a torch, when the bulb is mounted with
its filament (having a finite width) symmetrically on the axis at the focal point of the
parabolic reflector behind it, only a reasonably collimated light beam in the forward
direction can be obtained. So, the angular spread of the light beam can be taken to be
somewhat of the order of the angle subtended by the filament at the vertex of the reflector.
If the width of the filament is w and the focal length of the reflector f 10 mm (assume),
the angular spread of the light beam

tan

w2
w
w

3
f
2 10 10
2 102

To have the same amount of collimation as that of the laser beam,

w
2 102

650 10 6

w ~ 105 m = 10 2 mm

A filament of this size with reasonable light output is not easy to make.

p2
1
p2
1
k x2
m 2 x2
2m
2
2m
2
Note: The uncertainty of an observable can be defined as the standard deviation.

18. Total energy of a L.H.O., E

12

A2

2 1 2

where A and A2 are mean (expectation) values of A and A2 .

For a L.H.O., by the symmetry of the system, x 0 and p

x 2

x2

p 2

and

0.

p2

Taking the mean value of energy

p2

E
By the H. U. P., x.p x

2x

Now find

d E
d x

p 2

1
m 2 x2
2m
2

2m

1
2
m2 x
2

2
1
2
m 2 x .................. (1)
2
2
8 m( x )

and set it equal to zero to find the value of x that minimizes E .

Substitute that value of x back in expression (1) to find E

equal to

1
2

min

. This value should be

19. The total energy of an electron occupying an orbit of radius r , E

p2
Ze2

.
2me
(4 0 )r

(Since the electron speed is not very high, we treat it non-relativistically.)

If the electron is confined to a region of linear dimension, r ~ r

By taking p ~ p ~

2r

2
e2

(4 0 ) r
8me r 2

2r

10
The electron is in the orbit so that E is a minimum. To find the value of r that minimizes E
, set

dE
2 2
e2
0 E

0
dr
8me r 3
(4 0 ) r 2

The expression derived from the Bohr theory, r

(4 0 ) 2
me e 2

(4 0 ) 2
4me e 2

. So, the value of r

obtained from the H.u.p. is in the right order of magnitude although the Bohrs value is
different by a factor of 4.

Operators, Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions

20. A is a Hermitian operator and A , X k X .

Let a be an eigenvalue of A with the corresponding eigenfunction . A a

Operate X on this:

X A a X
X A a X

A , X k X

a X k X
AX

X A k X
AX

a k X
AX

k X
AX

a X

is an eigenvalue of A with the eigenfunction X .

k is the spacing between the eigenvalues of A .//

a k

21. A and B are H.Os.

For any and , A A

(a) Consider

and B B

A B
=

A B A

A B

By defn. , A B is a H.O.//
(b) Consider A B

A B A , where B

B B

B , where = A
B A

A B is not a H.O.//

Note: Here it is not really necessary to replace A and B by and , once you
are familiar with the Dirac bracket notation

11
For A B to be Hermitian, A B has to appear on the R.H.S. instead of B A . i.e., A B is
Hermitian, only if A B B A or A , B 0 .//

One can come to the same conclusion by starting with B A . i.e. one can show that
, by following the same procedure.
B A AB
Consider

A B

B A

A B B A

=
=

B A

AB

B A AB

A B B A is Hermitian. //

BA
is not Hermitian..//
Similarly, show that i A B B A is Hermitian and AB
(d) Consider

A2 A 2

(assume that is normalized)

If A is Hermitian, its eigenvalues are real. i.e. A and is real.

A
AA

A 2 2

A2 A 2 2 2 2 1 2 0

//

Since is real, is real and positive.//

(e) If

A2 2

2 2

2 //

22. If A and B are adjoints of the two operators A and B , they satisfy the two

relationships,

A A
(a) Consider

AB

AB

and

B B , for any and .

AB

(By definition of an adjoint)

B A B A B , where A

B B A B A

A ,

where B

B A //

Note: Once you are familiar with the Dirac bracket notation, you could keep B and
A as they are.

12

A B

(b) Consider

A B

A B

A B

A B

A B //

(c) Consider

Q Q

c A

,
*

where Q A

A //

(d) Consider c A

, where Q c A

c * A

= c * A c * A

c A

c* A //

(e) To show that A A is Hermitian, use another definition of a H.O., which is O O .

A A

A A

A A

(using Results (b) and (c))

A A is Hermitian.//

Note: This is the easiest way to show that an operator combination is Hermitian, when
it is not known whether the individual operators are Hermitian.

are Hermitian.
Similarly, show that i A A and AA
1
It is seen that A can be expressed as A 12 A A i A A , where A A
i

and i A A are Hermitian.//

23. S A B (given)
To find S 1 , use the fact that S 1S I

I
S 1 AB

B 1 I B 1
S 1AB

S A B B
1

I B 1

13

1 B 1
S 1 A BB
S 1A A 1 B 1A 1

S 1 A I B 1
1 B 1 A 1
S 1 AA

S 1 A B 1

S 1I B 1 A 1
S 1 B 1 A 1 //

(a) No

(b) S 1 B 1 A 1
1 S 1 AA
1

S 1 B 1I A 1 B 1 A 1 AA
24. Q Q 0,

1 //
I AA

1,
Q Q QQ

H Q Q , is real
(a) For H to be Hermitian, it requires that
H H

(c) H

H 2 2

H H H

Q Q Q H //
(b) H 2 H H Q Q Q Q 2 Q Q Q Q 2Q Q 1 Q Q
= 2Q Q 2 Q Q Q Q H 2 P Q Q H 2 P Q Q
= H 2 Q Q Q Q H 2 Q Q Q Q H //
H Q Q

(given)

H * Q Q

H 2
0, //

25. It is P Q Q 3 .. (1)
(a) If P is self-adjoint, it requires that
Taking the adjoint of (1),

H 2 2

( ) 0

1 . (2)
P QQ
P P

P Q Q

P Q Q

P Q Q 3

P P

2 0
Q Q QQ

Q , Q 2 //

P is self-adjoint.//

(b) Equns (1) (2)

QQ
Q 3Q (3)
QP
Q Q . (4)
QQ

PQ
2Q
QP
P , Q 2Q //
Equns (4) (3)

PQ

(d) If is an eigenfunction of P with eigenvalue p

P p .. (5)
Operating Q on (5)
Q P p Q
PQ
2Q
From the result of (c)
QP
(c) Operating Q on (1)
Operating (2) on Q

14

2Q
PQ

p Q 2Q
PQ
P Q p 2 Q

Q is an eigenfunction of P with eigenvalue p 2 .//

pQ

2Q
PQ

pQ

d ( x )
Q ( x) x
(given)
dx
( x) QP
( x)
P , Q ( x) PQ

d ( x )
d ( x )
3
3

= P x
Q x ( x) P ( x) Q ( x) x ( x) x
dx
dx

(Using the given definitions of P and Q )

26. P ( x) x3 ( x)

d ( x)
d 3
= x3 x
x ( x) ,
x
dx
dx

d ( x)
d ( x )
= x4
x x3
x 3x 2 ( x)
dx
dx

= 3x3 ( x)

P , Q 3 x3 //

27. It is given that

d AB
d B
d A
A

B
dt
dt
dt

d A 2
d AA
d A
d A
(a)

A
dt
dt
dt
dt
d A 2
d A
d A
d A
only if
2 A
A

A
dt
dt
dt
dt

1, where I is the unit operator.

(b) I AA
d I
d A 1
d A 1
0
A A
dt
dt
dt
d A 1 d A 1
Operating with A 1 : 0 A 1
A
dt
dt

d A
i.e. A ,
0 //
dt

d A 1
d A 1
A 1
A //
dt
dt

28. A
x ,
B
x
x
x
, operate it on any function of x , f ( x ) .
To find AB

( x) x x f ( x) x f ( x) x f ( x)
ABf

x
x

x
x

15
=
=

f ( x)
x f ( x) x f ( x) x 2 f ( x)

x x
x
x
2
x

2
2

f ( x)

x f ( x) x
f ( x) x
f ( x ) x 2 f ( x)
x
x
x

f ( x) f ( x) x 2 f ( x)

x
Similarly, show that
2
f ( x ) f ( x) f ( x) x 2 f ( x)
BA
x2
( x) BA
f ( x) 2 f ( x)

ABf

BA
f ( x) 2 f ( x)
AB

A , B f ( x) 2 f ( x)
A , B 2 //

Note: When the algebraic functional form of an operator (or a combination of operators)
is known, the easiest way to simplify it is to operate it on some function of the
variable which the operator depends on.

29. The proof of the commutation relation x , p x i is given in lecture notes.

To verify the given commutation relation, lets evaluate [ x , H ] first.

p 2
x , H x , x V ( x) 1 x , p x2 x , V ( x)

2m
2m

1
1

x , p x p x x , p x p x p x x , p x
2m
2m

p
i
i
2
x
x, [ x , H ] x,

x
,
p

//

m
m
m
m

1
x , p x p x 0
2m
1
i p x
i p x p xi
2m
m

30. To show that ei xa
p x ei xa
p x a , consider

i xa


ei xa
p x ei xa
f ( x) ei xa i e i xa f ( x) ( i)ei xa
e
x
x

= (i )ei xa i a e i xa f ( x) ei xa
f ( x)
x

f ( x)

f ( x)
= (i) i a ei xa e i xa f ( x) ( i)ei xa e i xa
x

= (i) i a ei xa e i xa f ( x) ( i) ei xa e i xa
f ( x)
x

= a f ( x) (i)
f ( x) a f ( x) p x f ( x) p x a f ( x)
x

ei xa p x ei xa

p x a //

16
31. To show that p x i

is Hermitian, consider the integral

x

* ( x, t) p x ( x, t ) dx

all
space

all
space

* ( x, t) i ( x, t ) dx
x

= i *
i

all
space

*
dx ,
x

(Integrating by parts)

, 0 as x
=
*

all
space

*
i * dx i dx p x dx
x
x

all
all
space

space

*
p x( x, t ) ( x, t ) dx

all
space

By definition, p x i

is Hermitian.//
x

32. ( x) 2 x e x , for x 0

and

( x) 0, for x 0 .
2

(i) The position probability density of the particle, P( x) ( x) 4 x 2 e2 x

The value of x for which P( x) is maximum, we have
dP ( x )
0 8 xe2 x 4 x 2 (2)e2 x 0 8 x(1 x) e 2 x 0 x 0 or x 1
dx
Of these values, we find that, x 1 corresponds to the maximum probability.//

(ii) The probability of finding the particle within an element of length dx = 4 x 2 e 2 x dx

1

The probability of finding the particle between x 0 and x 1 , P

2 2 x

4x e
0

Using the integral

2
2x
2
2 ax
a x x
x
e
d
x

e
2 3 , where a 0 ,

a
a
a

2 2 x

4x e
0

dx 1 5e 2 1 0.677 0.323 .//

dx

17
(iii) Since ( x) is already normalized

* ( x) x ( x) dx

all
space

all
space

* ( x) x ( x) dx * ( x) x ( x)dx = 4 xe x x xe x dx = 4 x3e2 x dx

3!
2

3
1.5 //
2

x2

all
space

x2

* ( x) x 2 ( x) dx * ( x) x 2 ( x)dx = 4 xe x x 2 xe x dx = 4 x 4e 2 x dx
0

4!
25

3 //

[We have used the integral

n a x

x e

dx

(iv) The uncertainty in position, x

n!
an 1

x2

, where a 0 and n is a positive integer.]

x

2 12

3 1.52

12

0.751 2 //

33. (i) It is given that ( x, t ) A exp i(k x t ) , where A , k and are constants. Since

( x, t ) is a solution of the TDSE, i

( x, t )
2 2 ( x, t )

V ( x) ( x, t ) , it must
2
t
2m
x

satisfy that equation.

iA( i ) A expi( k x t )

( x, t )

2 A
(i k )(i k ) expi( k x t ) V ( x ) A exp i(k x t )
2m

2 k 2
( x, t ) V ( x ) ( x , t )
2m

2 k 2
V ( x)
2m

V ( x)

2 k 2
//
2m

(ii) A measurement of momentum is represented by the eigenvalue equation involving the

momentum operator, as given by
where the operator p x i
p x ( x, t ) p ( x, t )

p x ( x, t ) p ( x, t ) ,

and the result of the momentum measurement is p .

x
i

A exp i(k x t ) p A exp i( k x t )

x

(i)(ik ) A exp i( k x t ) pA expi( k x t )

p k is the result of the momentum measurement.//

k ( x , t ) p ( x , t )

18
(iii) A measurement of total energy is represented by the eigenvalue equation involving the
total energy operator (Hamiltonian), as given by H ( x, t ) E ( x, t ) ,
2
V ( x) and the result of the energy measurement is E .
2m x 2

where the operator H

H ( x, t ) E ( x, t )

2 2

V ( x) A exp i(k x t ) EA exp i(k x t )

2
2m x

2
(ik )(ik )

2
m

( x, t ) E ( x, t )

2k 2

A exp i(k x t ) EA exp i(k x t )

2m

E is the result of the total energy measurement.//

(iv) The probability that particles crossing a unit area per unit time is given by the
probability current density

j ( x, t ) P( x, t ) v , where

P( x, t ) is the position

probability density and v is the velocity ( momentum mass ) of particles.

j ( x, t ) P ( x, t ) v

j ( x, t ) * ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v A* exp[ i( k x t )] A exp i( k x t )

k
m

k
2 k
A
//
m
m
Note: The same answer can be obtained by substituting and * in the expression
of j ( x, t ) given in lecture notes.

j ( x, t ) A* A

34. The potential energy of the linear harmonic oscillator can be written as
2
m 2 2 2 q x
m 2
q
q 2 2
V ( x ) 12 m 2 x 2 q x
x

2
2
m 2
m 2
2 m 2
Then, the Hamiltonian of the oscillator subjected to the electric field becomes
2
m 2
2 d 2
q
q 2 2

H T V ( x)

2m d x 2 2
m 2
2 m 2

and the TISE of the oscillator reads

2 d 2
m 2
q
q 2 2

( x) E ( x) ,

2
2
2m d x 2
2
m

2
m

where E is the energy eigenvalue of the oscillator subjected to the electric field.
q
Substituting X x
d X d x and rearranging terms of the above TISE
m 2

19

2 d 2 ( X )
m 2 2
q 2 2

(
X
)

( X )

2m d X 2
2
2m 2

2 d 2 ( X )
m 2 2
q 2 2
,
where

(
X
)

(
X
)
E

2m d X 2
2
2 m 2

The above equation represents a l.h.o. having an energy E and angular frequency . As
described
in lecture notes, the energy eigenvalues are given by
1
E n 2 , n 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . .

E E

E n

q 2 2
2 m 2
1
2

n 12

q 2 2
2 m 2

q 2 2
//, where n 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . .
2 m 2

35. Answers to Parts (i), (ii) and (iii) are given in lecture notes.//
Conservation of Probability, Probability Current Density

36. Assume that V ( r , t ) U ( r , t ) iW ( r , t )

= Re V (r , t ) Im V (r , t )

Consider a particle described by a wave function (r , t ) . Then, the probability of finding

the particle at time t within the volume element dr about the point r is

2
P(r , t )d r (r , t ) d r

2
P(r , t )d r ( r , t ) d r 1
(true for all values of t )

all
space

Consider

all
space

P(r , t )d r
V

(r , t ) ( r , t ) d r

Rate of change of this probability

P(r , t )d r *(r , t ) (r , t )
*( r , t ) ( r , t ) d r

t V
t
t

V
2 2

Using the TDSE and its complex conjugate with H

V (r , t ) , we have
2m

2

(r , t )

i

2 U (r , t ) iW (r , t ) (r , t )
t
2m

2

*(r , t )

i

2 U (r , t ) iW (r , t ) *(r , t )
t
2m

P(r , t )d r
*( ) (*) d r W * d r

t V
2m V
V

P(r , t )d r j (r , t ) d r Im V (r , t ) P(r , t ) d r ,

t V

V
V

*( ) (*)
where j (r , t )

2 mi

20

P ( r , t ) j ( r , t ) Im V (r , t ) P ( r , t ) //
t

If V ( r , t ) is real, i.e. if W ( r , t ) 0
P ( r , t ) j (r , t ) 0 (Equ n. of continuity)
t
The physical interpretation to the above equation has been given in lecture notes.
Consider a surface of area S bounding the volume V . Then, according to the Greens


theorem we have (. j ) dV j .dS
and hence

P(r , t )d r j .dS Im V (r , t ) P(r , t ) d r

t V
V
S

If Im V (r , t ) 0 (as P(r , t ) is always 0 ), the second term on the right represents

some excess of probability of finding particles in volume V . This situation represents a

source of particles. If Im V (r , t ) 0 , the second term on the right represents some

deficit of probability of finding particles in volume V . This situation represents a sink of

particles. It should be noted that the probability is not conserved in the above two cases.
37. The derivation of the equation of continuity

P ( r , t ) j (r , t ) 0 , starting from the

t

TDSE, is given in lecture notes.

(i) P(r , t ) (r , t ) * (r , t )(r , t ) gives the probability of finding the particle

within a unit volume at the point r in space (3-d) at time t.

*

*
j (r , t )

) gives the probability (of finding particles) flux

2 mi
passing through a unit area per unit time in a beam of particles.
*
( ) A iB (1), where A and B are real quantities.
mi

( * ) A iB . (2)
mi

*
Equations (1) + (2)
A
( ) ( * ) j ( r , t )

2m i

Re * ( ) j ( r , t ) //
mi

*
Probability density

p Linear momentum

Velocity
i
m
im

j ( r , t ) Probability density Velocity

As in the case of a classical fluid, Probability Velocity should give the number of
particles (probability of finding particles) passing through a unit area per unit time in
a beam of particles.

It is meaningful to define j (r , t ) as the probability current density in q.m.

(ii) Take

21
(iii)

P(r , t ) j (r , t ) 0
t
By considering a surface of area S bounding the volume V , we have

P(r , t ) dV j (r , t ) dV 0

t V
V


Using the Greens theorem we have (. j ) dV j .dS and hence

The equation of continuity

P(r , t )d r

t V

j .dS 0

Physical interpretation: In a region where there are no sinks or sources, any

decrease/increase in the probability with time in the volume V is compensated by a
probability current directed out of/into it.// law of conservation of probability
(iv)

Analogous to the equation of continuity in q.m., in classical physics, we have

. j 0 , where j v and v is the velocity.

t

In Fluid mechanics, mass density of a fluid and j v mass flow density.

Equation of continuity describes the mass conservation in a volume element in
a fluid (i.e. mass cannot be created or annihilated in a given volume.)
OR
In Electrodynamics, space charge density in a conducting medium and

j v electric current density.

Equation of continuity describes the charge conservation in a volume element
in a conducting medium (i.e. charge cannot be created or annihilated in a given
volume.)

(v) ( x, t ) Ae i ( k x t )

j ( x, t )

d *
* d

2m i d x
dx

* i ( k x t )
Ae
A(ik )e i ( k x t ) A* ( ik )e i ( k x t ) Ae i ( k x t )

2m i
2
k 2
2
j ( x, t )
A (ik ) A ( ik )
A // Velocity Position prob. density

2m i
m
j ( x, t )

Normalisation, Expectation values, Uncertainties and Superposition Principle

38. (i) To show that ( x ) is an eigenfunction of H , operate the differential operator H on
( x) .
d
H ( x) d 2 dx 2 x 2 A exp( x 2 2) A
exp( x 2 2) ( 2 x 2) x 2 A exp( x 2 2)
dx
A x exp( x 2 2) ( 2 x 2) exp( x 2 2) x 2 A exp( x 2 2) A exp( x 2 2) 1 ( x )

( x ) is an eigenfunction of H with the corresponding eigenvalue 1.

(ii) Normalization of ( x) requires that

( x) d x 1

22

A2

From the standard integral

a x2

2 A2

(as e x is an even function)

dx

e x d x 2 A2 e x d x 1

1
2 a
14

1
1
2 1

1
A

//

39. Equivalent to the lin. momentum operator p x i

, we have been given L i .

x

( ) ( ) and (given)
By definition L ( ) L ( )
=

*
( ) L ( )d

( ) i

( )d

= (i ) ( ) ( )
(i) ( ) * ( ) d

(integrating by parts)

= (i ) * ( ) ( ) * ( ) ( )

( ) (i)

( ) d

= 0

*
( ) (i) ( ) d

( ) d

( ) L ( )

= * ( ) L ( ) d

L is a real quantity.//
40. The wave function is

( ) L

*
( ) L ( ) d

*
( ) L ( )d

( x) 2 x e x
=
0

x0
x<0

Note: In this case the normalization constant has been evaluated to be 2 . If it were
not known, one would be able to find it as follows.

( x) N xe x

Assume that

Normalization of ( x)

( x)

x0
x<0
2

dx 1

( x) dx

( x ) dx 1
0

0 N 2 x 2 e 2 x dx 1
0

23

Using the standard integral

n ax

x e

dx

N2

2!
1
(2 )3

n!
a

n1

, where a 0 and n is a positive integer ,

N = 2 .

(a) Position probability density P ( x) ( x)

4 3 x 2 e 2 x

x0

x<0

d
1
P( x) 0 x 0 or x
dx

Since P( x) 0 at x 0 (at the origin), the maximum of P( x) should occur at

1
x .//

Set

(b) x

*
*
3
3 2 x
( x) x ( x)dx ( x) x ( x) dx 4 x e dx ?

x2

*
2
*
2
3
4 2 x
( x) x ( x)dx ( x) x ( x )dx 4 x e dx ?

(Use the given standard integral)

(c) Probability of finding the particle at a distance x from the origin within the element
dx
= P( x)d x
1

The required probability =

P( x)dx 4 3

[Use the standard integral

(d) p x

( x) p x ( x)dx

= (i ) 2 x e x
0

= (i ) 4

xe
0

dx ?//

2 2 x

2 2x 2
2 ax
a x x
x
e
d
x

, where a 0 ]

a a 2 a3

( x) i ( x) dx
x

d
2 x e x d x
dx

x e x d x

= (i ) 4 3 x e2 xd x (i) 4 4 x 2 e2 xd x ?
0

(Use the standard integral)

p x2

2 2
2
*
2
*
2
*

(
x
)
p

(
x
)
d
x

(
x
)

(
x
)
d
x

(
x
)
( x ) dx ?

2
2

0
0

24
12

12

2
2
(e) x x 2 x ,
p x px2 p x

2
2
Using the known values of x , x , p x and p x , evaluate the product x p x

and see if it is of the order of .//

41. The potential energy function is V ( x) , x 0 and V (x) = c x, x 0 and the wave
function is ( x) 0,

x 0 and ( x) = A x eb x , x 0 .

(a)
V(x)
V(x) = cx

(b)

( x) dx 1

( x) dx

( x)

dx 1

e 2b x dx 1

(Use the standard integral)

A?

2
2
2 d 2
( x) d cx,
(c) H

V
2m d x 2
2m d x 2

x0

2 d 2
,
2m d x 2

x0

E H ( x) H ( x) dx
*

2 d2
b x
b x
A
x
e

2m d x 2 cx A x e dx 0

2 b x d 2
b x
2
A2
x
e
x
e
d
x

A
c
x3 e 2b x dx ? //

2
2
m
dx

0
0

(d) For the value of b which gives rise to the ground state energy of the particle,
dE
0 b ? //
db
42. The wave function of a particle is
( x, 0) A x( x a )
a

(i) Set

* ( x, 0) ( x, 0) d x 1

all
space

(ii) Prob. of finding particles in a unit distance

A2 x 2 ( x a ) 2 d x 1
0

= *

A ? //

25
a 2

Prob. of finding particles in the region (0, a 2)

d x
0

a2

= 1000

The no. of particles in the region (0, a 2)

d x //
0

(iii) The energy eigenvalues and corresponding energy eigenfunctions of a particle in a

1-d

infinite

square

potential

well

are

given

by

En

n 2 2 2
2ma 2

and

2
n x
sin
, n 1, 2, 3, ...... If it says that the particle in the well is found
a
a
in the state ( x, 0) at t 0 , according to the superposition principle, this state must
be a superposition of eigenstates.
2
n x
, where cn are constants.
( x, 0) cn n ( x) cn
sin
a
a
n
n

n ( x)

2
5 x
.
sin
a
a

A particle has the energy E5 when it is found in the state 5 ( x)

Prob. of finding the particle in E5 state

= c5

(see lect. notes)

2

5* ( x) ( x,

0)d x

0
2

= 1000

The no. of particles having energy E5

5* ( x) ( x,

0)d x //

( x, 0) H ( x, 0)

(iv) E
a

a
2 d2

2 d2
*
2

(
x
,
0)

(
x
,
0)d
x

A
x
(
x

a
)

2
2m d x 2

x ( x a )d x ? //

2m d x
0
0

Note: In Dirac notation, usually, it is not necessary to indicate the position

dependence of a wave function and only the time dependence is indicated.
For example, ( x, 0) H ( x, 0) can be written as (0) H (0)
( x, t ) H ( x, t ) can be written as

(t ) H (t )

( x) H ( x) can be written as H
43. It is given that H n ( x) En n ( x) and *n ( x) m (x)dx nm with n, m 1, 2, 3, ........
( x, t 0)

2 5 1 ( x)

As shown by the superposition principle,

25

3 5

3 5 3 ( x)

and

are the respective

probabilities of finding the system described by ( x, t ) , in states 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) on

26
measurement. We see that

25

35

1 as required by the normalization of

( x, t ) .
(a) Since E1 and E2 are the energy eigenvalues of the states described by the wave
functions 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) ,
( x, t )

2 5 1 ( x)e i E1t

3 5 3 ( x)e i E2t //

Note: In this problem, since the type of the one-dimensional system is not given, we
do not the values of E1 and E2 . If the system were a L.H.O., then
En ( n 12 ) and hence E1 32 and E2 52 .

(b) The energy of the system, described by ( x, t ) , is measured to be equal to E2 when it

is in the state described by 2 ( x) .
*

2 ( x) ( x, t )d x

The required probability =

21d x
2
3
3 5 e i E t //
5

=
=
(c) x ( x, t ) x ( x, t )

2 5 e i E1t

3 5 e i E 2t

2 2d x

( x, t ) x ( x, t )d x

For convenience, let us use the Diracs notation.

(t ) 2 5 e i E1t 1

3 5 e i E2t

3 5 e i E2t

By taking the complex conjugate of (t )

(t )

2 5 e i E1t

Condition of orthonormality n m n m

1 1 2 2 1

1 2 2 1 0

2
3
1 x 1 2 x 2
5
5

2 5 e i E1t

3 5e i E2t

2 x

6 i E1 E2 t
e
25

2 5 e i E1t

3 5e i E2t

6 i E1 E2 t
e
25

1 x 2

2 x 1

As we do not know the explicit functional forms of 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) , it is not possible

to evaluate 1 x 2 and 2 x 1 , and simplify the above expression further.
However, we may conclude that x varies with time.
Similarly, p x ( t ) p x (t )

and p x i

27
2

( i ) 1
1 ( i ) 2
2
5
x
5
x

px

6
i E E t
( i )e 1 2
25

2
x

6
i E E t
( i) e 1 2
25

1
x

As we do not know the functional forms of 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) , it is not possible to

simplify the expression of p x further.
We may conclude that p x varies with time.

(t ) H (t )

E
E

2 5 e i E1t

H n En n

and

3 5e i E2t

2 H

2
3
1 H 1 2 H 2
5
5
6 i E1 E2 t

e
25

2 5 e i E1t

1 H 2

2
3
E1 1 1 E2 2 2
5
5
6 i E1 E2 t

e
E2 1 2
25

3 5e i E2t

6 i E1 E2 t
e
25

2 H 1

6 i E1 E2 t
e
E1 2 1
25

2
3
1
E1 E2 2 E1 3E2
5
5
5
We may conclude that E does not with time (as the given state is a
E

superposition of two energy eigenstates).

44.

(i) ( x, t ) 1
where E0

2 0 ( x)ei E0 t
1 ,
2

E1

3
2

3 1( x)e i E1 t

and E2

6 2 ( x)e i E2 t ,

5 .
2

(ii) A measurement of energy of the oscillator yields the value 3 2 when it is in

n 1 or 1 ( x, t ) 1 ( x) ei E1t
=
=
=

1 2 e

state. So, the required probability

1(t ) (t )
e i E1 t

i E1 E0 t

2 e i E0 t

1 0 1

0 1

i E E t
3 e 1 1

3 e i E1 t

1 1

1 1 1

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal basis, n m n m .

Prob. =

1 3

1 3 //

6 e i E2 t

i E E t
6 e 1 2

1 2

28

In the Dirac notation

2 ei E t 0 1 3 ei E t 1 1 6 ei E t 2
1 2 e i E t 0 1 3 e i E t 1 1 6 e i E t 2

(t ) 1

and

(t )

E (t ) H (t )
E

1 2 ei E t 0 1 3 ei E t 1 1 6 ei E t 2 H
1 2 ei E t 0 1 3 ei E t 1 1 6 ei E t 2
0

Using that fact that H n En n

E

1 2 ei E t 0 1 3 ei E t 1 1 6 ei E t 2
1 2 ei E t E0 0 1 3 ei E t E1 1 1 6 ei E t E2 2
0

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal basis, n m n m

E 1 2 E0 1 3 E1 1 6 E2 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 6 5 2
E 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 6 5 2 7 6 //

45. (i) Consider ( x, t ) A e

The TDSE is

a m x 2 it

14

where A 2 am

2 d2
where H
V ( x )
2m d x 2

( x, t )
H ( x, t ) ,
t

By substituting ( x, t ) in the TDSE

iA( ai) e

a m x2 it

a ( x, t )

2 d am
a m x 2

(2
x
)
e
2m dx

2
2 2am d a m x
A xe
2m
d x

a m x 2
a ( x, t ) aA e

it

a ( x, t ) a ( x , t ) a x

it

it

a m x 2
V ( x) A e

V ( x) ( x, t )

a m x
am

x
(2
x
)
e

it

V ( x) ( x, t )

am
2 x ( x , t ) V ( x ) ( x, t )

V ( x ) 2ma 2 x 2 // //

(ii) x x A2

am x 2 it

am x2 it

x e

d x A2

x e2 amx

dx 0,

(as the integrand is an odd function of x)

x 2 (t ) x 2 (t ) A2

x 2 e2am x

it

d x 2 A2 x2 e2amx

dx

(as the integrand is an even function)

29

2 A2 x 2 e2amx

2am

8am

dx 2

p x (t ) px (t ) A2 (i )

am x 2 it

A 2 ( i )

eam x

am

am x
2x e

am x2
e
x

it

//
2am
4am

dx

2am
2a mx 2
d x A 2 ( i )
d x 0 //
xe

(as the integrand is an odd function)

px2 (t ) px2 (t ) A2 ( 2 )

am x 2 it

A ( )

eam x

2amA2

eamx

am x 2 it

e
2

dx

d am
am x 2
2
x
e

d x
dx

am x 2
am
amx 2
x
2x e
e
d x

2 am
2 2 am x 2
2amA e
dx
dx
x e

2am 1

4 am
2am
2

ma //

2 2am 8am 2 am
2

(iii) x

x2 x

2 am x 2

4am

p x2 px

p x

ma

ma //
4am
2

x p x

Yes, the product x px is consistent with the uncertainty principle.//

46. If ( x ) is an eigenfunction of the particle, it should satisfy the energy eigenvalue

2 d2
equation (TISE), H ( x ) E ( x ) , where H
x 2 and E is the energy
2m d x 2
eigenvalue.
2 d2
2
H ( x)

x
( x)
2
2
m
d
x

2 d 2 Ae x
2 x 2
H ( x)

x
Ae
2m d x 2

x
( 2 x)
2 d e
2
H ( x) A
x 2 Ae x

2m
dx

30
2 x 2
2
2
H ( x) 2 A
e
1 x (2 x)e x x 2 Ae x

2m

2
H ( x) 1 2 x 2 x 2 ( x) 2 2 x 2 x 2 ( x)
m
m

12

m
2
2

m 1 2 2

2
m 2 2
H ( x)
2
x x 2 ( x) ( x )

m
2 2 m

2 2 m

Therefore, ( x ) Ae x is an eigenfunction of the particle and the corresponding

eigenvalue is E 2 m //

47. The potential energy of the oscillator is V ( x) 12 m 2 ( x 2 2a x) 12 m 2 x 2 am 2 x

This problem is very much similar to Problem 34 in which a particle of mass m and
charge q, oscillating with angular frequency and is subjected to an electric field of
intensity along the x-axis. In that problem, the potential energy is found to be given by
V ( x) 12 m 2 x 2 q x . So, if you treat the quantity am 2 as being equivalent to q
and repeat the derivation of Problem 34, the required energy eigenvalues can be obtained.
Schrdinger Equation and its applications
48. The given function ( x, t ) A ei(k x t ) (a plane wave) must be a solution of the TDSE

( x, t )
2 d2
V ( x) .
H ( x, t ) , where H
2 m dx 2
t
2 d 2

i A ei(k x t )
V ( x) A ei(k x t )
2
t
2m dx

2
(ik )2 A ei(k x t ) V ( x) A ei(k x t )
2m
2 2
k
2k 2

V ( x)

V ( x)
//
2m
2m
i 2 A ei(k x t )

49. The answer is given in lecture notes. See Application (5) Infinite Square potential Well
(symmetric about at x = 0) in the Section Solutions to the TISE for a particle moving in
various potential regions.
(i) ( x, 0) 1 ( x) 2 ( x) 2 1 2 1 ( x) 1 2 2 ( x)

( x, t ) 1
where 1 ( x)
and

2 1 ( x)ei E1 t

2 2 ( x)e i E2 t

2 a cos x a , E1 2 2 2 m a 2 , 2 ( x)

E2 4 2 2 2 m a 2 .

2 a sin 2 x a

31
a 2

(ii) P (t )

( x, t ) d x and

0
a2

P (t )

1 2

1 2

1
P (t )
a

2 a cos x a e i E1 t

2 a cos x a ei E1 t

2 a sin 2 x a e i E2 t

2 a sin 2 x a ei E2 t

a2

i E E t
2
2
cos x a sin 2 x a + sin 2 x a cos x a e
1

i E E t
e 1 2

d x

d x

a2

1
P (t )
a

1
cos x a d x
a

a2

1
sin 2 x a d x 2cos ( E1 E2 )t
a
2

a2

sin 2 x a cos x a dx
0

P (t ) ? //
0

If you have to find P (t )

( x, t ) d x , there is no need to repeat the above work

a 2

and, it can be easily evaluated as P (t ) 1 P (t ) //.

50. (i) ( x, t ) is obtained by multiplying each 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) by corresponding time factors

e i E1 t

and e i E2 t

respectively.

12

( x, t ) 1 3 1 ( x)ei E1 t

2 3 2 ( x)ei E2 t //, where

12

E1 2 2 2 m a 2 and E2 2 2 2 m a 2 .

(ii) Finding the particle with energy equal to 2 2 2 m a 2 means, finding it in the
stationary state 2 ( x, t ) 2 ( x)ei E2 t . Therefore, the probability that the particle
in state ( x, t ) being found to have energy 2 2 2 m a 2

2 (t ) (t )

=
=

i E2 t

1 3

1 2 i E1 t

1 31 2 ei E2 E1 t

1 2 i E2 t

1 2 3

1 2 i E 2 E 2 t

2 1 2 3

2 2

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal basis, n m n m .

Prob. =

2 31 2

2 3 //

(iii) The energy eigenvalue equation for the system

H n En n , where

2 a sin n x a and En n 2 2 2 2 m a 2 .
12

In the Dirac notation (t ) 1 3

12

(t ) 1 3

1 e i E1 t

12

2 3

1 ei E1 t

12

2 3

2 e i E2 t .

2 e i E2 t

and

32
E (t ) H (t )

1 3
1 3

12

1 ei E1 t

2 3

12

2 e i E2 t

12

1 ei E1 t

2 3

12

2 e i E2 t

H 1 3
1 3 e

12

1 e i E1 t

1 2 i E1 t

12

2 3

2 e i E2 t

1 2 i E2 t

E1 1 2 3

E2 2

E 1 3 E1 1 1

2 3 E2

2 2 (2)1 2 3 E2 ei E1 E2 t

1 2 (2)1 2 3 E1e i E2 E1 t

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal basis, n m n m

E 1 3 E1 2 3 E2 = 1 3 2 2 2 m a 2 2 3 2 2 2 m a 2 = 3 2 2 2m a 2 //

51. Consider a particle of mass m and total energy E approaching from the right of the
0 x0
potential step which is defined as V x
(an idealistic
V0 x 0
situation)
V(x)

V0

x
x 0 (Region II)

x 0 (Region I)

(a) Consider the case E V0

2 d 2
I x V0 I x E I x
2 m dx 2
i k x
ik x
2m E V0
I x Ae 1 B e 1 ,
where k12
2

reads

In region I (x > 0), the TISE

The Solution

represents incident represents reflected

particles
particles

2 d 2
II x
2 m dx 2
ik x
ik x
II x C e 2 D e 2 ,
where

In region II (x < 0), the TISE reads

The solution

represents transmitted
particles

represents reflected
particles

As no reflection is possible from x < 0 region, D 0

E II x

k22

2m E
2

2 1

33

II x C e

i k x
2

To determine A, B and C, apply boundary conditions

I ( x)

x0

II ( x)

d
d
I ( x) x 0
II ( x)
dx
dx
k1 ( A B) k2 C

x0

A B C

k k2
B 1
A
k1 k2

2 k1
C
A
k1 k2
2

Incident probability flux density,

ji A

Reflected probability flux density

jr B

Transmitted probability flux density

jt C

Reflection coefficient, R

jr
ji

x0

k1
B
m
k1
A
m

k1
m

k1
m

k2
m

2
2

k k2
1

k1 k2

k2 2
C
jt
4 k1 k2
Transmission coefficient, T
m

k
2
ji
1 A
k1 k2 2
m
(b) So, the Reflection and Transmission coefficients are the same as those obtained in
Application (2) of the TISE given in lecture notes.
(c) Assuming that the potential energy inside the metal (Region II) is V ( x) 0 , that outside

the metal (Region I) is V ( x) V0 1 eV and, outside the metal the electrons have a kinetic
energy of T 1 eV , we get the total energy of electrons outside the metal, E 2 eV . Using the
given values of E , V0 , me and , calculate k1 and k2 and hence calculate the
reflection coefficient R which gives the fraction of electrons reflected from the metal surface.

52. The answers to Parts (i) and (ii) are given in lecture notes. See Application (2) Step
Potential (Case b) in the Section Solutions to the TISE for a particle moving in various
potential regions
(iii) The kinetic energy of particles = E V ( x )
In x 0 region, the k. e. = E ( 0) and in x 0 region, the k. e. = E V0 0 . These
facts suggest that, according to classical mechanics, all particles must transmit from
x 0 region to x 0 region with no reflection. However, the non-zero value of R (in
addition to T 1 ) shows that, according to q.m., some particles can get reflected
back into x 0 .

34

(iv) In x 0 region, due to unequal amplitudes of incident and reflected waves, they
cannot combine to give a pure standing wave. So, we get an oscillatory behaviour in
p.p.d. with a minimum value which is different from zero. In x 0 region, the
eigenfunction is a pure travelling wave. Therefore the p.p.d. takes a constant value.
(v) This situation is an approximation to the potential acting on a neutron near the nuclear
surface. If the neutron gets energy E so that it is a little greater than V0 (= the height
of the nuclear potential barrier), there is still a probability for it be reflected back into
the nucleus and thereby increasing the stability in it.

53. Apply the TISE for the particle in each region and obtain solutions.
V(x)
m
8V0
E = 9V0

5V0
I

II

III
x

In region I, E 9V0 and V ( x) 8V0 ,

ik x
i k x
I x A e 1 B e 1 ,
In region II, E 9V0 and V ( x) 0 ,
ik x
i k x
II x C e 2 D e 2 ,
In region III, E 9V0 and V ( x) 5V0 ,
ik x
i k x
III x E e 3 F e 3 ,

where k12

where k12

2mV0
2

18mV0

where k32

, x0

, 0 xa

8mV0

, xa
2
Since there cannot be a reflected wave from x a region, F 0 . Then, by applying
boundary conditions at x 0 and x a , obtain four simultaneous equations containing
05 unknowns. Hence determine E in terms of A . The probability of transmission through
x a region is
k3 2
2
E
k3 E
jt
m
T

2
k1 2
ji
k1 A
A
m
Finding T will be a very time consuming exercise.

54.

(i) See Application (2) of the TISE given in lecture notes.

(ii) Particle flux = Probability current density

35
*

d
d *
inc x inc x inc
x inc x

2 mi
dx
dx

* i k x

Ae
(i k ) Aei k x ( i k ) A*e i k x Aei k x
2 A (i k )

2mi
2mi
k 2

A velocity position prob. density

m
Similarly, it can be shown that
jinc x

jref x

k
B
m

where k 2

2m E

k ik
m ik

and 2

2m V0 E
2

k k 2 2 2
k 2
A
A ,
m k2 2
m

B
j
Reflected flux
(iii) Reflection coefficient, R
ref
Incident flux
jinc
A

2
2

1 //

(iv) The kinetic energy of particles = E V ( x)

In x 0 region, the k.e. = E 0 and in x 0 region, the k.e. = E V0 0

According to classical mechanics, the x 0 region is classically

inaccessible for particles and all of them must be reflected by the barrier back into
the x 0 region.
R 1

According to quantum mechanics, all particles must be

reflected by the barrier. However, the position probability density associated with
the wave function ( II ( x) ) in x 0 region (see lecture notes)
P(x) * ( x) ( x) C 2e2 x shows that, for finite values of x , particles
II

II

can be detected in the classically inaccessible region, which is purely a quantum

mechanical effect.
(v) See lecture notes.
(vi) A conduction electron in a metal is an example for a real physical system. See
lecture notes for more details.
55. For derivation of the expressions of reflection and transmission coefficients, see
Application (2) of the TISE in lecture notes.

1
R

V
1 0
E
V
1 0
E

4 1
T

V0
E
2

V0
1 1

In the above expressions, use the substitution E 2V0 and get the required results. Note
that, in this problem, as E has been expressed in terms of V0 , it is possible to simplify
the above results until some numerical values are obtained for R and T .

36
56. Consider a particle of mass m and total energy E approaching from the left of the
x0
V
potential step which is defined as V x 1
.
V2 x 0
V(x)
m
E > V2

V2

m
V1

V1< E < V2
x

0
Case I:

V1 E V2
2 d 2
I x V1 I x E I x
2 m dx 2
2m E V1
I x A ei kx B e i kx ,
where k 2
2

In region I (x < 0), the TISE reads

Solution

2 d 2
II x V2 II x E II x
2m dx 2
2m V2 E
Solution
II x C e x D e x ,
where 2
2
Since II x has to be finite for all x > 0, C 0 . Apply boundary conditions at x 0
and find B and D in terms of A (the amplitude of the incident wave).

In region II (x > 0), the TISE reads

Case II:

E V2
2 d 2
I x V1 I x E I x
2 m dx 2
ik x
i k x
2m E V1
I x Ae 1 B e 1 ,
where k12
2

In region I (x < 0), the TISE reads

Solution

2 d 2
II x V2 II x E II x
2 m dx 2
ik x
ik x
2m E V2
II x C e 2 D e 2 ,
where k22
Solution
2
Since there cannot be a reflected wave from x > 0 region, D 0 . Apply boundary
conditions at x 0 and find B and C in terms of A (the amplitude of the incident
wave).

In region II (x > 0), the TISE reads

57. In 2-dimensions, consider the motion of a particle of mass m in the potential

V ( x, y )

1 k x2
2 x

12 k y y 2 , k x m x2 , k y m y2 , x , y

The above is a 2-dimensional harmonic oscillator potential.

37
If k x k y , the oscillator is said to be anisotropic and if k x k y , it is said to be isotropic.
Here k x and k y are force constants in x and y directions and x and y are the
corresponding angular frequencies. Applying the TISE for the oscillating mass
2 2
x, y V x, y x, y E x, y
2m

Assume a solution of the form x, y x x y y and the corresponding energy

E Ex E y .

2
2m

2 x x y y 2 y y x x E x E y x x y y
x

Dividing throughout by x, y x x y y and separating variables, we can get

two independent equations.

2 d2
x x
2m dx 2

1 k x 2
x
2 x

2 d 2
y y
2m dy 2

1 k y 2
y
2 y

Ex x x

and

Ey y y

These are in the form of the TISE for one-dimensional linear harmonic oscillator. The
solutions to each of these equations have been obtained as
12

x
nx x

2nx n !
x

2 2

e x x

12

H nx x x , with x m x

and En nx 12 x
x

12

ny y
2n y n !
y

2y y 2 2

H ny y y , with y m y

12

and En n y 12 y
y

where nx , n y 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . and, H nx x x and H n y y y are Hermite polynomials.

En n En En nx 12 x n y 12 y and n n ( x, y) n ( x) n ( y )
x y
x
y
x y
x
y
Here we have used nx

and

n y to characterize the energy eigenfunctions and energy

eigenvalues of the 2-d harmonic oscillator.

When the oscillator is isotropic

kx k y k , x = y

and x = y

Energy eigenvalues are En n 1 , n nx n y and the possible values of n are

0, 1, 2, . . . . . .
The eigenfunctions of n n ( x, y ) with x = y
x y

The ground state occurs when nx 0 and n y 0 . It has the energy En 0 and is
not degenerate.

38
The first excited state occurs when nx 0 and n y 1 or nx 1 and n y 0 . It has the
energy En 1 2 and is 2-fold (doubly) degenerate.
58. The nucleus may be considered as an infinite square potential box of width a 1014 m
and then the energy of a particle in such a box is given by En
Zero-point energy, E1

22

potential

, n 1, 2, . . . .

2ma 2

2ma 2

me 9 10 31 kg , 1 10 34 J s and a 1014 m

Gravitational

n 2 2 2

energy,

VG G

me M p
a

E1 ?

Gravitational

constant,

G 6.7 1011 N m 2 kg 2 .

me 9 10 31 kg , M p 1.7 10 27 kg and a 1014 m

Coulomb potential energy, VC

e 1.6 10 19 C ,

VG ?

VC ?

( e)( e)
,
(4 0 ) a

1
9 109 N m 2 C2 and a 1014 m
4 0

To calculate E1 for a neutron, use M n 1.7 1027 kg .

59. 0 ( x) N e

2 2

x 2

(a) To find N , set

0 ( x ) dx 1

2 2

(b) x

0 x 0

dx 1
12

dx 1 N 2 2

0
2

2 2

N 2 2 e
2

1 2

1 N

//

0* (x) x 2 0 ( x) dx

2 2

2 x 2 e x dx

1
2 2

//
2
4
2 2

Since V

1 2
kx
2

T H V

p2
2m

0 V 0

p2

1
2

k 0 x 2 0

H V E0 V ?

2m T ?

1
2

k x2 ?

39

(c) Evaluate x 0 x 0

0 (x) x 0 ( x) dx

px 0

0 (x) i x 0 ( x) dx

p x 0

If you try to evaluate the above integrals, you will find that they are equal to zero (as
their integrands are odd functions). You can come to the same conclusion by using
symmetry arguments.
x2

Next evaluate

and

p x2

as before and hence evaluate x and p x . Then

check if x.px ~ as required by the H.U.P.

(d) Classical turning points are located at the distances on the x-axis where the total
energy of the oscillator becomes equal to the potential energy (see also the lecture
notes). When the oscillator is in its ground state, the positions of classical turning
points are at A0

2E0

.


k
k
m

(e) The probability that the particle is found within the classically allowed region,
A0

0 ( x) dx N 2

A0

an even function)

A0

A0

2 2

dx

A0

2 x 2

dx

2 2
(since e x is

Get the help of a Table of Integrals to evaluate the above

integral.
Then, the probability that the particle is found in the classically forbidden region = 1 P //
(f) Q. mechanical posn. prob. density of the oscillator in the g. state, Pq ( x) 0 ( x)
Cl. mechanical posn. prob. density of the oscillator in the g. state, Pc ( x) ~

1
A02 x 2

See lecture notes for the two curves (the dotted line and the solid line) plotted in the
graph for the ground ( n 0 ) state.
60. This is similar to the linear harmonic potential problem we discussed in lectures except
for the fact that the potential energy function is not symmetric about the y-axis. Since it is
infinite in the x 0 region, the energy eigenfunction cannot exist in that region. In the
x 0 region, the energy eigenfunction and energy eigenvalues should take the same form
as what was obtained in the class. Since n ( x) should take on the value zero at x 0 , we
look for solutions which satisfy this condition. They are the odd parity states of the linear
harmonic oscillator. The allowed energy eigenfunctions and energy eigenvalues are

40
12

n x
2 n n !

En n

1
2

2 2

x 2

1
2

H n x , n 1, 3, 5, . . . . . . //

h ,

n 1, 3, 5, . . . . . //

61. Let us consider the given potential well to be an asymmetric one.

i.e.

0
V ( x)

in the region
elsewhere

0 x a

2
n x
sin
a
a

be obtained as n ( x)

and En

Then, the solutions to TISE can

n 2 2 2
2ma 2

, where n 1, 2, 3, .........

2 2
2ma 2
2
2 x
4 2 2
For the n 2 (1 st excited) state,
2 ( x)
sin
and E1
a
a
2 ma 2
Initially (at t 0 ), the wave function of the particle can be written as a linear combination
of energy eigenfunctions 1 ( x) and 2 ( x)
( x, 0) c1 1 ( x) c2 2 ( x) ,
2

2
x
sin
a
a

1 ( x)

For the n 1 (ground) state,

and E1

where c1 and c2 are the probabilities that the particle in the state ( x, 0) being
found in the ground and first excited state on the measurement of energy.
2

As said in the problem c1 70% 0.70 and c2 30% 0.30

( x, 0)

0.7 1 ( x)

0.3 2 ( x)

( x, t )

0.7 1 ( x)e iE1t

0.3 2 ( x)e iE2t //

To show that is normalized (we may use either ( x, 0) or ( x, t ) ) we can proceed

either with the above form or the Dirac notation of the wave function.
In the Dirac notation, ( x, t ) is written as

(t )

0.7 1 eiE1t

(t ) (t )

0.3 2 eiE2t

0.7 1 eiE1t

(t ) (t ) 0.7 1 1

0.3 2 eiE2t

0.7 0.3 1 2 e

i E1 E2 t

0.7 1 e iE1t

0.3 2 2

0.3 2 e iE2t

0.3 0.7 2 1 e

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal set, n m nm

(t ) (t ) 0.7 0 0.3 0 1

(t ) is normalized.//

Even if you use ( x, 0) , the exponential factors will not appear (things will look
simpler) and you will end up with (0) (0) 0.7 0 0.3 0 1

(0)

i E1 E2 t

is

normalized.//
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

41
An alternative method
In the integral notation, things will look more complicated, but, you can get the same
answer as shown below.
a

*
( x, t ) ( x, t )dx

0
a

0.7 1* eiE1t

0.7 1 e iE1t

i E1 E2 t

0.7 0.3 1* ( x) 2 ( x)dx e

*
*
( x, t ) ( x, t )dx 0.7 1 ( x) 1 ( x)dx
0

0.3 2* e iE2t

0.3 2 e iE2t

dx

0.3 2* ( x) 2 ( x)dx

0
a

i E E t
0.3 0.7 2* ( x) 1 ( x)dxe 1 2

Since n ( x) form an orthonormal set, n* ( x) m ( x)dx nm

0
a

( x, t ) ( x, t )dx 0.7 0 0.3 0 1

(t ) is normalized.//

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In order to evaluate x , p x and E in a more general way (at some time t) let us use

( x, t ) and also the Dirac notation.

(a)
x (t ) x (t )

x 0.7 1 x 1

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

i E E t
0.7 0.3 1 x 2 e 1 2

0.7 1 e iE1t

0.3 2 e iE2t

i E E t
0.3 0.7 2 x 1 e 1 2

0.3 2 x 2

To get the value of x we have to evaluate integrals represented by each of the four
Dirac brackets separately as shown below (with the help of a Table of Integrals). This
may be a time consuming exercise.
a

By definition n x m n* ( x) x m ( x)dx ? Here n = 1 or 2 and m = 1 or 2, and

0

expressions of 1 ( x) and 2 ( x) were given earlier. Also note that n* ( x) n ( x) .

We see that x depends on time and by substituting t 0 we can get its initial value.
(b) p x (t ) p x (t )

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

(c) px 0.7 i 1

1
x

0.7 0.3 i 1

0.7 1 e iE1t

i E E t
2 e 1 2
x

0.3 2 e iE2t

42
0.3 i 2

2
x

1 ei E1 E2 t
x

0.3 0.7 i 2

Here again, to get the value of px we have to evaluate integrals represented by each of
the four Dirac brackets separately. By definition

m
x

n* ( x)
0

m ( x)dx ? Here n = 1 or 2 and m = 1 or 2. We see that p x

x

depends on time and by substituting t 0 we can get its initial value.

(c)
E (t ) H (t )

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

Unlike in Parts (a) and (b), we can simplify the above result, if we use the fact that

1 ( x) and 2 ( x) are solutions to TISE. i.e. H 1 E1 1 and H 2 E2 2 .

E

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

0.7e iE1t

H 1 0.3e iE2t H 2

0.7 1 eiE1t

0.3 2 eiE2t

0.7e iE1t

E1 1 0.3eiE2t E2 2

E 0.7 E1 1 1

i E1 E2 t

0.7 0.3 E2 1 2 e

0.3 E2 2 2

i E E t
0.3 0.7 E1 2 1 e 1 2

Using the fact that n m nm ,

we get

E 0.7 E1 0.3 E2 //

Here the expressions of E1 and E2 were given before. We see that E does not vary
with time and hence the energy of the system is conserved. The reason for being able to
simplify the expression of E to this extent yielding a time-independent value is that

( x, t ) had been expressed as a linear combination of energy eigenfunctions 1 ( x) and

2 ( x) .
62. To prove the following results, we use some operator properties such as
( x) ( x) ,
( x) ( x ) ,

A B ( x) A B ( x) A B ( x) ,

( x) A B C ( x ) A B C ( x)
A BC

Consider any two wave functions ( x) and ( x) . Then,

(a)

( x) ( x) d x

( x) ( x) d x

( y ) ( y )( d y )

is a Hermitian operator.//
where y x . By definition,

( y) ( y)d y ,

43
anti-commutes with x , operate the product
x on some function
(b) To show that

( x) .
x ( x)
x ( x)
x ( x)
( x) ( x) ( x) ( x) x
( x) ,

x ( x) x
( x)

x x ( x) 0

x x
0

anti-commutes with x .//

Here we have used the fact that ( x) x ( x) and hence ( x) x ( x) .

p x ( x)
p x ( x)
i ( x) (i )
( x) (i) ( x) (i) ( y )

( i ) ( y ) ( i )

( x) ,
( y ) ( i )
( x ) ( i )
( x) p x
y
( x)
x

where we have used the facts that ( x)

p x ( x) p x
( x)

( x) and y x .
x

p x p x ( x) 0

p x p x
0

anti-commutes with p x .//

(c) For any function ( x)

p x2 ( x)
p x2 ( x)
( p x p x ) ( x)

p x p x ( x) p x p x ( x)

p x p x ( x) p x p x ( x) p x p x ( x) p x2 ( x)

p x2 ( x) p x2
( x)
p x2 p x2
( x) 0
p x2 p x2
0
, p x2 0

2
commutes with p x .//

For any function ( x)

V ( x ) ( x)
V ( x) ( x)
V ( x) ( x)
( x) ( x) V ( x) ( x)

( x) V ( x)
( x) V ( x)
( x) ,
V ( x) ( x) V ( x)
where

we

have

used

the

facts

that

( x) V ( x) ( x)

and

hence

( x) V ( x) ( x) , and also V ( x) V ( x) (for the symmetric potential being

considered).

V ( x) ( x) V ( x)
( x)
V ( x) V ( x)
( x) 0
V ( x) V ( x )
0

, V ( x) 0

commutes with V ( x) .//

44
After proving the above two results, we can use them and our knowledge on
commutator algebra to prove the next result as follows.

p2

, H
, x V ( x) 1
, p x2

, V ( x) 0

2m

2m

commutes with H .//

are +1 and 1
(d) In lecture notes, we have proved that the eigenvalues of
corresponding respectively to an even eigenstate e ( x) and an odd eigenstate o ( x) .
(e) By definition, the even eigenstate e ( x) satisfies the condition e ( x) e ( x) and

the odd eigenstate o ( x) satisfies the condition o ( x) o ( x) . To show that they

are orthogonal to each other consider their scalar product as defined by

*
e ( x) o ( x) d x

*
e ( x) o ( x) d x

*
e ( y) o ( y) ( d y)

e ( x) o ( x) d x 0

e ( y) o ( y) d y

y x

e ( x) o ( x) d x 0

e ( x) and o ( x) are orthogonal to each other.//

This is not a new result because we proved in lectures that eigefunctions corresponding to
different eigenvalues are orthogonal to each other.
63. (i) See Application (4) of the TISE given in lecture notes.
(ii) If n 0

E0 0

Then, the TISE becomes

2 d 2
x 0 x 0 x
2m dx 2

d2

x 0
dx 2
Solution x A Bx,
0 xa
Applying boundary conditions,
( x) 0 at x 0 and a
At x 0 A 0 ,
At x a Ba 0 B 0
x 0, 0 x a , which is not acceptable as the wave function of the particle.

(iii) See Application (4) of the TISE given in lecture notes.

(iv) It is given that, m 1.0 g , v 1.0 cm s 1 , a 1.0 cm and h 6.63 1034 J s
En

n 2 2 2

T V

1 mv 2
2

n2

m2 a 2v 2

2 2
2 m a2
2mav
n
3 1026 // (by substituting the given values)
h

4m 2 a 2 v 2
h2

45

64. (i) See Application (4) of the TISE given in lecture notes.
(ii) See Application (10) of the TISE given in lecture notes.
(iii) See Application (10) of the TISE given in lecture notes.
(iv) When a b c 1 cm , E 1 eV , me 9.10 1031 kg , from the expression for
energy Enx ny nz
1 eV

n2

n 2y
nz2
2 2 nx2
, nx , n y , nz 1, 2, 3, ........ , we get

2
2
2m a 2
b
c

2 h2
2

4 2 me

1102

n 2 , where n 2 nx2 n 2y nz2

1 1.6 1019 8 9.1 10 31 104

6.62 10
34

2.66 1014

n 1.63 107

nz

5
4
3
2

nx
2

1 2

3
4

ny

6
7

For each set of quantum numbers nx , n y , nz , a new wave function and hence a
new possible state for the electron can be obtained. Therefore, if we consider the
space formed by plotting nx , n y and nz , then each point in this space will represent
a possible state of the electron. Since these numbers take only positive integer
values, we need to consider only the octant (1 8 ) of the sphere of radius
n 1.63 107 . For a macroscopic box of side 1.0 cm , the energy levels can be
considered to be distributed nearly continuously. As seen from the diagram, each set
of quantum numbers nx , n y , nz corresponds to a point of a cubical lattice and

46
each elementary cube has a unit volume. Therefore, except for small values of
nx , n y and nz , the total number of states for all energies up to 1.0 eV is nearly equal
to the volume of the octant of radius n 1.63 107
1 4 3

n 2.27 1021 //
8 3
TISE in Spherical Polar Co-ordinates, Orbital Angular momentum, Hydrogenic Atoms
65. (i) The TISE for a hydrogen atom in spherical polar co-ordinates is

2 2

e2

n l ml (r ) En n lml (r )
(4 0 ) r
2me

kin. energy Coul. pot. energy e. e.v. e.e.f

(Z 1)

In energy eigenfunctions n l ml ( r ) ,

n 1, 2, 3, .............., and n is called the principal quantum number. It

characterizes atomic energy levels (or shells K, L, M, N, ........ designated for
n 1, 2, 3, ....... ) as given by En with a degeneracy of n 2 , when V(r) is purely
Coulombic (central).
l 0, 1, 2, 3, .............., n 1 is called the orbital quantum number. For a given
value of n, there should be a n number of values of l. It characterizes orbital angular
momentum states or subshells s, p, d, f, . designated for l 0, 1, 2, 3, ..... .. When
V(r) is modified to become a non-Coulombic potential, the electron energy becomes
dependent on l in addition to n , and gives rise to n no. of distinct energy levels as En l , by
removing the degeneracy only partially.

ml 0, 1, 2, 3, ........, l is called the orbital magnetic quantum number.

( l ml l ) For a given value of l, there should be (2l + 1) number of values of ml .
It characterizes energy levels when they are subdivided in the presence of strong
external magnetic fields by removing the degeneracy totally.
Note: In the descriptions of l and ml , shown in grey colour are some additional information.

When n 1 l 0 ml 0

1s state

n 2 l 0 ml 0

2s state

l 1 ml 1, 0, 1
n 3 l 0 ml 0
l 1 ml 1, 0, 1

2p 1 , 2p 0 , 2p 1 states
3s state
3p 1 , 3p0 , 3p 1 states

l 2 ml 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 3d 2 , 3d 1 , 3d 0 ,3d 1 ,3d 2 states

47

(ii) When n 1

only l 0 and hence 1s substate is possible,

i.e. 1p, 1d and 1f substates are not posible

When n 2 only l 0 and 1, and hence 2s and 2p substates are possible,

i.e. 2d and 2f substates are not posible
When n 3 only l 0, 1 and 2, and hence 3s, 3p and 3d substates are possible,
i.e. 3f substate is not posible
(iii) In each substate, the maximum number of electron that can be accommodated is
determined by the number of different possible combinations of ml and ms values.
Since, for a given value of l , there are 2l 1 number of ml values possible and
for a given value of ms , there are

2s 1

number of ms values possible, the

number of different possible combinations of ml and ms values = 2l 1 2 s 1 .

For s-substates, l 0 , s

1,
2

For p-substates, l 1 , s

1
2

, the maximum number of electrons = 06

For d-substates, l 2 , s

1
2

, the maximum number of electrons = 10

For f-substates, l 3 , s

1
2

the maximum number of electrons = 02

, the maximum number of electrons = 14

(iv) In K, L, M and N shells, the principle q. number n takes on values 1, 2, 3 and 4. The
degeneracy (or the number of different states) of these shells (energy levels) is n 2 .
When the fact that, the electron spin can have two different orientations, is taken into
account, the above degeneracy is increased to 2n 2 . When the n values corresponding
to K, L, M and N shells are substituted in 2n2 , we get the no. of different states that
electrons can occupy as 2, 8, 18 and 32. The same numbers can be obtained by adding
the maximum number of electrons that can occupy subshells belonging to each shell.

48

66. The particle of mass m, that rotates on a circle of radius R in a potential V(r) can be
described by using plane polar co-ordinates (i.e. cylindrical co-ordinates with z 0 )

x r cos ,

y r sin ,

0 2
2

In plane polar co-ordinates (r , ) ,

1
1 2
r 2
r r r
r 2

By applying the TISE for the particle,

2 2
(r , ) V (r ) (r , ) E (r , )
2m

2 1
1 2

r 2 2 (r , ) V (r ) ( r , ) E ( r , )
2m r r r
r

For the particle, r R

r 0

V ( R) V0 (given)

and

As R is a constant ( R, ) ( )

2 1 2
( ) V0 ( ) E ( )
2m R 2 2

It is possible to use the moment of inertia of the particle about the centre, I mR 2 , to
get the above equation in the form
2 ( )

2 ( )

2I

E V0 ( )

k 2 ( ) 0, where k 2

2I

E V0

Solution ( ) A ei k

The single-valuedness of wave function requires that ( ) ( 2 )

When 0

(0) (2 )

1 cos 2 k i sin 2 k

Normalization of requires that

1
2

ei k //,

Ek

k 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . . .
2

d 1

k ( )

A A ei(2 )k

d
0

1
2

2k 2
V0 //, where k 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .
2I

Note: If the particle is a free one, i.e. if V ( R) V0 0 , the problem can be solved in the
same manner to obtain Ek 2 k 2 2 I .

49
67. The particle of mass m, that moves on a sphere of radius R in a potential V(r) can be
described by using spherical polar co-ordinates
x r sin cos , y r sin sin , z r cos ,

where

0 r , 0 , 0 2 .

In spherical polar co-ordinates (r , , ) ,

2

1 2
1


1
2
r

sin

r 2 r r
r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2

By applying the TISE for the particle,

2 2
(r , , ) V ( r ) (r , , ) E (r , , )
2m

2 1 2
1


1
2
2 r
(r , , ) V (r ) (r , , ) E (r , , )
2
sin
2 2
2m r r r r sin
r sin 2

For the particle, r R

r 0 and V ( R) V0 (given)

As R is a constant (R, , ) ( , )
1

1
2
2mR 2
sin

E V0 ( , ) = 0

sin 2 2
2
sin

The above equation can be solved easily by replacing the angular operators with the

1

1 2
square of the orbital angular momentum L2 2
.
sin


sin 2 2
sin
L2
2mR 2

)
+
E V0 ( , ) = 0

It is possible to use the moment of inertia of the particle about the centre, I mR 2 , to
get the above equation in the form

L2 ( , ) = 2 I E V0 ( , )

The eigenvalues of L2 are known to be given by L2 Yl , ml ( , ) = l (l 1) 2 Yl , ml ( , ) .

By comparison of relevant quantities of the two equations
2 I E V0 l (l 1) 2

( , ) = Yl , ml ( , ) ,

El

l (l 1) 2
V0 , where l 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .
2I

where l 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . and ml 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .

For a given value of l (i.e. for a value of energy), ml can take on (2l 1) number of
different values.
For a given value of energy, there are (2l 1) number of Yl , ml ( , ) functions.
Each energy level El is (2l 1) - fold degenerate with respect to ml .
Note: If the particle is a free one, i.e. if V ( R) V0 0 , the problem can be solved in the
same manner to obtain El l (l 1) 2 2 I .

50

68. ( , ) N sin sin

(i)

(represents an orbital angular momentum state of a system)

To express ( , ) in terms of spherical harmonics

Y1, 1 ( , ) = 3 8 sin e i = 3 8 sin cos i sin sin

Separating Y1, 1 and Y1, 1 expressions and subtracting one from the other, we get

sin sin 1 2i 8 3 Y1, 1 Y1, 1

( , ) i 2 8 3 N Y1, 1 Y1, 1

i 2 3 N 1, 1 1, 1

i 2 3 N * 1, 1 1, 1
To determine N , normalize , i.e. set 1
1 i 2 2 3 N

1, 1

1, 1 1, 1 1, 1

Using the orthonormality condition of spherical harmonics

l , ml l , ml l l ml ml

l , ml l , ml ml ml

(when l l )

3 4 //
i
i

1, 1
1, 1
2
2

L z , when l 1 , are given by 1, 1 , 1, 0 and 1, 1

corresponding to eigenvalues , 0 and respectively. When a measurement of
Lz is made on the system in state , each value of Lz ( , 0 or ) will occur

(ii) The eigenstates of

with probabilities as given below.

P 1, 1
P0 1, 0

i
i
1, 1 1, 1
1, 1 1, 1
2
2
i
i
1, 0 1, 1
1, 0 1, 1
2
2

1
//
2

1
//
2

0 //

i
i
P 1, 1

1, 1 1, 1
1, 1 1, 1
2
2
Note: P P0 P 1, as expected.
2

(iii)The eigenstates of L2 , when l 1 , are 1, 1 , 1, 0 and 1, 1 corresponding to the

eigenvalue l (l 1) 2 2 2 . (Recall: L2 l , ml l (l 1) 2 l , ml )
L2 L2

i
i
i
i

1, 1
1, 1 L2
1, 1
1, 1
2
2
2
2

2
2

i
2 i
i
2 i

1, 1
1, 1
1, 1
1, 1 2 2 //

2
2
2
2

(iv) The eigenstates of L z , when l 1 , are 1, 1 , 1, 0 and 1, 1 corresponding to the

eigenvalues , 0 and respectively. (Recall: Lz l , ml ml l , ml )

51
i
i
i
i

1, 1
1, 1 Lz
1, 1
1, 1
2
2
2
2

i
i
i
i

1, 1
1, 1
1, 1
1, 1 0 //
2
2
2
2

[In Parts (iii) and (iv),we have used the orthonormality condition of l , ml .]
Lz L z

Note: The answers to Parts (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) can also be obtained by substituting
explicit expressions of spherical harmonics and carrying out integrations.
For example, in Part (i), to find the normalization constant in ( , ) N sin sin

set

0 0

( , ) sin d d 1
2
3

sin d

sin 2 d 1

0
3

If you know how to integrate sin and sin 2 , N can be determined.

In Part (ii), to obtain the probability of finding the system in 1, 1 eigenstate of L z

Y1,*1 ( , ) ( , ) sin

d d

0 0

= N

3
() 8 sin cos i sin sin sin sin sin d d
0 0

However, this method is more time consuming.

Note: If the given angular function were ( , ) N sin cos , by adding Y1, 1
and Y1, 1 expressions, it would be possible to express ( , ) in terms of
spherical harmonics and then proceed as above.

69. It is given that (r , t 0) 1 14 2 100 ( r ) 3 200 ( r ) 322 ( r )

As the sum of squares of coefficients in is equal to 1, it is a normalized function. In

case it is given with an unknown normalization constant, by following the same
procedure given in Prob. (68), the constant can be shown to be equal to 1 14 . Here it is
easier to use the expression of in Dirac notation.

1 14 2 1, 0, 0 3 2, 0, 0 3, 2, 2

The condition of orthonormality of n l ml

(i)

It

is

n l ml

known

that

( 1)l n l ml

n l ml n l ml n n ll m

nl m ( r , , ) ( 1)l nl m (r , , )

ml

or

52

= 1 14 2( 1)0 1, 0, 0 3( 1) 0 2, 0,0 ( 1) 2 3, 2, 2

= 1 14 2 1, 0, 0 3 2,0, 0 3, 2, 2 =

1 14 2
1,0, 0 3
2, 0, 0
3, 2, 2

is an eigenfunction of the parity operator with the eigenvalue 1.//

(ii)

Probability of finding the system in the ground state 10 0 (or 100 ( r ) )

P100 1, 0, 0

2
1, 0, 0
14

3
1, 0, 0
14

1
1, 0, 0
14

2
3
1

1, 0, 0 1, 0, 0
1, 0, 0 2, 0, 0
1, 0, 0 3, 2, 2
14
14
14
[In the above, we have used the orthonormality condition of n l ml .]

4
//
14

9
1
and P322
. As we can see, the sum of
14
14
the three probabilities is equal to one (since is normalized) and hence the system
has a zero probability of being found in any other eigenstate.
Similarly it can be shown that P200

E
(iii) It is known that, H n l ml En n l ml , with En 21 , E1 0 and n 1, 2, 3, . .
n
1
E H
2 10 0 3 20 0 32 2 H 2 100 3 2 00 32 2
14
E
E
E
1

2 10 0 3 2 0 0 32 2 2 21 100 3 21 2 00 1 21 32 2

14
2
3
1

E
9
1 13
1 4

E1 //
14
4
4 28
[In the above, we have used the orthonormality condition of n l ml .]

It is known that

L2 n l ml

l (l 1) 2 n l ml ,

Following the same procedure used in evaluating

L z n l ml

ml n l ml

E , by using the eigenvalue

equations satisfied by L2 and L z , with the orthonormality condition of n l ml , the

expectation values L2 L2 and Lz Lz can be evaluated.
70. The wave function of the electron when it is in the 1s state 1s ( r ) N exp Zr a0
(i)

2
set 1s dr 1

To determine N ,

0 0 r 0

N e 2 Zr

a0 2

r dr sin d d 1

53

sin d

2!

N 2 2

2Z

a0

(ii)

V 1s V 1s N 2

r 2e 2 Zr

a0

dr 1

r 0

N 2 ? //

e Zr

a0

0 0 r 0

Ze2 Zr

e
(4

)
r
0

a0 2

r dr sin d d

2
2 Ze
N

sin

re 2 Zr

4
0 0

0
r 0

a0

dr

2
1!
2 Ze
N
2 2
? //

4
0
2Z a0 2

(iii) For the definition of 1s , see lecture notes.

2

Consider 4 r 2 1s . Since 1s (r ) R10 (r )Y00 R10 (r )

R10 ( r )

4 1s ( r )

2
R10
(r )

1
4

4 r 1s (r )

2
Here r 2 R10
(r ) D10 (r ) and it is the radial distribution function for the 1s

(ground) state. See lecture notes for the interpretation of D10 (r ) 4 r 2 1s (r ) .

(iv) The distance to the electron from the origin = r

*
*
r 1s r 1s 1s
(r ) r 1s
(r )dr N 2

e Zr

a0

r e Zr

a0 2

r dr sin d d

0 0 r 0

3!

N 2 2

(v)

2Z

a0

? //

The probability of finding the ground state electron at a distance r within a unit
distance D10 (r ) 4 r 2 1s (r )

4 r 2 N 2 exp 2 Zr a0

To find the distance at which D10 ( r ) is a maximum, set d D10 ( r ) d r 0 . This will
yield the values r 0 and r a0 Z (show this). Since r 0 corresponds to a
minimum, the required distance a0 Z .
(vi) To make comments on the results of Parts (iv) and (v), refer lecture notes. For
convenience, set Z 1 (for hydrogen).
(vii) The classically forbidden region is defined as a region where the kinetic energy of a
particle is negative.
Since H T V

T H V

54
When ,

T 0

H V

e 2
(4 0 ) rc

13.6 eV

( Z 1)

Using the values,

1
9 109 N m 2 C 2 ,
4 0

e 1.6 10 19 C ,

1 eV 1.6 1019 J

rc 1 1010 m = 1 A
(check this)
Note: It is also possible to find the value of rc in terms of a0 as follows.
Bound states energy eigenvalues of hydrogenic atoms are given by
e2
Z2
En
, n 1, 2, 3, . . . . . .
(4 0 ) a0 2n 2
For the ground state of hydrogen atom, Z 1 , n 1
e2
1
E1
(4 0 )a0 2

H V

e2
1
e2

(4 0 ) a0 2
(4 0 ) r

r = 2a0 = 1 A //

Hence, the classically forbidden region extends from 1 A to .//

(viii) The probability of finding the ground state (in hydrogen) electron in this region

2
2
1s dr N

e2r

a0 2

r dr sin d d

0 0 r 2 a0

N 2 2 2

e2r

a0 2

r dr ? //

r 2 a0

71. 1, 1 1, 0 1, 1

and,

1, 1 ,

1, 0

1, 1

and

form an

orthonormal basis set i.e. l , ml l , ml ml ml . The way of solving this problem is very
much similar to that used in solving Problem 68.
(i)

For to be normalized to unity, it requires that

1 * 1, 1 * 1, 0 * 1, 1

1, 1

1, 0 1, 1

Using the orthonormality condition of the elements of the basis set, we have
2 2 2 1
(assuming , and as real numbers) //
(ii) Use the facts L2 l , ml

that L2 L2

l (l 1) 2 l , ml

2 2 //

and

and L z l , ml ml l , ml
L z L z

to show

2 2 //

55

Electron's Spin Angular Momentum, Spin-Orbit Interaction

72. The force acting on atoms which are moving (in the x-direction) perpendicular to a
magnetic field (in the z-direction) is given by Fz M S z

Figure (1)
With no magnetic
field or with
homogeneous
magnetic field

Bz
(refer lecture notes).
z

Figure (2)
With inhomogeneous
magnetic field and with no
space quantization of spin
angular momentum

Figure (3)
With inhomogeneous
magnetic field and with
space quantization of spin
angular momentum

(a) If the magnetic field is turned off Bz 0 , then, there is no deflecting force Fz 0
acting on atoms. So, atoms are not deflected when passing through the magnets and
hence, the pattern on the plate would be very much like the shape of the slit (see Fig.
(1)).
(b) If a homogeneous magnetic field is turned on

Bz

z 0 , then, there is no

deflecting force of acting on atoms. So, atoms are not deflected when passing through
the magnets and hence, the pattern on the plate would be very much like the shape of
the slit (see Fig. (1)).
(c) If a inhomogeneous magnetic field is turned on then, there would be a non-zero
deflecting force Fz 0 acting on atoms. When there is no space quantization, M S z
can take on any value in the range M S M S z M S , where M S is the spin
magnetic moment of the 5s electron. Hence, the force Fz can take on any value in a
range of possible values. So, the atoms are deflected up or down in a continuous range
with

the

as Bz

maximum

deflection

along

the

centre

line

of

magnets

z is maximum resulting in a continuous spread of silver atoms (see Fig.

(2)).
(d) If the magnetic field was inhomogeneous and then, there would be a non-zero deflecting
force

Fz 0

acting on atoms. When there exists space quantization, silver atoms

magnetic dipole moment M S z gs B S z with g s = 2 and S z = takes two

56
orientations with respect to the z-axis. This means that Fz can take only two values and
hence, atoms get deflected up and down resulting in two distinct lines (see Fig. (3)).
73. The

force

responsible
B
Fz M S z
B
z
z

for

splitting

the

silver

atomic

beam,

If m is the mass of a silver atom, its acceleration in the z -direction, a

If vx is the velocity of atoms in the x -direction, 12 mvx2 2kT

Fz

Fz
B
B
m
m z

vx 4 kT m

z
y
x

S
X
Applying d ut 12 at 2 for a silver atom in one of the components of the atomic beam,

X vxt 12 0 t 2

vx

X
4kT m

B B mX 2
m z 4kT
The maximum transverse deflection (along the z -direction) of a typical atom in each
X 2 B B
component of the beam, D
.
8kT z
D v y t 12 at 2

D 0t

1
2

Note: In this problem, the expression of D is independent of the mass m of the atom.
Therefore, the same result would be valid even if a hydrogen atomic beam were
used.
Calculate the value of D, for T 400 K , X 1 m , B 9.27 10 24 J T 1 and
B z 10 T m 1 .
74. Slit width ~ d
H.u.p.

The initial position uncertainty of a particle in the z-direction z ~ d

z p z ~

Assuming p z ~ p z

d p z ~

p z ~ d

pz ~ d

velocity, u = p z m ~ d m

Due to the velocity in direction, particles will have a deflection (in the z-direction) in
addition to the deflection caused by the magnetic force acting in that direction. Let t be

57
the time taken by a particle to pass through the magnets. The, it can also be the time
interval over which the energy of particles is measured as the beam is separated into two
components according to their spin direction (up or down).
Time-energy u.p.

t E ~

t E ~

t ~ E

To get the uncertainty spread in the z-direction ( z ) at the exit of the S-G magnet, apply

d = ut

1 at 2
2

m d E

z =

As m decreases, z increases.//

(for small t values

1 at 2
2

can be neglected)

58

59

Write out fully the operators corresponding to the three rectangular components of the orbital

angular momentum L r p .
1.

L r p,

p ( p x , p y , p z ),

Classically,

L x

j
y

k
z i y p z z p y j z p x x p z k x p y y p x

px

py

pz

The Cartesian components of L are

Ly
Lx y p z z p y

r ( x, y , z )

z px x pz

Quantum mechanically, the corresponding operators are

Lx y p z z p y
L y z p x x p z

i y
z
y
z

Lz x p y y p x

i x
y
x
y

i z
x
z
x

Lz

x p y y px