Lab 2 - The Hall Effect

Prelab Questions
1. Look up the carrier concentrations for copper and pure germanium and typical values for
doped germanium.

The carrier concentration of copper is 8.4 ∗ 1028 𝑚−3 . The carrier concertation of pure germanium is
2.33 ∗ 106 𝑚−3 . When germanium undergoes doping with aluminium the new carrier concentration
is 2 ∗ 1010 𝑚−3 .

2. What elements are used to dope semiconductors to increase the density of charge carriers?
Give an example of a dopant that produces an n-type semiconductor and an example of an
element giving a p-type semiconductor.

Doping is the process used to increase the density of charge carriers of an element. An element used
as a dopant that produces an n-type semiconductor is Phosphorous (P) and an element used as a
dopant to produce a p-type semiconductor is Boron (B).

3. What magnetic field needs to be applied to a strip of copper 11.8 mm wide and 0.23 mm
thick carrying a current of 50 A if a Hall voltage of 1 mV is to be generated?

4. Hall-effect voltages are much larger for relatively poor conductors (such as germanium) than
for good conductors (such as copper) for comparable currents, fields and dimensions. Why?

Poor conductors such as germanium, tend to have low carrier concentrations. As seen in the
𝐵𝐼
equation 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑇∅ , to obtain a smaller number, for comparable magnetic fields and currents to
𝐻
copper, a higher hall voltage must be used since they are directly proportional.

Background
The hall effect is a process used to categorise materials by determining the carrier concentration,
also known as charge carrier density. The hall effect also determines the type of the charge carriers
which can be either electrons or holes. When a magnetic field is applied to a current carrying
conductor so it is perpendicular to the flowing current, a potential difference, known as the hall
voltage is created and the phenomena is known as the hall effect. It is often used on semiconductors
to establish if they are p – type or n – type conductors. When the induced voltage is measured, if it is
a positive value, we can say that it is a p – type semiconductor and if it is a negative value, we can
say that it is a n – type semiconductor.
Aim
Use the hall effect to determine the number and type of charge carriers of a semiconductor by
analysing the effect of an external constant.

Equipment
- Hall effect kit
- Variable power supply (with cord)
- 2 digital voltmeters
- Resistance box set up to 800 Ω
- 2 magnets

Method
Before attempting the procedure, take note of the polarity of the meters and power supply with
respect to the semiconductor and the magnetic field direction (shown on the magnets)

1. Change the measuring range of the voltmeters to the highest range (200 mA, 2 V)
2. Set up the hall effect sensor board and check that the probes are at the same potential
3. Set the power supply so it is under voltage control and select a current of 5 mA.
4. Adjust the potentiometer at the side of the module until the hall voltage is 0
5. Place the top magnet on the top of the hall module gently
6. Record the reading at fixed currents from 1 mA - 25 mA

Fig 1.1 – Diagram of Set up

Results
Current (mA) Voltage (mV)
1 3
2 6.1
3 9.1
4 12.1
5 15.7
6 18.7
7 22.2
8 26.1
9 29.8
10 33.7
11 38.2
12 41.9
13 47
14 51.4
15 56.7
16 62.2
17 67.9
18 73.7
19 79.6
20 86.6
21 92.6
22 98.4
23 105.9
24 112.9
25 121
Table 1.1 – Measured Results

Hall Voltage v Current

140

120

100
Voltage (mV)

80 y = 4.2272x
60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Current (mA)

Graph 1.1 – Hall Voltage vs Current

Discussion
As it can be seen in the graph, the hall voltage increases also increases. It can be seen that the
𝐵𝐼
increase in voltage is linear which is expected according to the formula 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑇∅ . Since the carrier
𝐻
concentration (n) is a constant, the current (I) and hall voltage (∅𝐻 ) are directly proportional.
𝐵
Rearranging the same formula, you get ∅𝐻 = 𝑒𝑇𝑛 𝐼 where B is a constant 0.241 T, e is 1.602 ∗ 10−19
and T is 1 ∗ 10−3. This means that when the hall voltage is plotted as a function of current as seen in
the graph above, the carrier concentration of the material can be calculated. The new formula for
𝐵 0.241
the carrier concentration is 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑇∗𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (1.602∗10−19 )(1∗10−3 )(4.2272) = 3.56 ∗ 1020 𝑚−3 .

The estimate that was obtained from the experiment is consistent with the theoretical value as
semiconductors such as germanium only have charge carrier density of 2.33 ∗ 106 𝑚−3 which means
that this semiconductor is heavily doped. As it can be seen in Graph 1.1, the gradient of the line is
positive which means that it is a p – type semiconductor which means it is doped with acceptor
atoms. A common dopant for a semiconductor such as germanium is Boron (B)

There are a few issues that were encountered while conducting this experiment, mainly the fact that
that the experiment was conducted by the tutor over an online class. This meant that students cant
contribute as much to the experiment and it makes it a harder learning experience. There were a
few possible sources of error while conducting the experiment. For example, the results obtained
may be off by a small factor and it can affect calculations made. As it can be seen in Graph 1.1, there
is a small curve in the results which means that there was some sort of error with the results as wew
were expecting a straight line. This may be due to several factors which include, external sources of
magnetic field, faulty equipment and human error of reading the results wrong. The voltmeter used
to measure the hall voltage can only ready up to 3 decimal places which means that there is an
uncertainty of about ±0.005 𝑉. This can be improved by using a more precise voltmeter.

Conclusion
Overall, the experiment was a success. By using the hall effect, we were able to determine that it
was a p – type semiconductor with about a 3.56 ∗ 1020 𝑚−3 carrier charge density. The experiment
was therefore valid as it was similar to theoretical values. However, it is not reliable as it was only
performed once so there is no way to ensure that we would get similar results again.