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Crombie ScienceArtNatureMedieval PDF
Crombie ScienceArtNatureMedieval PDF
SID-EREVS
N V N C I VS
MAGNA, L O N G E Q V E ADM1RAB1LIA
Spectacula pandens, fufpiciendaquc proponens
vnicuique, prfertim ver
F H I L O S O P H I S , atg, ASTRONOM1S, g u a
GALILEO GALILEO
P A T R I T I O FLORENTINO
Patauini Gymnafij Publico Mathematico
PERSPICILLI
MEDICEA S I D E R A
NVNCVPANDOS DECREVIT.
A.C. CROMBIE
AND
RIO GRANDE
Contents
Acknowledgements
Illustrations
Preface
Further Bibliography of A.C. Crombie
1 Designed in the Mind: Western visions of Science, Nature and
Humankind
2 The Western Experience of Scientific Objectivity
3 Historical Perceptions of Medieval Science
4 Robert Grosseteste (c. 1168-1253)
5 Roger Bacon (c. 1219-1292) [with J.D. North]
6 Infinite Power and the Laws of Nature: A Medieval Speculation
7 Experimental Science and the Rational Artist in Early Modern
Europe
8 Mathematics and Platonism in the Sixteenth-Century Italian
Universities and in Jesuit Educational Policy
9 Sources of Galileo Galilei's Early Natural Philosophy
10 The Jesuits and Galileo's Ideas of Science and of Nature
[with A. Carugo]
11 Galileo and the Art of Rhetoric [with A. Carugo]
12 Galileo Galilei: A Philosophical Symbol
13 Alexandre Koyr and Great Britain: Galileo and Mersenne
14 Marin Mersenne and the Origins of Language
15 Le Corps la Renaissance: Theories of Perceiver and Perceived
in Hearing
16 Expectation, Modelling and Assent in the History of Optics: i,
Alhazen and the Medieval Tradition; ii, Kepler and Descartes
17 Contingent Expectation and Uncertain Choice: Historical Contexts
of Arguments from Probabilities
18 P.-L. Moreau de Maupertuis, F.R.S. (1698-1759): Prcurseur du
Transformisme
19 The Public and Private Faces of Charles Darwin
20 The Language of Science
vii
ix
xi
xiii
1
13
31
39
51
67
89
115
149
165
231
257
263
275
291
301
357
407
429
439
vi
443
451
465
Acknowledgements
The articles reprinted here first appeared in the following places and are
reprinted by kind permission of the original publishers.
1
10 Annali dell' Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze, viii.2 (1983),
pp. 1-68.
11 Nouvelles de la rpublique des lettres (1988) ii, pp. 7-31.
12 Actes du VIIle Congrs International d'Histoire des Sciences (Florence,
1956), pp. 1089-95.
viii
Illustrations
ii
56
88
152
154
157
164
165
230
256
274
300
302
303
306
307
Light rays and the eye, from Roger Bacon, Opus Majus
312
318
318
321
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333
337
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351
353
Preface
This second volume of essays forms a coherent set of studies like the first
volume Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought
published in 1990. Both volumes complement my books Augustine to Galileo:
Medieval and Early Modern Science and Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of
Experimental Science 1100-1700 and lead into my Styles of Scientific Thinking
in the European Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation
Especially in the Mathematical and Biomedical Sciences and Arts (3 volumes,
published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, London, 1994), and forthcoming
Galileo's Arguments and Disputes in Natural Philosophy (with the collaboration of Adriano Carugo), and Marin Mersenne: Science, Music and Language.
The history of Western science is the history of a vision and an argument,
initiated by the ancient Greeks in their search for principles at once of nature
and of argument itself. This scientific vision, explored and controlled by
argument, and the diversification of both vision and argument by scientific
experience and by interaction with the wider contexts of intellectual culture,
constitute the long history of European scientific thought. Underlying that
development have been specific commitments to conceptions of nature and of
science with its intellectual and moral assumptions, accompanied by a
recurrent critique. Their diversification has generated a series of different
styles of scientific thinking and of making theoretical and practical decisions.
These styles are described and analysed in the opening chapter and
exemplified in more detail in those that follow. These deal with scientific
objectivity, the historiography of medieval science, Robert Grosseteste and
Roger Bacon (Chapter 5 in collaboration with John North), the medieval
conception of laws of nature, and the historical relation between rational
design in scientific experimentation and in the arts exemplified especially by
perspective painting. After a chapter on the place of mathematics in sixteenthcentury Italian universities and in Jesuit educational policy, there are five
substantial studies of Galileo and his ideals of scientific demonstration and
experimentation, of his use of rhetoric, and of his reputation. Two of them,
Chapters 10 and 11, were written in collaboration with my colleague Adriano
Carugo. Central to them are our discoveries of the use by Galileo of works by
Jesuit philosophers at the Collegio Romano or associated therewith, which
xii
have thrown an entirely new and very influential light on Galileo's intellectual
biography. These chapters contain the original and authentic account of these
discoveries. Next come studies of Mersenne and the origins of language, and of
the role of hypothetical modelling in the investigation of hearing and more
particularly of vision, with a detailed analysis of the theories and researches of
Alhazen, Kepler and Descartes. These complement and bring up to date my
long monograph on the subject (1967) republished in Science, Optics and
Music. There is a further substantial analysis of historical contexts of
arguments from probabilities, from the qualitative treatment found in ancient
medicine, ethics and law, through the quantification of probabilities initiated
with insurance and commerce in fifteenth-century Italy, given mathematical
elegance especially by Pascal, Huygens and Leibniz, developed further in the
fields of demography and economics, and applied to a form of evolution by
natural selection in the eighteenth century by Maupertuis and finally in crucial
detail by Darwin. Concluding chapters deal with scientific language, conceptions of disease, and the historiography of science.
Some of the papers included in this volume (chs. 3,10 appendix (a), 14, 20)
have not been published in English before. The others have been left as they
were first printed except for minor corrections. Thus they record stages in the
process of discovery and interpretation, as in the chapters on Galileo,
especially when dealing with problems of dating, many of them still unsolved.
They have been reprinted with continuous pagination, with footnotes at the
bottom of the page, and with appropriate revision of internal references.
Immediately relevant further bibliography has been added as required at the
ends of chapters. An extensive bibliography for the whole subject is included
in my Styles of Scientific Thinking. Additions to my own publications, beyond
those included in the bibliography of my writings in Science, Optics and Music,
are listed below. Finally, once again it is a pleasure to thank all those who
provided the occasions for these papers, in Belagio, Athens, Erice, Rome,
Cambridge, Mass., Capri, Florence, Paris, Tours, Smith College, Barcelona
and Annecy.
A.C. Crombie
30 November 1994
Trinity College, Oxford
1992
1994
1990
xiv
1992
1993
1994
1995
Bibliography
xv
1942
1943
1944
'On Intraspecific and Interspecific Competition in Larvae of Graminivorous Insects', 7. Exp. BioL, 20, pp. 135-51.
'On the Measurement and Modification of the Olfactory Responses
of Blow-Flies', /. Exp. BioL, 20, pp. 159-66.
'Sensillae of the Adults and larvae of the Beetle Rhizopertha
dominica Fab. (Bostrichidae)', Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London A, 19, pp. 131-2.
1945
1946
1947
1
Designed in the Mind: Western Visions of
Science, Nature and Humankind
When we speak today of natural science we mean a specific vision created
within Western culture, at once of knowledge and of the object of that
knowledge, a vision at once of natural science and of nature.1 We may trace
the characteristically Western tradition of rational science and philosophy to
the commitment of the ancient Greeks, for whatever reason, to the decision of
questions by argument and evidence, as distinct from custom, edict, authority,
revelation, rule-of-thumb, on some other principle or practice. They developed
thereby the notion of a problem as distinct from a doctrine, and the
consequent habit of envisaging thought and action in all situations as the
perception and solving of problems. By deciding at the same time that among
many possible worlds as envisaged in other cultures, the one world that existed
was a world of exclusively self-consistent and discoverable rational causality,
the Greek philosophers, mathematicians and medical men committed their
scientific successors exclusively to this effective direction of thinking. They
closed for Western scientific vision the elsewhere open questions of what kind
of world people found themselves inhabiting and so of what methods they
should use to explore and explain and control it. They introduced in this way
the conception of a rational scientific system, a system in which formal
reasoning matched natural causation, so that natural events must follow
exactly from scientific principles, just as logical and mathematical conclusions
must follow from their premises. Thus they introduced, in parallel with their
conception of causal demonstration, the equally fundamental conception of
formal proof. From these two conceptions all the essential character and style
of Western philosophy, mathematics and natural science have followed. The
exclusive rationality so defined supplied the presuppositions and came to
supply the methods of reasoning alike in purely formal discourse and in the
experiential exploration of nature. Hence it offered rational control of subjectmatters of all kinds, from mathematical to material, from ideas to things. A
similar characteristic style is evident over the whole range of Western
intellectual and practical enterprise. We have then in Western scientific
culture, as an object of study to which we its students at the same time
inextricably belong, a highly intellectualized and integrated whole, designed in
the mind like a work of art, not all at once but over many generations of
interaction between creative thinking and testing, between programmes and
their realization or modification or rejection.
But if we insist upon the cultural specificity of the Western scientific
tradition in its origins and initial development, and upon its enduring identity
in diffusion to other cultures, we do not have to look far below the surface of
scientific inquiry and its immediate results to see that the whole historical
process has gone on in a context of intellectual and moral commitments,
expectations, dispositions and memories that have varied greatly with different periods, societies and also individuals. These have affected both the
problems perceived and the solutions found acceptable, and also the evaluations of desirable or undesirable ends and their motivations. The whole
historical experience of scientific thinking is an invitation to treat the history of
science, both in its development in the West and in its complex diffusion
through other cultures, as a kind of comparative historical anthropology of
thought. An historical anthropology of science must be concerned before all
with people and their vision. The scientific movement offers an invitation to
examine the,identity of natural science within an intellectual culture, to
distinguishrihat from the identities of other intellectual and practical activities
in the arts, scholarship, philosophy, law, government, commerce and so on,
and to relate them all in a taxonomy of styles. It is an invitation to analyse the
various elements that make up an intellectual style in the study and treatment
of nature: conceptions of nature and of science, methods of scientific inquiry
and demonstration diversified according to the subject-matter, evaluations of
scientific goals with consequent motivations, and intellectual and moral
commitments and expectations generating attitudes to innovation and change.
The scientific thinking found in a particular period or society or individual
gets its vision and style from different but closely related intellectual or moral
commitments or dispositions. We may distinguish three.
(1) First there have been conceptions of nature within the general scheme of
existence and of its knowability to man. These in turn have been conditioned
by language. The original Greek commitment entailed the replacement of
conceptions of nature as an arbitrary sociological order maintained by
personified agents, found in all ancient cosmologies and cosmogonies, with the
conception of an inevitable order established by an exclusive natural causality.
In the succession competing for dominance in subsequent Western thought,
nature has been conceived as a product of divine economy or art with
appropriate characteristics of simplicity and harmony, as a consequence of
atomic chance, as a causal continuum, as a workshop of active substantial
powers, as a passive system of mechanisms, as an evolutionary generation of
novelty, as a manifestation of probabilities.
alike and its whole tradition of dramatic literature and music since Antiquity.
Japanese thinking, now in exemplary possession of Western science and music,
seems traditionally by contrast to have accepted events in their individual
existential discontinuity, impressionistically unrelated to before and after, with
no general abstract term for nature, but each thing the subject of personal
knowledge and companionship, not of mastery either by thought or action.
The whole question might throw an interesting light in our philosophical
anthropology upon a question central to the whole Western debate: that of
distinguishing the argument giving rational control of subject-matter from an
implication of the existence of entities appearing in the language used, or,
more generally, that of distinguishing a rational structure of nature from that
of the organizing human mind.
(2) A second kind of intellectual commitment affecting scientific style has
been to a conception of science and of the organization of scientific inquiry.
Two different traditions of scientific organization and method began in
Antiquity. The dominant Greek mathematicians saw as their goal the reduction of every scientific field to the axiomatic model of their most powerful
intellectual invention, geometry. At once alternative and complementary to
this was the much older medical and technological practice of exploring and
recording by piecemeal observation, measurement and trial. The medieval and
early modern experimental natural philosophers combined both traditions, to
transform the geometrical pattern by an increasing preoccupation with
quantitative experimental analysis of causal connections and functional relations. Yet a different pattern came from intellectual satisfaction in mathematical harmonies rather than causal processes. Other modes of intellectual
organization assimilated analysis for scientific investigation to that for artistic
construction, or looked for probabilities or for genetic origins and derivations.
All generated scientific systems made up of theories and laws and statements
of observations, providing particular explanations and solutions of problems
within the framework of a general conception of nature and science, along
with scientific methods diversified by the diversity both of general commitments and of particular subject-matters of varying complexity.
The commitments of a period or group or individual to general beliefs about
nature and about science, combined with the technical possibilities available,
have regulated the problems seen, the questions put to nature, and the
acceptability of both questions and answers. Such commitments have directed
research towards certain types of problem and towards certain types of
discovery and explanation, but away from others. They have both guided
inquiry and supplied its ultimate irreducible explanatory principles. By taking
us beneath the surface of immediate scientific results, they help us to identify
the conceptual and technical conditions, frontiers and horizons making certain
discoveries possible and explanations acceptable to a generation or group, but
others not, and the same not to others. More specifically a discovery or a
theory or even a presentation of research may open fresh horizons but at the
same time close others hitherto held possible. Dominant intellectual commitments have made certain kinds of question appear cogent and given certain
kinds of explanation their power to convince, and excluded others. They
established, in anticipation of any particular research, the kind of world that
was supposed to exist and the appropriate methods of inquiry. Such beliefs,
taken from the more general intellectual context of natural science, have
regulated the expectations both of questions and of answers, the form of
theories and the kinds of explanatory entities taken into them, and the
acceptability of the explanations they offered. They established in advance the
kind of explanation that would give satisfaction when the supposedly discoverable
had been discovered. They have been challenged not usually by observation,
but by re-examining the metaphysics or theology or other general beliefs
assumed. In this process the cogency of such worlds might change from
generation to generation as each nevertheless added to enduringly valid
scientific knowledge.
(3) A third kind of intellectual and moral commitment has concerned what
could and should be done. This in its diverse modes has followed from diverse
evaluations of the nature and purpose of existence and hence of right human
action. It has been linked with dispositions generating an habitual response to
events, both internally within scientific thinking itself, and externally in the
responses of society: dispositions to expect to master or to be mastered by or
simply to contemplate events, to change or to resist change, to anticipate
innovation or conservation, to be ready or not to reject theories and to rethink
accepted beliefs and to alter habits. Such dispositions have been both
psychological and social. They may be specified by habitual styles and
methods both of opposition and of acceptance. They may characterize a
society over the whole range of its intellectual and moral behaviour, of which
its natural science is simply a part.
The primary focus, for example, of medieval and early modern Christian as
of Islamic culture and society on the teaching and preservation of theological
truth could scarcely fail to condition all human inquiries. Sensitive implications of natural philosophical and metaphysical questions and doctrines
placed the whole of intellectual life within the political framework and control
of a moral cosmology.The medieval Christian theological hierarchy of dignity
within that cosmology, as also Islamic attitudes to the visual representation of
natural objects, took that control as far as aesthetic style. Given the dual
source of human knowledge in the divine gifts of true reason and of
undeniable revelation, the whole enterprise made an urgent issue then of error,
of the possibility of error in good faith, of the attitude to be taken to
sources of new intellectual perceptions? How have the intellectual commitments or dispositions or habits or the technical potentialities of an individual
or a group or period either promoted or discouraged creative discovery and
technical invention? How have these interacted with the conditions for
intellectual change or conservation in the philosophical, technical, social and
materal ambience of science? To what extent has the internal logic of science
taken over from features of this ambience, accidental analogies, or suggestions
for new hypotheses or styles of thinking? What has been the part played in the
initiation of progress by breaches of conceptual frontiers leading to asking new
questions, seeing new problems, accepting new criteria of valid demonstration
and cogent, satisfactory explanation? Scientific thinking has commonly progressed through periods of critical analysis bringing novel forms of speculation
about the discoverable in nature in anticipation of technical inquiry. Obvious
examples are the critique of the Aristotelian doctrine of qualities and causation preceding the new science of motion established from Galileo to Newton,
the atomic speculations preceding the quantitative atomic theory promoted by
John Dalton, and the evolutionary speculations preceding the scientific
organization of the evidence and theory finally achieved by Charles Darwin.
The older conceptions were discarded and the new first entertained by
rethinking; but the new ideas became established as scientific knowledge only
by technical scientific research. Only after that were their speculative precursors given a retrospective scientific significance.
Of the essence of the Western scientific tradition, and of the evidence for its
history, have been the self-conscious assessments of its presuppositions,
performance and prospects that have continued through many changes of
context from Archytas and Aristotle down to the latest disputes among
scientists, philosophers and historians. The critical historiography of science
has been an integral part of the scientific movement itself. Such assessments
both of current science and of the history of science have had various
purposes. Those made in medieval and early modern Europe aimed usually to
monitor the identity and intellectual orientation of the contemporary scientific
movement and to define its methods and criteria of acceptability of questions
and answers. They were made during a long period when increasing scientific
experience, historical scholarship, and awareness of other contemporary
cultures enabled Europeans to measure their own scientific orientations and
potentialities against those of diverse earlier and contemporary societies.
The range of modern assessments points to the range of sources for an
interpretation. The radical variations in contemporary assessments and their
changes with time and context and individual disposition provide unique and
indispensable primary evidence in historically taking the measure of the
intellectual and technical and moral equipment available in any scientific
situation. An habitual search during this period at once for the best form of
10
science, and for its best ancient model, projected the earlier into the contemporary tradition but with extended power. Through the variations of the
scientific movement there has run a consistency of development in conceptions
of explanation and method. The growth of particular scientific knowledge has
carried in its wake a growth of general understanding of scientific thinking and
its varieties. This consistency clarifies the historical variety of accepted
explanations and methods diversified by intellectual commitments and
subject-matters.
Both in the perception and solution of problems within the theoretical and
technical possibilities available, and in the justification of the enterprise
whether intellectual or practical or moral, the history of science has been the
history of argument. Scientific argument forms the substance of the scientific
movement, a discourse using experiment and observation, instruments and
apparatus, mathematical reasoning and calculation, but with significance
always in relation to the argument. The scientific movement brought together
in its common restriction to answerable questions a variety of scientific
methods, or styles of scientific inquiry and demonstration, diversified by their
subject-matters, by general conceptions of nature, by presuppositions about
scientific validity, and by scientific experience of the interaction of programmes with realizations. Throughout, methods of yielding accurately
reproducible results were required equally by the practical commitment of
technology and the arts to the control of materials, and by the theoretical
commitment of science to establishing regularities or causal connections
within a common form of demonstration. An historian needs to ask both what
theories of scientific method contributed to science, and what methods were
used by scientists. We may distinguish in the classical scientific movement six
styles of scientific thinking, or methods of scientific inquiry and demonstration. Three styles or methods were developed in the investigation of
individual regularities, and three in the investigation of the regularities of
populations ordered in space and in time. Each arose in a context in which an
assembly of cognate subject-matters was united under a common form of
argument.
Thus (i) the simple method of postulation exemplified by the Greek
mathematical sciences originated within the common Greek search for the
rational principles alike of the perceptible world and of human reasoning. This
was the primary ancient model, uniting all the mathematical sciences and
dependent arts, from optics and music to mechanics, astronomy and cartography, (ii) The deployment of experiment, both to control postulation and to
explore by observation and measurement, was required by the scientific search
for principles in the observable relations of more complex subject-matters.
Starting with the Greeks, the strategy of experimental argument was elaborated in medieval and early modern Europe as a form of reasoning by analysis
11
and synthesis in which the point at which experiment was brought into the
argument, either for control or for exploration, was precisely defined. Moves
towards quantification in all sciences may be traced to the general European
growth both of mathematics and of the habits of measurement and recording
and calculation arising from need in some special sciences, as in astronomy,
and in the practical and commercial arts, where new systems of weights and
measures and of arithmetical calculation were first developed. The scientific
experimental method derived from the union of these practical habits with the
logic of controls, with further quantification through new techniques of
instrumentation and mathematical calculation. The rational experimenter was
the rational artist of scientific) inquiry, (iii) Hypothetical modelling was
developed in a sophisticated form first in application to early modern
perspective painting and to engineering, and was then transposed from art into
science as likewise a method of analysis and synthesis by the construction of
analogies. The recognition that/in the constructive arts theoretical design must
precede material realization anticipated the scientific hypothetical model.
Each proceeding to a different end, artist and scientist shared a common style.
The imitation of nature by art then became an art of inquisition; rational
design for construction became rational modelling for inquisitorial trial, (iv)
Taxonomy emerged first in Greek thought as a logical method of ordering
variety in any subject-matter by comparison and difference. The elaboration of
taxonomic methods and of their theoretical foundations may be attributed to
the need to accommodate the vast expansion of known varieties of plants and
animals and diseases following European exploration overseas, with attempts
to relate diagnostic signs and symptoms to their causes and to discover the
natural system that would express real affinities, (v) The statistical and
probabilistic analysis of expectation and choice developed in early modern
Europe again took the same forms whether in estimating the outcome of a
disease, of a legal process, of a commercial enterprise, or natural selection, or
the reasonableness of assent to a scientific theory. The subject-matter of
probability and statistics came to be recognized through attempts to accommodate within the context of ancient and medieval logic situations of
contingent expectation and uncertain choice, followed by the early modern
discovery of the phenomenon of statistical regularities in adequately numerous
populations of economic and medical and other events. Thus uncertainty was
mastered by reason and stabilized in a calculus of probability, (vi) The method
of historical derivation, or the analysis and synthesis of genetic development,
was developed originally by the Greeks and then in early modern Europe first
in application to languages and more generally to human cultures, and
afterwards to geological history and to the evolution of living organisms. The
subject-matter of historical derivation was defined by the diagnosis, from the
12
REFERENCES
1. This paper is based on the historiographical introduction to my book, Styles of scientific
thinking in the European tradition (Gerald Duckworth, London, 1994), which contains
full documentation and bibliography; cf. also A. C. Crombie, "Science and the arts in the
Renaissance: The search for truth and certainty, old and new", History of science, xviii
(1980), 233-46; idem, "Historical commitments of European science", Annali del' Istituto
e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze, vii, part 2 (1982), 29-51; idem, "What is the
history of science?", History of European ideas, vii (1986), 21-31; idem, "Experimental
science and the rational artist in early modern Europe", Daedalus, cxv (1986), 49-74;
idem, "Contingent expectation and uncertain choice: Historical contexts of arguments
from probabilities" in The rational arts of living, ed. by A. C. Crombie and N. G. Siraisi
(Northampton, Mass.: Smith College studies in history, 1987): the first three of these
papers are included in A. C. Crombie, Science, optics and music in medieval and early
modern thought (Hambledon Press, London, 1990).
2. Michael Faraday, Experimental researches in electricity, i (London, 1839), 515; cf. pp. 195 ff.
3. John Tyndall, Faraday as a discoverer (London, 1868), 53-55.
14
able thirst drank much or little with common failure of relief, physicians
could find no remedy and perished themselves, prayers and other measures all proved equally futile and were given up, and men thus bereft
of fear of any law divine or human now coolly ventured on what they
had formerly done in a corner*1. Yet from those who had suffered and
recovered from the plague, the sick and dying received help and compassion. Influenced by medical thought, Thucydides looked for the causes
of social as of individual disorders in a theory of human nature, expressing in stable language the dependability of natural law. He offered a
commitment to reasoned beliefs and actions against which to measure
the motivation of behaviour. This may suitably introduce the subject
of my brief contribution to this discussion of objectivity and culture,
which is the interaction of reason, belief and motive in the history of
science, medicine and technology.
I shall argue that in order to understand our culture, we are not
only advised but obliged to study the intellecutal attitudes and achievements of societies that have formed its history remote in time and seemingly remote in character from the immediate present. Yesterday's
events can be the least relevant to educated understanding. In the spirit
of a symposium evidently based on the belief that one main reason for
studying history is to throw light upon ourselves, a belief which I fully
share, there are various ways of doing this in the history of science,
medicine and technology. It hardly now needs saying that in this field,
as mutatis mutandis in all intellectual and social history whether of
philosophy, law, theology or whatever, the particular thinking found
in any period can be properly understood by us only by relating it to
the categories in which nature, and man as a participant in and student
of nature, were understood in the societies and by the individuals with
which we are concerned. We can study the history of science as a kind
of intellectual anthropology. We can make a natural history of intellectual and moral behaviour in situations presenting questions for decision.
The enlightenment that we may derive from this kind of historical
experience is like that we get from foreign travel, especially outside the
areas of Western culture. We expose ourselves to the surprise of discovering that thinkers so effective in solving problems which we seem to
be able to recognize should be able to do so within the context of such
a variety of aims, categories and presuppositions, mostly very different
from our own. We encounter also societies and individuals who find
1. Ibid, ii.54.
15
16
moral regress of mankind. 1 These rational commitments applied moreover as much to decisions about moral values and principles showing
what ought or ought not to be done, as to the decisions of science about
what was or was not the case. Aristotle meant his ethics to be derived
as systematically from a theory of human nature as his physics was
from a theory of matter and causation.
To understand any historical culture we must then study its intellectual orientation and re-orientations through long tradition. The
recovery of our own scientific culture after periods of external disaster
or internal confusion has been the recovery of rational decision. In
such a process we may see the origins of modern science in the rediscovery, exegesis and elaboration of the Greek model by medieval and early
modern Europe. The rediscovery was made by a new society, with a
different view of man and his place in nature and his destiny, a different theology and a different economy, but it was seen first, in the
twelfth century, as a continuation of the ancient scientific movement.
Nothing is difficult unless you despair..., wrote the Englishman
ADELARD OF BATH, translator into Latin of Euclid's Elements of Geometry and author of two works presenting his vision of natural philosophy early in that century; Therefore hope and you will find the
capability. For I shall be the more able to shed light on the matter,
from the assumption of the constancy and certainty of principle*.2
Looking forward from the shoulders of giant predecessors,3 ADELARD
and his contemporaries saw unlimited potentialities for the elaboration
of scientific knowledge long before these were actually discovered in
application to any of the numerous and diverse new problems and subject
matters which we can now look back on. ADELARD'S countryman ROGER
1. Cf. E. R. DODDS, The Ancient Concept of Progress (Oxford, 1973) 1 sqq.;
A. G. GROMBIE, Some attitudes to scientific progress : ancient, medieval and early
modern, History of Science, xiii (1975) 213 sqq., and also for the argument above
Scientific Change, Introduction (London, 1963) 1 sqq., Historical commitments
of biology, The Britsh Journal for the History of Science, iii (1966) 97 sqq.
2. ADELARDUS VON BATH Quaestiones naturales, ed. M. MULLER (Beitrage
zur Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, xxxi.2; Minister, 1934) 58; cf.
T. STIEFEL, The heresy of science : a twelfth-century conceptual revolution*,
Isis , ixviii (1977) 347 sqq.
3. Cf. CROMBIE, Some attitudes... (1975) 220, Historians and the scientific
revolution*, Physis, xi (1969), and also The relevance of the middle ages to the
scientific movement)) in Perspectives in Medieval History, ed. K.F. DREW and F.
S. LEAR (Chicago, 1963) 35 sqq.; citing myself here and elsewhere for ease of reference and further bibliography.
17
18
stotelian logic and later of natural philosophy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the philosophical community of the universities may
be credited with two major achievements : the grasp and elaboration
of the construction of a deductive explanatory system, whether in logic,
mathematics, cosmology or physiology; and the grasp and elaboration
of logical precision in the use of evidence in deciding an argument,
including decision by experiment. Characteristic of this intellectual
inheritance, at least as it was received, was a geometrical or mathematical
rationalism which is evident, for example, in Euclid's two fundamental
treatises on optics and on music. * Each demonstrated a stable relation
between perceiver and perceived by postulating in the one linear rays
of vision and in the other motions propagated from a sounding body,
from whose specified angles or speeds were demonstrated what specific sizes and shapes must be seen or pitches and intervals heard. Reaching
the West first mainly through Boethius and then through Arabic compendia (Euclid's texts became known only in the sixteenth century),
these theories were made in the twelfth century part of philosophical
programmes for the sciences which included also : The science of
engines (scientia ingeniis)... which taught the ways of contriving
and finding out how natural bodies may be fitted together by some
artifice according to number, so that the use we are looking for may
come from them. 2
A programme is not an achievement but we are looking for mental
attitudes, and it seems to me that we find already expressed in such
words that urge towards rational analysis and ingenious contrivance
for the mastery of nature, which was to be expressed in action by the
artists, engineer-architects and musicians who from the fourteenth
century were to give such an impressive practical demonstration of
their theoretical control of visual space, material construction and
instrumented sound. These groups introduced a new style of rationality
into Western culture, adding to the logical control of argument and
1. Cf. CROMBIE, The mechanistic hypothesis and the scientific study of vision*,
Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society, ii (1967) 3 sqq., Mathematics,
music and medical science*, Actes du XHe Congres international d'histoire des
sciences 1968, i.B (Paris, 1971) 295 sqq., and for full discussion Styles of Scientific
Thinking in the European Tradition (Gerald Duckworth, London, 1994).
2. DOMINICUS GUNDISSALINUS, De divisione philosophiae, ed. L. BA.UR (Beitrage. .., iv. 2-3; Miinster, 1903) 122; cf. LYNN WHITE j r., Medieval engineering and
the sociology of knowledge*, Pacific Historical Review, xliv (1975) 1 sqq.
19
20
21
artistic theory and practice, old and new remained in uncertain competition long after GALILEO was dead.
It was nevertheless the generations of GALILEO and DESCARTES
who finally clarified and defined science as a mode of rational thinking
in the modern world and who gave it a recognizable and enduring identity in relation to other fields of inquiry and decision. The first half
of the seventeenth century is then a genuine turning-point in the potentialities of Western culture, throwing light on what came both before and after. From that time a scientific community has come into
existence with conditions of education and communication providing
for both agreement and disagreement by a specific kind of rationality,
and now globally providing standards which even if not always realized
are a normal requirement for objective scientific success. Of immediate
relevance for us all is the relation of this specific rationality to beliefs
about man's moral nature and true end.
This side of paradise, moral tension sacred or profane must accompany any framework of thought or society that gives meaning to
existence. An obvious characteristic of the Western scientific tradition
is that it has been from the beginning a moral enterprise as much as
a means of solving physical problems. One form of this was the view
established in different ways by Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics and other
ancient philosophers of nature as at once a deductive system and a
moral order, a view that has profoundly affected both the specifib intellectual character and the political role of science in Western culture.
Plato's vision of knowledge producing virtue, and of the rational progress of human knowledge through mathematical abstraction to the
eternal truths expressing the morally as well as intellectually normative
economy and harmony of the real world, has deeply influenced the whole
history of scientific explanation and education. It was used to justify
the systematic introduction of mathematics into modern university
teaching in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.1 The conception
of the world as a work of divine art, whether in its Platonic, Aristotelian,
Stoic or Christian versions highly charged with moral values of economy,
proportion and fitness, has provided an enduring model and sufficient
reason for physical behaviour : from the perfect circles of ancient cosmology and the perfect ancient consonant ratios between low numbers,
to KEPLER'S planetary intervals, the eighteenth-century principle of
least action and practically the whole theory of biological adaptation
1. GROMBIE, Styles. . .
22
23
24
25
place to another : I say in the long run, when it has been demonstrated
by the senses or by necessity that the Earth moves and the Sun stays
fixed... Your doctrines are the new ones that harm, as you want... to
force the mind and the senses not to understand and not to see...
With novelties you cause great ruins in religion.1
The generations of GALILEO and DESCARTES established the specific rationality of modern science and gave confidence to its methods
of research and criteria of acceptability by defining it as the art of the
soluble. The act of definition required first a restriction, the delimitation
of the questions as well as of the answers to be admitted. The questions
had to be answerable by acceptable means, eventually if not immediately. These generations came to see experimental science as a deliberate union of the theoretical search for reduction to common forms of
explanation and logical mastery of argument achieved by philosophy,
with the practical demand for accurately reproduceable results required
by technology. Later came an expansion of the initial restriction to exclusively answerable questions in all realms of experience and thought,
with a development and diversification of methods along with that of
subject-matter and theory. Modern science has developed its power to
solve problems by its selectivity and by its programme of reduction of
more and more classes of phenomena to increasingly general theories.
From this it has eliminated all values except truth and the aesthetic
economy of theories which must also pass the test of truth, and all
questions of motive and of the meaning of existence. To all other values
and to all such questions its clear logic has made it explicitly neutral.
Yet natural science has emerged as the rational norm in the Western
search for universally and exclusively true principles in all regions of
thougth and action. This has made it a notable source first of conflicting
certitudes and then of disquiet in Western societies, and a notable solvent of the confidence of other cultures to which the West has brought
not simply its science, medicine and technology but its questioning of
the meaning men give to existence as a whole and to human life, decision and disease within it. The paradoxical culmination of reasoned
decision in our time has been an increasing magnification of means with
a matching neutralization of ends.
The paradox lies in a contradiction between the powerful logic
of science and the notion of a responsible individual, the notion that
created science, if man's moral nature it held to be confined within that
1. GALILEO, Le opere, vii, 540 541, 544; CROMBIE, ibid.
26
27
are to remain civilized to seek reasons for restraint. Science can show
us as individuals and as societies the consequences our actions may have
for our well-being or our survival. The greatest gift of scientific reason
to the practical arts of civilization has surely been to provide mankind
with both a true guide for our actions and the material capability of
choice. Through our scientific tradition, we have liberated ourselves
both from ignorance and from a purely biological regime of existence.
Science has given us responsible information and practical power for
making the difficult decisions between combinations of good with bad
in medical practice, in legal pleading of diminished responsibility (in
a society concerned for its own welfare a persistent disposition or intention to lie must presamably disqualify from responsibility whether
psychiatric, criminal or political in motivation), in the use of the environment and of natural resources, or in military need. But what
reasons can be offered to restrain the powerful from doing whatever they
have power to do for their own selfish advantage, against nature, against rivals, or against the weak? Why should those with the power
not feel entitled to exploit all opportunities? It is a question as bleak
for us as it was for Thucydides, in which the weak are restrained more
than the strong only by their weakness.
One answer of course would be to find agreement on the true moral nature and end of man. That belongs to paradise, to some extent
perhaps to a paradise lost. The Christian view of cosmological and human history, inherited from Hebrew theology, was elaborated by St.
Augustine as the fulfilling through an extended time of the providential purpose of the creation. This conception of the benevolent destiny
provided for responsible man had already by the thirteenth century,
for example in ROGER BACON, x given that evangelical flavour, that
desire to discover and spread true knowledge, which has characterised
the Western sense of mission in science as in religion. The geologists,
biologists and mechanistic philosophers, both social and natural, whose
thinking notably from the eighteenth century dismissed design from
time and history, inevitably gave the mission of science a rather
different flavour. If the order of nature and of society were simply
sequences through time of states of statistical equilibrium, if time and
history were merely a meaningless, open-ended, interminable succession, and if something like that was the whole truth about existence,
1. Cf. CROMBIE, Some attitudes... (1975) 222, and Styles. . .
28
it could be argued that moral values could be regarded only with profound frivolity or profound despair. 1 Yet if the paradise of providence
has been lost, Western scientific culture retains its sense of mission if
only because, in a plural human society, it offers pragmatic agreement
on specific limited ends. It offers also something deeper.
Reasoned truth from which these gifts have come is hard to find
and hard for fallen man to keep. It is hardest of all when truth is made
ambiguous policy. The authors of an analysis published thirty years
ago of the Soviet genetical disputes of that period distinguished among
the modes of argument used what they felicitously called alogical discourse, which intermixed with logical argument appeals to authority,
heresy, practical utility and attributed motives. In the last especially
it seems that the Marxist geneticists were following a procedure much
favoured by LENIN. 2 The procedure has been well illustrated by C.S.
LEWIS through the fictitious character of EZEKIALBULVER, who should
perhaps be better known and who used to attribute his formula for
political power to a dispute between his parents overheard at the age
of three. His father was routed in an attempt to prove to his mother
that the sum of the internal angles of a triangle is two right angles by
her finally defeating reply, that he said that only because he was a
man. Hence our word bulverism. The suggestio falsi intended in this
procedure may take various forms. Bulver learnt from his mother that
it was much more effective in dispute not to meet the reasoning of
your opponent, but rather to fix him in a category of motivation from
which all his reasoning and behaviour was made to follow. Whether
the category was false or irrelevant did not matter. Another common
version has the logical form of the vulgar : Why doesn't he stop beating
his wife? I once had the pleasure of seeing Senator JOSEPH MCCARTHY
routed by a witness who with clear head simply unpacked the innuendos
loaded into the questions put to him. The procedure is of course political, its goal not truth but advantage, and its motives, to quote locally from another context, needed to have very little to do with the
arguments in which they were expressed. Whatever its form or context,
in result : ((Technically it was a smear; but it was also a myth, and,
1. Gf. GROMBIE, Some attitudes...)) (1975) 225; also Lettres incites de
John Stuart Mill a Auguste Comte, publics avec les rgponses de Comte, ed. L.
LEVY-BRUHL (Paris, 1899), especially Mill to Comte on 3 April 1844.
2. P.S. HUDSON and R.H. RICHENS, The New Genetics of the Soviet Union
(Imperial Bureau of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cambridge, 1946) 23 sqq.
29
like all powerful myths, it retained its potency even when its credibility
had gone*.1
To meet reasons with attributions of motive, to make words mean
what you choose, may be thought an insult to human intelligence. To
promote in the open innuendos started in malicious corners, in corners
of universities as of wider worlds, may be thought an insult at least
to common sense. Such forms of violence against both truth and person
have become too obviously part of the disreputable procedure for political advantage in our time. Mean spirited, naively cynical and usually
transparent, its impudent mendacity is calculated on the assumption
that enough even of our ostensibly honest fellow men prefer almost
any formula for self-delusion, hypocrisy or sanctimonious betrayal to
facing an uncomfortable truth or an indisputable lie. Paradoxically,
an attempt to persuade by means of something less than the truth need
not be criminal. It is essential to legal defence when justice assumes
innocence until guilt is proven. And in the following appraisal by a
military correspondent there is a disturbingly inverted kinship with
pastoral care for virtue : In the communist world the truth or falsehood of a statement is much less important than its effect. The aim is
not primarily to convey information but to induce a response*.2 Those
who accept persuasion from the devil need a long spoon and when dealing with smaller monsters at least to cease to be naive. But nature
cannot be cheated. Nor need men. Effective science demands standards
of truth beyond treachery, and even of the treacherous. Its criteria
offer a political warning, and a moral therapy.
I have tried then to sketch how the intellectual and moral history
of science, medicine and technology, looking back with unavoidable
impressionism to the orientations of our culture, can illuminate the
continuity as well as the mutations of the Western tradition of scientific objectivity which has now, whether in welcome or reluctance,
become the property of most of the world. As intellectual history indeed,
as scientific thinking studied through the reconstruction of its cultural
ambience, this subject has been developed during two decades and more
in my own university of Oxford, with enough momentum now to continue in that style, linked equally and necessarily with the sciences,
the various other histories and philosophy. This does not of course
1. The Spectator (London, 15 March 1975) 306.
2. The Times (London, 10 September 1975) 14.
30
preclude other lines of study, even those most peripheral to the central
subject of scientific thought. A wish to impose a narrow view must
surely reflect an immature conception of history, indeed an immature
character, just as a pretence that history has been other than it has
may reflect some more disreputable calculation.
32
Thierry, according to his epitaph, could see through all the perplexities of the
seven liberal arts, and 'he made quite clear to everyone what was hidden in
obscurity for Plato and Socrates'.4 This he could seem to do by a perspective of
superior science, enriched by the new translations into Latin such as Adelard's
version of Euclid's Elements from the Arabic.
The history of science is the history of vision explored and controlled by
argument: a vision and an argument initiated in the West by the ancient Greek
philosophers, mathematicians and physicians in their search for principles at
once of nature and of argument itself. Argument has been deployed in
different styles, in different periods and contexts and in different subjectmatters, to justify a vision of the nature of things able to solve specific
problems. Of the essence of the scientific movement have been its genuine
continuity, even after long breaks, based on the study by any generation of
texts written by its predecessors; its progress equally in scientific knowledge
and in the analysis of scientific argument; and its recurrent critique, varying
considerably in different historical contexts, of its presuppositions about
nature, about scientific cogency and validity, and about the intellectual,
practical and moral justification of the whole enterprise. A subtle question is
what continued and what changed through different historical circumstances,
in scientific argument and its criteria of cogency and validity, and in the
cultural vision through which experience is mediated, when education and
practice could furnish options for a different future. Styles of thinking and
making both intellectual and practical decisions, established with the intellectual and moral commitments with which they began, are maintained by habit
and education as long as these remain. From such commitments come the
specific identities of cultures and the structural differences between different
cultures and societies whose enduring persistence have become in our present
world daily more evident. Vectorial treatment is of the essence of historiography, yet there can be therapy in viewing the still life of a present moment
unrelated to past or future. We, then, the historians of the scientific
movement, who belong at the same time to its history, must look in a true
intellectual anthropology at once with and into the eye of its beholder.
Historical perceptions of the scientific movement in the middle ages have
from the start been mediated through interpretations of the past and present
motivated by expectations of a desirable future, interpretations that have
varied with visions of the nature of human existence and with degrees of
historical knowledge, prejudice or ignorance. In the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries the texts translated from the Greek and the Arabic, and the new
compositions written in their light, were of two different kinds: those
concerned primarily with general questions of knowledge and existence, and
those concerned with specific problems in the mathematical and natural
33
Hugh of St Victor, Didascalicon, de studio legendi vii.4, ed. J.P. Migne, Patrologia Latino,
clxxvi (Paris, 1854) 814; cf. ed. C.J. Buttimer (Washington, D.C., 1939), transl. J. Taylor (New
York, 1961).
6
Bernard Silvestris, De mundi universitate, hrg. C.S. Barach und J. Wrobel (Innsbruck, 1986)
13; cf. M.D. Chenu, La theologie au douzieme siecle (Paris, 1957, 1976) 170.
7
Roger Bacon, Opus maius i.l sqq., 14, ii.9, iii.i, ed. J.H. Bridges, i (Oxford, 1897), iii
(London, 1900).
34
what he believed had been known already to the ancients. He cited with
approval Seneca's respect alike for ancient wisdom and for intellectual
progress of the elite who alone among foolish mankind would not misuse it,
and he insisted that 'the study of wisdom can always increase in this life,
because nothing is perfect in human discoveries. Hence we of a later age
should supply what the ancients lacked, because we have entered into their
labours, by which, unless we are asses, we can be aroused to better things;
since it is wretched to be always using and never making discoveries. Christians
should . . . complete the paths of the unbelieving philosophers, not only
because we are of a later age and should add to their works, but also in order
that we may bend their labours to our own ends'.8 He saw the recent and future
progress of scientific knowledge as the product as much of the recovery of
ancient texts, and the discovery by the learned elite of their true hidden
meaning, as of the direct investigation of nature. Hence his vision of the
reform of education and knowledge within a theological scheme of man's
providential destiny in the fulfilment of time to the end of the world.
Such theological interpretations of the history of the arts and sciences
persisted in various forms and contexts for several centuries after Bacon, but a
different style of historical orientation came to be offered by the humanist
scholars and philosophers who from the fourteenth century established so
much of the basic methods and conceptions of modern historiography. The
pedagogic function of history, the effectiveness of interpretations of the past
that carried with them formulae for present action, was well understood in
antiquity. The Italian scholars who introduced the threefold division of
European history into ancient, medieval and modern gave to these periods an
evaluation beyond mere chronology. It seems to have been Petrarch who first
used the term medius tempus with the sense of a dark age lasting for a thousand
years until his own time, when Latin poetry was revived and Italian vernacular
poetry reborn (renatum).9 He was offering a programme. The image of
medieval darkness was repeated at the end of the fourteenth century by the
Florentine historian Filippo Villani, who described certain events as happening 'in ancient, medieval and modern times (priscis, mediis, modernisque
temporibusy. When Dante revived the art of poetry he 'recalled it as from an
abyss of shadows into the light', just as painting was raised again to life in
modern times first by Cimabue, who 'began to recall it to the imitation of
nature', and then by Giotto, 'who not only can be compared with the illustrious
35
painters of antiquity, but surpassed them all in skill and genius'.10 (It is a pity
that he was unaware of the lively and accurate naturalistic illustrations of
Frederick IPs Art of Falconry and of many others made in Italy, France, the
Netherlands and England during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.)
That the modern arts had come to revive (rinascere) and to surpass ancient
models, and the historical term media tempestas,11 became commonplaces in
the fifteenth century. Some scholars maintained that philosophy had flourished without interruption through the scholastic period and needed no
revival.12 But in general the humanists gave to the medieval term a sense of
total darkness, in order to promote the enlightenment they saw coming from
ancient models of all kinds, whether in politics, Latin style or painting and
sculpture.
On similar lines philosophical historians like Machiavelli and Jean Bodin,
looking for the causes of the progress or regress of civilisation in different
periods, could project their historical analyses into programmes for present
advantage or reform and future advance, or perhaps into diagnoses of decline.
They studied history in order to manage or at least to anticipate its course.
Hence the search for the best ancient models, and the successive proposals for
true methods, whether for philosophy or science or art or theology or
government, which were so evident in Western intellectual culture from the
age of Roger Bacon to that of Francis Bacon and Descartes. Hence also the
recurrent claims to novelty: to have discovered like the sixteenth-century
Neoplatonist Francesco Patrizi the 'new, true, complete philosophy of the
universe', ambitiously so 'proved with divine oracles, geometrical necessities,
philosophical reasons and the clearest experiments'13 or other fashionably
convincing criteria; or more realistically the claims to be practising like
William Gilbert a 'new sort of philosophising',14 or to have invented like
Francis Bacon a novum organum or like Galileo 'new sciences'.15
Reforming visions may show us the intellectual tradition of European
science in varied and peculiar lights, as necessary for a true historical
anthropology as the solving of problems and related contemporary practices.
They show us the historical diversity of conceptions of the rational, the
possible, the desirable and the acceptable. These may change with changing
10
Filippo Villani, Liber de civitatis Florentinae famosis civibus, ii.2, 7, iii.7, ed. G.C. Galletti
(Florence, 1847).
11
Cf. Hay, 'Historians and the Renaissance'; McLaughlin, 'Humanist Concepts'; P. Lehmann,
Vom Mittelalter und von der Lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters (Quellen und Untersuchungen
zur Lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters, v.l; Munich, 1914).
12
E.g. Alamanno Rinuccini, Lettere ed orazione, a cura di V.R. Giustiniani (Florence, 1953)
106-7; cf. McLaughlin, 'Historians and the Renaissance'.
13
Francesco Patrizi, Nova de universis philosophia, 'Panurgia' i (Ferrara, 1591) f.l r .
14
William Gilbert, De magnete, Praefatio (London, 1600).
15
Galileo Galilei, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (Leiden,
1638).
36
16
17
18
37
38
and of science presupposed by the questions being posed. Such changes can
alter both the way in which particular scientific problems are formulated and
the criteria for an acceptable scientific explanation.
It is clear that the questions put or presupposed in the answers given by
medieval natural philosophers were not identical with those put or presupposed in the seventeenth century. Structural changes in scientific thinking such
as occurred over this period make the whole subject of predecessors extremely
tricky, and it is tricky not only for the medieval predecessors dear to Duhem,
but likewise for those of Darwin in the theory of evolution and equally
throughout the history of science. We need to examine continuity and change
at all the levels involved, from those of factual discovery and mathematical
formulation to those of scientific demonstration and causal explanation. In the
famous case of inertial motion, for example, the seventeenth-century concept
was basically different from that formulated in the fourteenth century on the
Aristotelian principle that, since every effect requires a cause, every motion
requires a mover. Again, the analysis of the rainbow by Descartes starting
from a general quantitative law was structurally different from that of
Theodoric of Freiberg, whose sophisticated experiments with models were
designed to discover the particular causal conditions for particular phenomenon. Yet again, Kepler came to make a structural break from his own first
approach to the analysis of optical physiology, based on the assumption
inherited from the Greeks that the process by which vision is effected through
the living eye must yield an immediate explanation of visual perception. This
had been accepted by Alhazen in his brilliant geometrical model of the eye and
by all his successors. It led to insoluble problems like that of the inversion and
reversal of the image. Kepler generalised the subject by treating the eye as a
physical optical instrument like any other, as in fact a camera obscura, and thus
he could separate its optical operation for analysis independently of the
problem of perception. The question changed because the presuppositions
generating them changed. Valuable light can be thrown on all this by the study
of scientific and philosophical terminology, but here also there are dangers.
Language can misrepresent or lag behind practice. It takes great care to
interpret such important terms as lex naturae, resolutiva et compositiva, ratio,
machina, experimentum and scientia experimental. So then: quanta juniores,
tanto perspicaciores, sed caveat emptor.
1
2
40
Grosseteste's career thus falls into two main parts, the first that of a
university scholar and teacher and the second that of a bishop and ecclesiastical statesman. His writings fall roughly into the same periods: to the former
belong his commentaries on Aristotle and on the Bible and the bulk of a
number of independent treatises, and to the latter his translations from the
Greek. Living at a time when the intellectual horizons of Latin Christendom
were being greatly extended by the translations into that language of Greek
and Arabic philosophical and scientific writings, he took a leading part in
introducing this new learning into university teaching. His commentary on
Aristotle's Posterior Analytics was one of the first and most influential of the
medieval commentaries on this fundamental work. Other important writings
belonging to the first period are his commentary on Aristotle's Physics,
likewise one of the first; independent treatises on astronomy and cosmology,
the calendar (with intelligent proposals for the reform of the inaccurate
calendar then in use), sound, comets, heat, optics (including lenses and the
rainbow), and other scientific subjects; and his scriptural commentaries,
especially the Moralitates in evangelica, De cessatione legalium, Hexaemeron
and commentaries on the Pauline epistles and the psalms. Having begun to
study Greek in 1230-1231, he used his learning fruitfully during the period of
his episcopate by making Latin translations of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics
and De caelo (with Simplicius' commentary), of the Defide orthodoxe of John
of Damascus, of Pseudo-Dionysius and of other theological writings. For this
work he brought to Lincoln assistants who knew Greek; he also arranged for a
translation of the psalms to be made from the Hebrew and seems to have
learned something of this language.
Although in content a somewhat eclectic blend of Aristotelian and
Neoplatonic ideas, Grosseteste's philosophical thinking shows a strong
intellect curious about natural things and searching for a consistently rational
scheme of things both natural and divine. His search for rational explanations
was conducted within the framework of the Aristotelian distinction between
'the fact' (quid) and 'the reason for the fact' (propter quid). Essential for the
latter in natural philosophy was mathematics, to which Grosseteste gave a role
based specifically on his theory, expounded in De luce seu de inchoatione
formarum and De motu corporali et luce, that the fundamental corporeal
substance was light (lux). He held that light was the first form to be created in
prime matter, propagating itself from an original point into a sphere and thus
giving rise to spatial dimensions and all else according to immanent laws.
Hence his conception of optics as the basis for natural science. Lux was a
instrument by which God produced the macrocosm of the universe and also
the instrument mediating the interaction between soul and body and the bodily
senses in the microcosm of man.3 Grosseteste's rational scheme included
E.G., Hexaemeron, British Museum MS Royal 6.E.V (14 cent.), fols 147v-150v; L. Baur,
'Das Licht in der Naturphilosophie des Robert Grosseteste' in Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete
Robert Grosseteste
41
revelation as well as reason, and he was one of the first medieval thinkers to
attempt to deal with the conflict between the Scriptures and the new Aristotle.
Especially interesting are his discussions of the problems of the eternity or
creation of the world, of the relation of will to intellect, of angelology, of divine
knowledge of particulars, and of the use of allegorical interpretations of
Scripture.
Grosseteste's public life as bishop of Lincoln was informed by both his
outlook on the universe as a scholar and his conception of his duties as a
prelate dedicated to the salvation of souls. Analogous to corporeal illumination was the divine illumination of the soul with truth. He extended the
luminous analogy to illustrate the relationship between the persons of the
Trinity, the operation of divine grace through free will like light shining
through a coloured glass,4 and the relation of pope to prelates and of bishops to
clergy: as a mirror reflects light into dark places, he said in asserting his
episcopal rights against the cathedral chapter of Lincoln, so a bishop reflects
power to the clergy.5
In practice Grosseteste was governed by three principles: a belief in the
supreme importance of the cure of souls; a highly centralised and hierarchical
conception of the church, in which the papacy, under God, was the centre and
source of spiritual life and energy; and a belief in the superiority of the church
over the state because its function, the salvation of souls, was more vital. Such
views were widely accepted, but Grosseteste was unique in the ruthlessness
and thoroughness with which he applied them, for example, in opposing the
widespread use of ecclesiastical benefices to endow officials in the service of
the crown or the papacy. As a bishop he had attended the First Council of
Lyons in 1245, and in a memorandum presented to the pope there in 1250 he
expounded his views on the unsuitability of such appointments while accepting
the papal right to dispose of all benefices. Likewise, his opposition to the
obstruction of the disciplinary work of the church by any ecclesiastical
corporation or secular authority brought him into conflict both with his own
Lincoln chapter and with the crown over royal writs of prohibition when
secular law clashed with church law and when churchmen were employed as
judges or in other secular offices. Grosseteste was a close friend of Simon de
Montfort and took charge of the education of his sons, but the degree to which
he shared in or influenced Montfort's political ideals has probably been
exaggerated. Above all he was a bishop with an ideal, an outstanding example
of the new type of ecclesiastic trained in the universities.
der Philosophic und ihrer Geschichte. Eine Festgabe zum 70. Geburtstag Georg Freiherrn von
Herding (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1913), pp. 41-55.
4
De libero arbitrio, caps. 8 and 10, in L. Baur, Die philosophischen Werke des Robert
Grosseteste, pp. 179, 202.
5
Epistolae, pp. 360, 364, 389.
42
Scientific Thought
Some of Grosseteste's scientific writings can be dated with reasonable
certainty, and most of the others can be related to these in an order based on
internal references and on the assumption that the more elaborated version of
a common topic is the later.6 From the evidence for his method of making
notes on his reading and thoughts to be worked up into finished essays and
commentaries,7 and from these writing themselves, it may be assumed that
many of them arose out of his teaching in the schools. Gerald of Wales's
description of Grosseteste at Hereford as a young clerk with a manifold
learning 'built upon the sure foundation of the liberal arts and an abundant
knowledge of literature'8 is borne out by what is probably his earliest work, De
artibus liberalibus. In this attractive introduction he described how the seven
liberal arts at once acted as apurgatio erroris and gave direction to the gaze and
inclination of the mind (mentis aspectus et affectus). Of particular interest is hi
treatment of music, of which his love became proverbial, and of astronomy. As
for Boethius, music for him comprised the proportion and harmony not only of
sounds produced by the human voice and by instruments but also of the
movements and times of the celestial bodies and of the composition of bodies
made of the four terrestrial elements - hence the power of music to mould
human conduct and restore health by restoring the harmony between soul and
body and between the bodily elements, and the related power of astronomy
through its indication of the appropriate times for such operations and for the
transmutation of metals. Related to this essay was his phonetical treatise De
generatione sonorum, which he introduced with an account of sound as a
vibratory motion propagated from the sounding body through the air to the
ear, from the motion of which arose a sensation in the soul.
Grosseteste developed his mature natural philosophy through a logic of
science based on Aristotle and through his fundamental theory of light. In
their present form most of the works concerned were almost certainly written
between about 1220 and 1235. De luce and De motu corporali et luce, with his
cosmogony and cosmology of light, seem to date from early in this period. The
structure of the universe generated by the original point of lux was determined, first, by the supposition that there was a constant proportion between
the diffusion or 'multiplication' of lux, corresponding to the infinite series of
natural numbers, and the quantity of matter given cubic dimensions,
corresponding to some finite part of that series. Second, the intensity of this
6
For the basic works on this question, see Baur, Die philosophischen Werke; and S.H.
Thomson, The Writings of Robert Grosseteste - with the revisions by Callus, The Oxford Career of
Robert Grosseteste' in Robert Grosseteste; A.C. Crombie, Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of
Experimental Science (1953, 1971); and R.C. Dales, 'Robert Grosseteste's Scientific Works,'
Commentarius in viii libros.
7
From William of Alnwick, as first noticed by A. Pelzer. See Callus, The Oxford Career of
Robert Grosseteste,' pp. 45-47.
8
Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, J.S. Brewer, ed., I (London, 1861), 249.
Robert Grosseteste
43
activity of lux varied directly with distance from the primordial source. The
result was a sphere denser and more opaque toward the centre. Then from the
outermost boundary of the sphere lumen emanated inward to produce another
sphere inside it, then another, and so on, until all the celestial and elementary
spheres of Aristotelian cosmology were complete. Another seemingly early
work in this series, De generatione stellarum, shows Grosseteste dependent on
Aristotle in many things but not in all, for he argued that the stars were
composed of the four terrestrial elements. Later, in his commentary on the
Physics, he contrasted the imprecise and arbitrary way man must measure
spaces and times with God's absolute measures through aggregates of
infinities.
In all these writings Grosseteste made it clear that by lux and lumen he
meant not simply the visible light which was one of its manifestations, but a
fundamental power (virtus, species) varying in its manifestation according to
the source from which it was propagated or multiplied and in its effect
according to its recipient. Thus he showed in De impressionibus elementorum
how solar radiation effected the transformation of one of the four terrestrial
elements into another and later, in De natura locorum, how it caused
differences in climate. An explanation of the tides begun in De accessione et
recessione maris or De fluxu et refluxu maris (if this work is by him)9 was
completed in De natura locorum, in which he argued that the rays of the rising
moon released vapours from the depth of the sea which pushed up the tide
until the moon's strength increased so much that it drew the vapours through
the water, at which time the tide fell again. The second, smaller monthly tide
was caused by the weaker lunar rays reflected back to the opposite side of the
earth from the stellar sphere.
In De cometis et causis ipsarum Grosseteste gave a good example of his
method of falsification in arguing that comets were 'sublimated fire' separated
from their terrestrial nature by celestial power descending from the stars or
planets and drawing up the 'fire' as a magnet drew iron. Later, in De calore
solis (c. 1230-1235), he produced perhaps his most elegant exercise in analysis
by reduction to conclusions falsified either by observation or by disagreement
with accepted theory, finally leaving a verified explanation. He concluded that
all hot bodies generated heat by the scattering of their matter and that the sun
generated heat on the earth in direct proportion to the amount of matter
incorporated from the transparent medium (air) into its rays.
Grosseteste set out and exemplified the formal structure of his mature
scientific method in his Commentaria in libros posteriorum Aristotelis, his
Commentarius in viii libros physicorum Aristotelis,10 and four related essays
9
See R.C. Dales, The Authorship of the Questio de fluxu et refluxu maris Attributed to Robert
Grosseteste,' in Speculum, 37 (1962), 582-588.
10
See the ed. by Dales. Grosseteste wrote probably about 1230 a summary of Aristotle's views
in his Summa super octo libros physicorum Aristotelis.
44
His method of discovering the causal agent was to make first a resolutio, or
analysis of the complex phenomenon into its principles, and then a compositio,
or reconstruction and deduction of the phenomenon from hypotheses derived
from the discovered principles. He verified or falsified these hypotheses by
observation or by theory already verified by observation.
Besides this double method, Grosseteste used in the analysis of the causal
agent as the starting-point of demonstration another Aristotelian procedure,
that of the subordination of some sciences to others, for example, of
astronomy and optics to geometry and of music to arithmetic, in the sense that
'the superior science provides the propter quid for that thing of which the
inferior science provides the quia.'12 But mathematics provided only the
formal cause; the material and efficient causes were provided by the physical
sciences. Thus 'the cause of the equality of the two angles made on a mirror by
the incident ray and the reflected ray is not a middle term taken from
geometry, but is the nature of the radiation generating itself in a straight path
. . . '13 The echo belonged formally to the same genus as the reflection of light,
but the material and efficient cause of the propagation of sound had to be
sought in its fundamental substance: 'the substance of sound is lux incorporated in the most subtle air . . . '14 This introduced a fundamental addition to
11
12
13
14
Robert Grosseteste
45
15
16
17
46
among us until the present time';18 and it is his treatment of refraction that has
the greatest interest.
This part of optics [perspectiva], when well understood, shows us how we may
make things a very long distance off appear to be placed very close, and large
near things appear very small, and how we may make small things placed at a
distance appear as large as we want, so that it is possible for us to read the
smallest letters at an incredible distance, or to count sand, or grain, or seeds, or
any sort of minute objects.19
The reason, as he had learned from Euclid and Ptolemy, was 'that the size,
position and arrangement according to which a thing is seen depends on the
size of the angle through which it is seen and the position and arrangement of
the rays, and that a thing is made invisible not by great distance, except by
accident, but by the smallness of the angle of vision.' Hence 'it is perfectly clear
from geometrical reasons how, by means of a transparent medium of known
size and shape placed at a known distance from the eye, a thing of known
distance and known size and position will appear according to place, size and
position.'20
Grosseteste followed this account of magnification and diminution by
refracting media with an apparently original law of refraction, according to
which the refracted ray, on entering a denser medium, bisected the angle
between the projection of the incident ray and the perpendicular to the
interface. 'That the size of the angle in the refraction of a ray may be
determined in this way,' he concluded, 'is shown us by experiments similar to
those by which we discovered that the reflection of a ray upon a mirror takes
place at the angle equal to the angle of incidence.'21
It was also evident from the principle that nature always acts in the best and
shortest way. Grosseteste went on to use a construction of Ptolemy's to show
how to locate the refracted image, claiming again that this 'is made clear to us
by the same experiment and similar reasonings'22 as those used in a similar
construction for locating the reflected image. The first of these references to
experimental verification, since it would have been so inaccurate, may throw
doubt on all such references by Grosseteste. As was true for a great many
medieval natural philosophers, most of these references came from books or
from everyday experiences. Clearly his interest was directed primarily towards
theory. Yet he advocated and was guided by the principle of experiment and
developed its logic.
Besides these works related to optics, Grosseteste wrote important treatises
on astronomical subjects. In De sphaera, of uncertain date between perhaps
18
De irlde, ibid., p. 73. See L. Baur, Die Philosophic des Robert Grosseteste, pp. 117-118;
Crombie, Robert Grosseteste (1971), pp. 117-124.
19
De iride, in Baur, Die philosophischen Werke, p. 74.
20
Ibid., p. 75.
21
Ibid., pp. 74-75.
22
Ibid., p. 75.
Robert Grosseteste
47
23
48
continued into the early printing of his writings at Venice, the collecting of his
scientific manuscripts by John Dee, and interest in them by Thomas Hobbes.24
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i. ORIGINAL WORKS. The earliest dated printed ed. of a work by Grosseteste
is Commentaria in librosposteriorum Aristotelis (Venice, 1494; 8th ed., 1552).
It was followed by his Summa super octo librosphysicorum Aristotelis (Venice,
1498; 9th ed., 1637); Libellus dephisicis lineis angulis etfigurisper quas omnes
actiones naturales complentur (Nuremburg, 1503); De sphaera, pub. as
Sphaeraecompendium (Venice, 1508; 5th ed., 1531); and Compotus correctorius (Venice, 1518). His Opuscula (Venice, 1514; London, 1690) includes De
artibus liberalibus, De generatione sonorum, De calore solis, De generatione
stellarum, De colore, De impressionibus elementorum, De motu corporali, De
finitate motus et temporis (appearing first as the concluding section of his
commentary on the Physics), De lineis, angulis etfiguris, De natura locorum,
De luce, De motu supercaelestium, and De differentiis localibus. All these
essays, with De sphaera and the hitherto unprinted De cometis, De impressionibus aeris and De iride, were published by L. Baur in Die philosophischen
Werke des Robert Grosseteste (see below). For further modern texts see Canon
in Kalendarium, ed. by A. Lindhagen as 'Die Neumondtafel des Robertus
Lincolniensis,' in Archiv for matematik, astronomi och fysik (Uppsala)., 11
no. 2 (1916); Compotus, factus and correctionem communis kalendarii nostri,
R. Steele, ed., in Roger Bacon, Opera hactenus inedita, VI (Oxford, 1926),
212 ff.; S.H. Thomson, The Text of Grosseteste's De cometis,' in Isis, 19
(1933), 19-25; and "Grosseteste's Questio de calore, de cometis and De operacionibussolis,' in Medievalia ethumanistica, 11 (1957), 34-43; Commentarius in
viii libros physicorum Aristotelis . . . , R.C. Dales, ed. (Boulder, Colo., 1963);
and R.C. Dales, The Text of Robert Grosseteste's Questio defluxu de refluxu
maris with an English Translation,' in Isis, 57 (1966), 455-474. See also Roberti
Grosseteste episcopi quondam Lincolniensis epistolae. H.R. Luard, ed.
(London, 1861).
II. SECONDARY LITERATURE. For the fundamental work of identifying and
listing Grosseteste's writing see L. Baur, Die philosophischen Werke des
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop von Lincoln, vol. IX of Beitrdge zur Geschichte
der Philosophic des Mittelalters (Miinster, 1912); and S.H. Thomson, The
Writings of Robert Grosseteste Bishop of Lincoln 1235-1253 (Cambridge,
1940). For further discussions of his scientific writings with reference to
additional items, see D.A. Callus, The Oxford Career of Robert Grosseteste,'
24
See Crombie, Robert Grosseteste (1971); A. Pacchi, 'Ruggero Bacone e Roberto Grossetesta
in un inedito hobbesiano del. 1634,' in Rivista critica distoria dellafilosofia 20 (1965), 499-502; and
Convenzione e Ipotesi nella formazione dellafilosofia naturale di Thomas Hobbes (Florence, 1965).
Robert Grosseteste
49
Further References
See A.C. Crombie, Science, Optics and Music. . ., ch. 6 (1990) 137; J.D. North, Stars, Minds and
Fate (London, 1989) 119-33; R. W. Southern, Robert Grosseteste, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1992), the basic
biography; with Robert Grosseteste, Hexaemeron, ed. R.C. Dales and S. Gieben (London, 1982);
Metafisica delta luce: Opuscolifilosofici e scientific!, introduzione, traduzione e note di Pietro Rossi
(Milano, 1986).
1
2
3
52
Roger Bacon
53
request was repeated in the form of a papal mandate of 22 June 1266.8 Bacon
eventually replied with his three famous works, Opus maius, Opus minus, and
Opus tertium, the last two prefaced with explanatory epistole in which he set
out his proposals for the reform of learning and the welfare of the Church. It is
reasonable to suppose that after twenty years of preparation he composed
these scripture preambule to an unwritten Scriptum principale between the
receipt of the papal mandate and the end of 1267. In that year he sent to the
pope, by his pupil John, the Opus maius with some supplements, including De
speciebus et virtutibus agentium in two versions9 and De scientiaperspectiva,10
followed (before the pope died in November 1268) by the Opus minus and
Opus tertium as resumes, corrections, and additions to it. The pope left no
recorded opinion of Bacon's proposals.
Perhaps at this time Bacon wrote his Communia naturalium and Communia
mathematica^ mature expressions of many of his theories. These were followed
in 1271 or 1272 by the Compendium studii philosophic, of which only the first
part on languages remains and in which he abused all classes of society, and
particularly the Franciscan and Dominican orders for their educational
practices. Sometime between 1277 and 1279 he was condemned and imprisoned in Paris by his order for an undetermined period and for obscure
reasons possibly related to the censure, which included heretical Averroist
propositions, by the bishop of Paris, Stephen Tempier, in 1277. The last known
date in his troubled life is 1292, when he wrote the Compendium studii
theologii.11
Scientific Thought
The Opus maius and accompanying works sent to the pope by Bacon as a
persuasio contain the essence of his conception of natural philosophy and
consequential proposals for educational reform. He identified four chief
obstacles to the grasping of truth: frail and unsuitable authority, long custom,
uninstructed popular opinion, and the concealment of one's own ignorance in
a display of apparent wisdom. There was only one wisdom, given to us by the
authority of the Holy Scriptures; but this, as he explained in an interesting
history of philosophy, had to be developed by reason, and reason on its part
was insecure if not confirmed by experience. There were two kinds of
experience, one obtained through interior mystical inspiration and the other
through the exterior senses, aided by instruments and made precise by
8
9
10
11
Brewer, p. 1.
Cf. Opus maius, Bridges ed., pt IV, dist. ii-iv; and De multiplicatione specierum, Bridges ed.
Cf. Opus maius, pt. V.
Rashdall, pp. 3, 34.
54
12
13
14
15
Roger Bacon
55
their efficient and generating causes, nothing can be known without the power
of geometry' and that 'it is necessary to verify the matter of the world by
demonstration set forth in geometrical lines'16 came straight from Grosseteste's theory of multiplicatio specierum, or propagation of power (of which
light and heat were examples), and his account of the 'common corporeity'
that gave form and dimensions to all material substances. 'Every multiplication is either according to lines, or angles, of figures.'17 This theory provided
the efficient cause of every occurrence in the universe, in the celestial and
terrestrial regions, in matter and the senses, and in animate and inanimate
things. In thus trying to reduce different phenomena to the same terms,
Grosseteste and Bacon showed a sound physical insight even though their
technical performance remained for the most part weak. These conceptions
made optics the fundamental physical science, and it is in his treatment of this
subject that Bacon appears most effective. Besides Grosseteste his main
optical sources were Euclid, Ptolemy, al-Kindi, and Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen). He followed Grosseteste in emphasising the use of lenses not only for
burning but for magnification, to aid natural vision. He seems to have made an
original advance by giving constructions, based on those of Ptolemy for plane
surfaces and of Ibn al-Haytham for convex refracting surfaces, providing eight
rules (canones) classifying the properties of convex and concave spherical
surfaces with the eye in various relationships to the refracting media. He
wrote:
If a man looks at letters and other minute objects through the medium of a
crystal or of glass or of some other transparent body placed upon the letters, and
this is the smaller part of a sphere whose convexity is towards the eye, and the eye
is in the air, he will see the letters much better and they will appear larger to him.
For in accordance with the truth of the fifth rule [Fig. 1] about a spherical medium
beneath which is the object or on this side of its centre, and whose convexity is
towards the eye, everything agrees towards magnification [ad magnitudinem],
because the angle is large under which it is seen, and the image is larger, and the
position of the image is nearer, because the object is between the eye and the
centre. And therefore this instrument is useful for the aged and for those with
weak eyes. For they can see a letter, no matter how small, at sufficient
magnitude.18
According to the fifth rule,19 if the rays leaving the object, AB, and refracted at
the convex surface of the lens meet at the eye, E, placed at their focus, a
magnified image, MN, will be seen at the intersections of the diameters passing
from the centre of curvature, C, through AB to this surface and the projections
of the rays entering the eye. As he did not seem to envisage the use of
16
56
Fig. 1
combinations of lenses, Bacon got no further than Grosseteste in speculating
about magnifications such that 'from an incredible distance we may read the
minutest letters and may number the particles of dust and sand, because of the
magnitude of the angle under which we may see them.'20
But he did make an important contribution to the history of physiological
optics in the West by his exposition of Ibn al-Haytham's account of the eye as
an image-forming device, basing his ocular anatomy on Hunayn ibn Ishaq and
Ibn Sma. In doing so, he seems to have introduced a new concept of laws of
nature (a term found in Lucretius and numerous other authors more widely
read, such as St Basil) by his reference to the 'laws of reflection and refraction'
as leges communes nature.21 His meaning is clarified by his discussion
elsewhere of a lex nature universalis22 requiring the continuity of bodies and
thus giving a positive explanation, in place of the negative horror vacui, which
he rejected, of such phenomena as water remaining in a clepsydra so long as its
upper opening remained closed - an explanation comparable to one found in
Adelard of Bath's Natural Questions. Universal nature constituted from these
common laws, including those de multiplication specierum, was superimposed
on the system of particular natures making up the Aristotelian universe - not
yet the seventeenth-century concept but perhaps a step toward it.
'Having laid down the roots of wisdom of the Latins as regards languages
and mathematics and perspective,' Bacon began Part VI of the Opus maius, 'I
wish now to unfold the roots on the part of scientia experimental, because
without experience [experientia] nothing can be known sufficiently.23 This
science, 'wholly unknown to the general run of students,' had 'three great
20
Roger Bacon
57
prerogatives with respect to the other sciences.'24 The first was to certify the
conclusions of deductive reasoning in existing speculative sciences, including
mathematics. As an example he gave an investigation of the shape and colours
of the rainbow involving both theoretical reasoning and the collection of
instances of related phenomena in order to discover their common cause. The
second prerogative was to add to existing sciences new knowledge that they
could not discover by deduction. Examples were the discovery of the
properties of the magnet, the prolonging of human life by observing what
plants produced this effect naturally in animals, and the purification of gold
beyond the present achievements of alchemy. The third prerogative was to
investigate the secrets of nature outside the bounds of existing sciences,
opening up knowledge of the past and future and the possibility of marvelous
inventions, such as ever-burning lamps and explosive powders.
It is clear that Bacon's scientia experimentalis was not exactly what this term
might now suggest, but belonged equally to 'natural magic' aimed at producing
astonishing as well as practically useful effects by harnessing the hidden powers
of nature. His approach had been profoundly influenced by the pseudoAristotelian Secretum secretorum, of which he had produced an annotated
edition variously dated between 1243 and sometime before 1257, but he also
insisted that his new science would expose the frauds of magicians by revealing
the natural causes of effects. The 'dominus experimentorum' of the Opus
tertium25 who may have been Pierre de Maricourt, the pioneer investigator of
magnetism, is praised for understanding all these essential characteristics. In
the Opus minus,26 Bacon described possibly original experiments of his own
with a lodestone held above and below a floating magnet, and argued that it
was not the Nautical (Pole) Star that caused its orientation, or simply the north
part of the heavens, but all four parts equally. It was in this work, and in the
Opus tertium27 that he inserted his main discussion of alchemy, including the
conversion of base metals into gold and silver. There is a further discussion in
the Communia naturalium,28 together with sketches of the sciences of
medicine and agriculture. In the Communia mathematical and the Epistola de
secretis operibus artis et naturae et de nullitate magiae,30 he described more
wonderful machines for flying, lifting weights, and driving carriages, ships and
submarines, and so on, which he believed had been made in antiquity and
could be made again.
Despite his occasional references to them, Bacon in his accredited writings
deals with neither instruments nor mathematical tables in any but a superficial
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Ibid., p. 172.
Brewer ed., pp. 46-47.
Ibid., pp. 383-384.
Little ed., pp. 80-89.
Steeleed.,fasc. 2, pp. 6-8.
Steele ed., fasc, 16, pp. 42-44.
Brewer ed., p. 533.
58
way. For this reason it is hard to measure his stature by comparison with that of
his contemporaries whom we should call astronomers and mathematicians.
We are not encouraged to set great store by the stories that while in Paris he
constructed astronomical tables and supplied the new masters with geometrical problems that none of their audiences could solve.31 His mathematics and
astronomy were in fact almost wholly derivative, and he was not always a good
judge of competence, preferring, for instance, al-Bitruji to Ptolemy.
Bacon is often held to have achieved a deep and novel insight in regard to
the role of mathematics in science, an insight that to the modern mind is almost
platitudinous. In this connection it is easy to forget the large numbers of
astronomers of antiquity and the middle ages for whom mathematics was an
essential part of the science, and the smaller numbers of natural philosophers
who had made use of simpler mathematical techniques than those of
astronomy. It is more to the point to notice that Bacon argues for the
usefulness of mathematics in almost every realm of academic activity. Part IV
of the Opus maius is devoted to the usefulness of mathematics (1) in human
affairs (this section was published separately as the Specula mathematica); (2)
in divine affairs, such as chronology, the fixing of feasts, natural phenomena,
arithmetic and music; (3) in ecclesiastical affairs, such as the certification of
faith and the emendation of the calendar; and (4) in affairs of state, under
which heading are included geography and astrology. When Bacon sang the
praises of mathematics, 'the first of the sciences,' 'the door and key of the
sciences,' 'the alphabet of philosophy,' it has to be remembered that he used
the word in an unusually wide sense. Bacon seemed to fear that mathematics
would be dismissed as one of the blacker arts, as when arithmetic was applied
to geomancy. He sought 'per vias mathematics verificare omnia que in
naturalibus scientias sunt necessaria', and yet in the last resort, experience was
still necessary, and in a sense supreme.32
So loud and long were Bacon's praises of the mathematics that it is hard to
avoid the conclusion that his love of the subject was unrequited. He could
compose his De communibus mathematice and mention, in geometry, nothing
beyond definitions, axioms, and methods. Apart from mathematically trivial
results in such practical contexts as engineering, optics, astronomy and the
like, his works apparently contain not a single proof, not a single theorem; and
we must take on trust the story of the difficult problem he devised for the
young Paris masters. As for his analytical skills and his views on the citation of
authority, rather than try to resolve the geometrical paradox of the doctrine of
atomism - that it can make the hypotenuse and side of a square commensurable - he preferred simply to dismiss it as being contrary to Euclid.
The standard discussion of ratios in Euclid, Book V, did not include a
numerical treatment of the subject, for which the standard medieval authority
31
32
Roger Bacon
59
was the Arithmetica of Boethius. There the different species of ratio are
tediously listed and subdivided, and the absence of a similar logical division of
ratio in Euclid was complained of by Bacon in Communia mathematical3 He
was not to carry out the programme at which he might seem to have hinted,
and not until Bradwardine's Geometria speculativa did the Schoolmen make
any progress toward a numerical description of irrational ratios, except
perhaps in some halting attempts to elucidate Proposition III of Archimedes'
De mensura circuit.
As for the relation of logic to mathematics, Bacon inverted, in a sense, the
logistic thesis of our own century: without mathematics, for instance, the
categories were unintelligible.34 Mathematics alone gave absolute certainty.
Bacon was unusual in that he generally named his sources, citing such authors
as Theodosius, Euclid, Ptolemy, al-Farabi, and - among modern writers Jordanus de Nemore (De triangulis and Arithmetica} and Adelard. Despite his
criticism of Jordanus, by any reckoning a better mathematician than Bacon, he
had praise for 'the only two perfect mathematicians' (of his time), John of
London and Pierre de Maricourt. He also condescended to praise Campanus
of Novara and a 'Master Nicholas,' teacher of Amauri, son of Simon de
Montfort. In the last analysis, almost everything Bacon wrote under the title of
mathematics is best regarded as being at a metaphysical level. His view that in
mathematics we have perfect demonstration reinforced his theory of natural
action. His philosophy of science, however, was inherently empiricist: rational
argument may cause us to dismiss a question, but it neither gives us proof nor
removes doubt.
It was held in the Opus maius that a more accurate knowledge of the
latitudes and longitudes of placed was needed for (1) knowledge of mankind
and the natural world; (2) facilitation of the spiritual government of the
world - missionaries, for example, would be saved from danger and from
much wasted labour; (3) knowledge of the whereabouts of the ten tribes and
even of the Antichrist. His geography was nevertheless a compilation of works
on descriptive geography (in which he gave, as it were, an extended verbal map
of the world) by such writers as Ptolemy and al-Farghani, supplemented by the
reports of Franciscan travellers, especially to the East.
In the Opus maius35 he stated the possibility of voyaging from Spain to
India. The passage was inserted, without reference to its source, in the Imago
mundi36 of Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly (d. 1420). Humboldt argued that this
passage, quoted by Columbus in a letter of 1498 to Ferdinand and Isabella, was
more important in the discovery of America than the Toscanelli letters.
Thorndike suggests that Columbus probably did not read the vital work until
33
34
35
36
60
his return from the first voyage of 1492.37 It is immaterial, as Thorndike points
out, whether Bacon was merely optimistically citing Aristotle, Seneca, Nero,
and Pliny on the distance of Spain from India. In fact Bacon argued as cogently
from such longitudes and latitudes as were available in the Toledan tables as he
did from classical authors.
For the radius of the earth Bacon took a figure of 3,245 miles (al-Farghani).
He stated that the earth's surface was less than three-quarters water. In both
cases he selected good figures from a great many authoritative but bad ones. It
is clear, nevertheless, from his repetition of the method of determining the size
of the earth - a method he took from al-Farghani - that he had no appreciation
whatsoever of the practical difficulties it involved.
Bacon appears to have sent a map to the pope with his Opus mains.
Although it is now lost, from the description he gave it appears to have
included the better known towns of the world plotted by their latitudes and
longitudes as found in many contemporaneous lists.38 We have no knowledge
of the projection adopted, but the description is compatible with the use of a
rectangular co-ordinate system.
Bacon used the words 'astronomia' and 'astrologia' in a typically ambiguous
manner, but there is no doubt that he believed in the reasonableness of what
we would call astrology. In the Opus tertium he spoke of astrology as the most
important part of mathematics, dividing it into a speculative, or theoretical,
part, presumably of the sort included in Sacrobosco's Sphere, and a practical
part, 'que dicitur astronomia,'39 concerned with the design of instruments and
tables.40 A remark in the Opus maius,41 written in 1267, confirms a similar
remark made four years later by Robertus Anglicus,42 to the effect that
conscious efforts were being made to drive what amounts to a clock (in Bacon's
example the spherical astrolabe was to be driven) at a constant rate. This
seems to confirm approximately the terminus ante quern non previously
determined for the mechanical clock.
On many occasions Bacon emphasised at length that the two sorts of
'astrology' were essential if man was to learn of the celestial influences on
which terrestrial happenings depended. By reference to Ptolemy, Haly Ibn
Sina, Abu Ma'shar, Messahala, and others, he showed that the best
astrologers had not held that the influence of the stars subjugated the human
will, and that the Fathers who objected to astrology on these grounds had
37
Roger Bacon
61
never denied that astrology could throw light on future events. It was possible
to predict human behaviour statistically but not with certainty in individual
cases. Astrology might strengthen faith in the stability of the Church and
foretell the fall of Islam and the coming of the Antichrist; and all these things
'ut auctores docent et experiencia certificat.'43 On occasion he likened
astrological influence to the influence of a magnet over iron.
In his main works Bacon did not discuss the technicalities of astronomy or
astrology, but in both of the works ascribed to him with the title De diebus
creticis44 the standard medical astrology of the time is rehearsed. These works
are not merely compilations of older authorities. Although technically they are
in no sense new, they have a rational cast and even include the testimony of
medical men of the time. The first of these two works is interesting because it
incorporates the whole of the De impressione aeris attributed to Grosseteste
and printed among his works by Baur. Little45 suggests that Grosseteste (d.
1253) collaborated with Bacon. Internal evidence suggests a date of composition of about 1249. Some planetary positions quoted for that year are
sufficiently inaccurate to suggest that the work was written before 1249 rather
than after, and that the author was by no means as skilled as the best
astronomers of the time.
The Speculum astronomic, of doubtful authorship (see below), is inconsistent with certain of Bacon's accredited writings. It is essentially a criticism of
Stephen Tempier's decree of 1277 attacking 219 errors, several involving a
belief in astrology. As already seen, Bacon's prison sentence was probably
related to the bishop's decrees.
Bacon's astronomical influence was slight in all respects, although through
Paul of Middleburg he is said to have influenced Copernicus.46 His writings on
the calendar were frequently cited.47 Theologians treated the calendar with a
respect it did not deserve, regarding it as a product of astronomy, while
astronomers would have treated it with more disdain had they been detached
enough to perceive it in a historical context. Here Bacon's scepticism was
useful, and whatever the depth of his astronomical knowledge, he wrote on
calendar reform with as much insight as anyone before Regiomontanus Nicholas of Cusa notwithstanding. In discussing the errors of the Julian
calendar, he asserted that the length of the Julian year (365 1A days) was in
excess of the truth by about one day in 130 years, later changing this to one day
in 125 years. The length of the (tropical) year implied was better than
43
62
Ptolemy's, and indeed better than that accepted in the Alphonsine tables
compiled a few years after the Opus maius. (The correct figure for Bacon's
time was one day in a little over 129 years.) The Alphonsine tables imply that
the Julian error is one day in about 134 years. There is no reason whatsoever to
suppose, as many have done following Augustus De Morgan, that Bacon's
data were his own. Thabit ibn Qurra made the length of the year shorter than
the Julian year by almost exactly one day in 130 years, and according to a
curious passage in the Communia naturalium Thabit was 'maximus Christianorum astronomus.' In the Computus, however, Thabit is grouped with alBattanl and others who are said to have argued for one day in 106 years, while
Asophus ('Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Umar al-Sufi) appears to have been the most
probable source of influence, with his one day in 131 years.48
As a means of reforming the calendar, Bacon seems finally to have
recommended the removal of one day in 125 years (cf. the Gregorian method
of ignoring three leap years in four centuries), and in connection with Easter,
since the nineteen-year cycle is in error, the astronomical calculation of the
feast; otherwise a lunisolar year like that of the eastern nations should be
adopted. (Grosseteste had previously made this proposal.) He tempered this
rash suggestion with the pious qualification that if an astronomical calculation
of Easter was to be adopted, Hebrew astronomical tables should be used. His
proposals may be compared with the much less radical ones of Nicholas of
Cusa, who in his Reparatio calendarii (pre-1437?) merely suggested a
temporary patching up of the calendar, eliminating a number of days to alter
the equinox suitably (Gregorian reform, supervised by Clavius, took the same
superfluous step) and changing the 'golden number' so as to make the
ecclesiastical moon correspond for a time with reality. These solutions were
inferior to Bacon's, including fewer safeguards against a future state of affairs
in which Church usage and the ordinances of the Fathers might differ
appreciably. It is worth noting that Stoffler proposed to omit one day in 134
years (an obviously Alphonsine parameter), while Pierre d'Ailly followed
Bacon explicitly in advocating a lunisolar cycle. Again, in connection with a
proposal for calendar reform in England, we find that in 1582 John Dee
commended Bacon to Queen Elizabeth as one who had 'instructed and
admonished' the 'Romane Bishopp,' who was now 'contented to follow so
neare the footsteps of veritye.'49 Judging by the speed of English legislation in
the matter of calendar reform, it seems that Bacon was a little less than five
centuries ahead of most of his countrymen.
Little wrote in 1914, The extant manuscripts of Bacon's works show that the
"Doctor mirabilis never wanted admirers,"'50 and cited as evidence the
48
49
50
Roger Bacon
63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i. ORIGINAL WORKS. A number of Baconian problems must remain unsolved
until there is a complete critical edition of his works: see the bibliography by
Little in Roger Bacon: Essays (Oxford, 1914), pp. 375-426; compare G.
Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, II (Baltimore, 1931), 963-967;
and L. Thorndike and P. Kibre, A Catalogue oflncipits of Mediaeval Scientific
Writings in Latin (2nd ed., Cambridge, Mass. 1963.
The earliest of Bacon's authentic works to be printed was the Epistola de
secretis operibus artis et naturae (De mirabili potestate artis et naturae) (Paris,
1542; Basel, 1593); in the Opera, J. Dee, ed. (Hamburg, 1618); in French
(Lyons, 1557; Paris, 1612,1629); in English (London, 1597,1659); in German
(Eisleben, 1608); and other eds. After this appeared the De retardandis
senectutis accidentibus et de sensibus conservandis (Oxford, 1590; in English,
London, 1683); and Specula mathematica (part of Opus maius IV); in qua De
specierum multiplication earumdemque in inferioribus virtute agitur and
Perspectiva (Opus maius V), both ed. J. Combach (Frankfurt, 1614). There
were other early eds. of the doubtful Speculum alchemiae (Nuremburg, 1541;
in French, 1557; English, 1597; German, 1608; with later reissues) and the
collection De arte chymiae scripta (Frankfurt, 1603, 1620).
The 1st ed. of the Opus maius was by S. Jebb (London, 1733), followed by
an improved ed. (Venice, 1750), both including only pts. I-VI. Pr. VII was
included in the new ed. by J.H. Bridges, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1897), with a supp.
vol. (Ill) of revisions and additional notes (London, 1900). This ed. was trans,
into English by R.B. Burke (Philadelphia, 1928). Pt. VII of the actual MS sent
to the pope has been ed. by E. Massa, Rogeri Baconi Moralis philosophia
(Zurich, 1953). The eds. of Jebb and Bridges (Vols. II and III, pp. 183-185)
both include De multiplication specierum, a separate treatise forming part of a
larger work; a further section of this has been ed. with a discussion of its date
and associations by F.M. Delorme, 'Le prologue de Roger Bacon a son traite
De influentiis agentium,' in Antionianum, 18 (1943), 81-90.
The 1st eds. of the Opus minus and the Opus tertium, together with the
Compendium studii philosophic and a new ed. of the Epistola de secretis
51
64
operibus, were by J.S. Brewer in Fr. Rogeri Bacon Opera quaedam hactenus
inedita (London, 1859). Further sections of the first two works have been ed.
by F. A. Gasquet, 'An Unpublished Fragment of Roger Bacon,' in The English
Historical Review, 12 (1897), 494-517, a prefatory letter and other parts of
Opus minus; P. Duhem. Un fragment inedit de I'Opus tertium de Roger Bacon
(Quaracchi, 1909), on optics, astronomy, and alchemy; and A.G. Little, Part
of the Opus tertium of Roger Bacon, British Society of Franciscan Studies, IV
(Aberdeen, 1912). The last two items include Bacon's De enigmatibus alkimie.
For further parts of the Opus minus, including discussions of alchemy, still
unpublished, see A. Pelzer, 'Une source inconnue de Roger Bacon, Alfred de
Sareshel, commentateur des Meteorologiques d'Aristote,' in Archivium
Frandscanum historicum, 12 (1919), 44-67.
Other works have been ed. by E. Nolan and S.A. Hirsch, The Greek
Grammar of Roger Bacon, and a Fragment of His Hebrew Grammar
(Cambridge, 1902); H. Rashdall, Fratris Rogeri Baconi Compendium studii
theologii, British Society of Franciscan Studies, III (Aberdeen, 1911); S.H.
Thomson, 'An Unnoticed Treatise of Roger Bacon on Time and Motion,' in
Isis, 27 (1937), 219-224; and in Opera hactenus inedita Rogeri Baconi, R.
Steele, ed. (unless otherwise stated), 16 fasc. (Oxford, 1905-1940): (1)
Metaphysical De viciis contractis in studio theologie (1905); (2-4) Communia
naturalium (1905-1913); (5) Secretum secretorum cum glossis et notulis (1920);
(6) Computus (1926); (7) Questiones supra undecimum prime philosophic
Aristotelis (Metaphysica, XII) (1926); (8) Questiones supra libros quatuor
physicorum Aristotelis, F.M. Delorme, ed. (1928); (9) De retardatione
accidentium senectutis cum aliis opusculis de rebus medicinalibus, A.G. Little
and E. Withington, eds. (1928); (10) Questiones supra libros prime philosophic
Aristotelis (Metaphysica, I, II, V-X) (1930); (11) Questiones altere supra libros
prime philosophic Aristotelis (Metaphysica, I-IV), Questiones supra de plantis
(1932); (12) Questiones supra librum de causis (1935); (13) Questiones supra
libros octo physicorum Aristotelis, F.M. Delorme, ed. (1935); (14) Liber de
sensu et sensato, Summa de sophismatibus et distinctionibus (1937); (15)
Summa grammatica, Sumule dialectices (1940); and (16) Communia mathematica (1940). The Chronica XXIV generalium ordinis minorum (ca. 1370) was
pub. inAnalecta Franciscana, 3 (1897).
II. SECONDARY LITERATURE. The best critical study of Bacon's life is T.
Crowley, Roger Bacon: The Problem of the Soul in His Philosophical
Commentaries (Louvain-Dublin, 1950). The pioneering study by E. Charles,
Roger Bacon: Sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines d'apres des textes inedits (Paris,
1861), is now mostly of historical interest. Essential studies are A.G. Little,
ed., Roger Bacon: Essays Contributed by Various Writers (Oxford, 1914),
especially contributions by Little (life and works), L. Baur (Grosseteste's
influence), Hirsch (philology), E. Wiedemann, S. Vogl, and E. Wiirschmidt
(optics), Duhem (vacuum), M.M.P. Muir (alchemy), E. Withington (medicine)' and I.E. Sandys (English literature); Little, Franciscan Letters, Papers
and Documents (Manchester, 1943); L. Thorndike, A History of Magic and
Roger Bacon
65
Further References
See A.C. Crombie, Science, Optics and Music . . . (1990) 258, 284, Styles of Scientific Thinking
. . . (1994); J.N.G. Hackett, The Meaning of Experimental Science (Scientia experimentalis) in the
Philosophy of Roger Bacon (University of Toronto doctoral thesis, 1983), Roger Bacon: An
annotated bibliography (New York, forthcoming); D.C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from AlKindi to Kepler (Chicago, 1976), Studies in the History of Medieval Optics (London, 1983); with
Roger Bacon, Philosophy of Nature, a critical ed. with English trans!., introd. and notes of De
multiplication specierum and De speculis comburentibus by D.C. Lindberg (Oxford, 1983).
The most customary course of all this nature has certain natural laws
of its own according to which both the spirit of life, which is in a
creature, has in some way certain settled desires of its own, which even
malevolence cannot overcome, and the elements of this corporeal world
have their settled power and quality, what any one of them may or may
not effect and what may or may not come from what.
(St. Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram ix. 17)
68
by Plato, Aristotle, the Greek atomists and the Stoics, intrinsic in the existing world;
(2) as conceived in Hebrew and Christian thought, laid down by the external creator
of the world. Both involved a comparison between moral laws of mankind and physical laws of nature, a comparison requiring clarification in the course of scientific
history. I will first say something briefly about the history of these questions, and
then come finally to the effect of the postulate of the infinite power of the creator
of nature upon the conception of laws of nature as established by the 17th century.
The notion that nature followed inescapable laws or regularities was a fundamental conception introduced by the earliest Greek philosophers in contrast with earlier
beliefs. The Babylonian astronomers for example had developed highly sophisticated
arithmetical methods of calculating and predicting the movements of the heavenly
bodies, within a system of beliefs in which those movements (and indeed everything
that happened in the world) were carried out by the arbitrary wills of supernatural
beings. The order of things was then a kind of legal or sociological order of arrangements between these beings. By contrast, the Greeks introduced two fundamental
and related concepts: that of causality, which allowed for no freedom of action
outside an exclusive causal order of things (I pass over the questions of chance
and uncertainty which they also discussed); and that of proof from established or
assumed first principles. These were related: effects followed from postulated causes
just as consequences followed from postulated premises. Related also were the decision of questions by argument and evidence, as distinct from edict, custom, revelation etc., and the introduction of models embodying mathematical necessity and
physical causality, such as Eudoxus's cosmological model postulating the celestial
spheres.
The order of nature so postulated was at once mathematical and physical, and
also moral, and this combination was to characterize conceptions of nature (in different ways according to varying contexts of general beliefs) down through the 19th
century, and in some respects residually does so still. For Homer and Hesiod nature
(physis) was at once a physical and a moral order, in the sense that what was allotted
by destiny (tnoira) happened both necessarily and also rightly in the physical world
and in human affairs alike. A notion of law as distinct from custom or usage appeared
in the meaning given to nomos as the dispensation of Zeus. Nomos then came to
signify, beyond the normal processes and habitual behaviour of nature and mankind,
the regular and rightful functions that ought to be exercised within the allotted
limits of necessity 0). The changing significance of nature, necessity, law and related terms in Greek, Latin and later languages marked the changing contexts and
contents of European natural philosophy. When the divine craftsman of the Timaeus
0) Cf. F. M. Cornford, From Religion to Philosophy, Cambridge 1912; Idem, The Laws of Motion
in the Ancient World, Cambridge 1931; P. Brunei and A. Mieli, Histoire des sciences: Antiquite, Paris
1935; F. Heinimann, Nomos und Physis, Basel 1935; H. and H. A. Frankfort, J. A. Wilson and T.
fakobsen, The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man, Chicago 1946; B. Snell, The Discovery of the Mind,
trans. T. G. Rosenmeyer, Oxford 1953; G. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, Providence,
R. I. 19572; W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, 6 vols., Cambridge 1962-81. This paper
s based on my discussion of the subject in my: Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition,
London 1994, > with full documentation and bibliography.
69
fashioned the world by imposing his moral design upon the materials given in the
nature of the universe by the laws of destiny (TKXV-CO? qnicnv v6[xou$ TOU<; eifiapfjievou<;)
(4IE), the consequence was a mixed results of the combination of necessity and
reason. Reason overcame necessity by persuading her to guide the greatest part of
the things that become towards what is best (48A). The demiurge could in this
way fashion the world, but he did not create it, as did the omnipotent Jehovah
in contemporary Hebrew doctrine, out of nothing, with an existence entirely external
to and dependent upon himself. In the Latinized and Christianized Plato, this distinction was to be confused, as was the Platonic conception of law as a necessity
rather arising from the materials given than laid down by divine decree. Thus Calcidius in the fourth or fifth century A.D. translated Timaeus (4IE) as [...] universae rei
naturam spectare iussit kgesque immutabilis decreti docuit ostendens (2). Ficino translated this a millemum later as monstravit universi naturam, at leges fatales edixit,
and another phrase contrary to the established use of nature (rcapa TOU? -afc (puae<oc
v6|iou$) as ex confronts praeter naturae Ieges (83E) (3). It was their ambiguous use
of leges, both for the necessity inherent in the nature of things and for the normal
processes of natural things, that confused the issue in Plato, and pointed towards
the naturales leges of a different intellectual context in which nature was constituted
entirely of laws laid down by an omnipotent and eternal creator and remained entirely dependent upon his will. This conception of nature and of naturales leges was
to be established in Latin Christian philosophy by Augustine of Hippo.
The alternative atomist conception of laws of nature arising entirely out of
the necessity in the nature of matter alone, without any divine lawgiver or provindential design, was set out by Lucretius, following essentially Epicurus. For in the nature
given in his title De rerum natura, deliberately recalling many earlier treatises, it
stands ordained what all things severally can do by the laws of nature (per foedera
natural), and what too they cannot* (I, 586) (4). In the generation of the world
from the common first-beginnings of things (primordia rerum) it was of great importance with what others and in what position they are held together and what
movements they mutually give and receive*; for the same primordia constituted the
sky, earth, sea, living things and other things of all kinds, but only when mingled
and moving with different things in different ways. Likewise in his own verses
many common letters or many elements (elementa) common to many words gave
rise to many differences in both sense and sound: So great is the power of elements
by a mere change of order. But the first-beginnings of things can bring more means
(2) Plato, Timaeus, a Calcidio translates commentarioque instructus, ed. J. H. Waszink, London &
Leiden 1962; cf. M. B. Foster, The Christian Doctrine of the Creation and the Rise of Modem Natural
Science, in Mind, N.S. XLIII (1934), pp. 446-68; Idem, Christian Theology and Modern Science of Nature,
ibid., N.S. XLIV (1935), pp. 439-66, and XLV (1936), pp. 1-27; L. Spitzer, Classical and Christian
Ideas of World Harmony, in Traditio II (1944), pp. 409-64, and III (1945), pp. 307-64; J. C. M.
Van Winden, Chalcidius on Matter, Leiden 1959; J. H. Waszink, Studien zur Timaios Kommentar des
Calcidius, Leiden 1964.
(3) Plato, Operum a Marsilio Ficino tralatorum tomi quinque..., Lyons 1550, vol. IV, pp. 889, 964.
(*) Lucretius, De rerum natura, ed. C. Bailey, 3 vols., Oxford 1947; cf. Virgil, Georgics, I, 60-1;
Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, VI, 1, 12; Pliny, Naturalis historia, II, 5, 27 and 27, 97; Epicure, Opere,
ed. by G. Arrighetti, Turin 19732; C. Bailey, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford 1928; K. Reich,
Der historische Ursprung des Naturgesetzbegriffs, in Festschrift Ernst Kapp, Hamburg 1958, pp. 121-134.
70
to bear, by which all diverse things may be created* (I, 817-29). But in nature
not by design did the first-beginnings of things place themselves each in their
order with keen intelligence*, but rather, by trying every kind of motion and union,
at length they fall into such dispositions as those of which this created sum of
things consists* (I, 1021-2, 1026-8). Thus
the bodies of the first-beginnings in the ages past moved with the same motion
as now, and hereafter will be borne on forever in the same way; such things as
have been wont to come to being will be brought to birth under the same conditions
[II, 297-301].
In this endless process
neither can the motions of destruction prevail for ever, and bury life in an eternal
tomb, nor yet can the motions of creation and increase for ever bring things to
birth and preserve them. So war waged from time everlasting is carried on by balanced strife of the first-beginnings. Now here, now there, the vital forces of things
conquer and are conquered alike [II, 569-76].
Just as the common letters of the alphabet gave rise to many different words
and meanings, so the first-beginnings common to many things* could make up
wholes different from one another* (II, 695-8). But just as in living things all
are born of fixed seeds and a fixed parent and can as they grow preserve their
kind, so always what happened must come about in a fixed way (certa fieri ratione).
It was not only living things in their generation that were bound by these laws
(teneri legibus hisce), but the same condition (ratio) sets a limit to all things* (II,
707-10, 718-9). We should not then assume purpose in asking by what law (foedus)
all things are created, and how they must of necessity abide by it, nor can they
break through the firm ordinances of everlasting time (aevi [...] leges) (V, 56-58).
By the same laws of nature arose everything attributed to the gods. The world
was too imperfect to be of divine origin, so great are the faults with which it
stands beset* (199). Thus each of these things comes forth after its own manner,
and all preserve their separate marks by a fixed law of nature (foedere naturae certo)
(923-4). One should look for such laws in everything, as in the generation of living
things, or as one asked by what law of nature it comes about that iron can be
attracted by the stone which the Greeks call the magnet, from the name of its
native place* (VI, 906-8). Or again one must look similarly for the law that gave
rise to language, by which man got the first power to know and see in his mind
what he wanted to do* (V, 1049).
The first systematic confrontation of Greek thought with the Hebrew theology
of creation came in the 1st century B.C. with Philo Judaeus of Alexandria (5). The
last great thinker of a line of Hellenized Jews in Alexandria who set out to reformulate Greek philosophy in terms of that theology, Philo in turn came both directly
(') Philo ludaeus, Opera, Geneva 1613; with English translation by F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, 10 vols. with 2 supplements trans. R. Marcus, London 1929-62; Lei oeuvres, ed. by R. Arnaldez,
J. Pouilloux, C. Mondesert, 16 vols., Paris 1961-67; cf. H. A. Wolfson, Pbilo, 2 vols., Cambridge,
MA 1947; R. Arnaldez et Al, Philon d'Alexandrie, Paris 1967.
71
and through Augustine and other routes to affect profoundly the formulation of
later Christian, Moslem and Jewish thinking about the relation of God to the world
and to mankind. Philo accepted the Greek conception of immutable causality which
determined the order of the world, but he was at pains to identify the true source
of that order. He made use of the Stoic terms logos and logos spermatikos, seminal
principle or reason (6), but gave them a different meaning. He argued with the support of Scripture that God did not act as Aristotle had maintained as an essentially
passive first cause coeternal with the world emanating by necessity from the divine
reason, that God did not make the world out of preexisting matter as in the Timaeus,
that God was neither material nor within the world as supposed by the Stoics,
and that God was in no way necessitated, but that he had acted with entirely
free omnipotence in creating ex nihilo a world separate from himself. Philo used
the term logos for principles that entered into this process first as the rational pattern
on which God modelled his creation like a city which was fashioned beforehand
within the mind of the architect* (De opificio mundi, 5,20) so that
the world discerned only by the intellect is nothing else than the reason (logos)
of God when he is engaged in the act of creation. For (to revert to our illustration)
the city discernible by the intellect alone is nothing else than the reasoning faculty
of the architect in the act of planning to found the city [6,24, cf. 4,16-7,29].
Finally the logos was the system of principles introduced in the act of creation
into the world as its immutable laws, God's power existing within the world itself.
These were found in the natures of the heavenly bodies and the movements of
the stars and numberless other operations of nature*, often
obscure to us, for all things are not within the ken of mortals, yet working together
for the permanence of the whole; operations which are invariably carried out under
ordinances and laws (Oeo(ioT( xoti v6|xoi() which God laid down in his universe as
unalterable [19,61].
The cause for the sake of which this universe was created* (5,21) was as
Plato had written God's desire to share his goodness, by an act not necessitated
by his perfection but of wholly free providence not propotional to his acutal powers,
for these are without end or limit, but in proportion to the capacities of the recipients* (6,23). The logos existing in nature provided thus for its harmony and for
the perpetuation of species by means of the seminal essences (spermatikai ousiai)
within which hidden and imperceptible are the logoi of all things* (13,43, cf. 44).
But if God had so chosen, he could have created a different world, so that if
the existent One had willed to employ his skill, by which he made amphibious
creatures, in making a new kind of creature living in all the elements* (Quod detenus
potion insidiari solet) (42,154) (7), he could have changed the existing natural order.
God was absolute lord of the universe: For this world is the great city, and it
has a single polity and a single law (nomos), and this is the reason (logos) of nature,
commanding what should be done and forbidding what should not be done* (De
(6) Cf. Diogenes Laertius, VII, 134, 136, 147.
(7) Cf. Lucretius, op. cit., Ill, 784-787; V, 128-131.
72
Josepho, 6,29); and as absolute lord he could overrule that law and order as in
the miracles well attested by Scripture. Philo saw in Scripture both literal and underlying meanings, from which he could apply the concept of law to God as an analogy (8), but it was no more than an analogy. For God's nature was so unlike created natures as to be unknowable by human reason, a conclusion that was to take
a central place in subsequent Christian, Moslem and Jewish philosophy.
The survival and revival in the West of Platonic and atomist thought, as of
the equally influential Greek scepticism and Stoicism, depended in the first place
on the survival of the Greek texts and the making of Latin versions. Their survival
and revival depended at the same time on the ideas presented. Platonism, atomism
especially in its Epicurean form, and Stoicism each offered at once an account of
the origin and nature of things and a morality for the human condition appropriate
to that account. Sceptical criticism forced each alike to defend its principles and
in turn was forced into defence against counterattack. These philosophies diversified
the intellectual context of scientific thinking in antiquity, and again in medieval
and early modern Europe, by relating the sciences of nature to more general problems
of knowledge and existence. They promoted in the culture of each society or period
a certain specificity of commitment and expectation. Platonic thought, with a deceptive similarity to Christianity which at first captivated Augustine, was promoted
by him through the essential mediation of Plotinus with the firm proviso that, in
its fundamental doctrines of God, the creation and the soul, it was very different.
Augustine was much influenced, in his use of the scriptural theology of creation
as a cardinal principle of his natural philosophy, by Philo Judaeus. He established
a Platonized Latin Christian philosophy with the historically pregnant conception
of the world as the work of an eternal omnipotent, omniscient, providential and
wholly distinct creator.
Augustine offered with his theological insight into the inexorable objectivity
of the laws of nature, indifferent to human wishes even if alterable by their creator,
an encouragement to rational knowledge of them, and a scientific conception of
methods of acquiring and exercising such knowledge. God the creator of all things
knew beforehand, without any beginning, all things to come in time. [...] And with
respect to all his creatures, both spiritual and corporeal, it is not because they are
that he knows them, but because he knows them they are. For he was not ignorant
of what he was to create; hence he created because he knew, he did not know
because he created [De Trinitate XV, 13.22] ().
(8) De Josepho, 6, 28; Quaestiones in Genesim IV, 90, 151, 184, 205; Quaestiones in Exodum II,
19, 59.
(9) Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis Ep., Opera, 20 vols., Venice 1584; Opera omnia, ed. J. P.
Migne, 16 vols., Paris 1861; with individual works in Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinomm, XXV..., Prague, Vienna & Leipzig 1891-..., and in Corpus Christianum, Turnhout, 1954-...; also Oeuvres,
vol. V, 2 (De quantitate animae), ed. P. de Labriolle, Bruges 1939; De civ. Dei, trans. H. Bettenson,
Harmondsworth, Middlesex 1972; cf. A. Schubert, Augustins lex-aetema-Lehre nacb Inhalt und Quellen,
Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, XXIV, 2, Miinster 1924; J. F. Callahan,
Four Views of Time in Ancient Philosophy, Cambridge, MA 1948; R. M. Grant, Miracle and Natural
Law in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Thought, Amsterdam 1952; E. Portalie, A Guide to the Thought
of Saint Augustine, trans. R. J. Bastian, London 1960; A. C. Crombie, Some Attitudes to Scientific Progress:
Ancient, Medieval and Early Modem, in History of Science XIII (1975), pp. 213-30.
73
So
God created nothing in ignorance; which cannot be truly said of any human artificer.
Then if God created all things knowingly, he created things which he already knew.
This appears surprising but yet as something true: that this world could not be
known to us if it did not already exist, but it could not have existed if it had
not been known to God [De civ. Dei XI, 10.3].
As for men:
Some people, in order to discover God, read a book. But there is a great book:
the very appearance of created things. Look above and below, note, read. God,
whom you want to discover, did not make the letters with ink; he put in front
of your eyes the very things that he made (10).
The laws of nature were the laws of numbers, exemplified to the senses in
time and space in the rational proportions of sounds and of the growth of plants
and general order of the visible universe. All things appearing in the universe
have in fact originally and primarily already been created in a kind of web of the
elements; but they make their appearance only when they get the opportunity. For
just as mothers are pregnant with their young, so the world itself is pregnant with
things that are to come into being, things that are not created in it except from
that highest essence where nothing either springs up or dies, nothing has a beginning
or an end.
But when appropriate conditions arose, then
those things which are contained and hidden in the secret bosom of nature may
break out and be outwardly created in some way by the unfolding of their proper
measures and numbers and weights, which they have received from him who has
ordered all things in measure and number and weight [De Trin. Ill, 9, 16, quoting
Wisdom 11, 21].
Just as in music, the provindential unfolding of the history both of nature
and of mankind required time for its rational pattern to appear, and that rational
pattern was in all cases embodied in the unchanging laws of nature that generated
the process through time. Thus:
The most customary course of all this nature has certain natural laws (naturales leges)
of its own according to which both the spirit of life, which is in a creature, has
in some way certain settled desires of its own, which even malevolence cannot overcome, and the elements of this corporeal world have their settled power and quality,
what any one of them may or may not effect and what may or may not come
from what. From these, as it were, origins (primordia) of things, all things which
come to be, whatever they are and of whatever genus, take their beginnings and
progresses, their departures and ends. So it is that a bean is not born from a grain
of wheat, nor wheat from a bean, nor a man from a beast, nor a beast from a
man. Above this natural motion and course of things the power of the Creator
(10) Sanctus Augustinus, Novos ex codicibus vaticanis Sermones, Nova patrum bibliotheca, Sermo
CXXVI, 6, ed. A. Mai, vol. I, Rome 1852, p. 292; cf. E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the
Latin Middle Ages, trans. W. R. Trask, New York 1953.
74
But more effective were arguments from general laws and starting conditions
as in astronomy. For:
It contains beyond a demonstration of present circumstances an element akin to
historical narration, since on the basis of the present position and motion of the
stars it is possible to trace their past courses according to rule. It also includes
predictions concerning the future made according to rule which are not superstituous
and portentous but certain and fixed by calculation. We do not seek to learn from
these any application to our deeds and fates in the manner of the ravings of the
astrologers but only information that pertains to the stars themselves. For just as
he who computes the phases of the Moon, when he has observed its condition
today, can determine its condition at a given period of years in the past or in
the future, so in the same way those who are competent can make assertions about
any of the other stars [De doctrina christiana II, 29].
75
It is perfectly clear to the most stupid persons that the science of numbers was
not instituted by men, but rather investigated and discovered. Virgil did not wish
to have the first syllable of Italia short, as the ancients pronounced it, and it was
made long. But no one could in this fashion because of his personal desire arrange
matters so that three threes are not nine, or do not geometrically produce a square
figure, or are not the triple of the ternary, or are not one and a half times six,
or are evenly divisible by two when odd numbers cannot be so divided. Whether
they are considered in themselves or applied to the laws of figures, or of sound,
or of some other motion, numbers have immutable rules not instituted by men but
discovered through the sagacity of the more ingenious [II, 38].
By whatever mysterious means it may be that the future is foreseen, it is possible
to see only something that exists; and whatever exists is not future but present.
So when we speak of foreseeing the future, we do not see things that are not yet
in being, that is, things that are future, but it may be that we see their causes
or signs, which are already in being. In this way they are not future but present
to the eye of the beholder, and by means of them the mind can form a concept
of things that are still future and thus is able to predict them. These concepts
already exist, and by seeing them present in their minds people are able to foretell
the actual facts which they represent. [...] Suppose that I am watching the break
of day. I predict that the Sun is about to rise. What I see is present, but what
I foretell is future. I do not mean that the Sun is future, for it already exists,
but that its rise is future, because it has not yet happened. But I could not foretell
the sunrise unless I had a picture of it in my mind, just as I have at this moment
while I am speaking about it. Yet the dawn, which I see in the sky, is not the
sunrise, although it precedes it; nor is the picture which I have in my mind the
sunrise. But both the dawn and my mental picture are seen in the present, and
it is from them that I am able to predict the sunrise, which is future. The future
then is not yet; it is not at all; and if it is not at all, it cannot possibly be seen.
But it can be foretold from things that are present, because they exist now and
can therefore be seen [Confessions XI, 18] ( ).
Roger Bacon moved towards a new conception of nature by making the particular regularities which he called the laws of reflection and refraction examples of
the common laws of nature. Likewise it was a lex nature universalis requiring the
continuity of bodies that prevented the water from running out of a clepsydra,
a vessel with a hole at the top and a perforated bottom, so long as the upper
opening remained closed. This provided a positive cause for a positive phenomenon
instead of the negative horror vacui .which Bacon rejected as contrary to the whole
doctrine of adequate causation. The real cause he wrote in an early discussion of
the question was the orderly regulation of the bodies of the universe and the congruence of the machine of the world (ordinatio corporum universi et mundi machine
congruentia) (14). This he developed by explaining that the particular nature of water remains in position upwards not by itself but by the power (virtus) of universal
(1}) Trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin, Harmondsworth, Middlesex 1961, with changes.
(M) Roger Bacon, Quaestiones supra libros quattuor Physicorum Aristotelis, ed. F. Delorme in Opera
hactenus inedita, vol. VIII, Oxford 1928, pp. 200-1; cf. A. C. Crombie, The Significance of Medieval
Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution, in Critical Problems in the History of Science,
ed. M. Clagett, Madison, WI 1959, pp. 66-101; Idem, The Relevance of the Middle Ages to the Scientific
Movement, in Perspectives in Medieval History, ed. K. F. Drew and F. S. Lear, Chicago 1963, pp. 35-57;
A. C. Crombie and J. D. North, Bacon, Roger (c. 1219-c. 1292), in Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
I, New York 1970, pp. 377-85; M. Schramm, Aristotelianism: Basis and Obstacle to Scientific Progress
in the Middle Ages, in History of Science* II (1963), pp. 91-113.
76
nature, for it was held up by a law of universal nature (ex lege nature universalis) (15). This natura universalis acted as both efficient and final cause. Universal
nature constituted from its common laws thus subordinated to itself the system
of particular natures with their natural tendencies making up the Aristotelian universe. Its laws were necessary and general. The idea seems to have been suggested
by Avicenna to whom Bacon referred in explaining in De multiplicatio specierum
(I, 6) how although by a law of particular nature (ex lege nature particularis) there
is aptitude* for certain actions on the part of certain substances, nevertheless by
divine ordination and a law of universal nature, about which Avicenna makes mention in Metaphysics VI, the capability is cut off and the act excluded* (16). The
common laws of natural multiplication (leges communes multiplicationum naturalium)
were shared by the propagation of light and other forms of energy, but these again
could be dispensed for the benefit of natural order by the capability of the power
of the soul in completing the act of vision (Opus maius V, 1,7). This occurred
at the ultimate seat of sensory perception in the brain. Alhazen had argued that
all that was required for true visual perception was that the image formed in the
eye should preserve the proper arrangement of its parts corresponding to those of
the object seen. To explain how this image was transmitted through the hollow
optic nerves for presentation in the brain it was not then required that it should
follow in these sentient organs the rectilinear propagation followed in non-sentient
transparent media. Bacon brought this into his system as a further regular mode
of propagation:
After I have shown the power of mathematics, I have come to the position of
optics (perspectiva) [...]. Next I show the origin and composition of the eyes, because
without this we cannot know how vision is effected. Therefore I disclose how the
evidently concave optic nerves in which is the visual power arise from parts of
the brain, and how they are composed of a threefold membrane and intersect like
a cross in the surface of the brain, in which intersection and not in the eye is
the principle organ of seeing. [...] After this I show that the image (species) of a
thing is sent forth to sight [...] because images come to every part of the pupil
from the separate parts of the thing. [...] Next because vision would be ruined
unless there were a refraction of the image between the pupil and the common
nerve where there is the common section of the nerves of which I spoke above,
and right would be seen left and vice versa, therefore I demonstrate this by the
law of refraction (per legem refractionutn), set out geometrically, so that vision is
thus saved. Yet it is necessary nevertheless that the image of the thing seen should
propagate itself by a new kind of propagation, so that it should not transgress the
laws which nature keeps in the bodies of the world. For the image at its place
of refraction advances according to the tortuosity of the visual nerve, and does
not keep to a straight path, which is wonderful, but nevertheless necessary for the
completion of the operation. So that the power of the soul makes the image relinquish
the common laws of nature (leges communes nature) and advance in a way that suits
its operations [...] (17). That the laws of reflection and refraction are indeed common to all natural actions I have shown in the treatise on geometry [...] but principal(l3) Roger Bacon, Liber primus Communia naturalium, ed. R. Steele in Opera hactenus inedita, cit.,
vol. Ill,
Oxford 1911, pp. 220, 224.
(16) Idem, De multiplicatione specierum, ed. D. Lindberg in Roger Bacon's Philosophy of Nature,
Oxford17 1983, pp. 84-5.
( ) Roger Bacon, Un fragment inedit de I'Opus tertium, Quarracchi 1909, pp. 75-8.
77
ly in a separate work where I have explained the whole generation and multiplication
and action and corruption of power (species) in all the bodies of the world (18).
It was the moral law of God that Thomas Aquinas looked for in nature. A11
the moral precepts of law come from the law of nature (lex naturae) (Summa tbeologiae, I, q. 60, art. 5) he wrote; and the law of God is the natural inclination
imprinted in any creature to act in a way suited to it according to nature*. Then
came the question whether God can do anything outside the established order of
nature. Aquinas answered with an exemplary account of the omnipotent freedom
of the Hebrew and Christian God as the creator of the world, by contrast with
the rational necessity of the Aristotelian God as its first cause. It might seem that
God could not do anything outside the order of nature which he established, for
if he did he would be acting against the order of justice which he had established
likewise and moreover he would seem to be changeable. Aquinas distinguished the
total freedom of God as the first cause from the necessity of secondary causes to
follow the higher causes to which they were subject. We could suppose that God
as the first cause would not act against his foreknowledge, or his will, or his goodness*, but
he is not subject to the order of secondary causes. On the contrary this order is
subject to him, since it proceeds from him not by natural necessity but by the
choice of his own will; for he could have created another order of things. Therefore
God can do something outside this order created by him when he chooses: for
example by producing effects of secondary causes without them, or by producing
certain effects to which secondary causes do not extend. So Augustine says: God
acts against the wonted course of nature, but by no means does he act against
the supreme law, because he does not act against himself.
Then since the order of nature is given to things by God, if he does anything
outside this order, it is not against nature. Hence Augustine says: That is natural
to each thing which is caused by him from whom is all limit, number and order
in nature* (I, q. 105, art. 6) (19).
The problem for the philosophers was at once epistemological and theological.
The epistemological problem of defining what could be known about different subjectmatters and with what degrees of certainty was subordinated to the theological principle that the entire created world was contingent upon the inscrutable omnipotence
of the Creator. William of Ockham in developing his theory of evidence under
this principle limited the knowledge of the creation available to us to our immediate
experience of the regularities found in particular objects. Empirically established
connections were validated universally by the assumed principle that all individuals
of the same kind (ratio) are so made as to have effects of the same kind in a
subject of the same kind disposed in the same way (Super Quattuor libros SententiaC8 Ibidem, p. 90, referring to Comm. nat. and De mult, spec.: cf. ed. D. Lindberg in Roger Bacon's Philosophy..., cit., pp. 365-6.
(19) Quoting Augustine, Contra Faustum XXVI, 3 (Opera omnia, ed. J. P. Migne, cit., vol. XLII,
p. 480), and De utilitate credendi XVI (ibidem, p. 90).
78
rum, Prol. q. 2, K) (20). Hence there is between cause and effect indeed an essential order and dependence* (Prol. q. 9, F), but effect and cause were separate things
and knowledge of one thing did not contain knowledge of another. For I say that
although God acts through the mediation of secondary causes*, such action is voluntary, not necessary*. This did not make secondary causes superfluous, because God
does not act in any action with his whole power*. But from the omnipresence of
divine power
it follows that it is not possible to demonstrate that some effect is produced by
a secondary cause: because although combustion always follows the bringing of fire
near combustible material, it could still stand that fire is not its cause. Because
God could have ordained that always when fire is present the nearby subject itself
alone causes combustion, just as he has ordained with the Church that when certain
words are brought forth grace is caused in the soul. Hence it is not possibile to
prove by an effect that someone is a man, especially by an effect that appears in
us, because everything we see in a man can be done by an embodied angel, as
eating, drinking etc. That is evident from the angel of Tobias* [II, q. 4-5, R] (21).
He argued in a subtle analysis that the intuitive notion (notitia intuitiva) gained
through sensory perception of something that existed was naturally infallible in providing evident knowledge* of this fact to which we gave assent*. But God can
cause a creditive act by which I believe that a thing that is absent is present*
(Quodlibeta, V, 5). For whatever God produces with secondary causes mediating
he can produce and conserve immediately without them*. Then God can make
us see without a created object on which vision depends only as on a secondary
cause* (VI, 6) (22). This doctrine placed natural philosophy and with it the relation
(M) William of Ockham, Super Quattuor libros Sententiarum annotations..., Lyons 1495; Scriptum
in lib. I Sentent. Prologus, ed. G. Gal and S. Brown, in Opera philosophica et theolagica, vol. I, St.
Bonaventura, N.Y. 1967, pp. 91, 241; cf. R. Guelluy, Philosophic et theologie chez Guillaume d'Ockham,
Louvain & Paris 1947; A. C. Crombie, Robert Grosseteste, Oxford 1953, 2nd cd. with corrections 1971;
Idem, Augustine to Galileo, London & Cambridge, MA 1959, 3rd ed. reprinted 1979; L. Baudry, Lexique
philosophique de Guillaume d'Occam, Paris 1958; F. Oakley, Christian Theology and the Newtonian Science:
the Rise of the Concept of Laws of Nature, in Church History* XXX (1961), pp. 433-57; Idem, Medieval
Theories of Natural Law: William of Ockham and the Significance of the Voluntarist Tradition, in Natural
Law Forum* VI (1961), pp. 65-83; M.A. Pernoud, Innovation in William of Ockham's References to
the Potentia Dei, in Antonianum XLV (1970), pp. 65-97; Idem, The Theory of the Potentia Dei according
to Aquinas, Scotus and Ockham, ibid. XLVII (1972), pp. 69-95; W. J. Courtenay, Nominalism and Late
Medieval Religion, in The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion, ed. C. Trinkaus
and H. A. Oberman, Leiden 1974; A. Maurer, Ockham and the Possibility of a Better World, in Medieval
Studies* XXXVIII (1976), pp. 291-312; D. W. Clark, Voluntarism and Rationalism in the Ethics of Ockham, in Franciscan Studies* XXXI (1971), pp. 72-87; Idem, Ockham on Human and Divine freedom,
ibid. XXXVIII (1978), pp. 122-60; F. Oakley, Omnipotence, Covenant, and Order, Ithaca, N.Y. 1984,
incorporating earlier papers and further discussion.
(21) Ed. 1495, Quaestiones in lib. II Sent., q. 3-4, ed. G. Gal and R. Wood, in Opera philosophica,
cit., vol. V, 1981, pp. 72-3; cf. Tobias 12, 19.
(22) Quodlibeta septem, first complete ed., Strasbourg 1491, ed. J. C. Wey, in Opera philosophica,
cit., vol. IX, 1980; cf. P. Boehner, The notitia intuitiva of Non-existents according to William of Ockham,
in Traditio I (1943), pp. 223-75; A. C. Pegis, Concerning William of Ockham, ibid. II (1944), pp.
465-80; M. M. Adams, Intuitive Cognition, Certainty, and the Scepticism of William of Ockham, ibid.
XXVI (1970), pp. 389-98; J. F. Boler, Intuitive and Abstractive Cognition, in The Cambridge History of
Later Medieval Philosophy, ed. N. Kretzmann, A. J. Kenny and J. Pinborg, Cambridge 1982, pp. 460-78;
K. H. Tachau, The Problem of species in medio at Oxford in the Generation after Ockham, in Medieval
Studies* XLIV (1982), pp. 394-443.
79
(") See on this subject especially F. Oakley, Omnipotence, Covenant..., cit., by which I have been
guided in what follows.
(24) Cf. F. Van Steenberghen, Aristote en Occident, Louvain 1946; Idem, Introduction a I'histoire
de la philosophic medievale, Louvain 1974; L. Gardet and M. M. Anawati, Introduction a la theologie
musulmane, Paris 1948; Majid Fakhey, Islamic Occasionalism and its Critiques by Averroes and Aquinas,
London 1958; W. J. Courtenay, The Critique of Natural Causality in the Mutakallimun and Nominalism,
in ^Harvard Theological Review* LXVI (1973), pp. 77-94; H. A. Wolfson, The Philosophy of Kalam,
Cambridge, MA 1976.
80
creative plan in accord with his providence and goodness (25). Absolutely then God
could do as he liked, but in dealing with his creation he voluntarily restrained that
absolute power within the providential order which he had created, except only
when he chose to transcend it with a miracle. From each side of this distinction
came specific consequences for natural philosophy.
When Bishop Etienne Tempier of Paris in 1277 condemned a collection of
philosophical theses his main purpose was to defend God's absolute power against
any attempt to limit it by current Aristotelian philosophy (26). Thus a number of
propositions asserted explicitly what God could not do: he could not make more
than one world (34), make a man without the agency of a human father (35), move
the world in such a way as to produce a vacuum (49), move anything differently
from the way it moved (50), make an accident exist without a subject or more
than three dimensions (141), or perform the absolutely impossibile (147). Tempier
also condemned the proposition that there was no question disputable by reason
which a philosopher ought not to dispute and decide by argument (145). Despite
this last, the effect of the theological affirmation of God's absolute power seems
to have been to have liberated the more enterprising natural philosophers from such
Aristotelian limitations so that they could explore in speculation a variety of possible
worlds which God might have created had he so chosen, possibilities involving the
void, infinity and a plurality of universes. The condemned propositions were cited
in the 14th century among others by Thomas Bradwardine, Jean Buridan, Nicole
Oresme and Albert of Saxony and as late as the 17th century in defence of Galileo's
cosmological arguments by Tommaso Campanella (27). The doctrine of the absolute
and inscrutable power of God was to have a long reach in expanding the domain
of the supernaturally and speculatively possible at the expense of accepted certainties
of experience and demonstrations of philosophy.
It was God's voluntary restraint of his absolute by his ordained power that
preserved the established order of nature as a possible and proper object of human
inquiry. That order was identified by Ockham as the order of laws that God had
ordained and established: for I say that God can do one thing by ordained power
(23) Cf. Thomas Aquinas, Summa tbeologiae I, q. 25, art. 5 and Augustine (sec note 19); M. A.
Permoud, The Theory of the Potentia Dei..., cit.; W. J. Courtenay, Nominalism and Late..., cit.,; B.
Hamm, Promissio, Pactum, Ordinatio, Tubingen 1977, and especially F. Oakley, Omnipotence, Covenant..., cit.
(26) Chartularium Univenitatis Parisiensis, ed. H. Denifle, A. Chatelain, vol. I, Paris 1889, pp. 54355, of which the numbering is followed here; cf. E. Grant (ed.), A Source Book in Medieval Science,
Cambridge, MA 1974, pp. 45 ff.
(") Cf. P. Duhem, Etudes sur Leonard de Vinci, vol. II, Paris 1909, pp. 41-4; Idem, Le systeme
du monde, vols. VI, VIII, Paris 1954, 1958; A. Maier, Die Vorlaufer Galileis im 14. Jabrbundert, Rome
1949, pp. 155-215 (2nd ed. 1966); Idem, Metapbysische Hintergriinde Spatscholastischen Naturphilosophie,
Rome 1955, pp. 381; A. C. Crombie, The Significance of Medieval..., cit.; J. E. Murdoch in The Cultural
Context of Medieval Learning, ed. J. E. Murdoch and E. D. Sylla, Dordrecht & Boston, MA 1975,
pp. 271-348; Idem, Infinity and Continuity, in The Cambridge History of Late Medieval Philosophy, cit.,
pp. 566-9; J. F. Wippel, The Condemnations of 1270 and 1277 at Paris, in Journal of Medieval and
Renaissance Studies* VII (1977), pp. 169-201; E. Grant, The Condemnation of 1277, God's Absolute
Power, and Physical Thought in the Late Middle Ages, in Viator X (1979), pp. 211-44; Tommaso Campanella, Apologia pro Galileo, Frankfurt 1622, p. 24, English trans, by G. McColley (Smith College Studies
in History XXII, 3-4, Northampton, MA 1937); Italian trans, by L. Firpo, Torino 1969; R. Hissette,
Enquete sur les 219 articles condamnes a Paris le 7 man 1277, Louvain 1977; L. Bianchi, L'errore di
Aristotele: La polemica contra I'etemita del mondo nel XIII secolo, Firenze 1984.
81
and another by absolute power. These were of course a single power in God, who
did nothing that was not ordained.
In this way we should understand that he can do something, whenever this is taken
according to the laws ordained and established by God (secundum leges ordinatas
et institutes a Deo) and that means what God can do by ordained power. In the
other way, to be able to do something is taken for being able to do everything
that does not involve a contradiction, whether God ordained this to be done or
not, because God can do many things which he does not want to do [...]; and
that means what God can do by absolute power. Thus the Pope cannot do something
according to the law (jus) established by him which however he can do absolutely
speaking.
Again in the scheme of salvation ordained by Christ to replace the Old Law
(lex defuncta), what was then possible according to the laws then established is
no longer possible according to the law now established, although absolutely speaking
it is possible* (28). Ockham in effect applied to the created world in general, alike
to the moral order governing human behaviour and to the natural order governing
the behaviour of irrational beings, the metaphor of laws decreed by a ruler, here
the inscrutable God the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, of the Christian creed. With God's reasons no longer in any degree transparent to human reason
as they still had been for Aquinas, mankind had no option but to accept the order
of things as it was given in experience <nd in revelation through Holy Scripture.
God by his absolute power could reverse the universal law (communis lex) of the
existing moral order, making good actions evil and evil good if then they were
to agree with divine precept P), just as he could upturn the existing physical order of things if he so chose. The only safeguard of constancy both moral and physical
was the goodness of God, in which man must have faith, by which he freely bound
himself to preserve a stable world. That, explained Ockham's contemporary Robert
Holcot, was God's covenant with man and that alone guaranteed the consistency
of the creation and of the economy of salvation and grace. For
there is a distinction between compulsory necessity (necessitas coactionis) and unfailing
necessity (necessitas infallibilitatis). In God compulsory necessity has no place, but
an unfailing necessity comes in God from his promise and covenant or established
law (ex promisso suo et pacto sive lege statuta). This is not an absolute but rather
a consequential necessity (>0).
82
The attribution of the natural order entirely to laws of nature imposed from
without by God's ordained will, and the elimination from the concept of nature
of any intrinsic principle of rationality such as Aristotle had postulated, assimilated
nature to a product of art. It was the product of a divine art not transparent like
that of the Timaeus to human reason, but utterly impenetrable, its order discoverable
only so far as it was directly observable or divinely revealed. Hence the evident
empiricism of 14th-century natural philosophy and its focus not on any ultimate
purpose which the natural order might have in the divine economy, but rather on
the regularities of nature visible to man and on explanations postulated to account
for them in a creation separated from its Creator. Thus Buridan in applying the
dynamics of impetus to the celestial spheres:
One could say in fact that God, when he created the universe, set each of the
celestial spheres in motion as it pleased him, impressing on each of them an impetus
which has moved it ever since. God has therefore no longer to move these spheres,
except in exerting a general influence similar to that by which he gives his concurrence to all phenomena. Thus he could rest on the seventh day from the work he
had achieved, confiding to created things their mutual causes and effects (32).
Hence likewise the new relevance of analogies between the contrivance of the
divine artificer, whose reasons man could not penetrate, and the contrivances which
man could understand because he made them himself. The gravitational clock, propelled first by water and then mechanically by weights, had become gradually part
of daily life by about the middle of the 14th century in many Western towns,
where clocks had been set up in public places over the previous hundred years.
Some appear to have been planetaria or astronomical clocks paralleling the motions
of the celestial bodies, others to have been designed to measure the terrestrial hours.
Elaborate astronomical clocks were devised and constructed by the Oxford mathematician Richard of Wallingford and in Italy by Giovanni de' Dondi. Perhaps the
most famous terrestrial clock was that erected by Henri de Vick in Paris on the
Palais Royal (now the Palais de Justice) in 1370, when Charles V of France ordered
all churches in the city to ring the hours and quarters according to the equal divisions
of the day incorporated in this instrument. Clocks came to interest philosophers
as programmed mechanisms capable of self-regulation. Seven years after de Vick
had installed his clock, Nicole Oresme completed his Le livre du del et du monde,
commissioned by Charles V within his plan for translating into French the whole
of Aristotle with commentaries. In this he wrote that it could be supposed that
when God created the heavens, he put in them motive qualities and powers just
as he put weight in terrestrial beings, and he put in them resistances against these
motive powers. [...] And these powers are so adjusted, tempered and harmonized
to the resistances that the movements are made without violence; and except for
violence it is doubtless like a man making a clock and letting it go and be moved
by itself. Thus God left the heavens to be moved continually according to the propor()2) Johannes Buridanus, Subtilissime Questiones supra octo Pbisicorum libros Amtotelu, VIII, q. 12,
Paris 1509; cf. A. Maicr, Die Impetustheorie (1940) revised in Zwei Grundprobleme der Scbolastischen
Naturpbiloiopbie, Rome 1951, p. 212; Idem, Metaphysische Hintergriinde..., cit.; A. C. Crombie, Augustine
to Galileo, cit., vol. II, p. 82.
83
tions which the motive powers have to the resistances and according to the established order [II, 2].
God's free acts in so far as they operated externally might be said to relate
to art, and in so acting he observed a law
which God as artist (artifex) has imposed upon himself, so that he may carry out
his works in accordance with it. For although God could have made and ruled the
world in various ways, he has decided to constitute and govern it according t'o a
certain definite law
applying to both the physical and the moral order. Hence it is said that
God cannot do certain things according to ordinary law, namely which he has imposed upon himself, or that he cannot according to his ordained power (secundum
potentiam ordinatam), that is reduced to such order by the same law. [...] Thus the
free works of God are ruled by a law established by himself [II, 2] (M).
Similarly Descartes was to insist that even the mathematical truths, which
you call eternal, have been established by God and depend on him entirely as well
(") Nicole Oresme, Le livre du del et du monde, ed. A. D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, trans.
A. D. Menut, Madison, WI 1968; cf. for clockwork E. Zinner, Aus der Friikzeit der Raderuhr, in Deutsches Museum: Abhandhungen und Berichtc* XXII (1954), 3, pp. 1-64; H. A. Lloyd, Mechanical Timekeepers, in A History of Technology, ed. C. J. Singer et AL, vol. Ill, Oxford 1957, pp. 648-75; D.
J. de S. Price, On the Origins of Clockwork, Perpetual Motion Devices and the Compass, in ^Smithsonian
Institution Bulletin* CCXVIII (1959), pp. 81-112; S. A. Bedini and F. R. Maddison, Mechanical Universe:
The Astrarium of Giovanni de Dondi, ^Transactions of the American Philosophical Society* N.S. LVI,
5, Philadelphia, PA 1966; J. D. North, Richard of Wallingford, Oxford 1976; J. Le Goff, Pour un autre
moyen age: Temps, travail et culture en Occident, Paris 1977; D. S. Landes, Revolution in Time, Cambridge,
MA 1983; also A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo, cit.
()4) Francis Suarez, S. ]., Tractatus de legibus..., Coimbra 1612, pp. 7-8, in Selections from Three
Works, with introduction by J. B. Scott, vol. I, Oxford 1944, pp. 103-104; cf. F. Oakley, Omnipotence,
Covenant..., cit.
84
as do all other creatures*. For it is God who has established these laws in nature,
just as a king establishes laws in his kingdom*, and likewise he could change them
just as a king does his laws. [...] But I comprehend them as eternal and immutable.
[...] But his will is free [...] yet his power is incomprehensible* (35). If it were asked
what has necessitated God to create these truths [...] I say that he has been as
free to make it untrue, that all the lines drawn from the centre to the circumference
were equal, as not to create the world* (36). We could not comprehend that divine
power, by which again God could make it untrue that twice four was eight (37).
Robert Boyle likewise was to be in no doubt that if we suppose God to be
omnipotent, (that is, to be able to do whatever involves no contradiction, that it
should be done)*, the possibility of human science depended entirely upon his freely
chosen constancy. For
if we consider God as the author of the universe, and the free establisher of the
laws of motion, whose general concourse is necessary to the conservation and efficacy
of every particular physical agent, we cannot but acknowledge, that, by withholding
his concourse, or changing these laws of motion, which depend perfectly upon his
will, he may invalidate most, if not all the axioms and theorems of natural philosophy: these supposing the course of nature, and especially the established laws of
motion among the parts of the universal matter, as those upon which all the phaenomena depend (}8).
As for the term law, although for brevity and by custom he spoke of the
laws of motion and rest* as the laws of nature*, this like Suarez he regarded as
but an improper and figurative expression*. For to speak properly, a law being
but a notional rule of acting according to the declared will of a superior, it is plain,
that nothing but an intellectual being can be properly capable of receiving and acting
by a law*. God as the supreme and absolute Lord, [...] when he made the world,
and established the laws of motion, gave them to matter, not to himself*. What
he created he also disposed, and
though I think it probable, that, in the conduct of that far greatest part of the
universe which is merely corporeal, the wise Author of it does seldom manifestly
()3) R. Descartes to Marin Mersenne 15, IV, 1630, in Oeuvres, ed. by Ch. Adam and P. Tannery, vol. I, Paris 1897, pp. 145-6; cf. A. Funkenstein, Descartes, Eternal Truths, and Divine Omnipotence,
in Studies in History and Philosophy of Science* VI (1975), pp. 185-99; H. Frankfurt, Descartes and
the Creation of the Eternal Truths, in Philosophical Review* LXXXVI (1976), pp. 36-57.
(J6) R. Descartes, letter of 27, V, 1630, in Oeuvres, cit., pp. 151-2.
(") Idem, Meditationes prima philosophia, Responsio ad sextes objectiones (1641); Oeuvres, vol. VII,
(1904), p. 436; cf. Pliny, Nat. hist., II, 5, 27 and 27, 97 (note 4 above).
(38) R. Boyle, Some Considerations about the Reconcilableness of Reason and Religion, sects. 2, 3
(1675), ed. T. Birch, Works, vol. Ill, London 1744, pp. 515, 516; cf. J. A. H. Murray et Al., A
New English Dictionary, VI, 1, ed. H. Bradley, Oxford 1903: Law; E. M. Klaaren, Religious Origins
of Modem Science: Belief in Creation in Seventeenth-Century Thought, Grand Rapids, MI 1977; F. Oakley,
Omnipotence, Covenant..., cit.
85
procure a recession from the settled course of the universe, and especially from
the most catholic laws of motion
the omniscient and almight author of things having once framed the world, and
established in it the laws of motion, which he constantly maintains, there can no
irregularity, or anomaly, happen, [...] that he did not from the beginning foresee
and think fit to permit, since they are but genuine consequences of that order of
things, that, at the beginning, he most wisely instituted.
Only on some special occasions, this instituted order, either seemingly or really,
has been violated* (}9). Against the deist use of the argument against God's special
providence, that after the first formation of the universe, all things are brought
to pass by the settled laws of nature, Boyle insisted that God's special providence
was evident above all in the first formation of things*. For the laws of motion,
without which the present state and course of things could not be maintained, did
not necesarily spring from the nature of matter, but depended upon the will of
the divine author of things*. Besides, he repeated,
I look upon a law as a moral, not a physical cause, as being indeed but a notional
thing, according to which, an intelligent and free agent is bound to regulate its
actions. But inanimate bodies are utterly incapable of understanding what a law
is, or what it enjoins, or when they act conformably or unconformalby to it; and
therefore the actions of inanimate bodies, which cannot incite or moderate their
own actions, are produced by real power, not by laws; though the agents, if intelligent, may regulate the exertions of their power by settled rules ( ).
Boyle's attempt to restrict the term law to its proper human and moral context
did not succeed, but the long tradition behind his insistence on the utter dependence
of human science upon God's omnipotent will received an interesting extension by
Isaac Newton. For God who created the world, who governs all things [...] as
Lord over all*, and who knows all things that are and can be done* (41), could
as easily if he so chose vary the laws of nature, and make worlds of several sorts
in several parts of the universe* (42).
(39) R. Boyle, A Free Inquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature, sects. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7
(1666-82); in Works, cit., vol. IV, (1744), pp. 362, 367, 385, 398, 403.
() Idem, The Christian Virtuoso (1690); in Works, cit., vol. V, (1744), p. 46.
(41) I. Newton, Philosophiae naturalis Principia mathematica, vol. Ill, Scholium generale, Londini
1687.
() Idem, Opticks, 4th ed. query 31, London 1730, pp. 379-80.
86
Within this intellectual context the essentially theological concept of laws implanted by God in the creation of nature came to offer an invitation to man to
discover and draw out these laws of nature by scientific observation and analysis.
The theological concept of ordained law became transformed into the scientific concept of natural laws, not as moral imperatives sanctioned by right reason but as
physical principles, albeit of a nature still with moral attributes. By the time of
Newton the term laws of nature had come to designate the object of all scientific
inquiry: the principles or axioms to be discovered by experimental and theoretical
exploration, or postulated for experimental control. By itself the concept of laws
of nature could scarcely have been a guide to how to conduct such an inquiry.
What made it scientifically effective was its amalgamation with two matching concepts. First the analogy of natural with human art offered an invitation to simulate
natural effects with artifacts made by and therefore understood by man: by discovering how to control hypothetical models of his own contrivance man could thus
gain insight into the laws controlling nature itself. Secondly the concept of laws
of nature became quantified by association with that of mathematical functions expressing the quantitative dependence of effect on cause in concomitant degrees (43).
Thus changes in an effect (as the dependent variable) expressed as an algebraic
function of the conditions necessary and sufficient to produce it (as the independent
variables) could be precisely calculated from those conditions. It may be argued
that the concept of functions can be found implicitly but effectively in antiquity:
in tabulated correspondences of celestial motions in Babylonian and Greek astronomy, in the linkage made by musical theorists, from Archytas of Tarentum and Plato
to Boethius, of different sensations of pitch with variations in the speeds of the
motions producing sound, in Ptolemy's systematic correlation of the degrees of refraction of light with increasing angles of incidence, and so on. The concept may
seem to be implied also by the Aristotelian principle that a cause must be adequate
to produce an effect, and therefore that there must be a quantitative proportion
between a cause and its effect. Yet it was evidently not until the 13th or 14th
centuries that the implied notion of functional dependence between variable quantities was explicitly recognized in the West. Then it was developed first only in principle, without the systematic practice of measurement that was necessary to incorporate
it effectively into experimental science. That practice was to develop first in the
technical arts. It was not until the 17th century that systematic measurement was
(43) Cf. my Styles of Scientific Thinking..., cit.,ptiv: Hypothetical Modelling, and for the concept
of functions 'cns.~ 3, 5, 7, 9
with E- Cassirer, Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophic und
Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit, vol. m, Berlin 1923; J. L. Coolidge, The Origins of Analytical Geometry,
in Osiris I (1936), p. 231-50; Idem, History of Geometrical Methods, Oxford 1940; C. B. Boyer, The
Concepts of the Calculus, New York 1939; Idem, History of Analytical Geometry, New York 1956; A.
Maier, Der Funktionsbegriff in der Physik des 14. Jahrhunderts, in Divus Thomas XIX (1946), pp. 147-66;
On the Threshold of Exact Sciences, ed. and trans, by S. D. Sargent, Philadelphia, PA 1982; A. C.
Crombie, Robert Grosseteste, cit.; Idem, Quantification in Medieval Physics, in Isis LII (1961), pp. 145-60;
A. P. Youschkevitch, Geschichte der Mathematik in Mittelalter, Leipzig 1964; Idem, The Concept of Function
up to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century, in Archive for History of Exact Sciences XVI (1976),
pp. 37-85; M. Schramm, Steps towards the Idea of Function, in History of Science* IV (1965), pp.
70-102; E. Grant, A Source Book..., cit.; O. Pedersen, Logistics and the Theory of Functions, in Archives
internationales d'histoire des sciences* XXIV (1974), pp. 29-50; Oberwolfach Mathematisches Forschungs
Institut, Proceedings of a Conference on the Development of the Concept of Function, Basel 1975.
87
to be made essential to all physical research. It was combined then with a rational
theory of quantity expressed in linear scales, replacing the inhibiting Greek conception that the properties of substances were present and had to be expressed as
pairs of opposites, and with the analytical formulation of functional dependence
by means of increasingly precise and powerful mathematical symbolism. By this time
the mathematically defined general laws of nature had come to be seen to offer
possibilities not given by the Aristotelian specific natures or forms or causes as
the object of scientific inquiry. It was the mathematicization alike of the form and
the content of scientific argument that brought about an essential change in natural
science from the syllogistic logic of subject and predicate, within which the causal
conditions for specific phenomena were defined, to the mathematical logic of linear
demonstration, defining general relations of dependence within which the specific
phenomena were included.
All this can obviously not be seen as a consequence simply of a theological
concept of infinite power. What can be seen as its consequence are expectations
about the possibility of certain scientific knowledge. These appeared most dramatically in the cross-purposes that bedevilled Galileo's controversies with theologians. When
Galileo in his first letter about the sunspots (1612) announced his hope to discover
the true constitution of the universe; for such a constitution exists, and exists
in only one, true, real way, that could not possibly be otherwise* (Opere, V,
102) (44), he used the language Aristotle used for a completed and closed system
of scientific knowledge. That was the constitution of the universe that must follow
from true and certain knowledge of the First Principle. To achieve his goal Galileo
in fact relied on the open-ended criterion of range of confirmation, by his telescopic
observations and dynamical arguments, but theologians thought that by asserting
that the discovered constitution of the universe could not be otherwise, he was
imposing limitations on divine omnipotence. Neither side grasped clearly the difference that mathematical thinking made to the possibilities of apodeictic proof as
envisaged traditionally in Aristotelian logic. But that is another story discussed
elsewhere (43).
^on Battista Alberti, I libri della famiglia, ed. Cecil Grayson (Opere volgari, vol.
i, Ban, Italy: Laterza, 1960), p. 133; cf. for full documentation of this paper with
bibliography Alistair C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European
Tradition (London: Duckworth and Co., 1994); also "Science and the Arts in
Renaissance: The Search for Truth and Certainty, Old and New," History of
Science 18 (1980), pp. 133-46, and in Science and the Arts in the Renaissance, ed.
John W. Shirley and F. David Hoeniger (Washington, DC: The Folger
Shakespeare Library, 1985), pp. 15-16, "Philosophical Presuppositions and
Shifting Interpretations of Galileo" in Theory Change, Ancient Axiomatics and
Galileo's Methodology: Proceedings of the 1978 Pisa Conference on the History
and Philosophy of Science, vol. i, ed. Jaakko Hintikka, David Gruender, and
Evandro F. Agazzi (Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1981), pp. 171186,
"Historical Commitments of European Science," Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di
Storia della Scienza di Firenze, 7 (i) (1981), pp. 19-51: these and other papers are
included in A.C. Crombie, Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early
Modern Thought (London: Hambledon Press, 1990). A shorter version of this
present paper was given at Williams College, MA, while Visiting Bernhard
Professor, at the conference organized there by Professor Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr.
in October 1984 on "Art and Science in Related Revolutions." For the relations
between the arts and the sciences in this period there are Rafaello Caverni, Storia
del metodo sperimentale in Italia, 6 vol. (Florence: 1891-1900); Leonardo
Olschki, Geschichte der neusprachlichen wissenschaftlichen Literatur, vol. i
(Heidelberg: 1919), vol. ^ (Leipzig: 1911), vol. 3 (Halle an der Salle: 1917);
Hedley Rhys, ed., Seventeenth Century Science and the Arts (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1961); Erwin Panofsky, "Artist, Scientist, Genius:
Notes on the 'Renaissance-Dammerung'" in The Renaissance: Six Essays by
Wallace K. Ferguson et al. (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961), pp. 111-81;
William P.D. Wightman, Science in a Renaissance Society (London: 1971); and
Shirley and Hoeniger, eds., Science and the Arts in the Renaissance; and for most
of the persons named the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles C.
Gillispie, 16 vol. (New York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 1970-80).
90
91
English, the phrase: "Out of sight, out of mind." The phrase came
back from the Russian: "Blind idiot." Problems of this kind have
arisen from perceptions that oversimplify or in other ways fail to
comprehend what exists, in this case what existed in the English
language. In every culture at any time men have experienced their
world through the mediation of a particular vision of existence and of
knowledge. This defines their cultural style. Failures of European
vision to comprehend what existed, because it was unexpected,
appeared in abundance in the intellectual and pictorial records of
European expansion overseas, whether into various parts of Asia, or
the Americas, or the South Pacific.2 Failures of scientific comprehension have regularly accompanied the revelations of such new scientific instruments as the microscope and telescope.3 The history of
scientific thought is strewn with examples of even the most original
scientific minds failing to comprehend or even to acknowledge
certain phenomena, which could not exist within their powerful
theoretical vision. Technical frontiers may leave phenomena out of
sight; conceptual frontiers put them out of mind.
The style common to the Western sciences and arts may be
illustrated by a collage of examples, through which will become
evident the pattern in which in a diversity of contexts virtu imposed
structure eventually even upon fortuna itself.
Thus wrote Plato: an architect used technical theory, providing
antecedent analysis and design, as a "directive science" (Statesman
2,60 AB) to control the construction of a building by means of
measurement and calculation. For "all arts and forms of thought and
all sciences employ ... number and calculation" (Republic, vii, 52,2
C). Any artist or craftsman in making something "has before his
2
Cf. Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific: A Study in the History
of Art and Ideas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960); Barbara M. Stafford,
Voyage into Substance: Art, Science, Nature, and the Illustrated Travel Account,
1760-1840 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984).
3
Cf. Gerard L'E Turner, "The Microscope as a Technical Frontier in Science" in
Proceedings on the Royal Microscopical Society 2 (1967), pp. 175-197; Bernard
Cohen, "The Influence of Theoretical Perspective on the Interpretation of Sense
Data: Tycho Brahe and the New Star of 1572, and Galileo and the Mountains on
the Moon," Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia delta Scienza di Firenze 5 (i)
(1980), pp. 3-13; Ian Hacking, "Do We See Through a Microscope?" Pacific
Philosophical Quarterly 62 (1981), pp. 305-22; Samuel Y. Edgerton Jr.,
"Galileo, Florentine 'disegno,' and the 'Strange Spottedness' of the Moon," Art
Journal (Fall 1984), pp. 225-32, and "The Renaissance Development of Scientific
Illustration" in Science and the Arts, ed. Shirley and Hoeniger, pp. 168-97.
92
mind the form or idea" (x, 596 B) of what he was to make. This was
his model, just as the divine maker modelled the world from the
eternal forms (Timaeus 2,8A-3oC, 466-480, 536). Sometimes in
our perceptions "we are satisifed with the judgement of our senses"
(Republic, vii, 52.36), but sometimes the senses alone could not
resolve the apparent contradictions or illusions produced by nature
or by art, as when apparent size varied with distance or when a
straight stick partly in water looked bent, or in "many tricks of
illusion, like scene-painting and conjuring. But such illusions can be
dispelled by measuring, counting and weighing. We are no longer at
the mercy of the senses; reason takes control" (x, 602.0-36). Art then
lay across the boundary between true representation and deceit. On
one side was "the making of likenesses, as in creating a copy that
conforms to the proportions of the original in all three dimensions
with every part properly coloured": this was fairly called a likeness
[eikon]. But when for example the true proportions of a large
sculpture were distorted to make them appear correct when seen
from below, this only "seems to be a likeness" but is in fact merely "a
semblance [phantasma]" produced by art (Sophist 2.25D-6C). Visual
art then was like sophistry, which imposed upon its listeners "by
means of words that cheat the ear, exhibiting images [eidola] of all
things in a shadow-play of discourse so as to make them believe that
they are hearing the truth" (2346).
The sophistries of rhetoric were aimed not at truth but only at
persuasion; but a master of persuasion might share common methods
of argument with a true scientist seeking a different goal. Plato
likened the methods of rhetoric to those of medicine. Each, in order
to reach its goal, had to discover the true nature of its object. Rhetoric
had to grasp the nature of the soul in order to see how it was
persuasible; medicine had to grasp the nature of the body in order to
see how it was healthy or curable: "In both cases you must analyze
a nature... if you are to proceed scientifically, not merely by practice
and routine, to impart health and strength to the body by prescribing
remedies and diet, or by proper discourses and training to give to the
soul the desired belief and virtue." At the end of his analysis the
scientific rhetorician "will classify the types of discourse and the types
of soul, and the various ways in which souls are affected, explaining
the reasons in each case: suggesting the types of speech appropriate to
each type of soul, and what kind of speech can be relied upon to
create belief in one soul and disbelief in another, and why." For "a
certain type of hearer will be easy to persuade, by a certain type of
93
speech, to take such and such action, for such and such reason; while
another type will be hard to persuade. All this the orator must fully
grasp, and next he must watch it actually taking place in men's
conduct." When the student of rhetoric, having grasped the theory,
could place any individual person in this classification of characters,
and could know how to seize the occasion for the appropriate tricks,
"then and not till then he has well and truly achieved the art." There
was "absolutely no need for the budding orator to concern himself
with the truth about what is just or good conduct" or "who are just
and good men In the law courts nobody cares about the truth in
these matters, but only about persuasion, and that is concerned with
what seems most likely" for the purpose. The would-be master of
persuasion must then suppress or substitute facts according to need
and say "goodbye to the truth forever." Then he will be "equipped
with the art complete" (Phaedrus 269D-73A).
Plato delineated very clearly in this account the goal of rational
power over its subject matter that was to define the whole Western
rational tradition, whether in seeking to find the truth or to persuade
to belief or action. He set out systematically for the first time in his
various writings the historic fact that mastery of rational scientific
understanding brought with it power to manipulate matter and mind
alike. Physical engineering and social engineering had the same form,
and persuasion of the scientific (as of the artistic) acceptability of
whatever was proposed or done became as much part of the scientific
tradition as demonstrative proof.
According to Aristotle, everything constituted by nature "has
within itself a principle of motion and of stationariness" (Physics, ii.
i, i92,b 14-15). Art by contrast imposed an external principle of
change, but "art imitates nature" and hence was part of natural
science (ii. 2,1943 22-23). For "if a house had been made by nature,
it would have been made just as it is now by art; and if things made
by nature were made also by art, they would be made in just the same
way ...; in general art partly imitates nature, and partly completes
what nature cannot complete." Thus "if the ship-building art were in
the wood, it would produce the same results by nature" (ii. 8, 1993
12-17, b28).
Art, entailing the ability to invent by rational deliberation and
choice and to learn, distinguished man from other animals. Man
alone "lives by art and reasonings." Hence man alone could progress.
Aristotle distinguished "mere experience" of particular sensory perceptions from "connected experience" where memory of particulars
94
led to knowledge of general regularities. In the latter sense "experience seems pretty much like science and art, but really science and art
come to men through experience." For "knowledge and understanding belong rather to art than to mere experience, and artists are wiser
than men of mere experience...; because the former know the cause,
but the latter do not" (Metaphysics, i. i, 980025-981328). The
"with things made the principle is in the maker; it is either reason or
art or some faculty" (vi. i, iO25b22-3), and "all makings proceed
either from art or from a faculty or from thought ...; from art
proceed the things of which the form is in the soul of the artist" (vii.
7, 1032,32,5^1). Thus, whether in the practical, productive, or
theoretical arts and sciences, two things were essential: "One is the
choice of the right end or aim, the other is the discovery of the actions
that will bring it about In all the arts and sciences both the end
and the means should be within our control" (Politics, vii. 13, i33ib
25-37). Likewise in his moral behaviour man alone could choose and
initiate his actions, and could, through practice guided by right
reason, cultivate skill in virtue or vice as in any other art. Hence
"choice is either desiderative reason or ratiocinative desire, and such
an origin of action is a man" (Nicomachean Ethics, vi. 2, i i39b4~5).
For "art is identical with a state of capacity to make, involving a true
course of reasoning. All art is concerned with coming into being, that
is, with contriving or considering how something may come into
being which is capable of either being or not being, and whose origin
is in the maker and not in the thing made"; it was in nature not in art
that things existed "by necessity" (vi. 4,11403 1-16). By art then, by
practice guided by reason, men acquired skill to control every aspect
of their lives, whether in making material artifacts, or in managing
the plants and animals and their own bodies or their fellow men, or
in cultivating moral virtue or vice.
The fulfillment of human intelligence in the arts and sciences was
made possible by the fact that "of all animals man alone stands erect,
in accordance with his godlike nature and essence" (De partibus
animalium, iv. 10, 686a 27-29), for this raised up with his head the
most exact senses of vision and hearing, and liberated his hands as an
instrument for making both artificial things and other instruments.
Thus by mind, eye, and hand man was the animal alone equipped for
technical advance.
There was an analogy between the rational art of nature and the
rational art of man: "Our wonder is excited first by phenomena
which occur in accordance with nature but of which we do not know
95
the cause, and secondly by those which are produced by art despite
nature for the benefit of mankind. Nature often operates contrary to
human expediency; ... when therefore we have to do something
contrary to nature, the difficulty of it perplexes us and we must call
art to our aid." Then by "mechanical skill...: Mastered by nature,
we overcome by art" (Mechanica, c. i, 8473 lo-b 16). One could say
of anyone who had grasped the revolutions of the heavens that "his
soul is like that of whoever fashioned them in the heavens. For when
Archimedes fastened on to a [metal] sphere the movements of the
moon, the sun, and the five planets, he did the same as the god of
Plato who built the world in the Timaeus; he made one revolution of
the sphere control several movements utterly unlike in slowness and
speed. Now, if in this world this cannot be done without a god,
neither could Archimedes have been able to imitate those same
movements upon a sphere without divine genius" (Cicero, Tusculanae quaestiones, i. 25. 61-3).
To investigate all the diverse subject matters of art and science
upon which Aristotle imposed a similar rational form, he employed a
likewise similar method of argument by analysis and synthesis. Thus
he applied to politics as to physics "the method that has hitherto
guided us. As in other departments of science, so in politics, the
compound should always be resolved into the simple elements or
least parts of the whole" (Politics, i. i, 12523 19-24). As with
physical phenomena, so with the state and human society, the
complex whole must first be analyzed into its elementary constituents, so that it could be reconstructed from those elements and so
scientifically understood (Physics, i. i, 18439^1).
Apart from the Timaeus, Plato's main works became known to the
Latin West only with Marsilio Ficino's Latin translations made
towards the end of the fifteenth century, followed by editions of the
Greek. By contrast, practically all of Aristotle was known by the
middle of the thirteenth century, mostly through the translations
made during the previous hundred years. Hence philosophical conceptions of the relation of natural science to art, and of the structure
of scientific argument, whether leading to scientific understanding or
beyond that to artistic construction or engineering, were in early
modern Europe at first predominantly Aristotelian. Later during the
sixteenth century came the influence of Plato and with that of Greek
mathematicians, especially Archimedes, in addition to Euclid, who
had provided a model of scientific argument since the twelfth century.
The original insight by which the Greek mathematicians had
96
97
teach the ways of contriving and finding out how natural bodies may
be fitted together by some artifice according to number, so that the
use we are looking for may come from them."4 Again, Robert
Grosseteste wrote in the thirteenth century: "All causes of natural
efforts have to be given by means of lines, angles and figures, for
otherwise it is impossible to have knowledge of the reason [propter
quid] concerning them."5 Hence the need for mathematics in all
natural philosophical investigations. Likewise, according to the
French architect Villard de Honnecourt a generation later, in building
and making machines, in design and portraiture alike "the art of
geometry commands and teaches"; and "in order to work easily," it
must be kept in high regard by anyone "who wants to know how
each must work."6 Without going into the questions of precisely
what these general programmatic utterances meant in particular
practice, and of what mathematics meant in different contexts and
periods, we may see in them a style of rational justification to be
repeated again and again. No one was to argue more insistently than
Roger Bacon for "the power of mathematics in the sciences and in the
affairs and occupations of this world. ... Of these sciences the gate
and key is mathematics" (Opus maius, iv. i. i). That effective
natural philosophy required also practical experimental art was
eloquently stated by Bacon's contemporary Pierre de Maricourt in
his letter of 1269, De magnete. For he wrote "while the investigator of this subject must understand nature . . . he must also
diligently use his own hands." Then "he will be able in a short time
to correct an error which he could not do in eternity by natural
philosophy and mathematics alone, if he lacked care with his
hands. For in hidden operations we greatly need manual industry,
without which we can usually accomplish nothing perfectly. Yet
there are many things subject to the rule of reason which we
4
98
Petrus Peregrinus Maricurtensis, De magnete book i, ch. 2., ed. G. Hellman (Kara
magnetica; Neudriicke von Schriften und Karten iiber Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus 10 Berlin: 1898).
8
Cristpforo Landino, Commento... spora la Comedia di Danthe Algheri (Florence:
1491), folio iv1.
9
Alberti, De pictura book i, sections i and Z4, ed. Grayson in On Painting and On
Sculpture (London: Phaedon Press, i97z), p. 36, 58.
99
was to cultivate himself by reason, technique, and letters as a wellcomposed and controlled work of art. This was an Aristotelian
humanist ideal viewed perhaps with skepticism by some contemporaries engaged more roughly with the real world, but its principle of
reasoned control in an examined life had long been made part of
traditional Christian moral theory. For Alberti it was the basis of
both the personal and the social responsibility that all human
activities and works entailed. Hence the necessity both for education
and for that continual effort of practice in virtu, which alone could
restrain the hazards of "unjust and malevolent fortuna" (I libri delta
famiglia, prologue, p. 3). God had endowed man with an inborn
virtu, and this it was our duty to cultivate both for our own sakes and
by our work "so that times past and those present will be of service
to those that have not yet come" (Profugiorum ab aerumna i, pp.
122-3). "Our first and proper use is to exert the power of our soul
towards virtu," for: "To man alone among mortals is it given to
investigate the causes of things, to examine how true are his thoughts
and how good are his actions" (De iciarhia i, pp. 198, 212). At the
same time he must live responsibly for the benefit of others, above all
for "justice and truth" (ii, p. 286).10
All the practical arts proceeded then from a rational analysis of the
subject matter and objectives of the art to their achievement in an
appropriate representation or manipulation or use of the products of
the analysis. Practical art like natural science became at once both
highly intellectualized and precisely controlled. This was the intellectual bond uniting Alberti with his contemporaries, Nicolaus of Cusa,
Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, Georg Peurbach, and Piero della Francesca, in their common search for a quantified geometrical space and
techniques for its measurement in astronomy and cartography, optics
and painting alike; and again later uniting Leonardo da Vinci and
Albrecht Diirer, and likewise the musicians Franchino Gaffurio,
Lodovico Fogliano, and their successors in their search for an
arithmetically quantified music that accommodated the requirements
of the human ear. When Diirer wrote that "a good painter is
inwardly full of figures," which pour forth "from the inner ideas of
which Plato writes,"11 he was presenting the aesthetic theory of an
artist with both philosophical education and technical knowledge of
10
Alberti, Opere volgari, ed. Grayson, vol. i (1960) and vol. 2 (1966).
E. Panofsky, The Life and Art of Albrecht Diirer, 4th ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1955), p. 280.
100
101
Leonardo da Vinci, Les manuscrits Codex G., ed. Ravaisson-Mollien, folio 47'
(Paris: 1890).
18
Marcus Lucius Vitruvius Pollio, De architectura libri dece, traducti de latino in.
vulgare, affigurati, commentati, book i, ch. 3 (Como: 1521) folio 18: begun by
Cesare Cesariano and completed by Benedetto Giovio and Bono Mauro; see
Paolo Galluzzi, "A proposito di un errore dei traduttori di Vitruvio nel '500,' "
Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze i (z) (1976), pp.
78-80.
19
Vitruvius, ibid., book 10, ch. i commentary folio i6zv.
20
See the preface of Daniele Barbaro, I died libri dell' Architettura di M. Vitruvio,
tradutti e commentati (Venice: 1556), p. 9.
102
21
22
103
23
24
Galileo Galilei, Le mecaniche, national edition, ed. Antonio Favaro (Le Opere z
Florence: G. Barbara, 1968), p. 155, trans. Robert Payne (1636): transcribed
from the British Museum MS Harley 6796, f. 317', by Adriano Carugo.
104
design."25
Living from Michelangelo's death to Newton's birth, Galileo
marks the transition between two great European intellectual movements each in its own way dominated by mathematical rationality:
the transition from the world of the rational constructive artist to that
of the rational experimental scientist. The common element in these
intellectual movements and the channel of their mutual influence
seems to have been their common form of argument: their common
use of postulation controlled by practical experience and experiment.
That is what emerges from our collage of examples stretching from
Plato to Galileo. It extended much more widely than those examples,
to the whole conduct of life by the man of virtu, who knew how to
proceed with rational intent in the control at once of argument and
of a variety of materials and activities. This was the style also of the
right reason of Aristotelian ethics, exemplified by the moral and
political philosophy of Thomas More and more ambiguously of
Machiavelli. But we should not confuse Machiavelli's moral intentions with his analysis of the technique that would enable the political
virtuoso to succeed as a blackguard if he so chose. In the same style
the rational artist achieved a common mastery of his materials,
whether in the mechanical, plastic, visual, or musical arts or in the
experimental sciences, by an antecedent analysis providing a rational
anticipation of effects. Thus Galileo wrote of his law of falling bodies:
"I argue ex suppositione, imagining a motion"26 that might be
possible, following the example of Archimedes. This then led him to
the experiments by which he decided whether that possible motion
was realized in the actual world.
The experimental philosopher as rational artist might make his
antecedent analysis by means of theory alone, quantified as the
subject matter allowed, or by modelling a theory with an artifact
25
Vicenzo Viviani, "Racconto istorica della vita di Galileo" (1654; Le Opere 19), pp.
625, 627; cf. A.C. Crombie, "The Primary Properties and Secondary Qualities in
Galileo Galilei's Natural Philosophy" in Saggi su Galilei (Florence: G. Barbera,
preprint 1969), Styles of Scientific Thinking, Chs. 9-11; A. Carugo and
Crombie, "The Jesuits and Galileo's Ideas of Science and of Nature," Annali
dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze 8 (2) (1983), pp. 1-68,
26
Galileo to Pierre de Carcavy, June 5,1637, Le Opere 17, pp. 90-1; cf. to Giovanni
Battista Baliani, January 7, 1639, ibid., 18, pp. 11-13.
\05
A.C. Crombie, "The Mechanistic Hypothesis and the Scientific Study of Vision,"
Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society ^ (1967), pp. 3-111, republished
in Science, Optics and Music.
28
Marin Mersenne, Les questions theologiques, physiques, morales, et mathematiques, question 22 (Paris: 1634) in; cf. Robert Lenoble, Marin Mersenne, ou la
naissance du mecanisme (Paris: J. Vrin,e 1943); Crombie, "Mathematics, Music
and Medical Science," Actes du XII Congres International d'Histoire des
Sciences, Paris 1968 (Paris: A. Blanchard, 1971), pp. 195-310.
106
act or are acted upon, because we know the true reasons only for
things that we can make with the hand or with the mind; and
because, of all the things that God has made, we cannot make a single
one, whatever subtlety or effort we bring to it; besides which God
could have made them in some other way."29
The experimental natural philosophers and the rational artists
were creating possible worlds for themselves and each other and for
a wider public in more ways than one. The analysis of visual clues
carried out for the purposes of perspective painting showed what
must be seen when these were present. At the same time it generated
expectations in those familiar with it of what they should be seeing to
produce a given set of clues received. Thus Galileo with training in
perspective and chiaroscuro saw and drew through his telescope in
1609 mountains and valleys on the moon, just as they could be seen
and touched on an indented stone ball; Thomas Harriot with no such
training saw through a comparable instrument in the same year only
strange spots.30 Likewise the exact measurement and true scaling
required by linear perspective completely transformed the communication of information in the sciences and technical arts through
pictorial illustrations. The immediate effects were apparent in the
views and in the sixteenth-century plans drawn of cities, in cartography, and in the depiction of the external and internal structures of
animals, plants, minerals, and of machines. Depiction became an
instrument of scientific research. It seems that the engineers Mariano
di Jacopo, called Taccola, and Francesco di Giorgio Martini, to name
only two, designed their machinery by inventive drawing before
construction;31 and that Descartes expected to find in the animal
body a kind of mechanism analogous to mechanisms made familiar
in printed illustrations.32
29
also Joan Gadol, Leon Battista Alberti: Universal Man of the Early Renaissance
(Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1969).
Eg. Salomon de Caus, Les raisons des forces mouvantes avec diverses machines
tant utiles que plaisantes, aus quelles sont adoints plusieurs desseigns de grottes et
fontaines (Frankfurt, Germany: 1615); cf, Willem van Hoorn, As Images
Unwind: Ancient and Modern Theories of Visual Perception (Amsterdam:
University of Amsterdam Press, 1972).
32
10 7
Matching perspective painting within the mathematical and experimental arts and sciences, which established a unique style of
thought and action in early modern Europe, was music. The science
of music, like that of perspective, was concerned primarily with the
identification and quantitative analysis of clues to sensations: the
acoustical quantities expressible in numbers which stimulated the
diversities of auditory perception. It was Mersenne who finally
developed the science of music as a systematic exploration of a whole
subject matter. Again he aimed to show how through scientific
analysis to achieve rational control: of musical perception and its
effects on the emotions, of composition through a calculus of
permutations and combinations of notes, and of information communicated through sound leading to a theory of language. "Music is
a part of mathematics" he opened his first musical essay, the Traite de
I'harmonic universelle (1627), "and consequently a science that
shows the causes, effects and properties of sounds, tunes, concerts,
and of everything that belongs to them." The science of music
depended then on arithmetic and geometry "but also on physics from
which it borrows knowledge of sound and of its causes, which are the
movements, the air, and the other bodies that produce sound."33 He
developed his science of music as a program of systematic measurement of the acoustical quantities effecting hearing, combined with an
analysis on one side of the physics of sound producing these external
quantities, and on the other of the internal processes mediating
sensation and its effects on the soul. As in painting, all attempts to
establish a scientifically rational control over musical composition
foundered on the pecularities of auditory as of visual perception in
providing aesthetic pleasure through art. The judgements of the ear
could often differ from the expectations of mathematical theory. The
33
108
34
109
See for these investigations Crombie, "Mathematics, Music and Medical Science,"
and "Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648)" in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography 9
(1974), pp. 316-22.
37
Mersenne, Harmonic universelle vol. z, "Traitez des instrumens," vol. 3, prop, vii
(1637), pp. 123-6, cf. prop, xvii, pp. 140-6, vol. i, props, xvi-xx, pp. 42-52.
38
Ibid., vol. i, "Traitez de la voix ...," book i, especially props, xii, xlvii-1, pp.
12-13, 65-77, "Traitez ... des sons ...," book i, props, xxii, xxiv, pp. 39-41,
43, vol. 2, "De Putilite de Pharmonie," prop, ix, also La verite des sciences, book
3, ch. 10 (Paris: 1625), pp. 548, 544-80, Les questions theologiques, physiques,
110
111
century, were never accepted within all the diverse intellectual and
social contexts concerned. Thus experiment and mathematics could
have different meanings within inquiries directed by different preconceptions of what was discoverable in nature, and their results could
give different satisfactions according to whether what was supposed
to be discoverable could be interpreted as having been discovered.
Kepler, for example, looked with neoplatonic vision for harmony in
nature expressed in simple mathematical proportions supported by
sound metaphysical reasons, and he insisted throughout that the
proportions postulated must agree with observation. His quarrel
with Robert Fludd, who shared something of the same vision, was
that Fludd would not agree to acceptable experimental criteria for
believing rather in one kind of world than in another, so that when
Fludd cited measurements made with his weather glass (a kind of
thermometer), they could not agree even on what was being measured. Between the absolutely different mental worlds they inhabited,
the one as a scientific rational artist and the other as a Hermetic
magician, there could be evidently no communication.41 Theory well
supported by experimental argument could also blind even the most
rational natural philosophers to unexpected experimental novelties.
William Gilbert's theoretical expectations obstructed for a generation
recognition that the declination of the magnetic needle from true
north varied in the course of time, even though the evidence was
available.42 William Harvey refused to accept that the lacteal vessels
and thoracic duct discovered by Gasparo Aselli and the receptaculum
chyli discovered by Jean Pequet had any function in the transport of
nourishment from the intestines to the body: he objected theoretically
on the grounds that these vessels were not found in all animals
whereas the necessity for such transport was universal, that the
mesenteric veins were sufficient, and that "nature never does anything thoughtlessly."43
Harvey was well aware of the analogy between the rational artist,
who formed in his mind a conception of what he would represent in
41
Cf. Wolfgang Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypal Ideas on the Scientific Theories
of Kepler" in Carl G. Jung and Pauli, The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955).
42
Cf. Eva G.R. Taylor, The Mathematical Practitioners of Tudor and Stuart England
(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1955).
43
William Harvey to Robert Morrison, April 28, 1652 in The Circulation of the
Blood, trans. Kenneth J. Franklin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957), p. 86.
112
his painting and how he would do so, and the rational experimental
scientist who proceeded likewise by an antecedent theoretical and
quantitative analysis of his subject matter. For "art itself is nothing
but the reason of work, implanted in the artists minde. And in the
same way by which we gaine in art, by the very same we attain any
kinde of science or knowledge whatever: for as art is a habit whose
object is something to be done, so science is a habit, whose object is
something to be known; and as the former proceedeth from the
imitation of exemplars; so this latter, from the knowledge of things
naturall. The source of both is from sense and experience" (with the
Aristotelian meanings respectively of particular sensory perceptions
and connected experience of their regularities), "since it is impossible
that art should rightly be purchased by the one, or science by the
other, without a direction from ideas."44 Experimental scientist and
rational artist were then both alike exemplary men of virtu, achieving
their objectives by a similar intellectual behavior, mastering their
subject matters by an analytical anticipation of effects, and committed to an examined life of reasoned consistency in all things. In this
context the rapid extension in the seventeenth century of scientific
experience of the exploration of nature generated its own critical
response. This was twofold, scientific and epistemological. The
response in scientific method was a dramatic increase in the power,
precision, and range of techniques of logical, mathematical, and
instrumental analysis. The response in epistemology was a stricter
and stricter examination of what scientific investigation could be
accepted as having established. Within the ambience of a certain
general philosophical skepticism, the contrast between the acknowledged successes of the mathematical and technical sciences and arts in
solving specific and clearly defined problems, and the disputed claims
of metaphysicians to true and certain knowledge of the whole essence
of existence, led to the conclusion that scientific art alone could yield
the only certainly true science of nature available to us. Scientific
thinking has nearly always been guided or stimulated by ideas or
beliefs coming from outside the strict boundaries of scientific demonstration. Through the seventeenth century, scientific experience
itself brought about a recognition, within an increasingly professional
scientific community, that positive reasons must be required for
^Harvey, Exercitationes de generatione animalium, Preface (London, 1651), translated as Anatomical Exercitations Concerning the Generation of Living Animals
(London: 1653).
113
accepting such beliefs as valid or relevant within a scientific argument. The scientific movement, propelled by a deliberate combination of a theoretical search for common forms of explanation with a
practical demand for accurately reproducible results, came then to
base the acceptability of scientific explanations on a criterion of art:
the range of experimental confirmation on an open frontier, capable
of yielding not certainty but only probability to a degree increasing
with its range.
The triumphal march of rational virtu towards control of scientific
ideas of all kinds received at this point a check, indicated by
Mersenne, from experienced scientific skepticism supported by theology: the doctrine of the omnipotent Creator which reduced the
world from the human point of view to contingent regularities of
fact.45 What then about the realm of fortuna that virtu aimed to
master, the realm of untidy accidents and unfathomable motivations,
of contingent expectation and uncertain choice? One aspect of that
realm was mastered by reason through the calculus of probability,
developed first in the context of commercial insurance and partnerships from the fourteenth century in Italy, and reduced by Pascal and
Christiaan Huygens to an exactly calculated expectation at any point
of time. Thus as Pascal wrote "what was rebellious to experience has
not escaped the dominion of reason. Indeed we have reduced it by
geometry with so much security to an exact art, that it participates in
its certainty and now boldly progresses. And so, joining mathematical
demonstrations with the uncertainty of chance, and reconciling what
seemed contraries, taking its name from both, it justly arrogates to
itself this stupendous title: the geometry of chance [aleae geometria]."46 Scientifically that may be said to have removed some
aspects of the game of life from the long accepted realm of irrational
fortune and personal luck into that of impersonal calculation.
But what about those other seemingly irrational aspects of
45
Cf. A.C. Crombie, "Infinite Power and the Laws of Nature: A Medieval Speculation" in L'infinito nella scienza (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1986),
republished in Crombie, Historical Studies in Scientific Thinking.
46
Blaise Pascal, "Adresse a 1'Academic Parisienne" (1644), ed. Louis Lafuma
(Oeuvres completes, Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1963), pp. 101-3; cf. A.C. Crombie,
"Contingent Expectation and Uncertain Choice: Historical Contexts of Arguments from Probabilities" in The Rational Arts of Living, ed. A.C. Crombie and
Nancy G. Siraisi (Northampton, MA: Smith College Studies in History, 1987);
cf. Styles of Scientific Thinking, ch. 18.
114
8
Mathematics and Platonism in the Sixteenth-Century
Italian Universities and in Jesuit Educational Policy1
Chairs or lectureships for different parts of the Arts 'quadrivium' seem to have
existed from the end of the fourteenth century in Bologna (arithmetic 1384-5,
astrology with the duty to teach Euclid and algorithm 1405, arithmetic and
geometry 1443)2 and perhaps elsewhere in Italy. Domenico Maria Novara
(1454-1504) of Ferrara held a lectureship in Bologna in astronomy from 1483
to 1504, Luca Pacioli one in mathematics in 1501-2, and Girolamo Cardano
(1501-76) worked there on mathematics while holding a lectureship in
medicine from 1562 to 1570.3 At the reform of the University of Rome by Leo
X in 1514 two professors of mathematics were appointed, one being Pacioli;
other major chairs were in philosophy, astronomy and medicine.4 The Roman
philosophers according to the historian of the university5 were predominantly
1
This paper is based on A.C. Crombie and A. Carguo, Galileo's Natural Philosophy
(forthcoming). The use by the original publisher of inverted commas instead of italics in the titles
of books and journals has been left unchanged. Information has been supplied by Dr. Carugo for
nn. 6 and 95.
2
Bortolotti, 'La storia delle matematiche nell' Universita di Bologna' (1947) 22, 8, 24. What
follows is based on published sources: there is a great need to pursue these questions in university
archives. For mathematics in 16th-century Italy cf. Tiraboschi, 'Storia della letteratura Italiana',
vii (1791) 107 sqq.; Libri, 'Histoire des sciences mathematiques', iii (1840) 101 sqq; Bortolotti,
'Studi e ricerche sulla storia della matematica in Italia . . . ' (1928), 'La matematica in Italia . . . '
(1933); dTrsay, 'Histoire des universites', i (1933) 240, ii (1935) 2-3.
3
Bortolotti, 'La storia . . . ' (1947) 20, 24-33, 74-6; cf. Olschki, 'Geschichte' . . . i, 151 sqq.
4
Renazzi, 'Storia dell' Universita . . . di Roma', ii (1804) 24-30, 44-51, esp. 50-1, 61-6. For the
name Sapienza revived for the university by Gregory XIII in 1568 see pp. 165-7; and for Cardano
at Rome during 1571-76 see pp. 219-20.
5
Renazzi, ibid.,'ii, 173-4: 'Seguica la filosofia di Aristotele a dominar nelle Scuole della
Romana Universita, ne ancor sorto era alcuno a contrastarle 1'antico suo impero. Que' raggi di
vivo splendore, che cominciavano altrove a lampeggiare sul vasto campo delle filosofiche
discipline, non erano ancor giunti a penetrare nelle Scuole Romane. Aveva, egli e vero, il Vives al
principio del secolo XVI, su cui noi qul c'aggiriamo, nel suo eccellente libro 'De corruptis
disciplinis', segnato le dritte vie, che batter conveniva per rettamente filosofare. Gia secondo il
consiglio di Platone, allo studio della filosofia i piu accorti e saggi facevano agl'iniziandi premettere
quello degli elementi dell'algebra, e della geometria. Imperciocche si era da quelli capita, che i
difetti degli studj sin'allora usitati, nascevano specialmente dal non accopiarvi lo studio delle
matematiche. Gio mosse nel secole XVI parecchi profondi ingegni a coltivarle, e illustrarle con
116
impegno maggior; e per tal'opportunissimo fine circa la meta di quello 1'intermessa lettura di
matematiche ricomparve nella Romana Universita. In fatti la giustezza di pensare, la precisione
dell'idee, 1'esattezza del metodo, che in seguito s'introdussero a poco a poco in tutte le scienze, fu
il sostanzioso e utilissimo frutto, che il dilatamento, e i progress! dello studio delle matematiche
felicemente produssero. Lo spirito geometrico nato da tale studio e di maggior importanza e
giovamento, che le astratte verita, le quali dalla geometria propongonsi, e si dimostrano. Ma tra
noi i filosofi troppo altamente erano prevenuti per le dottrine peripatetiche, e oltre modo imbevuti
delle scolastiche sottigliezze. Chi si maravigliera percio, se persistessero tenacemente attaccati ai
vecchi loro pregiudizi, e se nel tempo di cui qui trattiamo, continuassero a spiegar, e sostenere
dalle cattedre Aristotele con indefessa fatica, e con ardente entusiamo? La maggior parte dei
Romani Maestri erano medici di professione come andremo divisando nel produrne qui ora il
catalago; poiche allora congiungevansi quasi sempre gli studi prattici di medicina cogli astratti
della fiosofia'; cf. pp. 174-7.
6
Ibid. 177: 'Un'altra cosa pure del Raimondi deesi qui accennare, che cioe fu esso un dei primi
ad alzar nei suoi discorsi bandiera contro Aristotele e a preparar in Roma la letteraria rivoluzione
di rovesciarlo dal filosofico trono, e rimettervi il gia abbandonato Platone, di che diremo a suo
luogo': cf. G.O. xx 515. Raimondi was in great favour with Pope Clement VIII (Ippolito
Aldobrandini) and especially with his nephew Cinzio Aldobrandini. On G.B. Raimondi see
Girolamo Lunadoro, 'Relatione della corte di Roma e de 'riti da osservarsi in essa e de'suoi
Magistrati et Officii, con la loro distinta giurisdittione' (Venezia, 1635) 63-5, where he is
remembered as having 'belli pensieri circa la doctrina di Platone, et di Aristotele, per essere
versatissimo, in ambi due questi auttori', and for his dedication to mathematical sciences. Notable
achievements were his Latin translations from Greek, such as of Euclid's 'Data', 'uno delli libri
necessarii per la intelligenza della scienza resolutiva, che e nelle mathematiche', and from Arabic,
such as of Apollonius's eight books 'De Conis' (!). Lunadoro adds that Raimondi 'ha commentato
i cinque (!) libri di Pappo' (books 3-5 ?) and 'Ha scritto poi Comentari, e dotti, et esquisiti sopra
tutti i libri di Archimede'. He also mentions his work on Arabic, Persian and Turkish dictionaries
and his learning in theology. This passage from Lunadoro's book was excerpted by John Pell, in an
autograph memorandum now in the Brit. Mus., MS Add. 4458, ff. 95-96. Raimondi left an
unprinted commentary on Pappus, now in the Bibl. Naz. Cent, di Firenze, MS Magi. cl. XI, no.
107. Under his supervision, in the famous 'Stamperia medicea' attached to the Collegio Romano,
were printed many important works in Arabic, including Avicenna's 'Canon' (1593) and Nasir addin's edition of Euclid (1594).
7
Renazzi, 'Storia . . . ', iii (1805) 36, 85.
8
Fabronius, 'Historia Academia Pisanae', i (1791) 326-7:
'Difficile est reperire quid de illius aetatis mathematicis dicas. Prorsus illi ignorabant quid Graeci
omnis praeclarae artis inventores, ac praesertim Archimedes vir prope divinus contulissent ad
amplificandos geometriae fines, adjungendumque illius usum ad physicas res; et qui hanc
profitebantur scientiam, nullum aliud praeceptum artis esse putabant, quern quod ni Euclide
continentur'.
111
university begun in 1543 under Duke Cosimo I three mathematical appointments were made in the same year 1548: Juliano Ristoro, a Carmelite
described as having already professed mathematics in Siena and Florence, to a
chair in astronomy with a view to facilitating astrology,9 and two others to
positions as 'mathesis praeceptores'.10 It was to one of these latter posts that
Galileo was to be appointed in 1589 through the interest of Guidobaldo's
younger brother Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, after he had failed in
the previous year to get a similar position at Bologna.11 The mathematical
chair at Padua, to which Galileo moved in 1592 with the help of Giovanni
Vincenzo Pinelli12, had been initiated in 1520 by Federico Delfino, who at his
death in 1547 was succeeded by an undistinguished logician, Pietro Catena,13
who held it until his death in 1576. During 1559-60 Catena was joined briefly by
Francesco Barozzi.14 Catena's successor from 1577 to 1588, Gioseffe Moleto,
was a man who showed some originality, for example in recognising that all
bodies should fall with the same speed and dealing with the contradiction
between this conclusion and Aristotelian physics.15 He and Galileo were in
Fabbruccio, 'De Pisano Gymnasio . . . ' (1960) 112-6; Fabronius, op. cit. ii (1792) 385-6 470;
Baldi, 'Cronica' (1707) 122.
10
Fabronius, op. cit. ii 385-6; cf. Schmitt, The Faculty of Arts at Pisa at the time of Galileo'
(1972).
11
Fabronius, op. cit., p. 392; Favaro, 'Galileo Galilei e lo Studio di Padova', i (1883) 30-2.
12
G.O. x 42, 47-60, xix 111-2 117-25; Favaro, ibid. pp. 48-53, 'Cronologica Galileiana' (1892),
'Scampoli Galileiani, ser. ix' (1894).
13
Favaro, 'Galileo Galilei e lo studio di Padova' i, 100-36, esp. 133-6; see also Favaro, 'Intorno
alia vita . . . di Prosdrocini de'Beldomandi' (1879) 46-55; 'Le matematiche nello Studio di Padova'
(1880), 'I lettori di matematiche nella Universita di Padova' (1922) 61-7; Baldi, 'Cronica' (1707)
112, 135-6, Affo 'Vita di . . . Baldi' (1783) 9; Tiraboschi, 'Storia . . . ' vii (1791) 657; Crapulli,
'Mathesis universalis' (1969) 42-62. Catena was much concerned with mathematical demonstration in Aristotle, writing in one of his books. 'Universa loca in logicam Aristotelis in
mathematicis disciplinas hoc novum opus declarat' (1556) 4:' . . . etiam si exiguas (nam apprime
novi quam sit mihi curta suppellex) expederem in eruendo Aristotele ex illo obscuro, id autem tarn
comode apte fieri putabam, si mathematica exempla sua expressiora redderem, quibus in
explicandis logicis usus fuit ipse presertim hoc tempore quo publicis lectionibus mathematicis in
Paduano Gimnasio incumbebam . . . .' He went on in commenting on 'Post. Anal.' i.i, 71a 19-22
(= text 3) to make the contrast: ' . . . Neque id ostenditur per inductionem Topicam quae a
particularibus ad universalem procedit, et contrariatur huic posterioristico processui, qui fit ab
universali and particularia . . . ' (p. 25). He followed this with another work: Petrus Cathena,
artium et theologiae doctor, professor publicus artium liberalium in Gymnasio Patevino, 'Super
loca mathematica contenta in Topicis et Elenchis Aristotelis', nunc et non antea in lucem aedita
(1561).
14
Boncompagni, 'Intorno alia vita ed ai lavori di Francesco Barozzi' (1884) 796-7.
15
Favaro, 'Galileo Galilei e lo Studio di Padova', i, 21-36, 135-6, 'Giuseppe Moletti' (1917).
118
119
120
have greater influence over his pupils, and the mathematical disciplines
themselves be of greater value and the pupils understand their utility and
necessity, the master must be invited to take part in formal acts in which doctors
are created and public disputations held, in such a way that if he is capable he too
may sometimes put forward arguments and help those who are arguing. For by
this means it will easily come about that the pupils, seeing the professor of
mathematics together with the other teacher taking part in such acts and
sometimes also disputing, will be convinced that philosophy and the mathematical sciences are connected, as they truly are; especially because pupils up to now
seem almost to have despised these sciences for the simple reason that they think
that they are not considered of value and are even useless, since the person who
teaches them is never summoned to public acts with the other professors.
It also seems necessary that the teacher should have a certain inclination and
propensity for lecturing on these sciences, and should not be taken up with many
other occupations; otherwise he will scarcely be able to help his pupils. Now in
order that the Society should have capable professors of those sciences, some
men should be selected apt and capable for carrying out this task who may be
instructed in a private school in various mathematical subjects; otherwise it does
not seem possible that these studies should last long in the Society, let alone be
promoted; although they are a great ornament to the Society and are very
frequently the subject of discussion in colloquia and meetings of leading men,
where they might understand27 that our members are not ignorant of mathematical matters. Whence it comes about28 that our members necessarily become
speechless in such meetings, not without great shame and disgrace; as those to
whom this very thing has happened have often reported. I do not mention the fact
that natural philosophy without the mathematical disciplines is lame and
incomplete, as we shall show a little later.
So much for the master of mathematical disciplines; now let us add a few words
about his students.
Secondly then, it is necessary that the pupils should understand that these
sciences are useful and necessary for rightly understanding the rest of philosophy,
and that they are at the same time a great ornament to all other arts, so that one
may acquire perfect erudition; indeed these sciences and natural philosophy have
so close an affinity with one another that unless they give each other mutual aid
they can in no way preserve their own worth. For this to happen, it will be
necessary first that students of physics should at the same time study mathematical disciplines; a habit which has always been retained in the Society's schools
hitherto. For if these sciences were taught at another time, students of philosophy
would think, and understandably, that they were in no way necessary to physics,
and so very few would want to understand them; though it is agreed among
experts that physics cannot rightly be grasped without them, especially as regards
that part which concerns the number and motion of the celestial circles ('orbes'),
the multitude of intelligences, the effects of the stars which depend on the various
conjunctions, oppositions and other distances between them, the division of
continuous quantity into infinity, the ebb and flow of the sea, winds, comets, the
rainbow, the halo and other meteorological things, the proportions of motions,
qualities, actions, passions and reactions etc. concerning which 'calculators'
write much. I do not mention the infinite examples in Aristotle, Plato and their
more celebrated commentators, which can by no means be understood without a
27
28
121
122
34
123
37
124
Pererius, ibid. 24. Barrow, op. cit., vi (1683) 108 ('Of the causality of mathematical
demonstrations' ed. 1734) again cited Pereira's comment on this theorem (Euclid, 'Elements', i.
32) in a discussion comparing geometrical and syllogistic demonstration.
40
Pererius, 'De comm.', iii, 3, pp. 69-70.
41
Pererius, 'De comm.', iii, 4, pp. 73-4.
42
Aristotle, 'Ethica Nicomachea', vi. 8, 1142a 12-19.
125
policy.43 Possevino entered the society in 1559 with the three brothers Achille,
Leonetto and Ludovico Gagliardi, who had been horrified by the suspect and
atheistic tendencies of the Averroist philosophy they had heard at the
University of Padua.44 Apostolic and diplomatic journeys in Savoy and France
led to three years as first rector of the new Jesuit college in Avignon,45 at the
end of which he published in his 'Coltura de gl'ingegni' (1568)46 an account of
the aims, methods and content of education in Jesuit universities throughout
Europe. This he introduced with a brief history of Christian philosophy. Two
periods as Papal Nuncio to the King of Sweden (1568, 1577-80) involved
further travels in Germany and Poland.47 Another mission took him in 1581-82
to Moscow, where Pope Gregory XIII sent him in response to a request from
Czar Ivan IV, the Terrible, for negotiation of an end to the long war between
himself and the King of Poland. Peace was concluded with both Poland and
Sweden in 1582. Possevino's reports of this mission, with descriptions of
political and religious conditions in Russia and neighbouring lands, and an
account of a discussion of the Catholic religion held with Czar Ivan on 21
February 1582, were published in part in his 'Moscovia' (1586).48 Papal policy
aimed to bring about an alliance of these Christian princes against the Turks,
and religious unity on the basis of the Council of Florence. Possevino
continued his diplomatic missions during 1583-7 in Poland and Hungary,49
according to his biographer well fitted for these tasks by 'un savoir eminent,
une facilite prodigieuse a apprendre les langues' as well as by 'un zele
apostolique, un courage a 1'epreuve des plus grandes difficultes, une dexterite
a traiter les affaires les plus epineuses, des manieres tout a fait engageantes
surtout avec les grands, une connoissance parfaite des cours du nord, des
interets et des coutumes de toutes ces nations'.50 His intervention played an
important part in the introduction of the reformed Gregorian calendar into
43
Antonii Possevini Societatis lesu 'Bibliotheca selecta', 2 partes (Romae, 1593); revised ed., 2
torn., Coloniae Agrippinae, 1607. For Possevino see Dorigny, 'La vie du Pere Antoine Possevin'
(1712); Sommervogel, 'Bibliotheque' . . . vi (1895) 1061-93; Dainville, 'Les Jesuites . . . : La
geographic des humanistes' (1940) 47; 'Mon. paed. Soc. lesu' (1965) 107, 127.
44
Dorigny, op. cit. 4, 13-18, 25-7; Castellani, 'La vocazione alia Compagnia di Gesu del P.
Antonio Possevino' (1945) 102-4, 108, 114-5. For the Gagliardis see Sommervogel, op. cit. iii,
1095-9; and for the following discussion of the Jesuits in Padua, Cozzi, 'Galileo Galilei e la societa
veneziana' (1968) 10-14.
45
Dorigny, op. cit. 27 sqq., 105-6, 115-6, 135-6.
46
Vicenza, 1568; a Latin version was published in his 'Bibl. sel.', lib. i (1593) i, 13-65.
47
Dorigny, op. cit. 166-252; Possevini 'Missio Moscovitica', ed. Pierling (1882) 109-20; see next
note.
48
Vilnae 1586, republished Antverpiae 1587; further documents in the Vatican archives were
published as Antonii Possevini 'Missio Moscovitica', curante Pierling (1882); see also Dorigny, op.
cit. pp. 253-438; Pierling, 'Un nonce du Pape en Moscovie' (1884) 146,180 sqq., 'La Russie et la
Sainte-Siege' (1896) 375 sqq.; 'Synopsis hist. Soc. Jesu' (1950) 86.
49
Dorigny, op. cit. 438-94.
50
Ibid. 259; cf. 496, 499.
126
51
127
128
129
about the progression and history of animals, and the whole of his physical
discussions abound, not only with examples but also with foundations drawn
from geometry. For in the first book78 he brings forth the tetragon of Antiphon in
order to refute it. In the second book he quotes examples concerning the two
right angles in a triangle, besides what he did in the Posterior Analytics. In the
third book he mentions certain points about the construction of gnomons. In the
remainder he mentions the infinity of magnitude, motion and time; so that
learned men have formed the opinion that a complete exposition of those books
should be left out by most people, because they have not studied the
mathematical disciplines deeply enough . . . .
Archytas too and Eudoxus, so Plutarch says in his life of Marcellus,79 when
they had transferred geometrical contemplations from the mind, and from things
falling within the contemplation of thoughts alone, to examples of sensible and
corporal things, they enriched geometry with a variety of demonstration not only
logical but practical. Aristotle too taught mechanics, and by publishing it made it
common knowledge. Nor indeed were these the only fruits seen to result from
this: that Archytas80 gave flight to a wooden dove which he had suspended with
weights in such a way that it was propelled by hidden wind of breath; or that
Archimedes and Posidonius fashioned those spheres by attaching to which, so
Cicero81 says, the motions of the Sun and Moon and the five planets, they
brought about the same effect as that god who built the world in the Timaeus,
namely that one revolution ruled motions very dissimilar in slowness and speed;
or that the Nuremberger82 exhibited a fly and an eagle fitted with geometrical
wings; or the new near-miracles of nature that Claudius83 seems to have
performed in recent years in the gardens of Cardinal Atestinus84 by the Tiber,
when he brought it about that by the soft and placid falling of water the motion,
voice and song of a little bronze bird, opportunely pausing at the arrival of a night
owl, and more opportunely being resumed on its departure, so closely imitated
the truth, that anyone who has called it artificial deserved to be thought rash,
rather than anyone judging it real deserved to be thought too credulous (he also
added a water-organ from which a most sweet and harmonious sound was heard);
and that (a thing that was indeed still more remarkable) at his will he so elegantly
and truthfully projected a heavenly rainbow which the Latins call 'iris', that God
was to be praised for having given such acumen to human brains, even in a matter
of this kind . . . .
And these things would certainly seem more than enough to excite minds
('ingenia') towards those disciplines, were it not that two other things add to their
reputation: the one said by Plato, which (so Plutarch says) smacks of Plato's
character , although it does not survive in his dialogues, namely that 'God above
78
130
all geometrises';85 the other having regard to their origins, for they have spread
down from the most ancient patriarch Abraham86 to other men. Indeed He, by
whose divine mind everything is providently administered, for the safety and
presentation of all, has been said by Plato to govern and control this universe by
geometrical proportion; seeing that every function of God is included in it, not
only that which consists of contemplation but also that which comprises the
building and administration of the world. And indeed Plutarch says that God, in
the creation of the world, geometrised so much that he made up this geometrical
problem: given two figures, to construct a third equal to the one and similar to the
other. This, according to Plutarch, was that very celebrated problem upon the
solution of which Pythagoras or Thales87 is said to have sacrificed; but there was
85
(p. 178); cf. Plutarch 'Quaest, conviv.', viii.2.1,718C-E, ed. and transl. Minar ('Moralia', ix,
1061) 118-21: 'Diogenianus, making a new start, said: If you please, let us on Plato's birthday take
Plato himself as partner in the conversation, and since we have spoken about the gods, consider
what he had in mind when he asserted that God is always doing geometry- if indeed this statement
is to be attributed to Plato. I remarked that while this statement is not made explicitly in any of
Plato's writings, it is well enough attested and is in harmony with his character, and Tyndares
immediately took up the argument: Do you think, Diogenianus, that this saying conceals a
reference to some recondite or difficult doctrine, and not merely to what he himself said and wrote
many times, when he sang the praise of geometry for drawing us away from the world of sense to
which we cling, and turning us toward the intelligible and eternal level of existence, the
contemplation of which is the goal of philosophy, as being a viewer is the goal of a mystery-rite?
For the nail of pleasure and pain, by which he represents the soul as fastened to the body, seems to
have this as its greatest disadvantage, that is makes the objects of sense-perception clearer than
those of intellectual knowledge, and forces the understanding to judge by emotion rather than by
reason. Being habituated, through the experience of intense pain and pleasure, to paying heed to
the shifting and changeable aspects of physical things, as though they were true being, the
understanding is blinded to truth and loses that organ - that light within the mind, worth thousands
of eyes [Plato, 'Republic', vii. 527E], by which alone the divine may be contemplated. Now in all of
the so-called mathematical sciences, as in smooth and undistorted mirrors, there appear traces and
ghost-images of the truth about objects of intellectual knowledge; but geometry especially, being,
as Philolaos says, the source and mother-city of the rest, leads the understanding upward and turns
it in a new direction, as it undergoes, so to speak, a complete purification and a gradual deliverance
from sense-perception. It was for this reason that Plato himself reproached Eudoxus and Archytas
and Menaechmus for setting out to remove the problem of doubling the cube into the realm of
instruments and mechanical devices, as if they were trying to find two mean proportionals not by
the use of reason but in whatever way would work. In this way, he thought, the advantage of
geometry was dissipated and destroyed, since it slipped back into the realm of sense-perception
instead of soaring upward and laying hold of the eternal and immaterial images in the presence of
which God is always God'.
86
Cf. Pereira above n. 66, below nn. 97, 127 sqq.
87
Plutarch, ibid, viii.2.4, 720A - C, pp. 128-31: 'You will easily see the point, I replied, if you
recall the threefold division, in the Timaeus, of the first principles from which the cosmos came to
birth. One of them we call, by the most appropriate of names, God, one matter, and one form.
Matter is the least ordered of substances, form the most beautiful of patterns, and God the best of
causes. Now God's intention was, so far as possible, to leave nothing unused or unformed, but to
reduce nature to a cosmos by the use of proportion and measure and number, making a unity out
of all the materials which would have the quality of the form and the quantity of the matter.
Therefore, having set himself this problem, these two being given, he created a third, and still
creates and preserves throughout all time that which is equal to matter and similar to form,
namely, the cosmos. Being continuously involved in becoming and shifting and all kinds of events,
because of its congenital forced association with its body, the cosmos is assisted by the Father and
131
also that other problem which is ascribed to Pythagoras by Proclus88 and by all
the ancients, that is where in a right-angled triangle the square of the side
opposite the right-angle is proved equal to the squares of the other two sides. In
such a way then, God, in Plato's opinion, constructed the world. For that of
which the first origin of the world consists Plato89 divides into three, God, matter
and idea; that is, God as the most excellent of efficient causes, matter as the most
unordered substance of all things, and idea as the fairest of all examples.
Therefore if anyone mentally conceives God as wisest and as Geometrical
Architect for all, for whom matter and idea are proposed as two dissimilar figures
and who has to construct the world as a third figure from the two proposed,
similar to the one, equal to the other, he will understand that the world has been
joined together by God from all substances and from the whole of matter; but
since he wished to leave nothing discordant and unordered, but to adorn it with
ratio, measurement and number (for nothing was to be fairer than the world or
more excellent than its maker), therefore the Craftsman of the world ('Opifex
mundi') imitated the fairest and eternal exemplar.
Therefore he formed the world in such a way that it should be a copy of that
eternal exemplar and form which we call the Idea . . . .
132
133
philosophorum sententiis involui, et communi iudicio cognosci, sed satius fuit ea destinato in id
libro aliquo, separatim explicari, et subtiliter ac proprie diiudicari'. Another effort at concordance
is indicated by Possevino, 'Bibl. sel.' XIII (1593) ii, 87: 'Accedit ad haec perutile sane Seminarium
Platonicae simul et Peripateticae philosophiae, quod collegit loannes Baptista Bernardus, vir, qui
summis muneribus in Republica Veneta perfunctus, mirabili ordine, et labore universum
philosophiam per locos, ordinemque collegit: rei nempe cuiusque, qua de agitur, propositiones,
quae in earn in universum cadunt, turn divisiones, inde definitiones, deinceps causas, et ortus,
atque ad extremum, si quid dilucidius agendum sit, liquidiorem lucem ex ipso Platone, et
Platonicis afferens. Inter Platonicos autem, e quibus illud Seminarium confecit (licet Platonis
dialogos non redegerit in eas classes, in quas supra redactae sunt) philosophos tamen, et alios
auctores Christianos numeravit; qui sunt hi': a list follows beginning with 'Mercurii Trismegisti
Pimander, Asclepius' and including at the end Patrizi, Fox Morcillo and Piccolomini; cf. 98; and
'Bibl. sel.' xii.12 (1607) ii, 31-2: 'Quinam conciliare Aristotelem cum Platone, vel attentarunt, vel
polliciti sunt'; above nn. 66, 86, 74, below nn. 127 sqq.
98
Mendendez Pelayo, 'De las vicisitudes de la filosofia platonica en Espana' (1889/90), in
'Ensayos' (1948) 82; Villoslada, 'Storia del Collegio Romano' (1954) 78-9; Kristeller, 'Iter
Italicum', i (1963) 287: 'Bened. Pererius, Lectiones super libros de anima (Rome, 1566-67)', Bibl.
Ambrosiana, Milan, MS D 497 inf. (16 cent.).
99
Villoslada, op. cit. 79-80, 323-4, 327. On 16th-century Averrosim and its background cf.
Nardi, 'Saggi sull' Aristotelisrno Padovano' (1958).
100
Castellani, 'La vocazione . . . del Possevino' (1954) 105 n.
101
Cremonini studied philosophy at the University of Ferrara with Federico Pendasio and
became there a friend of Patrizi and of Torquato Tasso, and was called to the chair of philosophy in
1590. In the same year he was called to Padua, where he transferred in 1591: G.O. XX, 429-30;
Garin, 'Storia . . . ' (1966) 558 sqq., 580.
102
Pirri, 'II P. Achille Gagliardi . . . ' (1945) 33; see Cozzi, 'Gesuiti e politica sul finire del
Cinquecento' (1963), 'Galileo Galilei e la soceita veneziana' (1968) 12,15; cf. Favaro, 'Lo Studio
di Padova e la Compagnia di Gesu sul finire del secolo decimosesto' (1878). The Jesuits were
expelled from the Venetian Republic in 1606.
134
philosophy, especially its anticlericalism. On its part the Pinelli circle, after
Moleto's death in 1589, discussed Galileo in connection with the vacant
mathematical chair and at the same time the possibility of introducing the
study of Plato at the university. After Galileo had accepted the mathematical
post at Pisa, Benedetto Zorzi, a Venetian patrician who was an admirer of both
Plato and the Jesuits, wrote on 2 December 1589 to the Florentine Baccio
Valori (1535-1606) :103
. . . . I heard about Galileo from Signer Pinelli, and I am pleased that the way has
been opened to that man to show his learning publicly in a University. I am afraid
that the chair will still be vacant this year, because there is a lack [i.e. of
competent people] especially in this subject, the name of which Signer Contarini
and I kept alive in the memory of those who govern the University; in which I
should like on my part to see the study of Plato introduced, as I believe that His
Highness is likely to bring it back in Pisa; and I would be glad if you would kindly
let me know how this goes.
In 1588 the Grand Duke of Tuscany had in fact brought Mazzoni to teach
Platonic philosophy at Pisa.104 When Galileo eventually did go to the Paduan
mathematical chair in 1592 Pinelli's friendship drew him into his circle, as
distinct from that of Cremonini.105 But the university introduced no chair in
Platonic philosophy.
Platonic philosophy seems to have been first officially recognised in
university teaching at Pisa, when in 1576 the Grand Duke Francesco I
authorised Francesco Vieri ('il Secondo Verino') to give extraordinary lectures
on Plato in addition to his ordinary ones on Aristotle. Vieri had been active in
the Florentine Academy, and from 1553 had taught first logic and then natural
philosophy and medicine at Pisa.106 He was a friend of Baccio Valori107 and of
Antonio Persio,108 and was opposed to the kind of Aristotelianism taught at
103
G.O. x, 42; see for Zorzi G.O. xx, 561, Cozzi, op. cit. (1968) 13n.; for Valori G.O. xx, 551.
Cf. Serassi, 'La vita di Jacopo Mazzoni' (1790); Rossi, 'I. Mazzoni. . .' (1893); G.O. x, 446, xx, 479; Corsano, 'Per la storia . . . iv. 1: Mazzoni . . . ' (1959); Garin, 'Storia . . . ' (1966)
607-8, 614; Purnell, 'Jacopo Mazzoni. . .' (1972); Crescini, 'II problema metologica . . .' (1972)
365 sqq.; above n. 65, below nn. 133 sqq.
105
Cozzi, op. cit. (1968) 14; Gualdo, 'Vita . . . Pinelli' (1607) 29, 115. On Galileo and the
Jesuits at Padua cf. Nelli, 'Vita . . . di Galileo', i (1793) 25,112; Favaro, 'Galileo Galilei e lo Studio
di Padova', i (1883) 4, 72-99: Favaro (pp. 98-9) rejected Nelli's opinion that Jesuit hostility to
Galileo began at Padua.
106
See Fabbruccio, 'De Pisano Gymnasio . . . ' (1760) 132-4; Fabronius, 'Historia Academia
Pisanae', ii (1792) 96 sqq., 346 sqq., 469; and for a brief account of the introduction of Platonism
into Italian universities, Kristeller, 'Studies . . . ' (1956) 291-3, esp. 292 n. for the date 1576.
107
See Fabbruccio, ibid. 134; Viviani, 'Vita ed opera di Andrea Cesalpino' (1922) 170-1; cf.
Kristeller, ibid. 295, 323 n. and 290 n. for his correspondence with Patrizi; Bandini, 'Memorie per
servire alia vita del senator Pier Vettori' (1756) for his acquaintance at Pisa with Cesalpino;
Cochrane, The Florentine background . . .' in McMullin (ed.), 'Galileo' (1967) 126-7,136-7; and
cf. Campanella on Valori, G.O. xvii, 352 (1638).
108
Cf. Gabrieli, 'Verbali. . . dalla prima Accademia Lincei (1603-1630)' (1927), 'Notizio . . .
di Antonio Persio Linceo' (1933); G.O. iii, 366-8, xi, 298, 301-3.
104
135
109
Fabbruccio, ibid. p. 133; Fabronius, ibid, ii, 341 sqq., 353 sqq.
Fabbruccio and Fabronius, ibid.
111
Vieri, 'Discorso' (1568) 9; cf. his similar definition to Valori in 1590; Viviani, 'Andrea
Cesalpino' (1922) 170; Cochrane, op. cit. 136-7, nn. 48, 52.
112
Vieri, ibid. 75, cf. 72-75.
113
Ibid. 73-4.
114
Ibid. 79-80; citing Plato, 'Rep.' vii and Polybius.
115
Vieri, ibid. 84 sqq.:'. . . le matematiche sono utili anzi necessarie alle scienze specolative'.
110
136
116
Ibid. 88-96.
Ibid. 6.
118
Ibid. 96-7.
119
Ibid. 99; he wrote concerning the proposition that astrology 'predice le cose avvenire: la
quale scienza quanto agl' effetti piu universali, e piu semplici, come pioggie, vend, nevi, e altri
simili, i quali immediatamente dependono dal cielo, e dal lume suo, e certissima, e vera, di
maniera che di cotali effetti si apporra sempre 6 il piu delle volte il buono astrologo ogni volta,
purche oltre all'essere eccell. in cotal dotrina e'sia ancora diligente in calculare bene; usi buoni
stormenti, pigli el pun to vero; e in somma, osservi tutto quello, che si richiede'. For his reference
to Augustine and the Councils see p. 106. He made no reference to Copernicus.
117
137
does the contrary. Thus he would not take council in his acts because everything
would happen of necessity, and yet it is evident from experience that those who
take council act much better than those who act by chance. Otherwise justice
would be taken away . . . . Finally our most holy and true Christian religion, and
the Catholic and Roman Church, master of all truth and unable to err, teach that
man is free and that the heavens cannot constrain him.120
120
Ibid. 100,102. He illustrated his argument (p. 101) with the story of the Stoic Zeno's slave,
who claimed that he had broken his master's vase by necessity, to which Zeno replied that he
chastised him by necessity.
121
Ibid. 108-10; cf. Crombie The mechanistic hypothesis and . . . vision' (1967).
138
122
Vieri, ibid. Ill; Aristotle, 'De anima', ii.8, 419b 25-35. For perspective Vieri (pp. 112-3)
cited Euclid, Archimedes, Pecham and Witelo.
123
Vieri, ibid. 114-5; citing also the 'Republic' vii and the 'Laws'.
124
Vieri, ibid. 91-2.
125
Ibid. 115-6; see 113-20, esp. 117-8; the ancient Lydian and loniam modes excited the
concupiscent and amorous appetite; the Phyrigian mode the irascible and warlike; and the Dorian
the contemplative.
126
Ibid. 118-9, citing Plotinus and Aristotle's 'Polities', viii.7.
139
Moses who spoke in the Attic tongue';127 Justin Martyr, Augustine and Ficino
confirmed the conformity of Plato's doctrines with Christian theology. Cosimo
de' Medici, through his encouragement of Gemistus surnamed Plato because
he was 'almost a new Plato', of Ficino and the formation of a Platonic
Academy, and thereby of Pico della Mirandola, had by the will of Divine
Providence resurrected there in Tuscany the pious and divine philosophy of
Plato: 'which had originated from Zoroaster with the Persians, succeeded
among the Egyptians thanks to Mercurius Trismegistus and among the
Thracians through the work of Orpheus and Aglaophemus, and grew with the
Greeks and Italians under Pythagoras and with the Athenians through the care
of Plato'.128 Vieri paid attention in this work to concordance over the whole
range from moral teaching to accounts of the creation: 'God has produced the
whole universe as is said by Moses in the beginning of Genesis and by Plato in
the Timaeus', and also by Hermes Trismegistus in the 'Pimander'.129 His last
effort at concordance appeared in his final year at Pisa: 'Vere conclusioni di
Platone conformi alia dottrina Christiana et a quella d'Aristotile' (1590). This
was a polemical reply to his Aristotelian colleague Borri's 'De peripatetica
docendi atque addiscendi methodo' (1584). From Vieri's dedicatory preface to
Baccio Valori it seems that he had been obstructed by the Aristotelians in
giving his lectures and had been forced to abandon them.130
Meanwhile in Ferrara Patrizi is listed as lecturing on Plato's 'Republic' in
1578 and on Platonic philosophy in a number of subsequent years down to
1587. In that year he left, but Platonic courses seem to have continued in the
university.131 Patrizi was an all-out Platonist, concerned about concordance
with Christian theology but not with Aristotle. In the University of Rome the
Platonic impetus given by the mathematical scholar Raimondi was strengthened by Patrizi's appointment to a new chair in Platonic philosophy there in
1592, through the Neoplatonic interests of Ippolito Aldrobrandini, who had
in that year become Pope Clement VIII, and his family.132 A chair for the
introduction of lectures on Plato in Bologna had been discussed in 1588 and
Mazzoni proposed for it.133 But in that year he joined Vieri at Pisa, where he
127
Vieri, 'Compendio', dedicatory preface to Giovanna d'Austria, Gran Duchessa di Toscana
(1577) sig. a4-2; cf. for Numenius Pythagoricus of Apamea in Syria (2nd cent, A.D.) Sarton,
'Introduction', i (1927) 298; for Josephus, 'Against Apion', ii, 15-17, cf. Dewish, 'Antiquities'
i.2.3; and for his Hermetic Neoplatonic view of intellectual history, advocated in the 15th century
by Georgius Gemistus Pletho, Kieszkowski, 'Studi . . . ' (1939) 113 sqq.; Kristeller, The
Philosophy of Marsilio Ficino' (1943) 13 sqq., 'Studies . . . ' (1956) 36-7, 233; Saitta, 'II pensiero
italiano', ii (1950) 75 sqq.; Garin, 'L'umanismo italiano' (1953) 108 sqq., 'Studi. . . ' (1958) 153
sqq., 216 sqq., 'Storia . . .' (1966) 358 sqq.; Yates, 'Giordano Bruno' (1964) 14 sqq.; Wind, 'Pagan
Mysteries . . .' (1967) 241 sqq.; Walker, The Ancient Theology' (1972); cf. above nn. 66, 86,97.
128
Vieri, ibid. sig. a4+3; this Cosimo was 'Padre della Patria' (1389-1464); see for Algaophenus
etc. Kristeller, Studies . . . (1956) 233.
129
Vieri, ibid, c.ll (1577) index, and pp. 85 sqq., citing these three ancient authors.
130
Cf. Fabronius, op. cit. ii (1792) 347, 469; Kristeller, Studies . . . (1956) 292; Garin,
L'umanismo italiano (1952) 165, Storia . . . (1966) 587-8.
131
Solerti, 'Documenti riguardanti lo Studio di Ferrara' (1892) 32-48; Kristeller, Studies . . .
(1956) 191-2.
132
Renazzi, Storia dell'Universita di Roma, iii (1805) 31-2, 224-5.
133
Costa, Ulisse Aldrovandi e lo Studio Bolognese (1907) 90; Kristeller, ibid. 292.
140
remained until 1597 when he was brought by Clement VIII to succeed Patrizi
in Rome.134 In Pisa Mazzoni was eventually succeeded in his chair by another
of Galileo's academic colleagues, Fortunio Liceto (1577-1657), who held it
from 1605 until he moved to Padua in 1609.135 In the sixteenth century Platonic
philosophy seems to have been officially recognised only in Pisa, Ferrara and
Rome, followed briefly at the beginning of the seventeenth century by
Pavia.136
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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1926).
F. Argelati, 'Biblioteca degli volgarizz atori' . . . 5 torn. (Milano, 1747).
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machine se moventi, libri due', tradotti del Greco da Bernardino Baldi
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- da Urbino, Abate di Guastalla, 'Cronica de matematici overo Epitome dellIstoria delle vite loro' (Urbino, 1707).
- 'Vite de'matematici', pub. da E. Narducci, 'Vite inedite di matematici
Italiani scritte da Bernardino Baldi', 'Bullettino di bibliographia e di storia
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A.M. Bandini, 'Memorie per servire alia vita del Senator Pier Vettori'
(Livorno, 1756).
M. Barbera, S.I., 'La Ratio Studiorum e la parte iv delle Costituzioni della
Compagnia di Gesu' (Padova, 1942).
Francisci Barocii patritii Veneti 'Opusculum, in quo una oratio, et duae
quaestiones: altera de certitudine, et altera de medietate mathematicarum
continentur' (Patavii, 1560).
Isacci Barrow mathematicae professoris Lucasiani 'Lectiones habitae in
Scholis Publicis Academiae Cantabrigiensis: An. Dom. MDCLXIV (Londini, 1683).
134
Fabronius, Hist. Acad. Pisanae, ii (1792) 362-71, 469; Renazzi, ibid. 32-4; G.O. xix, 38-41,
xx, 479.
135
Fabronius, ibid. 374-5, 470.
136
Kristeller, ibid. 292. At Padua Francesco Piccolomini (a philosophical professor there from
1560 to 1604) was attracted to Plato, whom he tried to reconcile with Aristotle, and Federigo
Pendasio also taught Platonism while remaining an Aristotelian; but the University's basic
Aristotelianism was firmly maintained by Giacomo Zabarella (professor there 1564-89) and
Cremomini (professor there 1591-1631): G.O. xx, 429-30, 507, 559; Garin, 'Storia' (1966) 548
sqq., 558 sqq., 578, 656 sqq.
141
142
143
144
145
A. Koyre, 'Galileo and Plato', 'Journal of the History of Ideas', iv, 1943,
400-28.
P.O. Kristeller, The Philosophy of Marsilio Ficino (New York, 1943).
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Humanistic Manuscripts of the Renaissance in Italian and Other Libraries',
2vol. (London, 1963-67).
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G. Libri, 'Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italic, depuis la renaissance
des lettres', 4 torn. (Paris, 1838-41).
G. Lunadoro, 'Relatione della corte di Roma, e de'riti da osservarsi in essa, e
de'suoi Magistri et Officii, con la loro distincta giurisdittione' (Venezia,
1635).
L. Mabilleau, 'Etude historique sur la philosophic de la renaissance en Italic
(Cesare Cremonin)' (Paris, 1881).
T.P. McTighe, 'Galileo's 'Platonism': a reconsideration' in 'Galileo: Man of
Science', ed. E. McMullin (New York and London, 1967), 365-87.
A. Marongiu, 'I professori dell'Universita di Pisa sotto il regime granducale' in
'Studi in memoria di Lorenzo Mossa', ii (Padova, 1969), 589-602.
Jacobi Mazonii Caesenatis 'De triplici hominum vita, activa nempe, contemplativa et religiosa, methodi tres questionibus quinque millibus centum et
nonaginta septem distinctae, in quibus omnes Platonis et Aristotelis, multae
vero aliorum Graecorum, Arabum et Latinorum in universe scientiarum
orbe discordiae componuntur, quae omnia publice disputanda Romae
proposuit anno salutis 1576' (Caesenae, 1576).
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(Venetiis, 1597).
M. Mersenne, 'Synopsis mathematica' (Lutetiae, 1626).
Sebastiani Foxii Morzilli Hispalensis 'In Platonis Timaeum commentarii'
(Basileae, 1554).
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(Parisiis, 1560).
B. Nardi, 'Saggi di Aristotelismo Padovano dal secolo xiv al xvi' (Firenze,
1958).
G.B. de'Nelli, 'Vita e commercio letterario di Galileo Galilei' . . . , 2 vol.
(Losanna, 1793).
L. Olschki, 'Geschichte der neusprachlichen wissenschaftlichen Literatur', i
(Heidelberg, 1919), ii (Leipzig, 1922), iii (Halle a.S., 1927).
Menendez Pelayo, 'Ensayos di critica filosofica' in 'Obras completas', xliii
(Santander, 1948).
Francisci Patricii 'Nova de universis philosophia, in qua Aristotelica methodo
non per motum, sed per lucem, et lumina, ad primam causam ascenditur:
Deinde propria Patricii methodo; tota in contemplationem venit Divinitas:
146
Postremo methodo Platonica, rerum universitas, a conditore Deo deducitur' (Ferrariae, 1591).
Francesco Patrizi, 'Autobiografia di Francesco Patricio (1529-1597)', ed. A.
Solerti in 'Archivio storico per Trieste, 1'Istria e il Triento', iii, 1886,275-81.
Benedict! Pererii Societatis Jesu 'De communibus omnium rerum naturalium
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published as 'Physicorum, sive de principiis rerum naturalium libri xv'
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Benedictus Pererius, 'Adversus fallaces et superstitiosas artes, id est, de
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D'Antonio Persio, Trattato dell'ingegno deH'huomo' (Vinetia, 1576).
A. Persio, 'Index capitum librorum Abbatis Antonii Persii Lyncei Materani
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Platonicamente, intorno a le cose de 1'Ethica, Iconomica, e parte de la
Politica, e raccolta la somma di quanto principalmente puo concorrere a la
perfetta e felice vita di quello' . . . (Venetiis, 1542; 1545).
Alexandri Piccolomini . . . 'Commentarium de certitudine mathematicarum
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(Paris, 1884).
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movimento degli zelatori', 'Archivium historicum Societatis lesu', xiv,
1945, 1-72.
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147
148
Further References
See A.C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking . . . (1994) 763 n. 131, 766 n. 267,1824,1826; U.
Baldini, 'Christopher Clavius and the scientific scene in Rome' in Gregorian Reform of the
Calendar, ed. G.V. Coyne et al. (Citta del Vaticano, 1983) 137-69, Legem impone subactis: Studi
sufilosofia e scienza del Gesuiti in Italia 1540-1632 (Roma, 1992); G.P. Brizzi (a cura di), La 'ratio
studiorum': Modelli culturali e pratiche educative del Gesuiti in Italia tra Cinque e Seicento (Roma,
1981); A. Carugo, 'Giuseppe Moleto' in Aristotelismo veneto e scienza moderna, a cura di L.
Olivieri (Padova, 1983) 509-17; G. Codina Mir, Aux sources de la pedagogic des Jesuites: Le
'Modus Parisiensis' (Roma, 1968); N. Jardine, 'The forging of modern realism: Clavius and Kepler
against the sceptics', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, x (1979) 141-73; E. Knobloch,
'Christoph Clavius: ein Astronom zwichen Antike und Kopernikus' in Vortrage des erstens
Symposiums in Bamberger Arbeitskreises Antike Naturwissenschaft und ihr Rezeption, hrg. K.
Doring and G. Wohrle (Wiesbaden, 1990); J.M. Lattis, Ch. Clavius and the Sphere ofSacrobosco:
The roots of Jesuit astronomy on the eve of the Copernican revolution (University of Wisconsin
doctoral thesis, 1989); C. Naux, 'Le Pere Christophe Clavius, sa vie et son oeuvre', Revue des
questions scientifiques, liv (1983) 55-68,181-94; with Christophe Clavius, Correspondenza, a cura
di U. Baldini e P.D. Napolitani, 7 vol. in 14 (Pisa, 1992).
'He exalted Plato to the skies for his truly golden eloquence, and for his
method of writing and composing in dialogues; but above everyone else he
praised Pythagoras for his way of philosophising, but in genius he said that
Archimedes has surpassed all, and he called him his master'. The omission of
Aristotle's name from this honours list by Galileo's second seventeenthcentury biographer, Niccolo Gherardini, is no surprise; nor is his preceding
remark that, far from following current fashion in running Aristotle down,
Galileo praised his marvellous writing on literature and ethics but found that
'this great man's way of philosophising did not satisfy him, and that there were
in it fallacies and errors' (Galileo, Opere, xix, 645). Nevertheless, I shall
respond to the invitation given to me to discuss briefly some 'wider issues'
relating to Stillman Drake's very interesting paper, by taking up just one
question on which I shall argue that Aristotle had a far more profound
influence on Galileo's scientific thinking than remarks such as Gherardini's
might suggest.
Professor Drake make a point of stressing Galileo's alleged decision 'to limit
the scope of his inquiries to separate and well-defined areas, and not to seek a
general theory of the universe'. He seems to refer to the range of content or
subjects Galileo was prepared to consider. But going on to say that this is 'an
extremely important part of his scientific methodology', he cites the Dialogo
and // Saggiatore for examples of Galileo's limit being place on the expectation
of certainty rather than the range. Galileo's performance in scientific inquiry
was undoubtedly guided by his policy of selecting acceptably answerable
questions as much as by his criteria for acceptable answers. But whether
Professor Drake means that Galileo limited the range or the certainty he
expected science ultimately to achieve, I should argue that the opposite is true.
First Galileo's very effective method of limiting problems in order to solve
them was nearly always aimed in the end, whether through the science of
motion and mechanics or through telescopy, precisely at establishing not only
true methods of natural philosophy, but also the true general theory of nature.
This was a theory comprising matter and its properties as discovered by both
terrestrial and celestial inquiries, their bearing on cosmology, the relation of
150
151
152
153
154
Fig. 2 Autograph page of Galileo's Tractatio de caelo with the earliest reference in his
hand of Copernicus's great work: 'Nicol. Copn: in op. de revolutione orbinum
caelestinum' (Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, MS Galileiano 46, f.
22r).
155
156
if it was all copied from another source. Since the Tractatio de caelo is written
on the same kind of paper, watermarked with a faint CT or CL, they seem to
belong to the same period. Should both be placed at the end of Galileo's period
as a student at Pisa, before his return to Florence in 1585? But, as William
Wallace has pointed out to me, Galileo corrected mistakes in writing down this
total chronology (MS Galileiano 46, f.!0r) and when repeating it later wrote it
as 6,748 years without correction (f.!5v; corrected in Opere, i, 36), so it seems
to be fragile evidence. Moreover, in the Tractatio de caelo he quoted Clavius.
He visited Clavius in Rome in 1587 and evidently discussed astronomy, for in a
subsequent letter of 8 January 1588 (Opere, x, 22-23) he referred to the Jesuit's
still unpublished defence of the new Gregorian calendar. In his letter of 15
November 1590 (Opere, x, 44-45) to his father from Pisa, a year after he had
returned there as lecturer in mathematics, he awaits the arrival from him of 'la
Sfera', which could have been Clavius's. So perhaps we should date the
Tractationes de mundo et de caelo from his period either with his father at
Florence (when in 1588 he wrote his cosmographical lectures on Dante's
Inferno, on different paper however) or as a young lecturer at Pisa.
The Disputationes is written on paper without watermark. Since here he
does not mention Archimedes, explicitly the new enlightenment of his
Theoremata circa centrum gravitatis solidorum (dated late 1587 or early 1588:
see Carugo's edition of the Discorsi, 1958, pp. 840-847) and thereafter of the
lectures on the Inferno, the dialogue and treatise De motu, and La bilancetta
(dated 1586 by Favaro on Vincenzo Viviani's not always reliable testimony, but
plausibly later on other evidence to be discussed in our forthcoming book), it
seems that the Disputationes must probably precede these works. Of these La
bilancetta, the Dialogus de motu and part of the Tractatus de motu were written
on similar paper without watermark. He wrote the Tractatus de alteratione et de
elementis on the kind of paper, watermarked with a device of a lamb and flag
(Fig. 3), which he used also for the Inferno and for another part of the
Tractatus de motu. It has been argued, mainly from the doctrines proposed,
that he wrote both the dialogue and the treatise De motu after his return to Pisa
in 1589. If the paper is a guide to the date of the Tractatus de elementis, this
would connect the sudden appearance of citations of Galen in this work with
the seven volumes of Galen which Galileo said in the same letter of 15
November 1590 that he was expecting from his father with the Sfera. Some
years after giving up medicine, it was Galen the philosopher whom he cited.
In this letter he told his father that he was 'studying and having lessons with
Signer Mazzoni, who sends you greetings'. Must we then conclude that the
Tractatus de alteratione et de elementis was a study of these questions of
Aristotelian natural philosophy written by the young lecturer in mathematics
under the influence of Mazzoni, side by side with the critique of Aristotle he
was developing in De motu under the influence of Archimedes and Plato? The
targets for criticism are also indicated by Mazzoni: Aristotle's lack of
mathematics and his uncritical reliance on the senses. Galileo contrasted both
with his own new mathematical method, but neither criticism is incompatible
157
with his making at the same time a serious study of Aristotle's theory of the
elements and qualities and its ancient rivals.
In the unpublished volume I have already mentioned, I suggested that
Galen's exposition of atomist doctrines in his De elementis secundum
Hippocratem could have been a source of Galileo's later distinction between
primary properties and secondary qualities which he had known from that
time. This was also suggested by William Shea in his article 'Galileo's Atomic
158
159
160
161
this as perhaps only the most probable cause advanced so far, but he exposed
himself of course to a double accusation: that he was committing the logical
fallacy of affirming the consequent, for phenomena could not uniquely
determine their causes; and that he was claiming to demonstrate something
necessary not just about the world that existed but also about its omnipotent
Creator (cf. Antonio Rocco in 1633 on the Dialogo: Opere, vii, 628-629,
699-700).
Galileo's necessity surely belonged to a conception inherited from Greek
philosophy, that of the possibility of a completed and bounded knowledge of
all that does and can exist. God's omnipotence made this existentially
untenable, and this Galileo was to be careful to accept, by distinguishing his
arguments about the world God had in fact created from any suggestion that
God could be bound by any natural necessity (cf. Dialogo: Opere, vii, 128-131,
488-489; Lettera a Madama Cristina di Lorena: Opere v. 316-321). In his
scientific practice, the open-ended character of mathematics and experiment
and of the Archimedean argument ex suppositione (as in his letter of 7 January
1639 to Baliani: Opere, xviii, 12-13, aptly quoted by Stillman Drake), his
appreciation of the complexity of natural causes themselves in such phenomena as light and heat, above all his use of range of confirmation as the test of a
theory, notably of the new cosmology, effectively killed the scientific ideal of
necessary truth imposed by Aristotle's logic. What are we to make then of
Galileo's apparent blindness to this in expressions of continuing hope? Perhaps
just words. But it seems to me that we have here in the slow general
understanding of the difference that mathematical thinking made to traditional logic and to scientific explanation, found after all in sixteenth-century
attempts to put Euclid into syllogisms, a phenomenon in European intellectual
history, in European scientific methods mediated through cultural habits and
inherited preconceptions, that greatly merits attention.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
The subject of this paper (which has been checked by Adriano Carugo and is
presented as a result of our joint researches) is discussed in detail in our
forthcoming book to be published as: A.C. Crombie and Adriano Carugo,
Galileo's Arguments and Disputes in Natural Philosophy. This work is a
considerably revised version of our unpublished volume, Galileo's Natural
Philosophy (1968), which was awarded the Galileo Prize and is deposited in
the Domus Galilaeana, Pisa.
All citations of Galileo's published writings refer to Le Opere di Galileo
Galilei, A. Favaro, ed., 20 vols. (Florence, 1890-1909): cited in the text as
Opere. References are made to the major Latin edition Aristotelis Stagiratae
Omnia quae extant opera . . . Averrois Cordubensis In ea opera omnes qui ad
162
163
demonicum admonino (MSS Gal. 71, ff. 125-132; Procissi p. 151; Opere,
ix, 283-284).
4 On paper with watermark showing a forward-looking lamb with flag
enclosed in a circle with a cross above: Tractatus de motu (MSS Gal. 71, ff.
61-104, 133-134; Procissi p. 151; Opere, i. 251-312, 341-343).
5 On paper with watermark showing a swan on three semicircles (Briquet
no. 12550): Tractatus de motu (MSS Gal. 71, ff. 105-114; Procissi p. 151;
Opere, i, 312-326). This paper is whiter than that of the preceding and
succeeding folios. There are linking marks H on ff. 104V and 105r and 7 on
ff. 114V and 115r. Corrections and some repeated words throughout the
Tractatus de motu suggest that Galileo was making a fair copy on different
kinds of paper. In fact all the longer of these autograph writings show such
mistakes.
6 On paper with watermark showing a ladder in a shield; Dialogus de motu
(MSS Gal. 46, ff. 102-104: Procissi p. 123; Opere, i, 375-378, cf. 248);
Memoranda de motu (MSS Gal. 46, ff. 102, 104-110; Procissi p. 123:
Opere, i, 409-417); Italian-Latin vocabulary (MSS Gal. 46, f. 112; Procissi
p. 123; Opere i, 246), MSS Gal. 46, f. 113 continuing the vocabulary has a
watermark showing a star above the shield with the ladder (Briquet no.
5926), and this appears also on blank ff. 121-126.
Further References
A. Carugo, 'Les J6suites et la philosophie naturelle de Galilee: Benedictus Pererius et le De motu
gravium de Galilee' in Science: The renaissance of a history, ed. P. Redohdi (History and
Technology, iv; London, 1987) 321-33; J.M. Lattis, Ch. Clavius and the Sphere ofSacrobosco in
Further references to ch. 8.
For an up-to-date discussion of the dating of Galileo's writings see below ch. 10, with Appendix
(a).
Galileo Galilei, Dialogo (1632), Dialogo III: diagram of the Copernican system
with the Sun in the centre, surrounded by the orbits of Mercury, Venus, the
Earth with the Moon, Mars, Jupiter with its satellites, and Saturn.
10
1. Let us begin by saying first what is not the subject of this paper.
We will not discuss the personal relations between Galileo and the
Jesuits, because these have already been adequately discussed by the
Jesuit Fathers Adolf Miiller (1909) and Bellino Carrara (1914)'. Nor
are we concerned with any questions about the relation of the medieval
* This paper was presented in briefer form at the Novita Celesti e Crisi del Sapere:
Convegno Internationale di Studi Galileiani Pisa-Venezia-Padova-Firenze 19-26 marzo
1983. Since it is too long for the Atti of the Convegno, it is published instead here
in the Annali.
1
A. MULLER, Galileo Galilei und das Kopernikanische Weltsystem (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1909); B. CARRARA, La S. Scrittura, i SS. Padri e Galilei sopra il moto delta
terra (Verona, 1914), I Gesuiti e Galileo (Verona, 1914).
166
167
168
169
scientias participates non solere praecognoscere talia principia, non quia illorum notitia non sit necessaria, sed
quia per se nota supponuntur ab illis;
adde accendetem ad scientias debere
esse ita dispositum ut, cognitis principiis per se notis, illis assentiatur (f. 4v).
170
Dignitates quae ingrediuntur demonstrationem aliquam imperfectam, qualis est ilia quae ducit ad impossibile,
actu praecognosci debent. Probatur
ex Aristotele tex. 16, Philopono in
tex. 2, Temistio passim cap.6 12. Secundo, eadem ratione qua superiori;
nam dignitates quae ingrediuntur aliquam demonstrationem sunt principia
tanquam propria illius (f. 5v).
principia prima et immediata nullo modo posse probari, quia alias non essent
prima, quia darentur priora illis per
quae probarentur. Dices: Quid dicendum quando principia prima sunt ignota
et non possunt ostendi a posteriori?
Respondeo: pertinere ad scientiam
subalternantem probare talia principia
171
Tria esse quae quaestionem hanc perdifficilem reddunt. Primo, an de subiecto semper praecognoscendum sit esse existentiae actuale, quia multa
sciuntur a nobis semper, quae tamen
non semper existunt. Secundo, quare
non sufficiat praecognoscere esse essentiae tantummodo de subiecto.
Tertio, quare in aliquibus demonstrationibus non sit necessarium praecognosere an sit subiecti (f. 7r).
172
demonstrari aliquo genere demonstrationis, tamen vel inductione vel silogismo ipotetico ostendi possunt (f.
8v).
173
174
unpublished manuscripts indicate that some of the acoustical experiments to be reported in the D iscorsi (1638) were carried out by
Vincenzo during those years. Thus Galileo would have been introduced
by his father through the art of music both to experimental science
and also perhaps to a conception of natural philosophy. Vincenzo
became strongly antipathetic to the more numerological and cosmic
aspects of Platonism, and he insisted that an explanation of musical
experience must reach beyond Pythagorean conceptions of musical
harmony and proportion and look with Aristotle for some process of
physical causation13. It is strictly relevant to Galileo's intellectual
biography that Italian mathematicians and mathematical scholars in the
Science Foundation in 1971 to enable him to check the texts of these three Jesuit
authors: their names do not appear in the copy of his proposal which he sent
to us. Following the lines of research then going on independently, no doubt someone
was bound to have identified these Jesuit sources, even in a sea of possibilities. William
Shea did independently discover Galileo's use of Clavius about two years after us, without knowing of our work. We trust that these precisions will finally, in this small affair,
set the record straight.
More recently, Wallace has tried to show that Galileo used different Jesuit sources
from those we have identified. He has made a study of manuscript reports or summaries
of lectures given at the Collegio Romano during the last decades of the sixteenth century: see his Prelude to Galileo: Essays on medieval and sixteenth-century sources of
Galileo's thought (Dordrecht etc., 1981). This has provided the useful and interesting
information that Jesuit treatment of natural philosophy, in lectures as in books, followed
a similar pattern with similar contents, and that books and manuscripts alike have a
general resemblance to each other and to Galileo's scholastic writings. This has enriched
our knowledge of sixteenth-century scholasticism, of Jesuit university teaching, and of
the European intellectual scene. But it proves nothing about Galileo's sources. There
are evidently no specific resemblances between Galileo's writings and any of these manuscripts, which cannot be found also, and more closely, in the printed books. This is
not surprising, since it seems unlikely that Galileo would have spent time chasing
up in obscure manuscripts what he had already found in well-known publications in
print. We do not propose to discuss this line of speculation, because for Galileo there
is nothing
specific to discuss.
12
Cf. VIVIANI in XIX, 599-605, 627-8, cf. 36, 636-7, 645, II, 607-8; L. OLSCHKI,
Geschichte der neusprachlichen wissenschaftlichen Literatur, I (Heidelberg, 1919), II
(Leipzig, 1922), III (Halle a.S., 1927); E. PANOFSKY, Galileo as a Critic of the Arts (The
Hague, 1954); A. C. CROMBIE, "Science and the arts in the Renaissance: the search for
certainty and truth, old and new", History of Science, XVIII (1980) 233-46, and (1981)
above13 n. 2.
Cf. GALILEO, Discorsi, ed. with notes by CARUGO (1958) 702-14, above n. 2; C. V.
PALISCA, "Scientific empiricism in musical thought" in Seventeenth Century Science and
the Arts, ed. H. H. RHYS (Princeton, 1961); A. C. CROMBIE, "Mathematics, music and
medical science", Actes du XIIe Congres International d'Histoire des Sciences Paris
1968 (Paris, 1971) 295-310, (1983) above n. 2, and the forthcoming Marin Mersenne: Science,
Music and Language; S. DRAKE, "Renaissance music and experimental science", Journal of the
History of Ideas, XXXI (1970) 483-500; D. P. WALKER, "Some aspects of the musical theory
of Vincenzo Galilei and Galileo Galilei", Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, C
(1973-74) 33-47, Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London & Leiden, 1978).
175
176
baldo del Monte in 1602 with his first reference to the isochronism of
the pendulum and on the descent of bodies along the arcs and chords
of circles, he commented that "when we begin to have to do with
matter, because of its contingency the propositions considered in the
abstract by geometry begin to alter", so that they could not be regarded
as "certain science" such as was mathematics itself (X, 100). To Paolo
Sarpi he wrote in 1604 of his earliest (mistaken) law of free fall, that
since "I lacked a totally indubitable principle which could be taken as
an axiom in order to demonstrate the accidents I have observed, I have
been reduced to a very natural and evident proposition (ha molto del
naturale et deU'evidente}" (X, 115). From these distinctions much of
his future conception of science was to follow20.
In 1597 Galileo made his first dated references to Copernicus, in
his letters to Jacopo Mazzoni and to Kepler. The purpose of his letter
to the former was to refute with a mathematical demonstration (using
figures the same as in Clavius's Sphaera) an argument just published by
Mazzoni against Copernicus, whose Pythagorean opinion Galileo held to
be "much more probable" 21 than the opinion of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
To Kepler he wrote with congratulations on his Mysterium cosmographicum (1597), which he promised to read, rejoicing "to have
such a companion in the search for truth" when there were so few
"who do not follow a perverted method of philosophizing". He would
read the book the more willingly "because I came to the opinion of
Copernicus many years ago and the causes of many natural effects have
been found by me from such a supposition (post'tto) which are without
doubt inexplicable by the generally accepted hypothesis. I have written
down many reasons and refutations of counter arguments which
(1968), reprinted in his Paolo Sarpi tra Venezia e I'Europa (Torino, 1978); E. C.
PHILLIPS, "The correspondence of Father Christopher Clavius S. J. ...", Archivum
historicum Societatis lesu, VIII (1939) 193-222; Crombie (1977) above n. 2; below
nn. 28
sqq.
20
Cf. W. L. WISAN, "The new science of motion: a study of Galileo's De tnotu
locali", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, XIII (1974) 103-306, "Galileo's scientific
method: a reexamination" in New perspectives on Galileo, ed. R. E. BUTTS and J. C.
PITT (Dordrecht etc., 1978), "Galileo and the emergence of a scientific style" in
Theory
Change etc., ed. HINTIKKA, GRUENDER and AGAZZI (Dordrecht etc., 1981).
21
II, 198; referring to JACOBUS MAZONIUS, In universam Platonis et Aristotelis
philosophiam praeludia, sive De comparatione Platonis et Aristotelis (Venetiis, 1597):
Galileo's figures for the dimensions of the world in II, 201 are the same as those in
CHRISTOPHORUS CLAVIUS, In Sphaeram loannis de Sacrobosco commentarius (Romae,
1581) 209, 211; cf. W. HARTNER, "Galileo's contribution to astronomy" in Galileo: Man
of Science, ed. E. McMuLLiN (New York, 1967); W. R. SHEA, Galileo's Intellectual
Revolution (London, 1972); A. VAN HELDEN, "Galileo on the sizes and distances of the
planets", Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze, VII (1982) 70;
below n. 45.
177
however I have not dared until now to bring into the open, being
frightened by the fortunes of Copernicus himself, our master".
Copernicus had been derided by an infinity of "fools", hence he would
not himself "publish my thoughts" (X, 68). Kepler replied urging Galileo to have confidence and asking for further information (X, 70). He
guessed that Galileo had in mind proofs from the tides a, but Galileo
did not answer.
It seems clear that Galileo's serious commitment to Copernicus came with his telescopic discoveries of 1609-1610. He showed in his
remarkable response to the new star of 1604, with his strange Aristotelian explanation, almost an aversion to the new cosmology23.
Clavius had argued already in his Sphaera (1585 ed., pp. 191-5) in
agreement with Tycho Brahe that, since the new star of 1572 had no
observable parallax, it was to be considered a celestial body beyond the
Moon. He thought that the new stars and comets might be generated
in the celestial region. If this were true, it was up to the Aristotelians
to find arguments for Aristotle's opinion on the matter of the heavens.
He supposed that probably we should say that was not a fifth essence but
a mutable body, though less corruptible than sublunary bodies. Only
fragments remain of Galileo's autograph public lectures at Padua on the
new star of 1604. After stating some disagreements with Tycho Brahe
and Kepler, he gave his own explanation, resembling one given of comets
by Aristotle (Meteorologica 1.6, 343al-23, c.7, 344a5-37), that the new
star was not a star at all but an effect produced by the reflection of
sunlight from condensed vapours rising from the Earth to the celestial
sphere (II, 277-84, cf. 269-72). This was scarcely compatible with the
immense distance of the fixed stars cited in his refutation of Mazzoni's
argument against Copernicus. He cited observations he had made to
locate the phenomenon, on which Clavius wrote to him at the end of
the year (X, 121, cf. 117-9, 133, 136). He cited also a list of authors
who had written on new stars, including the Spanish scholastic philosopher Francisco Valles, or Vallesius, who had published a recent
commentary on the Meteorologica (1588) with another optical explanation. Another correspondent Leonardo Tedeschi sent him an account
of this and mentioned also Clavius and his opinions (X, 130-2, cf.
124-9, 137-41). Galileo wrote to a further correspondent in 1605
that the planned to publish his lectures, but not wanting to expose
"to the censure of the world what I think not only about the location of this light, but also about its substance and generation, and
22
KEPLER, Gesammelte Werke, hrg... W. VAN DYCK und M. CASPAR ... F. HAMMER,
XIII 23(1945) 192-3.
Cf. HARTNER (1967) above n. 21; below nn. 28-29.
178
that what he had already written applied likewise to the new star of
1604. Galileo published nothing, but we know that he was granted a
licence on 26 February 1607, repeated on 1 March 1610, to publish
a work entitled Astronomica denuntiatio ad astrologos24. Was this
his projected work on new stars and comets?
Again as late as 1606 in his Trattato delta sfera ovvero Cosmografia,
written for his students at Padua, despite a reference to "the greatest
philosophers and mathematicians who, considering the Earth to be a
star, have made it mobile" (II, 223), he offered a purely traditional
astronomy with the standard Aristotelian and Ptolemaic arguments
against such a proposition. The "subject of cosmography" he wrote
was the "description of the world" (mondo), but only that part of the
theory (la speculazione) dealing with the number and arrangement of its
regions and their shape, size and distance and motions found therein.
The consideration of their "substance and quality" was left to "natural
philosophy". As to "method, usually cosmography proceeds in its
theorizing with four". First there are "sensory observations (osservazioni sensate)" of the appearances of phenomena. Secondly there are
hypotheses (ipotesi), that is "suppositions (supposizioni) concerning the
celestial orbs such that they agree with the appearances", as that the
heavens were spherical and moved in circles with diverse motions, and
the Earth was at rest at the centre. Thirdly there were geometrical
demonstrations by which, from the properties of the circle and the
straight line, the particular properties (accidenti) following from the
hypotheses were demonstrated. Lastly there were arithmetical calculations which reduced the results to tables for practical convenience. We
could distinguish in the world as a whole two regions, and because
"it is true that our intellect is guided to knowledge of the substance
by means of the properties", we found between these two regions
notable differences. In one there were mutable elements always in a
process of generation and corruption and with a natural rectilinear
motion; the other, celestial region was immutable except for its eternal
circular motions (II, 211-2). Whether or not from motives of prudence, or from lack of interest, or because of specific teaching duties, he
seems to have paid little attention to Copernicus.
24
A. FAVARO, "Intorno alia licenza di stampa del ' Sidereus Nuncius' di Galileo
Galilei", Rivista delle biblioteche, n. 18-19 (1889) 98-103; cf. XIX, 227-8; below n. 37.
179
180
Cf. R. CAVERNI, Storia del metodo sperimentale in Italia, IV (1895) 267 sqq.;
GALILEO, Discorsi, ed. CARUGO (1958) 694 sqq., above n. 2; L. Sosio, "I ' Pensieri' di
Paolo26 Sarpi sul moto", Studi Veneziani, XIII (1971) 315-92; WISAN (1974) above n. 20.
Cf. SHEA (1972) above n. 21, CROMBIE (1975a) above n. 2.
27
Post. Anal, 1.2, 71b9-72a24, 6, 74b5-6, 10, 76a31-b31, see translation with notes
by J. BARNES (Oxford, 1975); also BARNES, "Aristotle's theory of demonstration", Phronesis, XIV (1969) 123-52; L. A. KOSMAN, "Understanding, explanation and insight in
the Posterior Analytics" in Exegesis and Argument, ed E. N. LEE et al. (Assen, 1973);
J. H. LESHER, "The meaning of NOUS in the Posterior Analytics", Pbronesis, XVIII
(1973) 44-68; and Articles on Aristotle, I: Science, ed. BARNES, M. SCHOFIELD, R. SORABJI
(London, 1975).
181
Compare I, 38-41, 41-7, 47-54, 48-50, 50-4 respectively with CLAVIUS, Spbaera
(1581) 42-6, 55-7, 63-4, 134-43, 68-70; Clavius in the 1594 edition of his book referred
to "Nicolaus Copernicus Prutenus, nostro hoc seculo astronomiae restitutor egregius"
(pp. 67-8) while still opposing his views; cf. CROMBIE (1975a) above n. 2; above nn.
21, 23.
182
183
AUGUSTINUS NIPHUS, In Aristotelis libros De coelo et mundo commentaria (Venetiis, 1553) f. 90vb; cf. DUHEM (1908) above n. 29; P. MANSION, "Note sur le caractere
geometrique de 1'ancienne astronomic", Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik, IX:
Festschrift... Moritz Cantor (1899) 275-92; G. E. L. OWEN, "TITHENAI TA PHAINOMENA" in Aristote et les problemes de methode, ed. S. MANSION (Louvain, 1961); J.
MITTELSTRASS, Die Rettung der Pbdnomene (Berlin, 1962); W. H. DONAHUE, "The
solid planetary spheres in post-Copernican natural philosophy" in The Copernican Achie
vement, ed. R. S. WESTMAN (Berkeley & Los Angeles, 1975); G. E. R. LLOYD, "Saving
the appearances",
Classical Quarterly, XXVIII (1978) 202-22.
33
MONTAIGNE, Essais, XII: "Apologie de Raimond Sebond", texte etabli par R.
BARRAL
avec P. MICHEL (Oeuvres completes, Paris, 1967) 237-8.
34
BENEDICTUS PERERIUS, De communibus omnium rerum naturalium principiis et
affectionibus
libri quindecim (Romae, 1576) 47-48; cf. CROMBIE (1977) above n. 2.
35
XII, 171-2, cf. V, 351, 357-61; X. M. LE BACHELET, "Bellarmin" in Dictionnaire
de theologie catholique, II (Paris, 1905) 560-99, "Bellarmin et Giordano Bruno", Gregorianum, IV (1923) 193-201; G. DE SANTILLANA, The Crime of Galileo (Chicago, 1955);
U. BALDINI, "L'astronomia del Cardinale Bellarmino" in the Atti of the Convegno (1983).
185
and then later to argue for its motion. He used Clavius's two criteria
in the anxious years 1615-1616 to argue for Copernicus from the new
evidence of his telescopic discoveries and from his new dynamics and
mechanics, with which he aimed to destroy Aristotelian physics and to
replace it with a true system. Hoping to persuade above all Bellarmine,
he set out these arguments in his letter of 23 March 1615 to Piero
Dini, his Considerazioni circa I'opinione Copernicana, his Lettera a
Madama Cristina di Lorena, and his Discorso del flusso e reflusso del
mare finished in January 1616. Astronomers, he wrote in the Considerazioni, "have made two sorts of suppositions: some are primary
and concerned with the absolute truth in nature; others are secondary,
and these have been imagined to provide the reasons for the appearances in the movements of the stars, and they show how these
appearances are in a certain way not concordant with the primary and
true suppositions". Thus Ptolemy supposed "not as pure astronomer
but as purest philosopher" that the celestial movements were all
circular and uniform, that the Earth was immobile at the centre of
the celestial sphere, and so on. Then he introduced his secondary
suppositions as epicycles and eccentrics to account for the phenomena,
but certainly not as fictions. Copernicus likewise put the mobility of
the Earth "among the primary and necessary positions in nature (posizioni prime e necessarie in naturaY'. Galileo then made the remarkable
assertion that, "if discursive reasoning is not enough to make us
understand the necessity of having to put the eccentrics and epicycles
really in nature, we must be persuaded of it by the senses themselves"
(V, 357-60), for in the Copernican system the orbits of Venus and
Mercury like those of Jupiter's four satellites were literally epicycles
and the orbits of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn literally eccentrics. Far
from these having been introduced as fictions, "they must be admitted
in our time with absolute necessity, since they are shown to us by the
senses themselves" (V, 298). This seems vindication of Qavius indeed.
Galileo's final argument from the tides in the Discorso was again
remarkable for its criteria of decision. He introduced with this a new
physical criterion for identifying, the true astronomical system, as that
which was uniquely possible within a single uniform system of terrestrial
and celestial dynamics. It was an ambitious attempt to extend the
Archimedean method, with its use of models, from terrestrial to celestial
phenomena. At the same time it was an attempt to give a truly
scientific demonstration in the Aristotelian sense, by means of an
hypothesis "that seemed reciprocally to harmonize the mobility of the
Earth with the tides, taking the former as the cause of the latter,
and the latter as an indication and argument for the former" (V, 393).
Then cause and effect would be convertible: this cause must necessarily
186
produce those effects, and those effects must necessarily entail this cause
and no other. The search for convertibility presupposed the framework
of the syllogistic modus ponendo ponens and modus tollendo fattens.
Here the aim of true demonstration was to discover definitions in which
cause and effect, or substance and properties, were convertible: the
substance was defined uniquely by those properties and those properties
were uniquely properties of that substance. Hence, beginning with
the observation of properties, it was necessary to know exhaustively
all the possible substances of which they could be properties. Then
if those were eliminated one after the other, what remained must be the
one true substance and definition concerned. Mersenne and Newton
were to object to this form of argument in science. Galileo's scientific
originality in the great cosmological debate lay in his use of range of
confirmation as the decisive test of a true theory. Thus he insisted
in his First Letter about the Sunspots (1612) that his discovery that
Venus had phases like the Moon "will leave no room for anyone to
doubt what the revolution of Venus is, but will decide with absolute
necessity, in conformity with the positions (posizioni] of the Pythagoreans and of Copernicus, that the rotation of Venus is round the Sun,
round which, as the centre of their revolutions, revolve all the other
planets" (V, 99). This was "indubitably demonstrated" by this "single
experience" (199). In this way he wrote later, his telescope had
provided through "sensory observations that can in no way be adapted
to the Ptolemaic system, but are very sound arguments for the
Copernican" (328), evidence not available to Copernicus himself (VII,
349-50, 363). The criterion of range of confirmation gave to the
experimental and mathematical sciences their open-ended character.
But Galileo never came to see clearly, at least in his Copernican
disputes, that their different logical form led to different logical
consequences from the Aristotelian truly scientific apodeictic demonstration. Nor did his opponents. Hence the cross-purposes so evident in
the later stages of these disputes. Bellarmine had demanded such a
demonstration of the Earth's motions. One of Galileo's most hostile
critics, the Aristotelian philosopher Antonio Rocco, a former student
at the Collegio Romano, dismissed his arguments in the Dialogo (1632)
from tides and telescope alike with the challenge: "But come on, if
there is a necessary truth and conclusion such that it is also evident
as you say, show the evidence, bring in the reasons and the causes,
leave persuasion to rhetoric, and no one will contradict you" (VII,
629). Since there were several ways of saving the appearances, Galileo
by "putting forward only one, fell into the error of the consequent".
Galileo noted in reply: "You are mistaken because you do not
understand what you are saying...: but the structure of the world is just
187
one, and it has never been otherwise: therefore someone looking for
something other than this one that exists is looking for something false
and impossible" (699-700).
We may introduce at this point a document found by Carugo in the
Pinelli collection in the Ambrosian Library which, if authentic, would
be profoundly puzzling for the history of Galileo's Copernicanism.
This is an unaddressed, unsigned and undated letter in handwriting
resembling Galileo's but not clearly identifiable. Since it is among the
Pinelli manuscripts it should date from before his death in 1601.
The author was writing to replace an earlier letter with "notes on
mechanics" which had gone astray. He continued: "Concerning my
treatise De motu celesti, I may say that it is in three books which make
twenty-one folios... The figures will be rather numerous, as in Sacrobosco's Sphaera ... In my doctrine I show not only the necessity of lines
and numbers, but also the necessity of physical (naturali] operations
The treatise is by way of introduction... In this way an easy route is
opened, not only into the apparent motions of the fixed stars and
planets, but also the calculations of the distances and motions of the
comet: a thing considered impossible by previous writers. Furthermore
by experience I can affirm this, that those who feel uneasy with the
usual theories of planets do not find any difficulty whatever in our
Pythagorean theory but on the contrary great satisfaction, so that it
seems to me that I would not have as many copies as could be sold.
The same hypotheses have been followed by Copernicus, a truly singular
man to whom I am much indebted. But he left there a gross scale
of useless revolutions and fictional motions alien to reason and to the
nature of things and to the necessity of appearances" 36. If this letter
was by Galileo, what was the treatise De motu celesti? Could it have
been a Copernican revision of a now unknown work to which Galileo
referred in De motu gravium as "our lost commentaries on the
Almagest of Ptolemy, which... will be published in a short time"
(I, 314)? Could it have been the projected Astronomica denuntiatio
ad astrologos? We know that Galileo once projected a work on
comets, which were in fact discussed at length by Clavius in his
Sphaera37. The unidentified letter shared Galileo's preference for
theoretical simplicity and belief in natural as well as mathematical
necessity, but unlike both Galileo and Clavius it seems to accuse
Copernicus of introducing fictions. Nothing has been established.
Necessity was a central theme alike of Galileo's logical Disputationes and of his scientific writings to the end of his life. An account
36
37
188
189
190
191
192
Cf. ARISTOTLE, Post. Anal. 1.3, translated with notes by J. BARNES (Oxford,
1975); DESCARTES, Discours de la methode, VI, texte et commentaire par E. Gilson
(Paris, 1947) 181-91, 470-4; N. JARDINE, "Galileo's road to truth and the demonstrative
regress", Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, VI (1976) 277-318; above
n. 27.
193
and vice versa". But a regress was possible in the second way only
"provided that it takes place in a different kind of cause, or in the same
kind but not in the same respect (ratio] and does not lead to the same
thing". For "it could happen that someone knows the effect but not
the cause", and then "from the existence of the effect he proves the
existence of the cause", but still "he does not know the reason why it
belongs to the effect... Now this can be proved through a demonstrative
regress, for it has a necessary connection such as that of the reason
for the effect with the cause, and one of the two can be assumed as
better known in order to prove the other". To an objection that, for
example, "vapour is the material cause of rain and rain is the material
cause of vapour" was circular, he replied that here the causes were
different, for we demonstrated rain by condensation and vapour by
rarefaction, so there was no circle. To the question whether the
progress from the cause to the reason for the effect showed the
existence of the effect, he replied with St. Thomas that here "indeed
existence cannot be proved by a perfect demonstration absolutely and
simpliciter, but it can be propter quid." Then:
You will ask secondly: in which sciences do we think that there is such
a circle. I reply: the demonstrative regress is useful to the completion
of all sciences, but it is most frequent in the physical sciences. The
explanation for this is that in most cases the physical causes are unknown
to us. In mathematics there is almost no use for such a demonstrative
regress, because in such disciplines the causes are better known both by
nature and to us. You will ask thirdly: what are the requirements of a
demonstrative regress. I reply, they are these...: that in it there should
be two progressions of demonstration, one from effect to cause, the other
from cause to effect. Second: that we should start from demonstration
quia... Third: that the effect should be better known to us... Fourth:
that once the first progress has been completed, we should not immediately start the second, but we should wait until the cause, which
we know materially, becomes known to us formally. This is the reason
why demonstration propter quid cannot take place unless we know
beforehand the cause formally. You will object: then it would follow
that the demonstration propter quid is useless, as it is made for the very
purpose of knowing the formal cause. I deny this consequence: for
although someone who knows the formal cause knows virtually the
reason why (propter quid] the attribute belongs to the subject, yet he
does not know it actually unless he makes a true demonstration. From
this it follows that a regress is not properly a circle, since it proceeds
from the effect to the material cause and from the cause known formally
to the reason for (propter quid] the effect. Fifth condition: that the
demonstrative regress should take place through convertible terms. For
if the effect had a wider extension than the cause, it would make
the first progress impossible. Therefore the following inference is not
valid: there is light, therefore there is the Sun. On the other hand,
if the cause has a wider extension than the effect, it would make the
194
195
196
of utility Plato placed the mathematical not only prior to the natural but
prior to all sciences " and to all arts 42. Clavius made the same point, again
strongly influenced by Proclus, in his own influential commentary on
Euclid. For "the mathematical disciplines deal with things without any
sensible matter, but really they are immersed in matter". From their intermediate position " they demonstrate everything they undertake to dispute
by the firmest reasons and confirm them so that they truly produce
scientia in the mind of the hearer, and they utterly remove all doubt;
something which we can scarcely ascribe to other sciences". Mathematics were thus an antidote to the Pyrrhonists, "philosophers who
decided nothing but doubted about everything". He insisted that the
"linear demonstrations" of geometry were not syllogisms, and that
dialectical arguments (as in the Topics] were very different from
mathematics: "For in a dialectical problem either one or the other
part of a contradiction being undertaken is only probably confirmed,
so that each man's intellect is in doubt which part of it is true; but in
mathematics, whichever part a man chooses he will prove with firm
demonstration, so that there is no doubt left at all" 43. Hence his
argument that mathematics should be made an essential subject of study
at the Collegio Romano, for "natural philosophy without the mathematical disciplines is lame and incomplete" 44. This was matched by the
note written by Galileo in 1612 during his hydrostatical controversies
that he "being used to study in the book of nature, where things are
written in only one way, would not be able to dispute any problem
ad utranque par tern or to maintain any conclusion not first believed or
known to be true" (IV, 248).
Likewise Mazzoni in his In universam Platonis et Aristotelis
philosophiam praeludia (1597), the work about which Galileo had
written to him in that year, maintained that mathematics was essential
to all physical demonstrations. Once more he acknowledged Proclus.
Mathematics was not concerned with the final cause, but demonstrated
through the formal cause and in "mixed mathematics" which "include
matter and motion" also through other appropriate causes: "something
42
19 7
Cf. A. KOYRE, "Galileo and Plato", Journal of the History of Ideas, IV (1943)
420-1; CROMBIE (1969) above n. 2; F. PURNELL JR., "Jacopo Mazzoni and Galileo",
Physis, XIV (1972) 273-94; GALLUZZI (1973) above n. 41; JARDINE (1976) above n.
38; also nn. 4, 21.
198
Aristotle provided for Mazzoni the best criteria, for the latter Plato,
who showed how reason could ascend "to the principles and causes
of things" (XVI, 175-6).
This was a suitable distribution of favours by the incumbent of the
chair at Pisa in both Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy which Mazzoni held from 1588 to 1597. Galileo met him, a friend both of Vincenzo Galilei and of Guidobaldo del Monte, on his return to Pisa as
mathematical lecturer in 1589. In writing to his father in 1590 about
some volumes of Galen and "la Sfera" which he was expecting, he
added that he was "studying and having lessons with Signer Mazzoni",
an association evidently pleasing also to Guidobaldo del Monte and to
Mazzoni himself (X, 44-7, 55, XIX, 34-41, 627). In his letter to Mazzoni of 1597 Galileo wrote from Padua with warm appreciation of the
many kindnesses he had received at Pisa from his old mentor, colleague
and friend and of the "universal learning" shown by his book. He
continued that he was greatly satisfied and consoled to see Mazzoni, "in
some of the questions which in the first years of our friendship we used
to dispute together with such delight, incline to the side that had
seemed true to me and the opposite to you". Perhaps this had been
"to give scope to the arguments", or to save "intact in every detail,
the genuineness of the learning of so great a Master, under whose
discipline it seems that all who dedicate themselves to search for the
truth do and must gather together" (II, 197-8). The Master must have
been either Aristotle or Plato, but for Mazzoni surely Plato.
The model used in their different ways by Clavius and Mazzoni, and
perhaps following these two preceptors also by Galileo, was the
account given by Proclus of the relation of mathematics at once to
existence and to human understanding and practice, in his In primum
Euclidis Elementorum librum Commentariorum ad universam mathematicam disciplinam principium eruditionis tradentium libri IV (1560)46.
Proclus gave to the Platonic scheme of existence set out in the Republic
the Aristotelian logical structure of the Posterior Analytics. Mathematical existence, in its intermediate position between the highest simple
realities grasped only by intellectual intuition and the complex extended
objects of the senses, was explored by discursive reasoning. Mathematical knowledge then could lead both upwards to the apprehension of
the absolutely intelligible principles of all existence, and downwards
into the investigation of the detailed construction of the material
46
Latin translation by Barozzi (Padua, 1560); quotations below are with slight
modifications from the English translation by G. R. MORROW (Princeton, 1970): the
suggestion that Galileo used Proclus was made by JARDINE (1976) 317, above n. 38;
cf. also n. 14, and CROMBIE, Stvles... above n. 16.
199
200
201
to impossibility, which does not directly show the thing itself that is
wanted but, by refuting its contradictory, indirectly establishes its
truth... Reduction is a transition from a problem or a theorem to
another which, if known or constructed, will make the original proposition evident" (Propositions, I. 1). His example was the reduction of
the problem of doubling the cube to that of finding two mean proportionals. In the third method he explained: "Every reduction to impossibility takes the contradictory of what it intends to prove and from
this as a hypothesis proceeds until it encounters something admitted to be
absurd and, by thus destroying its hypothesis, confirms the proposition
it set out to establish" (I. 5). This corresponds logically in natural
science to a form of experimental falsification within a defined number
of possible hypotheses.
Galileo combined in De motu gravium mathematical with syllogistic
arguments in his analytical search for true relations of cause and effect.
The writings, for which following E. Alberi we use this title, are
collected in Ms. Galileiano 71. They were first published in part by
Alberi in 1854 in his edition of Galileo's Opere, and later in full
with the title De motu by Favaro in the first volume of the Edizione
Nazionale (1890). Galileo appears in De motu gravium deeply preoccupied with the issues that dominated his scientific life: the proper
methods of inquiry and demonstration in natural philosophy, and the
discovery with them of the true constitution of the universe. His style
of argument came from the twin models of the postulational method of
Archimedes and the Aristotelian syllogistic structure leading to either
the confirmation or the falsification of the premises by confronting their
conclusions with experientia or ratio. This term meant both, reasoning
and accepted theory. Terminology in this mixture got some changed
applications. Thus he wrote: The method (methodus) that we shall
observe in this treatise will be such that what ought to be said always
follows from what has been said; nor shall I ever (if I may) assume
as true what ought to be demonstrated. This is the method which my
mathematicians have taught me: but it is not adequately observed by
certain philosophers..." (I, 285). Notable among these was Aristotle
in his physics, "because he assumed as known axioms what are not
only not clear to sense, but neither ever demonstrated nor even
demonstrable, since they are absolutely false" (I, 277-8). But Galileo
habitually put his argument in the form of a hypothetical syllogism,
usually to refute some opposing opinion by leading it to a reductio ad
contradictionem, ad impossibile, or ad absurdum47. His own characte47
202
ristic style appears in the use and content of ratio and its relation to
experentia. Aristotle, he wrote, had kept too close to superficial
experience, but he himself would "always use reasons more than
examples (for we search for the causes of the effects, which are not
given in experience)" (I, 263). Essential to the ratio of physics was
mathematics, and he repeated the criticism that "Aristotle was not very
well versed in geometry" (I, 302). An illustration was the demonstration of the falsity of one of his relevant conclusions by "the divine
Archimedes" (I, 303). At the same time true ratio must be based on
true experientia, but the relation between them was subtle. Sometimes
plausible but false opinions gained currency because no one bothered to
scrutinize them, as the "common opinion" that things appeared larger
under water. When he "could not discover a cause for such an effect,
at length turning to experience" he found that there was no such effect,
at all with things seen simply under water, but only with things seen
through the curved sides of a glass vessel containing water (I, 314).
Sometimes our situation was the converse, as he wrote later of odours
given off by fruit and flowers. For "we never can observe those
odoriferous atoms", whether evaporating or condensing, but "when
sensible observation is wanting, argument (discorso) must take its place,
by whose help we shall be sufficiently able to apprehend the motion to
the rarefaction and resolution of solids, as well as that to the condensation of the finest and most rare substances" (VIII, 105). But it was
not always easy to discover the nature of things. So he concluded
of the continuing motion of projectiles that such "a movable body
moving with other than natural motion is moved by a power impressed
(virtus impressa) on it by a mover. But what that power is, is hidden
from our knowledge". A deleted addition continued: "And in the
same way what power it is that makes strings resound is also hidden
from our knowledge" (I, 374).
De motu gravium was an essay in physical cosmology. Archimedes
supplied Galileo with a new model not only for scientific method, but
also for the primary physical problem with which he was concerned, the
disposition and motions of the four elements in relation to the central
Earth. From this model much else for physics followed. Galileo
agreed with Plato in the Timaeus that the disposition and motions of
the elements were the result of their relative gravities. He then
introduced Archimedes in order to reduce the cosmological order of the
elements to a problem of hydrostatics on the model of bodies floating
here are with slight modifications from the English translation by I. E. DRABKIN in
GALILEO GALILEI, On Motion and On Mechanics, by DRABKIN and S. DRAKE (Madison,
Wise., 1960).
203
Cf. Tractatus de dementis (I, 157-60) and VIII, 634-5, XI, 350, 506, 545, XII,
139-40, 157-8, 167-8, XV, 12-15, XVII, 377-8; J. P. ANTON, Aristotle's Theory of Contrareity (London, 1957); G. E. R. LLOYD, Polarity and Analogy: Two types of argumentation in early Greek thought (Cambridge, 1966); F. SOLMSEN, Aristotle's System of
the Physical World: A companion to his predecessors (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960); F. S. TAYLOR,
"The origin of the thermometer", Annals of Science, V (1942) 129-56; W. K. MIDDLETON,
A History of the Thermometer (Baltimore, Md., 1966); below nn. 59, 62.
204
but merely did as she fancied and as chance would have it". He
racked his brains "to think of some expedient and suitable, if not
necessary, cause: and indeed I discovered that it was not without the
best of reasons that nature had chosen this order. For since there is
a single matter for all bodies, and those bodies are heavier that enclose
more particles of that matter in a narrower space, it was certainly
rational that those bodies that contained more matter in a narrower
space should also occupy the narrower places such as those that are
nearer the centre" (I, 344-5, cf. 252-3). Thus, as suggested perhaps by
the Timaeus and the atomists, he reduced relative gravity to the relative
condensation and rarefaction of matter. "In accordance with reason,
therefore, we shall say that motion towards the centre is natural, and
motion away from the centre unnatural": the intrinsic cause of all
motion was weight, and at the centre bodies came to rest (I, 352-4).
Archimedes and "the ancients" (I, 359), which in the scholastic
tradition meant the Greek atomists and Plato in contrast to Aristotle,
thus taught Galileo how he might reduce the whole physical world to a
coherent uniform system of mechanics. Archimedes taught him also the
analytical device of reducing physical problems to their mathematical
essence by idealized abstractions from which all material accidents such
as friction and irregular shape had been eliminated, and in which
unimportant departures from strict physical truth were ignored. GaKleo followed his example with skill in his analysis in De motu gravium
of motion on an inclined plane. He argued that "a movable body
having no external resistance on a plane inclined no matter how little
below the horizon will descend naturally, without the application of
any external force", whereas on "a plane inclined upwards, no matter
how little" it "does not ascend except by force". Hence "on the
horizontal plane itself the body is moved neither naturally nor violently" and so "can be made to move by the smallest force of all".
In demonstrating this he used an argument from the balance for which
he assumed "as true what is false: namely, that weights suspended from
a balance make right angles with the balance, when really the weights
tending to the centre converge". Covering himself "with the protecting
wings of the superhuman Archimedes" who had made the same assumption, he commented that Archimedes "did so perhaps to show that
he was so far ahead of others that he could draw true conclusions
even from false assumptions". We must not suppose that his
conclusion was false, for he had proved it by another demonstration.
Hence we must say either that the suspended weights do make right
angles "or else that it is of no importance that they make right angles"
but enough that the angles are simply equal. The latter seemed
sounder, unless we wanted to call it "geometrical licence" as when
205
Archimedes assumed that surfaces had weight. That was not the end
of the problem of relating mathematics to matter. For "our demonstrations must be understood of movable bodies free from all external
resistance. But since perhaps it is impossible to find these bodies in
matter, someone making a trial on them (de his periculum faciens)
should not be surprised if the experiment fails (si experientia frustretur]
and a large sphere, even though it is on a horizontal plane, cannot be
moved with a minimal force". Further, there was in addition the fact
that "a plane cannot actually be parallel to the horizon. For the surface
of the Earth is spherical, and a plane cannot be parallel to this". Since
"the plane touches the sphere at only one point (piano in uno tantum
puncto sphaeram contingente], if we move away from .such a point,
we must be moving up", and so it would be impossible to move the
sphere "with an arbitrarily minimal force" (I, 299-301, cf. 296-9, 340,
407-8, VII, 52, VIII, 190, 197, 202-3)49.
If Archimedes supplied the mathematical method, De motu gravium
remained in much of its physical theory and methods of argument, and
in its metaphysical expectations, fundamentally Aristotelian. Galileo
based its dynamics on the Aristotelian principle that motion like any
positive effect required an adequate cause, hence a continuing velocity
required a continuing motive power and a change in velocity a change
in effective power. He retained the distinction between natural and
unnatural motion. In searching for the changing effective power
bringing about the acceleration of falling bodies, he wrote that "we
shall use this resolutive method (resolutiva methodo) to track down
what we believe to be the true cause of this effect" (I, 318). His
resolution was nonmathetaatical, and was in fact based on Pereira's
De communibus... as we show below (I, 318-20). Most characteristic
in its resemblance to the Disputationes was his search for necessary
causes and demonstrations.
These were essential likewise to any practical science of mechanics.
"Before I descend to the speculation of mechanique instruments," he
wrote in the version of Le mecaniche published by Favaro, " I have
thought it very fitt to consider in generall the commodityes that are
drawen from them. The rather, because (if I deceive not my self) I
49
Cf. on this question N. KOERTGE, "Galileo and the problem of accidents", Journal
of the History of Ideas, XXXVIII (1977) 389-408; also Vocabulario degli Accademici
della Crusca (Venezia, 1612): "Cimentare, cimento, vedi Esperimentare, Esperimento"
(p. 182); "Tentare. Far prouva, cimentare. Lat. tentare, experiri, periculum facere" (p.
881). These terms were common synonyms and were used by Galileo as such, without
distinguishing active testing from passive observation, despite C. B. SCHMITT, "Experience and experiment: a comparison of Zabarella's view with Galileo's in De motu",
Studies in the Renaissance, XVI (1969) 114 sqq.
206
have scene all enginiers deceiv'd, while they would apply their engines
to works of their owne nature impossible; in the success of which
both they themselves have bene deceiv'd, and others also defrauded of
the hopes they had conceiv'd upon their promeses...; as if, with their
engines they could cosen nature (ingannando... la natura], whose
inviolable lawe it is, that noe resistence can be overcome by force which
is not stronger than it. Which belief how false it is, I hope by true
and necessary demonstration to make most manifest" (II, 155, cf. 156,
158, 179-80)50. Citing in this treatise not only Archimedes and the
Aristotelian Mechanica but also Pappus's Mathematicae collectiones, he
stressed the generality of mechanical principles. Thus he wrote of the
effects of percussion, as with a hammer: "the cause of which, though
it be in nature somewhat obscure and hard to be unfolded", he would
try to make "clere and sensible, shewing at last the beginning and
original (// principle ed origine] of this effect to be deriv'd from no
other fountaine than that from whence flow the causes of other
mechanicall effects". Force, resistance, space and velocity "goe alternately following such a proportion and answering such a law (leggeY as
they followed in every mechanical operation; "and this is according
to the necessary constitution of nature (la necessaria constituzione delta
naturaY "Arguing by the converse,... if it were otherwise, it were not
only absurd, but impossible". So "all wonder ceases in us of that
effect, which goes not a poynt out of the bounds of nature's constitution" (II, 188-9).
Again in his Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in sull'acqua
(1612) Galileo continued to use the terminology of the Disputationes
to point to the same scientific objectives. As in De motu gravium he
combined Aristotelian with Archimedean models both in form of
argument and in physical concepts, and he tried to reduce general
questions of the constitution of matter and the universe to specific
problems soluble by natural science. This work was his first published
contribution to experimental physics. If he contradicted so great a man
as Aristotle, he wrote, this was not by caprice or because he had not
read and understood him, "but because reasons persuaded him to it,
and Aristotle himself had taught him to quieten the intellect (quietar
I'intelletto] by what has convinced me by reason, and not only by the
authority of the master" (IV, 65). His first aim then was "to
introduce true demonstrations" from "the true, intrinsic and total
cause" (IV, 67, cf. 79). His method of identifying the true cause was
"to remove, in making the experiment (I'esperienza], all the other
50
207
causes that can produce this same effect" (IV, 19), leaving only this
one. For the "cause is that which, when present, the effect follows
and, when removed, the effect is removed" (IV, 27, cf. 22). The
quantitative relation between an adequate cause and its effect had been
well defined by Luca Valeric in commenting to Galileo in 1609 on
"principles of a middle science". A "geometrical intellect with some
light, either natural or acquired, from metaphysics" would, he wrote,
understand "that when the power of the efficient cause is multiplied it
is necessary that the quantity of the effect should be multiplied according to the same multiplication, deducting from it every kind of
impediment". For "we measure the quantity of the cause with the
quantity of the effect" (X, 248, cf. 245)51. Archimedes had demonstrated that floating or sinking depended on the excess in gravity of the
water or of the body relative to each other. Galileo continued: "By
a different method and by other means I shall manage to prove the
same, by reducing the causes of such effects to more intrinsic and
immediate principles... And since this is required by the demonstrative
progress (la progressione dimostrativa\ I shall define some terms and
then explain some propositions which I could use, as true and known
things, for my purposes" (IV, 67).
True scientific demonstration depended then for Galileo upon a
conception of laws both of logical reasoning and of nature discovered in
existence and confirmed by all experience. This done, as he put it
in the Dispufationes, "we come to rest in knowledge of the conclusion,...
because of knowledge of the principles" (Ms. Galileiano 27, f. 23r);
for, as he repeated in the Discorso (1616) on the tides, "bringing to
rest the mind of those who desire, in theorizing (nelle contemplezioni]
about nature, to penetrate beneath the skin... is reached only when
the reason produced as the true cause of the effect easily and openly
satisfies all the particular symptoms and properties (sintomi ed accidenti) that are seen distinctly connected with this effect" (V, 377). During
this period 1610-1616 of many disputes over the telescope, floating
bodies, the sunspots and the Copernican system, through which he
articulated his campaign at once for a new physics and cosmology and
for a new conception of natural science, Galileo wrote often on the
proper methods of science and the point at which they could bring
the mind naturally or by force of available possibilities to rest. He
51
Galileo (IV, 52) cited Francesco Bonamico for the rule of presence and absence,
which had been stated in much the same words by William of Ockham: cf. E. CASSIRER,
"Some remarks on the question of the originality of the Renaissance", Journal of the
History of Ideas, IV (1943) 49-56; also for Galileo's use of this rule and the rule of
concomitant variations CROMBIE, Robert Grosseteste (1953, 1971); KOERTGE (1977)
above n. 49; WISAN (1978) above n. 20; and for the Topics etc. below.
208
209
Cf. on this WISAN (1974) 124 and (1978) 42, above n. 20.
PAPPUS ALEXANDRINUS, Matbematicae collectiones a Federico Commandino in
Latinum conversae... (Pisauri, 1588); cf. T. L. HEATH, History of Greek Mathematics,
II (Oxford, 1921) 400-1. Pappus and Proclus were both known in manuscript to
GIORGIO VALLA, De expetendis et fugiendis rebus opus, X.I (Venezia, 1501); Pappus
was cited by GUIDOBALDO DEL MONTE, Mechanicorum liber, Praefatio (Pisauri, 1577);
cf. A. P. TREWEEK, "Pappus of Alexandria: the manuscript tradition of the Collectio
mathematical, Scriptorium, XI (1957) 195-233; GILBERT (1960) above n. 43; JARDINE
(1976) above n. 38; WISAN (1978) above n. 20; also n. 46. For another historical ac-
210
211
with some, and then with other propositions knowne for true, either
by discourse or by experience, from the certaintie whereof the truth of
ours getts force and evidence" (VII, 432, 434-5). Castelli in writing
to Galileo in 1637 described an experimental analysis of a problem
concerning the absorption of heat from the Sun's rays as "ordering
all the reasoning first by the resolutive method and then by the
compositive" (XVII, 160).
Galileo's form of scientific argument with more complex subjectmatters was a combination of experimentally controlled postulation
with more immediate experimental and observational exploration. He
conducted his experimental analysis of the causes of effects according
to the "laws of logic" (leggi logicali) or "physical logic" (logica naturale) (VI. 252, 333), which were the scholastic rules of inference: presence
and absence, and concomitant variations. The last was specified by
Aristotle in the Topics as a rule for the predication of properties by
which to "argue from greater or lesser degrees... See whether a greater
degree of the predicate follows a greater degree of the subject... Now...
if an increase of the property follows an increase of the subject,...
clearly the property belongs; while if it does not follow, the property
does not belong. You should establish this by induction" (Topics,
II. 10, 114b37-115a6, cf. IV. 6, 127bl8-25, VI. 7, 145b33-6a36;
FRANCIS BACON, Novum organum, II. 13). These were the logical
rules that Galileo stated for his inquiries into hydrostatics and sunspots,
into comets in II Saggiatore (VI, 339-40, q. 45), and into the connection between the motions of the tides and of the Earth in the
Dialogo: "I say therefore, that if it be true that of one effect one
only is the primarie cause and that betweene the cause and the effect
there is a firme and constant connection, it is necessarie that whensoever there is a firme and constant alteration in the effect, there is a
firme and constant alteration in the cause". Then since annually and
monthly the tides "have their firme and constant periods, wee must
of force say that there falleth out a regular alteration in the same
times in the primary cause of the fluxes and refluxes". Demonstrating
this with his model of water moving in a vessel, he argued that the
motion observed was "a compounded motion resulting from the coupling together of the two proper motions whereof the diurnall whirling
with its now adding to, and then drawing from the annuall moving,
is that which produceth the difformitie in compounded motion".
Similarly to account for the regular seasonal variations in the tides
"(if we will retayne the identitie of the cause) we must finde out
alterations in these additaments and subtractions which make them
more or less powerful! in producing these effects which have dependance
on them" (VII, 471-2).
212
DANIELE BARBARO, 7 died libri dell'Architettura di M. Vitruvio, tradotti e commentati... 1.3 (Vinegia, 1556) 26; cf. V. P. ZOUBOV, "Vitruve et ses commentateurs du
XVIe56siecle" in La science au XVIe siecle: Colloque de Royaumont 1957 (Paris, 1960).
GIUSEPPE CEREDI, Tre discorsi sopra il modo d'alzar acque da' luoghi bassi
(Parma,
1567) 5-7; cf. CROMBIE (1982) and Styles... above n. 16.
57
GUIDOBALDUS E MARCHio MONTIS, In duos Archimedis Aequeponderantium libros paraphrases scholiis illustrata, Praefatio (Pisauri, 1588) 2; cf. the Aristotelian Me-
213
214
Cf. for Galileo's scientific style especially L. S. OLSCHKI, "The scientific personality of Galileo , Bulletin of the History of Medicine, XII (1942) 248-73, "Galileo's
philosophy of science", Philosophical Review, III (1943) 349-65; A. C. CROMBIE, Galilee devant les critiques de la posterite (Les Conferences du Palais de la Decouverte,
Paris, 1956), translated in part as "Galileo: a philosophical symbol", Actes du VHIe
Congres International d'Histoire des Sciences, Florence-Milan 19% (Vinci & Paris, 1958)
1089-95, (1969), (1975a), (1981) and (1983) above n. 2, and Styles... above n. 16;
JARDINE (1976) above n. 38; KOERTGE (1977) above n. 49; WISAN (1978) and (1981)
above n. 20; with his researches into different subject-matters classically exemplified by
A. KOYRE, Etudes galileennes, I-III (Actualites scientifiques et industrielles, nos. 8552-4;
Paris, 1939); L. GEYMONAT, Galileo Galilei (Torino, 1957), English translation (New
York, 1965); E. McMuLLiN (ed.), Galileo: Man of Science (New York, 1967); M.
CLAVELIN, La philosophic naturelle de Galilee (Paris, 1968); SHEA (1972) above n. 21;
WISAN (1974) above n. 20; also nn. 47-58.
215
behind the phenomenal world. One such problem arising out of the
Sidereus nuncius (1610) was the nature of light, the means by which
the telescope gave us its information. The Roman philosopher Giulio
Cesare La Galla reported an occasion in Rome in 1611 when he had
lamented the impossibility of deciding even on "our general classification of it, as to whether it is substance or property, body or something
incorporeal, quality or relation; for such is the weakness of our intellect
that it can easily be made to fit all these categories or equally be
excluded from them". Galileo agreed "and firmly avowed that he
would willingly allow himself to be shut up in a dark cell and fed
on bread and water, provided that, when he was restored to light in
due course, he could perfectly grasp its nature and understand it" 60.
Again in his First Letter about the Sunspots (1612) he wrote that
"for me it is much more difficult to find the truth than to show
convincingly what is false, and it seems, to me that I know what the
sunspots are not, rather than what they are" (V, 95). So "we could
not blame in any way the philosopher who confessed that he does not
know, and cannot know, what the matter of the sunspots may be"
(106). He was prepared to speculate but, he wrote in his Third Letter,
"in our speculating we either try to penetrate the true and intrinsic
essence of natural substances, or content ourselves with coming to
know some of their properties (affezioni]. An attempt upon the essence
I hould to be an undertaking no less impossible and a labour no less
vain in the nearest elementary substances than in the most distant and
celestial ones... But if we wish to stop at the apprehension of some
properties, it does not seem to me that we should despair of being
able to reach them in the bodies most distant from us as well as in the
nearest ones" (V, 187-8).
Perhaps Winifred Wisan (1976, p. 24) was correct in detecting a
further nuance from the prohibition of 1616 in the Platonic imagery
of the remark in the Discorso delle comete (1619) published under
Mario Guiducci's name, that "we must be content with what little we
can conjecture here among the shadows, until we are shown the true
constitution of the parts of the world" (VI, 99). But this expressed
yet once more a consistent estimate of our knowledge of physical causes,
if not of geometrical structures. He commented famously in the Dialogo (1632) on the assertion that everyone knew that the cause of bodies
falling downwards was gravity, that rather "every man knows that it is
called gravitie", but of the "essence you know no whitt more than you
60
216
know of the essence of the movent (movente] which turnes the starres
about, excepting the name..." (VII, 260-1). Likewise in the Discorsi
(1638) he refused "to inquire into the cause of the acceleration of
natural motion, concerning which various opinions have been pronounced by various philosophers". It was enough at present for him "to
search out and demonstrate to us some passions (passtones] of an
accelerated motion (let the cause of that acceleration be what it will)..."
(VIII, 202). Galileo suggested in the Discorsi (VIII, 87-89) methods
for deciding by measurement whether or not light was a form of motion
with a finite speed. But from his first discussions of the nature of
light, through II Saggiatore (VI, 350, 352), down to his last correspondence on the subject with Fortunio Liceti in 1640-41 he
maintained that the evidence could show us only how light behaved,
not what it was. His comment to Liceti in 1640 on "the essence
of light, about which I have always been in the dark" could be applied
to his physical investigations over many years: "Here I would not like
to be told that I have not stopped at the truth of fact; for experience
shows me that it happens in this way; which, I could say, in all the
effects of nature admired by me, assures me of the an sit but brings me
no gain in the quomodo" (XVIII, 208).
Galileo's philosophical campaign was dedicated to establishing the
identity at once of the true science and, as he wrote in his First Letter
about the Sunspots, of "the true and real world which, made by God
with his own hands, stands always open in front of us for the purpose
of our learning" (V, 96, cf. XI, 530, XII, 20). What he expected to
find by reason in existence behind the appearances perceived by the
senses was governed by the interaction between his philosophical and
scientific sources and his scientific experience in exploring nature by
means of geometrical postulation, the logic of experimental elimination
and confirmation, analogical modelling, measuring instruments, and the
extension of the natural senses with the telescope and microscope, to
say nothing of the exigencies and expediencies of debate and persuasion.
Galileo's rhetorical image in // Saggiatore (q. 6) of the mathematical
book of philosophy recalls Proclus's account of the Timaeus "using
mathematical language throughout in expounding its theory of the
nature of the universe" and the generation of the elements and their
powers "by numbers and figures" (1.8: above, n. 46) and recalls also
Clavius and Mazzoni (cf. nn. 42-45). Galileo had quoted biblical passages comparing the heavens to a book in his Tractatio de caelo (I, 64).
His point in II Saggiatore was to distinguish the book of philosophy
from books of fiction like the Iliad and Orlando furioso "in which the
least important thing is whether what is written in them is true" (VI,
232). By contrast, as he repeated in his last account of the image to
217
Liceti in 1641, "the book of philosophy is that which stands perpetually open before our eyes, but because it is written in characters different
from those of our alphabet it cannot be read by everybody; and the
characters of this book are triangles, squares, circles, spheres, cones,
pyramids and other mathematical figures fittest for this sort of reading"
(XVIII, 295, cf. XIX, 625). Thus, as in the Timaeus, Euclid and
Proclus it was essentially a geometrical, not an arithmetical book61.
The Timaeus and related Greek sources offered Galileo also something further in his search for a rational philosophy of nature. He had
been forced to defend the validity not only of his telescopic observations but also of unaided vision against sceptical doubts about the
certainty of mathematics when applied to sensible subjects. Practical
difficulties in using this unfamiliar instrument reinforced the suspicion
that the telescope was just another of the optical devices for producing
illusions well known to theatrical magic. Clavius and other mathematicians at the Collegio Romano formed this opinion when they tried
to confirm Galileo's observations in the autumn of 1610, until with
advice from Galileo himself they succeeded. Christopher Grienberger
wrote to him frankly that things so difficult to believe should not be
accepted lightly and that it was hard to give up opinions held for so
long by so many philosophers, but that at length "I have examined
with my own eyes the wonders you were the first to introduce to the
world... I have learned from experience (experientia) that it is not an
illusion that you have seen four satellites in motion around Jupiter,...
the irregularities of the Moon..." and so on (XI, 33, cf. X, 430-45,
480-501, XI, 253, 272-7). La Galla in his ambiguous defence of the
telescope in 1612 linked the question to Aristotle's critique of Plato for
his prejudicial introduction of mathematics into physical inquiries and
to the further question of "sensible forms and qualities". It was he
wrote "asserted by philosophers and known from experience" that "the
senses are deceived over the common sensibles, namely motion, rest,
number, size and shape; although they are normally either not at all or
to the least degree at fault over the proper sensibles, such as colour or
taste" (III, 323-5). He gave as an illustration the ancient illusion of
a stick half in water which appeared bent to vision but straight to
touch. Galileo replied like Plato (Republic X. 602C-E) that such
optical illusions were corrected by optical science (III, 323-5) and
likewise for other such apparent deceptions.
Later in II Saggiatore (q. 48) he argued that "when I conceive of a
61
Cf. for the book of nature M. CURTIUS, Europaische Literatur und lateinisches
Mittelalter (Bern, 1948) 323-9, English translation (New York, 1953) 319-26; E. GARIN,
La cultura filosofica del Rinascimento italiano (Firenze, 1961) 451-65.
218
piece of matter or a corporal substance, I certainly feel myself necessarily obliged at the same time to conceive" that there must be attributed to it a set of irreducible minimum "conditions (condizioniY':
shape, relative size, location in place and time, motion or rest, touching
other bodies or not, and number. He felt "no compulsion to hold that
it must necessarily be accompanied by such conditions" as colour, taste,
sound etc. "Rather, if the senses had not escorted us, reason or
imagination by itself would perhaps never have arrived at them".
Having no justification by reason, these qualities evidently had no place
in his theory of the real physical world. They "are on the side of the
object in which they seem to be placed no more than mere names
(puri nomi], but have a place only in the sensitive body (corpo sensitivo}" of living things. The "primary and real properties (primi e reali
accidenti}" required in external bodies for exciting these sensory
qualities in us were no more than "sizes, shapes, numbers and slow or
swift motions" (VI, 347-50). Galileo's primary properties apart from
one refinement had been listed by Aristotle (De anima III. 1,
425al5-17, cf. II. 6, 418a8-19, III. 1, 425al4-blO; Categoriae c.6,
4b20-6a35, cf. c.8, 9a27-bll; De sensu c.l, 437a4-16, cf. c.4, 442a30-b!7) as quantities not qualities, and as objects common to more than
one sense rather than proper to each sense. His distinction between
the mere names and the real properties corresponded to the account
given by Galen of Democritus's distinction between the qualities "by
convention (lege}" or for us and those existing "in reality (vere}n in
things 62 . Again according to Sextus Empiricus "Plato and Democritus
held that the only real things were those discernable by reason" 63.
Both recognized as real only actual as distinct from potential qualities,
and both agreed also in reducing all the other senses to modes of touch.
Aristotle had criticized his predecessors for precisely these opinions (cf.
I, 123-9, 157-60). Except for making irreducible geometrical shapes
and not solid atoms the primary constituents of matter, Plato in the
Timaeus (56B-68D) added to the real properties listed by the atomists
two fundamental items: numbers, and variations in the speeds of
motion. Thus the numbers of particles accounted for density and
texture, their shapes and speeds accounted for the different sensations
of heat, and above all variations in speeds expressible in numerical
62
219
220
65
Cf. I. E. DRABKIN, "A note on Galileo's De motu", his, II (1960) 271-7, and
in GALILEO,
On Motion... (1960) 124, above n. 47; WISAN (1974) above n. 20.
66
Cf. CROMBIE (1975a) above n. 2.
221
material connections are matched by the use made of Pereira's De communibus..., which use matches the order of composition: dialogue,
notes, treatise. There are no references to Pereira in the dialogue, but
Galileo used his textbook for some of the notes for the treatise and for
the treatise itself. He used it also for the Tratatio prima de mundo
where he cited it for a specific argument concerning the eternity of
the world (I, 22-24, 32-37; cf. Pereira XV) and for the Tractatio de
dementis (I, 123-4, 138-9, 143-6,151-2; cf. Pereira III. 1, X, 10-11,
22-3).
Three passages in De motu gravium offer compelling evidence that
Galileo was using Pereira's textbook here. The first is that in which
he adopted a theory that projectiles were kept in motion by a virtus
impressa (I, 307-15, 412) in the form which Pereira (XIV. 4-5) had
expounded in order to reject. The other two passages are those in
which he discussed Philoponus's criticism of the Aristotelian argument
for the impossibility of motion in a void and Hipparchus's theory of the
acceleration of falling bodies. The former began as a fragmentary note
(I, 410) which was expanded into an addition to the chapter on the
question in De motu gravium (I, 284). Galileo reported the argument
in a way not presented by Philoponus in his commentary on the Physics
IV, but evidently conflated from two passages by Pereira (XL 10-11).
Again in reporting Hipparchus's theory Galileo falsely referred to
Alexander of Aphrodisias instead of to Simplicius's commentary on De
caelo (comm. 86) where it is to be found, and reported it in an
incomplete and distorted form which he proceeded to criticize (I, 31920). A clue is found in a fragmentary note on Hipparchus's theory (I,
411), with in another fragment (ibid.} and in a marginal note to De
motu gravium (I, 318 n. 1) an explicit quotation from the chapter in
which Pereira (XIV. 3) presented it in the same incomplete and
distorted form as that criticized by Galileo. Further, Galileo's account
of the "horizontal plane" of the Earth (I, 299-301, cf, 340, 407-8;
above n. 49) is the same as that given by Clavius in his Sphaera (1581,
pp. 132-2). In view of his very detailed use of Clavius for his
Tractatio de caelo it is reasonable to suppose that he based his account
on this textbook here also67.
De motu gravium was linked then with the scholastic treatises
through these common Jesuit sources, and this link we have to take
into account in trying to place both in Galileo's intellectual biography.
67
Cf. for the same point with the same diagrams FRANCESCO MAUROLICO, Dialogbi
de cosmographia (Venetiis, 1543), whose work was known to Clavius; A. MASOTTI,
"Maurolico, Francesco (1494-1575)", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, IX (New York,
1974) 190-4; above n. 28.
222
Unhappily there seems to be no firm evidence for the date when he read
any of these sources. All we have are some fragile hints for Clavius.
It seems likely that Galileo used figures for the dimensions of the world
taken from Clavius for his letter of 1597 to Mazzoni (above n. 21).
One later manusctipt (c. 1624) of the version of his Trattato della sfera
(1606) published by Favaro contains a "Tabula climatum" (II, 244-5,
cf. 207, 209) closely similar to that in Clavius (1581, pp. 413-4) but
not found in earlier copies or in the earlier unpublished version of the
Trattato (1601) in the Ambrosian Library. Although he did not
mention Clavius in what remains of his lectures on the new star of
1604, where he cited a series of other authors, it seems certain that
he must have known of his extensive discussion in the Sphaera of the
earlier new star of 1572 (above n. 23). This was mentioned by one of
Galileo's correspondents at the end of 1604 (X, 132), when Clavius
himself also wrote to him about his own observations (X, 121).
Evidence for the dating of De motu gravium is to say the least
undecisive. The main physical issue with which it was concerned was
the nature of gravity and hence the cosmological arrangement and
motions of the four terrestrial elements. The geocentric cosmology
made explicit in the introduction to the final version but also assumed
throughout (I, 252-3, 342-5) could hardly have been written during
the period of Galileo's public campaign for Copernicus opened with
the Sidereus nucius (1610). He cited Copernicus's De revolutionibus
once in De motu gravium (I, 326) but not in connection with the
motions of the Earth. He named him also in the Tractatio de caelo
(I, 43, 47-54; cf. above n. 28) explicitly to refute his opinion. These
geocentric doctrines might seem to place both treatises before Galileo's
Copernican declarations of 1597 to Mazzoni and Kepler, but he
continued after that for whatever reason to assume the old cosmology in
his lectures on the new star of 1604 and in his Trattato della sfera
in 1606. He introduced in De motu gravium a critique of Aristotle,
based on Plato and Archimedes, for his general failure to understand
mathematics and his particular theory of gravity. This is absent from
the Tractationes de mundo et de caelo. If we assume a progressive
intellectual development this would place De motu gravium after the
Tractationes. If all three scholastic treatises were written about the
same time, and all after 1597 because of the use of Carbone for the
Disputationes, this would place De motu gravium still later. Their
common use of Jesuit sources might suggest composition at nearly the
same time. So might their common syllogistic style of argument. This
might not seem a specific resemblance because Galileo continued to
combine scholastic with Archimedean methods in his later works, but
the Aristotelian dynamics of De motu gravium seems to link it more
223
definitely with his scholastic treatises on cosmology and natural philosophy 68.
A reference in the dialogue De motu gravium (I, 379) to his
reconstruction in La bilancetta of the exact method by which Archimedes
assessed the proportion of gold and silver in King Hiero's crown places
that and hence the treatise after this work. Then can we date La
bilancetta? The story of Hiero's crown had been told by Vitruvius,
but according to Galileo with a crude method unworthy of Archimedes's
superior intellect. After examining Archimedes's treatises on floating
bodies and the balance he had found his true method (I, 215-6, cf.
211-4). Galileo's boasted reconstruction resembles a version of Archimedes's method given in the Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris, a work
on weights and measures dating from about 500 AD which is the
second extant source for the story of Hiero's crown. It was published
with the grammarian Priscian's works in 1516 and 1584 69. An account of the method closer to the Carmen than to Galileo was
published by Giovanni Battista della Porta in the edition of his Magia
naturalis of 1589 70. Like Galileo he claimed to be offering a new
discovery of Archimedes's method. Galileo and Porta seem to have
become acquainted only after the publication of the Sidereus nuncius,
when they were put in touch by Federico Cesi and both became
members of the Accademia dei Lincei (X, 252, 508, XI, 175, 345,
XX, 511). Galileo referred to Priscian in his undated commentary on
Tasso (IX, 130, cf. 12-16, X, 244, XIX, 627, 645). His autograph
manuscript of La bilancetta is followed by an autograph table of
relative weights of metals in air and in water (I, 223-8). The values
given here and in the Carmen and by Porta are sufficiently different
for it to be supposed that he and Porta made independent measurements. La bilancetta is not mentioned in Galileo's earliest surviving
correspondence of 1588-90 which is devoted largely to Archimedes (X,
22-30). It seems to have had some circulation in manuscript before
its eventual publication in a work entitled Archimede redivivo in 1644
(I, 213), but neither it nor Porta nor the Carmen were mentioned by
Mazzoni in his discussion of Hiero's crown in his In universam...
68
Galileo's reference to a question "amicissimi nostri Dionigii Fontis" (I, 368)
could have been written before or after his friends's death and so does not help with
dating; nor in fact does the discussion in the Discorso (1612) on floating bodies of a
problem similar to one in De motu gravium, for the problems were different and so the
one discussion was not a correction of the other: cf. SHEA (1972) 19-20, above n. 21.
69
PRISCIANI CAESARIENSIS, Institutiones grammaticae, adiectis nuper praetermissis
Libello de XII carminibus (Parrhisiis, 1516) f. 127rv and Libri omnes (Basileae, 1584)
863-4.
70
lo. BAPT. PORTA NEAPOLITANUS, Magiae naturalis libri XX, XVIII.8 (Neapoli,
1589) 285-6.
224
225
Baliani of 1 July 1639 (XVIII, 68-71) we learn that many years before
Baliani had sent Galileo, from a manuscript treatise on mechanics by
Francois Viete in his possession, an improvement on a solution by
Pappus concerning the inclined plane, and that Galileo had replied
claiming the treatise as his own. In the longer Le mecaniche the
solution is introduced with a criticism of Pappus (II, 181). Again
this version contains a precise definition of the concept of momenta
absent from the shorter version (II, 159). Does all this place the
longer Le mecaniche after Baliani's letter of 1615?
Some further circumstantial evidence might support such a dating.
When in 1620 Elie Diodati wrote to Galileo saying that he had never
seen any work by him on mechanics, Galileo replied that this was no
wonder, since his many disputes over several years had delayed the
completion both of "my Mechanics and my System", ie. of the World
(XIII, 48, 53). There is no copy of Le mecaniche in the Pinelli
collection, where one might expect to find it if Galileo had written it
at Padua before 1601, since Pinelli was interested in the subject. The
titles of other treatises written at Padua describe Galileo as "matematico dello Studio di Padova" or "lettore di matematica nello Studio di
Padova" (e.g. II, 207), but in the manuscript copies of Le mecaniche
the author is indicated simply as "il Galileo" or as Galileo Galilei
"Accademico Linceo" or just "Fiorentino". This seems to point to a
later date, when he was famous, living in Florence, and a member of
the Lincei. Again in Le mecaniche Galileo discussed the apparent
paradox of the Archimedean screw in the same way as Guidobaldo del
Monte in De cochlea, published posthumously in 1615. But how can
composition after this date be squared with his remarks quoted above?
But we could go on. If this various evidence displaces Le mecaniche
to a date so much later than the traditional 1590s based on Vincenzo
Viviani's notoriously unreliable witness, it might seem to make De
motu gravium even later. We may suppose that it was written with
revisions over several years. The mature style of arguing in this
treatise, with its sophisticated use of Archimedes, should warn us
against considering it as an unsuccessful attempt by a young mathematical lecturer at Pisa or Padua to discuss traditional questions relating
to the motion of bodies. The mention of an extensive commentary on
Ptolemy's Almagest, which the author claims to have just completed
and to be about to publish (I, 314), confirms the impression that here
we have the work of an experienced scholar. Since no such commentary
is extant among Galileo's writings, can this refer to something that
was to be incorporated in the Dialogo? We know from correspondence
that it was in 1624 and 1625 that what was originally planned as a
Dialogo del flusso e reflusso developed into a larger discussion of the
226
Ptolemaic and Copernican systems (XIII, 236, 282) 72a . The eventual
Dido go (1632) was linked again with both De motu gravium and the
scholastic treatises on cosmology and natural philosophy through the
fragmentary notes in Ms. Galileiano 46 and through their use of
common Jesuit sources. Thus two of these notes (I, 416) on Aristotle
refuting Plato's involvement with geometry became the celebrated
assertion by Simplicio in the Dido go (VII, 229) that mathematics might
be true in the abstract but not so true in matter, both citing the same
example of sphaera tangit planum in puncto (cf. I, 301) 73 . Again
Salviati's criticism of Aristotle's merely probable reasons for there being
only three dimensions and demonstration of the same thing by mathematics (VII, 34, 38) are identical with those given in Clavius's Sphaera
(1581, pp. 13-15). In a further exchange between Simplicio and
Sagredo (VII, 256) we find at least an echo of the distinction made
by Pereira in De communibus... (I. 16) between physics as a science
based on sensory evidence and probable reasons and mathematics as a
science based on intellectual evidence and necessary demonstrations,
even if mathematical demonstrations were not potissimae. We find
a specific citation in the expression used by Simplicio for Plato's theory
of knowledge: nostrum scire est quoddam reminisci. This appears
nowhere in Ficino's Latin translation of Plato, but is given by Pereira
as a quotation from Plato saying "nostrum scire nihil aliud esse, quam
quoddam reminisci" (III. 6).
Can we find a date for De motu gravium? We know from
correspondence that Galileo was writing a general treatise on motion in
the years 1628-31. Cesi wrote on 9 September 1628 urging him not to
waste time in answering opponents, but to carry on working to
complete his writings on various subjects including the "knowledge of...
the nature of all motions (la natura di tutti i moti}" (XIII, 448).
Cavalieri wrote on 3 December 1630 saying that he was glad to hear
that Galileo had resumed his "theorizing on motion (speculationi del
moto}... seeing that with such science and mathematics coupled together
it is possible to undertake theorizing about natural things" (XIV, 171).
Galileo himself wrote on 29 November 1631 to Cesare Marsili to say
that he was planning to publish the "first book on motion (primo libro
del motoY (XIV, 312) immediately after his forthcoming Dialogo.
Was this the treatise "De motu locali" to be published in the Discorsi
(1638)? Its three books correspond to his description to Vinta in
1610. Parts of this treatise can be dated to the years 1602-9, and
724
Cf. CARUGO, Gli avversari di Galileo ed il loro contribute alia genesi e immediata fortuna del Dialogo..., Saggi su Galileo Galilei, IIP (Firenze, 1972) 128-207.
73
Cf. ARISTOTLE, Metaphysics, 11.2, 995al4-16, III.2, 997b34-998a6; above n. 49.
22 7
228
229
identity for natural philosophy in their time, by closing many still open
questions through their insistence upon specific rational criteria for
Admitting questions, as well as answers, into acceptable scientific inquiry.
Galileo himself wrote no explicit critique of scepticism or magic or
Neoplatonism, which he.virtually ignored except for the brief period
of his Neoplatonic theological letters of 1613-15, but his sharp
awareness of these different kinds of philosophy is obvious in numerous
comments specifying his own. An interesting difference is that Mersenne and Gassendi were sufficiently sceptical to disbelieve that certainty
was possible in the search for causes in natural science. Mersenne
therefore insisted upon experimental precision. Galileo and Descartes
still on this question stayed with Aristotle. This could considerably
affect the relative weight given to experimental measurement as distinct
from mathematical or logical demonstration in scientific inquiry.
"The most subtle Galileo, easily the chief of the mathematicians of
our time, and likewise a noted philosopher", Liceti wrote of him towards
the end of his life in a book devoted to many questions unanswerable
by Galileo's criteria, including whether or not the universe was
infinite77. Galileo in 1639 acknowledged his copy with its account
of opposing opinions: "I cannot stop wondering how one single human
mind can store all the doctrines scattered in a thousand books by a
thousand other rare minds". As for the question of infinity: "The
reasons given for both sides are very acute, but in my brain neither
of them reaches a neceessary conclusion". Perhaps in the end "this
is one of those questions that happen to be inexplicable by human
reasonings, resembling perhaps predestination, free will and other matters, where only the Holy Scriptures and the divine assertions can set us
piously at rest" (XVIII, 106).
mitre moitie du XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1943); I. DAMBSKA, "Meditationes Descartes'a na tie
sceptycyzmu frankuskiege XVII wieku", Kwartalnik filosoficzny, XIX (1950) 1-24 with
French summary; H. COURIER, "Doute methodique ou negation methodique? ", Etudes
philosophiques, IX (1954) 135-62, La pensee religieuse de Descartes (Paris, 1972); T.
GREGORY, Scetticismo e empirismo: Studi su Gassendi (Bari, 1961); O. R. BLOCK, La
philosophic de Gassendi (La Haye, 1971); G. RoDis-LEWis, L'oeuvre de Descartes (Paris, 1971); R. MANDROU, Des humanistes aux hommes de science XVIe et XVlle siecles
(Paris, 1973); J. A. SCHUSTER, "Descartes' Mathesis universalis: 1619-1628" in Descartes:
Philosophy, mathematics and physics, ed. S. GAUKROGER (Brighton, 1980); B. V. BRUNDELL, Pierre Gassendi 1592-1655: From Aristotelianism to a new natural philosophy
(University of New South Wales Ph.D. dissertation, 1982).
77
Cf. CROMBIE (1969) 23, above n. 2.
11
Galileo and the Art of Rhetoric
with A. Carugo
Galileo's idea of rhetoric and his attitude towards it are unequivocally conveyed by the following passage from the Dialogo
(1632) on the two greatest systems of the world, which carries in
the margin the note: In the natural sciences the art of rhetoric is
ineffective . He wrote:
If this about which we are disputing were some point of law or of
other human studies, where there is neither truth nor falsehood, we could
rely a lot on sharpness of wit, on quickness in replying and on better
knowledge of writers, and hope that whoever excelled in these matters
would make his own reasoning appear and be judged superior. But in the
natural sciences, the conclusions of which are true and necessary, and
where there is no place for human judgment, one should be cautious not
try to maintain something that is false. For a thousand Demosthenes and
a thousand Aristotles would be left defenceless by anyone of little intelligence who has had the chance of knowing the truth (VII, 78) *.
i
232
adopted by the humanists, in particular the an dictamini which formulated the principles of epistolary composition with its distinctions
of salutatio, captatio benevolentiae, narratio, petitio and conclusio. But
Moss's own paraphrase of Galileo's letter hardly justifies the application to it of such rigid distinctions. As far as the Dialogo is concerned, she maintains that the arguments presented by Galileo are
not rigorous demonstrations in the sense of fulfilling the canons of
Aristotle's Posterior Analytics. They are instead dialectical in nature,
the probable type of reasoning treated in Aristotle's Topics and
Rhetorica. She has also remarked that the manner in which
Galileo presents his arguments is rhetorical, in that they are intended to induce assent from his fictional and real audience . But statements like these only show that Moss seems to be unaware of the
clear distinction made by Aristotle and familiar to Galileo between
dialectical and rhetorical arguments and to have vague and confused
ideas about the nature of rhetorical arguments, an impression confirmed by her random discussion of scattered passages from the
Dialogo.
A more rigorous and systematic analysis of the rhetorical structure of the Dialogo, and a more subtle discussion of the rhetorical
devices exploited by Galileo in presenting various forms of arguments, are be found in Brian Vickers's essay on Epideictic rhetoric
in Galileo's Dialogo \ Vickers claims to be the first to have noticed that the dominant rhetorical technique in the Dialogo is the
simultaneous use of praise and blame, elevating the Copernican
world-system and debasing the Ptolemaic (p.71). In other words,
the Dialogo exemplifies a brilliant application of epideictic rhetoric
as described in Aristotle's Rhetoric, book I, chapter III. Moreover,
according to Vickers the epideictic mode clearly lent itself to the
dialogue form(p:73), not so much to the Platonic one, in which a
priviledged and dominant speaker exposes the limitations of his partners' thinking, but rather to the Ciceronian form, in which distinct
characters espouse distinct philosophical points of view and each
speaker argues for his case. Hence Galileo's adoption of the rhetorical concept of persona or mask, which protected him from being
identified with his characters and allowed him to give a living reality
to philosophical ideas. Analyzing the topics that are praised or
blamed in the Dialogo, Vickers argues that, beside the encomia to
God and to the acuteness of human mind, which are part of the stan3
233
234
235
with scientific argument aiming to find the truth. All the great arts
need supplementing by a study of nature (269 D - E). Socrates
likened the method of rhetoric to that of medicine. Each, in order
to reach its goal, had to discover the true nature of its object.
Rhetoric had to grasp the nature of the soul in order to see how
it was persuasible; medicine had to grasp the nature of the body in
order to see how it was healthy or curable: In both cases you must
analyze a nature ... if you are to proceed scientifically, not merely
by practice and routine, to impart health and strength to the body
by prescribing remedies and diet, or by proper discourses and training to give to the soul the desired belief and virtue . This was the
method attributed to Hippocrates, but we must no,t just rely on
the authority of Hippocrates, but we must see also if our reason
agrees with him on examination. At the end of his analysis the
scientific rhetorician will classify the types of discourse and the
types of soul, and the various ways in which souls are affected, explaining the reasons in each case: suggesting the types of speech appropriate to each type of soul, and what kind of speech can be relied
upon to create belief in one soul and disbelief in another, and why .
For a certain type of hearer will be easy to persuade, by a certain
type of speech, to take such and such action, for such and such reason, while another type will be hard to persuade. All this the orator
must fully grasp, and next he must watch it actually taking place
in men's conduct. When the student of rhetoric, having grasped
the theory, could place any individual person in this classification of
characters, and could know how to seize the occasion for the appropriate tricks, then and not till then he has well and truly
achieved the art. There was absolutely no need for the budding
orator to concern himself with the truth about what is just or good
conduct or who are just and good men ... In the law courts nobody cares about the truth in these matters, but only about persuasion, and that is concerned with what seems most likely for the
purpose. The would-be master of persuasion must then suppress or
substitute facts according to need and say goodbye to the truth
forever. Then he will be equipped with the art complete (269
D - 73 A).
If the multitude get their notion of probability as the result
of a likeness to truth, ... these likenesses can always be best discovered by someone who knows the truth (273 D). Socrates rebuked
Phaedrus for suggesting that apparently it makes a difference who
the speaker is, and what country he comes from; you do not ask
236
simply whether what he says is true or false (275 C). The art of
dialectic transcended rhetoric because its aim was truth, and when
the dialectician wants to persuade he selects a soul of the right
type, and in it he plants and sows his words founded on knowledge,
words that can defend both themselves and him who planted them,
words that instead of remaining barren contain a seed from which
new words grow up in new characters, giving the seed immortality,
and its possessor the greatest blessedness attainable by man. The
conditions were that first you must know the truth about the subject that you speak or write about; ... secondly you must have a corresponding discernment of the nature of the soul being instructed
and arrange your discourse accordingly. Then you will become
competent as a scientific practitioner of speech, whether you propose to expound or to persuade (276 E / 7 C). Someone who has
thus done his work with a knowledge of the truth, and can defend
his statements when challenged, could fittingly be called a
philosopher . But a composer of merely literary works on whose
phrases he spends hours, twisting them this way and that, pasting
them together and pulling them apart, will rightly I suggest be called
a poet or speech writer or law writer (278 C - E).
Galileo's assessment of the scope and limits of rhetoric was not
particularly new and original, for similar ideas were commonly
shared by any learned person of his time. A clear and detailed picture of what was generally understood by rhetoric in the learned circles in which Galileo moved can be found in an Italian paraphrase
of Aristotle's Rhetoric produced in 1565 by Alessandro Piccolomini,
a philosopher whose works were familiar to Galileo and with whom
he had many points in common.
Piccolomini had acquired a great reputation as a philosopher
when, still very young, he published in 1547 an enlightening commentary in Latin to Aristotle's Mechanical Questions, together with a
learned treatise also in Latin on the question of what degree of certainty can be achieved in the mathematical sciences. Both these works
were very influencial in promoting among philosophers new debates
on the principles of mechanics and on the nature of mathematics and
its place among other speculative disciplines such as natural
philosophy and theology. Subsequently Piccolomini produced a series
of works covering the whole range of philosophical disciplines. They
were written in Italian and aimed to show that the vernacular was
as powerful and as flexible as Latin in conveying philosophical and
scientific ideas and arguments. Copies of some of Piccolomini's works
237
were owned by Galileo, whose style of writing in Italian show sometimes a striking resemblance to Piccolomini's. For instance a phrase
such as sensate esperienze e certe dimostrazioni which is recurrent
in Galileo's writings was coined by Piccolomini4.
After publishing treatises in Italian on logic, natural philosophy
and cosmology as well as on ethics and politics Piccolomini produced
a series of three volumes giving an extensive and detailed commentary or paraphrase on Aristotle's Rhetoric. In the preface to the
first volume, published with the title Copiosissima pamfrasi nel primo
libro delta Retorica d'Aristotele (Venice 1565), Piccolomini praised
Aristotle's style or method of exposition for being straightforward
and free from rhetorical embellishments, and preferred it to Plato's
poetic style which veiled the truth with obscure fables:
If we consider carefully the reason why of the two greatest luminaries
of learning, Plato and Aristotle, the latter has for so many centuries
predominated and is still predominating in the schools of sciences, we shall
find that undoubtedly this is so not because he is superior in learning: in
fact, although there have been and still are many who would not agree to
put Plato before Aristotle as far as sciences are concerned, nevertheless no
learned man has yet considered Plato inferior in learning. But we shall
clearly see that the true reason for Aristotle's superiority is none other
than the method, that is the way of presentation that he has followed in
his books: he has presented and expounded the matters of his treatises in
a clear, neat, proper and ordered manner, free from superfluities, without
enveloping them in obscure fables or veiling them with poetical imagery
(senza velo di poetica imitatione) and, lastly, without masking them with rhetorical ornaments (senza maschera di retorico omamento).
Aristotle's unrhetorical style of writing was regarded by Piccolomini as the most suitable for the study of nature. He warned
natural philosophers against using rhetorical trappings which would
unnecessarily increase the natural difficulty of discovering what is hidden in nature: Nature has unfortunately concealed and hidden its
things more deeply than man would wish or need: therefore > for
learned men, who struggle to discover and explain them, their intrinsic
and natural difficulty should be enough, without adding further dif4
ALESSANDRO PICCOLOMINI, La sfera del mondo (Venezia 1566), p. 4: E mancando le frequent! sensate esperientie tnanca ancora la certezza delle conclusion!; p. 246:
La certezza ... delle loro dimostrationi puo supplire in gran parte a quanto in prima,
per Pimperfettione che portano le cose sensate, si fusse mancato . A. FAVARO, Miscellanea Galileiana inedita, xii: La libreria di Galileo, Memorie del R. Istituto Veneto di
Scienze, Lettere e Arti, XXII (1887), 982-1034, lists three of Piccolomini's works
(nos. 384-386) including La sfera del mondo.
238
Faced with the task of expounding Aristotle's Rhetoric, Piccolomini soon realized that he had to adopt a different method of
exposition from the one that he had used in his previous works, in
which he had given accounts of Aristotle's treatises on logic, natural
philosophy, ethics and mechanics, and of Ptolemy's work on astronomy. In those works be had faithfully followed the opinions of the
authors so far as the substance of the matters treated was concerned, whereas for the method he had adopted a freer style, writing as it pleased me, by expanding or abridging the original, by adding things or leaving things out, by explaining and clarifying, and
by doing anything that could show more clearly the author's meaning and mind and make the matters easier (pp. 7-8).
239
240
241
Piccolomini did not agree with other commentators who believed that the difference between a rhetorician and a dialectician
in the use of apparent and fallacious arguments was only a difference of names. He maintained that when a dialectician uses apparent arguments, he only changes his name and is called a sophist,
while nevertheless remaining truly a dialectician, whereas a rhetorician does not change his name because he uses such arguments. Piccolomini argued instead that their difference lies in the thing itself:
the deliberate use of fallacious syllogisms is forbidden to a dialectician, whereas it is allowed to a rhetorician for reasons based on the
different aims of these two arts (p. 42): for the dialectician tries
to get to the truth, whereas the rhetorician tries to persuade an audience.
The practice of the art of speaking required three things: a
speaker, an audience and the cause for which one speaks. Correspondingly there are three ways of inducing belief and persuasion:
one is based on the good opinion that the audience has of the speaker's behaviour; the second consists in making the audience favourablely disposed towards one's cause; and the third consists in being
able to argue and to show that one's cause is reasonable. In order
to master these three ways of persuading one must know three
things: first, one must be capable of arguing with good reason and
of exploiting the strength of syllogisms; secondly, one must know
the qualities and conditions of virtues and good behaviour so that
one's speech may produce a good opinion of one self ; and finally,
one must have a good knowledge of all human feelings, that is
one must know what they are, how and by what they are aroused,
and what effect they have. Knowledge of the various forms of
reasoning and argument depends on dialectic which deals with the
nature of the syllogism and therefore helps to strengthen any sort
of reasoning and argument. The other two kinds of knowledge, one
relating to the behaviour and virtues of man and the other to the
motion of the passions, derive their strength from the moral and
political disciplines: it belongs indeed to the moral and civil
philosopher to know what sort of actions depend on human will and
produce an inclination either to vices or to virtues, which entail
either praise or blame and induce people to have a good or bad
242
243
244
245
terrupted series (VII, 292). Salviati agrees that the Copernican system brings disruption into the Aristotelian world, but he points out
that what is being discussed is the true and real world. He goes
on then to expose the fallacy of Chiaramonti's argument:
When this author, following Aristotle, derives the essential difference
between the Earth and the celestial bodies from the incorruptibility of the
latter and the corruptibility of the former, and then from this difference
he pretends to draw the conclusion that motion must belong to the Sun
and the fixed stars and immobility to the Earth, he is falling into a paralogism by supposing that which is in dispute. For Aristotle derives the incorruptibility of the celestial bodies from their motion, whereas it is disputed
whether motion belongs to them or to the Earth. But we have already
talked more than enough about the vanity of these rhetorical illations. Besides, is there anything sillier than to say that the Earth and the elements
are separated from the celestial spheres and relegated and confined to the
sphere of the Moon? Is not the sphere of the Moon one of the celestial
spheres and, according to their opinion, placed in the middle of all the
other spheres? This a new way indeed of separating the pure from the impure and the healthy from the sick by providing room for the infected
right in the heart of the city! I tought that the lazaret should be removed
as far away from it as possible. Copernicus admires the arrangement of the
parts of the world because God placed the great lamp, which was to illuminate the whole of his temple with the greatest brightness, right in the
middle of it, and not on one side (VII, 292-293).
Salviati rounds off his tirade with the usual attack on the improper use of rhetoric in scientific arguments: But, please, let us not
entwine the firm foundations of demonstrations with these rhetorical
florid ornaments, and let us leave them to rhetoricians or rather to
poets, who have been able to extol and praise worthless, and sometimes
even wicked, things by means of their pleasantries (VII, 293).
The identification of rhetorical arguments with fallacies and
paralogisms which have only the appearance of demonstrations had
been strongly stressed by Piccolomini, and was reiterated by
Galileo, who exploited it in the many disputes in which he was
involved by denouncing his opponents as being more rhetoricians
than philosophers.
In a draft containing a reply to objections raised against his Discorso on floating bodies by Aristotelian philosophers such as
Cristoforo delle Colombe, Galileo stigmatized him for behaving
more like a rhetorician than a philosopher, and for using rhetorical
tricks to win popular applause:
246
247
common people was vigorously asserted by Galileo right at the outset of the Dialogo, in the dedicatory epistle addressed to the Grand
Duke of Tuscany. He argued that the book of nature was made by
an omnipotent Craftsman and that those parts of nature are more
noble and worth studying that reveal his craftsmanship to a higher
degree. The most noble of all is the system of the world, and accordingly the investigation of this subject is reserved for those who
are endowed with the greatest mental powers:
The difference between men and animals, however great, can reasonably be said to be very similar to that between men themselves ... Such
differences depend on the different powers of their minds, and I regard
this as amounting to being or not to being a philosopher: for philosophy,
as a nourishment suited to those who can be nourished by it, separates
them from the common people to a higler or lower degree according to the
variety of such nourishment. Those who look higher are separated by a
greater difference; and to look at the great book of nature, which is the
proper object of philosophy, is a way of raising one's eyes: though everything that can be read in such a book is extremely well proportioned, since
it has been made by an omnipotent Craftsman, nevertheless that part is
better constructed and more worthy in which we can see more clearly his
work and craftsmanship. The system of the world can be ranked, in my
opinion, among the highest natural things that can be apprehended by our
mind: since as a universal container it surpasses everything else in size, as
the rule and support of all things it must also surpass everything in nobility. Therefore, if ever there was a man who surpassed everybody else in
intellectual ability, Ptolemy and Copernicus were such men, for they raised
their eyes so high as to be able to read the book of nature and to
philosophize about the system of the world (VII, 27).
248
eyes in their face and in their mind must use them as their guide .
But Salviati's rejection of Aristotle's guidance is immediately qualified as a refusal to subscribe to Aristotle's statements, not as a
refusal to understand his arguments:
I do not say that we should not listen to Aristotle; on the contrary,
I approve of reading and studying him carefully, and I blame only those
who let themselves become enslaved to him so that they blindly subscribe
to every statement that he has made and, without looking for other reasons, take it for granted and regard it as a decree that cannot be violated.
This is an abuse which entails another extremely dangerous consequence,
that is that others give up any effort to try to understand the strength of
his demonstrations (ibid.).
249
which the least important thing is that what is written is true. Signer Sarsi,
this is not how the things stand. Philosophy is written in this great book
which stands always open in front of our eyes (I mean the universe), but
it cannot be understood unless one first learns the language and the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language and the
characters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which
it is impossible for man to understand a single word of it (VI, 232).
See references in note 1. above; also A. C. CROMBIE, Sources of Galileo's early natural philosophy , in Reason, Experiment and Mysticism in the Scientific Revolution,
ed. M. L. Righini Bonelli and W. R. Shea (New York, Science History Publications,
1975), 157-175, 303-5 : ch. 9 above.
250
251
that the effects of these shots must be exactly the same whether the
terrestrial globe moves or is at rest. The same will be true of all the
other experiments that have been or can be produced, which at first
sight appear to be true in so far as the old idea of the immobility
of the Earth keeps us caught among equivocations (VII, 209). Salviati's argument is further supported by Sagredo who joins forces to
unmask the fallacy of the traditional argument: I understand very
well that whoever will imprint in his imagination this idea of all terrestrial things sharing the daily rotation as something that belongs
to them by nature, in the same way as in the old idea they thought
that it belonged to them to be at rest around the centre, will discern
without difficulty the fallacy and equivocation which made the argument produced for the immobility seem conclusive (ibid.).
For all his admiration for Aristotle's skill in arguing, Galileo
does not hesitate to attack some of the most commonly established
Aristotelian arguments by showing that they are based on paralogisms. After Simplicio has presented Aristotle's argument to prove
that heavy bodies move in order to go to the centre of the universe,
Salviati not only does not agree with Simplicio in regarding it as a
conclusive demonstration, but he declares:
I am amazed that you need to be shown Aristotle's paralogism, since
it is so obvious, and that you have not noticed that Aristotle presupposes
what is in question (VII, 59).
252
253
quisitions; if they are false, by refuting them the old doctrines will
be further confirmed. You should instead worry about some of the
philosophers and should try to help and support them, for as far as
science itself is concerned it cannot but advance (VII, 62).
Salviati's remark about the benefits to be derived from philosofical disputes is further stressed by a marginal note stating that
philosophy can receive increment from disputes and oppositions between philosophers. This remark draws our attention to an important aspect of Galileo's way of philosophizing, that is to the fact
that throughout his life he produced and developed his ideas of
science and of nature by engaging in disputes with his opponents.
Most of his works, from the Discorso on floating bodies of 1612 to
the Dialogo of 1632, are in the form of disputations on specific and
precise questions, for which different and opposing arguments are
analyzed. In them Galileo displays all his skill in the art of arguing.
He seemed to take such pleasure in the practice of this art that
often in his disputes he aimed clearly to win not only the truth but
also the argument. This is particularly noticeable in those cases
where he is so keen to show off his virtuosity in arguing that he
first pretends to add arguments apparently supporting his opponent's
point of view, only to surprise in the end both him and his audience
by revealing their faults and paralogisms and thus destroying the
thesis being maintained.
An example of this way of arguing is offered by Salviati when
he discusses in the second Day of the Dialogo Ptolemy's objection
that a rotation of the Earth would fling off everything on its surface. At first Salviati pretends to add further support to the argument, which Simplicio considers so strong as to be irrefutable: I
want also, Signor Simplicio, to strengthen even further the knot of
the argument, by showing in a way which is even more obvious to
the senses how true it is that heavy bodies which are turned at a
great speed around a stable centre acquire an impetus or impulse to
move away from this centre, even though by nature they have a tendency to go there (VII, 216). Salviati's refutation of the argument
is all the more surprising as it is accomplished through reasoning
based on simple mathematical ideas which even Simplicio can understand and accept. Salviati brings Simplicio step by step to acknowledge that, in the case of the rotation of the Earth, the impulse
to fly off along the tangent to the surface is overcome by the tendency to move towards the centre of the world, so that all heavy
bodies lying on the surface of the Earth are kept firmly in their
254
place. At the end of a long and complicated discussion where all the
concessions apparently made by Salviati to Simplicio turn out to
weaken and finally destroy the latter's position and to consolidate
that of the former, Salviati cannot hide his satisfaction and pride
in having won:
You can see now how great is the strength of truth, for while you try
to knock it down, your very attacks help it to stand up and to become
stronger (VII, 230).
255
them with new arguments which seemed very well grounded, but only in
order to destroy them later and make his opponents appear the more
ridiculous (XII, 226-7).
D I ALD O
G
O
I
GALILEO GALILEI LINCEO
MATEMATICO SOPRAORDINARIO
D E L L O S T V D I O DI P I S A .
CON PRI
VILEGI.
IN FIORENZA,PerGio:BatiftaLandini MDCXXXII.
CON L1CENZA DE' SVPE^IORI.
Galileo Galilei, Dialogo (1632): title page: the disputation that precipitated
Galileo's trial, and made him a cultural symbol to suit many tastes.
12
Roberto Bellarmino a Paolo Antonio Foscarini, 12 aprile 1615\ in Le Opera di Galileo Galilei,
ed. naz., (Firenze, 1902, xii), pp. 172-2.
2
P. Duhem, Essai sur la notion de theorie physique de Platan a Galilee, 'Annales de philosophic
chretienne', vi (1908), 588, 584-5.
3
G. de Santillana, The Crime of Galileo, (Chicago, 1955), pp. 107-8.
4
Galileo, Discorsi e dimonstrazioni matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze, iii (Opere, ed.
naz., viii), p. 190.
258
situation and the actual methodological and technical problems which he had
to face, it was the one most calculated to be effective. But when one looks at
the many different and contradictory interpretations that have been given of
Galileo's philosophy of science and of its significance in the history of thought,
one is tempted to conclude that no such defence is is really necessary. The
critics may safely be left to cancel each other out. In fact Galileo has been
made to occupy almost every position on the line of antithesis between his and
Bellarmine's contributions to the Copernican debate. Philosophers looking for
historical precedent for some interpretation or reform of science, which they
themselves are advocating, have all, however much they have differed from
each other, been able to find in Galileo their heart's desire.
For his contemporaries, Galileo's fame was chiefly that of the telescopic
observer of the heavens, the discoverer of the mountains on the moon, the
rotation of the sunspots. Jupiter's satellites and the author of the mathematical
law of free fall, who had destroyed the Aristotelian cosmology and won the
martyr's palm by his advocacy of the new system of Copernicus5. By a direct
appeal to observation he had ruined the dogmatic belief of the schools that the
great problems of physics could be solved by pure reason alone, and by the use
of mathematics he had shown how to solve them. Although Mersenne failed to
be able to get Galileo's results when he repeated his famous experiments with a
ball rolling down an inclinical plane6, Galileo was regarded by the end of the
seventeenth century, for example in the Royal Society, as the founder, with
Francis Bacon, of the experimental method, of the New or Experimental
Philosophy7. This was his chief reputation during the eighteenth century also,
when Voltaire8 and David Hume9 pointed out that whereas Bacon had only
preached the use of experiment, Galileo had both practised it and married it
with mathematical reasoning. Montucla10 and Lagrange11 asserted that the
laws Galileo discovered in mechanics implied a profounder genius than the
novelties he detected in the sky. It was no doubt his reputation as the founder
of the experimental method, accepted for example in Whewell's Philosophy of
the Inductive Sciences (1840)12, that encouraged the strange elaboration in the
5
259
nineteenth century of the story of Galileo dropping two different weights from
the Leaning Tower of Pisa, in order to prove, as his law of falling bodies stated,
that all bodies fall with the same acceleration, and to disprove the Aristotelian
teaching that the speed would be proportional to the weight. In his account of
the history of this story, Lane Cooper13 has shown that half a page written sixty
years after the date of the alleged event by Galileo's disciple and biographer,
Viviani, is the origin of the full nineteenth-century version14 of the young
professor toiling up the winding stair of the Leaning Tower with two different
weights (in some accounts the larger one was almost as large as himself) to
make his great challenge to the elderly Aristotelians, and of the gasp of
surprise and indignation from the vast assembly of the professors and students
gathered below when the two objects struck the ground with the same
resounding blow. An experiment of this kind had in fact been mentioned in
various writings since late classical times, and in his De Motu, written about
1590 when he was at Pisa, Galileo claims to have performed it 'from a high
tower'15. In 1612, and again in 1641, two acquaintances of Galileo claimed to
have dropped weights from the Leaning Tower.16 The results were always the
same. The heavier body always reached the ground considerably before the
lighter. 'Oh how readily are true demonstrations drawn from true principles!'17, exclaimed Galileo in 1590, when in fact he was not disagreeing with
Aristotle on this point. The truth is that it was not on experimental grounds,
but because he came to re-think the whole theory of motion, that Galileo
finally parted company with Aristotle. The experimental results in fact
disagreed with both the old and the new dynamics, for the Aristotelians had
predicted an incorrect proportion between the velocities of different weights,
and Galileo predicted that the velocities would be the same. But this did not
upset Galileo at all. He incorporated the inconsistency into his new dynamics,
and made it agree with his experiment, by attributing it to air resistance.18 In
making this move he showed that genius not for pure experiment but for
theoretical reasoning using experiment, and that confidence in theoretical
reasoning even in the face of immediate experimental contradiction, which
marks the success of all his scientific inquiries.
One reason for the nineteenth-century elaboration of this story is undoubtedly that Galileo's reputation as the founder of the experimental method
had led Auguste Comte, equally unembarrassed by any great knowledge of the
actual historical circumstances of his experiments, to annex him in 1830 as also
a founder of positivism. Comte held that the real object of science had always
been 'savior, pour prevoir', knowing in order to foresee, and foreseeing in
13
14
15
16
17
18
Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa, (Ithaca, 1935), pp. 26-7.
See Lane Cooper, op. cit.; cf. O.M. Mitchell, The Orbs of Heaven, (London, 1851), pp. 63-5.
Galileo, De Motu (Opere, i), p. 334: Lane Cooper, op. cit., pp. 86-7, 54-5.
Lane Cooper, op. cit., pp. 28-32.
De Motu, p. 334.
Galileo, Discorsi, i (Opere, viii), p. 116; iv, p. 279.
260
order to gain control. His view of the history of the matter was very clearly
described by his friend J.S. Mill. The fundamental doctrine of a true
philosophy, according to M. Comte', wrote Mill, 'and the character by which
he defines Positive Philosophy, is the following: - We have no knowledge of
anything but Phaenomena: and our knowledge of phaenomena is relative, not
absolute. We know not the essence, nor the real mode of production, of any
fact, but only its relations to other facts in the way of succession or of
similitude. These relations are constant: that is, always the same in the same
circumstances. The constant resemblances which link phaenomena together,
and the constant sequences which unite then as antecedent and consequent,
are termed their laws. The laws of phaenomena are all we know respecting
them. Their essential nature, and their ultimate causes, either efficient or final,
are unknown and inscrutable to us'.
'M. Comte claims no originality for this conception of human knowledge.
He avows that it has been virtually acted on from the earliest period by all who
have made any real contribution to science, and became distinctly present to
the minds of speculative men from the time of Bacon, Descartes, and Galileo,
whom he regards as collectively the founders of the Positive Philosophy'.19
Even more explicit was the positivist interpretation of Galileo given towards
the end of the century by the great Viennese historian and critic of mechanics,
Ernst Mach, the grandfather of the modern school of logical empiricism.
'The modern spirit that Galileo discovers is evidenced here, at the very
outset', he wrote of Galileo's treatment of the problem of falling bodies, 'by
the fact that he does not ask why heavy bodies fall, but propounds the
questions, How do heavy bodies fall? in agreement with what law do freely
falling bodies more? The method he employs to ascertain this law is this. He
makes certain assumptions. He does not, however, like Aristotle, rest there,
but endeavours to ascertain by trial whether they are correct or not. We see
thus . . . that Galileo does not supply us with a theory of the falling bodies, but
investigated and established, wholly without preconceived opinions, the actual
facts of falling'.20
The great opponent of Comte and Mill in the philosophy of science and the
interpretation of scientists was William Whewell21, and Whewell's views were
largely influenced by Kant, who is the principal source of the modern school
most opposed to positivism. Embracing the apparent paradox that it was
Aristotelian science and not Galileo's that was primarily empirical, Kant
characterised the the significance of Galileo's methods as residing in their
recognition of the essentially theoretical character of scientific inquiry. The
19
J.S. Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism, 2nd. ed., (London, 1866), p. 6; cf. Auguste Comte,
Cours de philosophic positive, (Paris, 1830), i, Premiere lecon.
20
E. Mach, The Science of Mechanics, Ch. 2, 2,8, transl. from the second German ed. by T. J.
McCormack, (London, 1893), pp. 130, 140.
21
Prilosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2nd. ed., (London, 1847), ii, 295 sqq., 317, 320 sqq.
261
'new light that flashed upon all students of nature', with the great work of
Galileo and his contemporaries, as seen for example in Galileo's treatment of
falling bodies, was their recognition that physics must determine its objects a
priori. 'They comprehended', he wrote, 'that reason has insight into that only,
which she herself produces on he own plan. . . . Reason, holding in one hand
its principles, according to which concordant phenomena alone can be
admitted as laws of nature, and in the other hand the experiment, which it has
devised according to those principles, must approach nature, in order to be
taught by it: but not in the character of a pupil, who agrees to everything the
master likes, but as an appointed judge, who compells the witness to answer
the questions which he himself proposes'.22
Developing this line of thought, that Galileo's chief merits were rather as a
theorist than an experimenter, some modern critics have been tempted to
suppose that Galileo was really indifferent to experimental tests.23 'Io senza
experienza son sicuro che 1'effetto seguira come vi dico', said Salviati,
Galileo's spokesman in the Dialogue, 'perche cosi e necessario che segua'.24
And indeed it is very often difficult to distinguish Galileo's thought experiments from his actual ones.
Turning from this sample of Galileo's critics to his own words and deeds, it is
clear that he was neither an early Comtean positivist nor a Machian
phenomenalist nor a Kantian rationalist, neither a Millian empiricist nor an
unempirical theorist, neither an unqualified Platonist nor a wholesale enemy
of Aristotle. Galileo's normal method was to deal with problems piecemeal,
and he often used different arguments for tactical reasons which cannot each
be generalised into a total point of view. When he decided to ignore the cause
of the acceleration of falling bodies and concentrate on the descriptive law,
'whatever the cause may be',25 as he said, and when he showed up the
Aristotelian causes and substances in physics as mere names, he wrote like a
positivist. But this was in order to put aside irrelevant questions and isolate his
problem. It was certainly no positivist who debated so passionately the truth of
the Copernican system or who claimed to be reading in mathematical language
the real book of Nature and to be discovering in verified theories the real
physical world of the primary qualities and their laws. These were no
economical summaries such as Mach conceived scientific laws to be, but a
world of real substances and causes, Platonic in that they were mathematicall
determined, Aristotelian in that they were inherent in matter, but Archimedean in their mathematical form.
22
262
26
13
Alexandre Koyre and Great Britain:
Galileo and Mersenne
I REMEMBER vividly the occasion when I first encountered the work
of Alexandre Koyr6. It must have been in 1946. By this time I had
been introduced at Cambridge by CD. Broad to the classical study of
the history of philosophy through conceptual analysis, and I had been
much taken by the advice given by R.G. Collingwood to look in the
study of texts for the questions assumed in the answers given. I had
become particularly interested in the approach to the subject made by
L6on Brunschvicg in Les etapes de la philosophie mathematique and
by the work of Etienne Gilson on the history of medieval philosophy.
In 1946 I had just accepted an academic post in the history and
philosophy of science, and I was completing my last biological paper,
which was published in 1947. I was checking some French publications which had arrived in the Cambridge University Library after
the gap of the war years, among them the Actualites scientifiques et
industrielles, where in the volumes for 1939 I found the three parts of
Koyre"'s Etudes Galileennes. About the same time I encountered also
another French wartime publication, Robert Lenoble's Marin
Mersenne ou la naissance du mecanisme (1943). Contact with these
captivating intelligences (as I said on another occasion) was like
Galileo's description of the stimulation given to the ear by the musical
interval of the fifth, seeming at the same time to kiss and to bite, at
once seducing and awakening.1 They showed the enlightenment that
can be gained only by looking beneath the surface of immediate
scientific results and by seeking to identify the intellectual assumptions and the technical capabilities that made certain discoveries
possible and explanations acceptable to a particular generation or
group, and the assumptions and capabilities that made them impossible or unacceptable to earlier generations. They focused attention
on the need to study in depth the particular intellectual contexts in
1. Galileo Galilei, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze
(1638), i, in Le opere, direttore A. Favaro, 20 vol., Firenze, G. Barbera, 18901909, ristampa 1968, viii, p. 149; A.C. Crombie, "Premio Galileo, 1968", Physis,
1970, xii, p. 106-108.
264
which scientific changes have been brought about, and with them the
assumptions about both the nature of scientific knowledge and the
nature of the world that have generated resistence to change. This
conception of the history of science was very inspiring, and it was
especially Koyre who through his series of publications and his
personal influence inspired those of us in Great Britain, as also in the
U.S.A. and of course in France, who took up the subject professionally just after the Second World War. Koyre and Lenoble, and also
we should add Edwin Burtt with his much earlier Metaphysical
Foundations of Modern Physical Science (1924, revised 1932),
intellectualized the historiography of science. They made it part, and
showed that it had to be often a central part, of a more general historiography of thought. I knew them all, and especially Alexandre
Koyre, whom I first met in Brussels, and then many times in Paris,
London, Oxford and Princeton during the 1950s and later. In many
long conversations I discovered this extraordinary man, always fascinating in the intellectual perceptions deployed over his formidable
range of learning, not easily persuaded to change but always open to
disagreement, from which with his beguiling smile he would draw
some fresh and unexpected insight. I spent some time with him in
Paris about six months before he died, when he was being treated for
leukemia, and I saw him for the last time in hospital just before his
death on 28 April 1964. He greeted me with his usual courage and
gentleness, and we said farewell.2
One might say that by intellectualizing the historiography of
science Koyre risked disembodying the history of scientific ideas. It is
true that his example may have entailed a risk, despite the perception
and skill evident in all his work, although I cannot think of any
damage that may have come from his particular style of deploying his
insights. But one can both benefit and differ from even the most
inspiring of examples. This I shall illustrate briefly from some more
recent work on Galileo and Mersenne, but first I want to establish a
viewpoint, relevant to Koyre's own vision of the history of science.
The Western scientific movement with which we are concerned has
been, as I have said elsewhere, the history of men's relations with
nature and their fellow beings as perceiver and knower and agent,
mediated through particular visions of existence from which the arts
265
266
experiment using appropriate instruments and apparatus, by hypothetical modelling and analogy, by taxonomy, by probabilistic and
statistical analysis, by historical derivation as in the study of languages
and of living organisms. It has been aimed in different social contexts
almost as much at persuasion as at demonstration. But always if an
argument was either to demonstrate or to persuade acceptably it has
been expected to satisfy the stable criteria of logical consistency and
agreement with the evidence: criteria formalized by the Greeks themselves and their successors within the scientific movement. Of course
this kind of stratospheric view of nearly three millenia of intellectual
history sweeps insouciantly over periods or circumstances of incompetence or indifference; but whenever Western scientific thinking has
been revived or refocused or transferred from one culture to another,
this has been done explicitly as the revival or appropriation of an
existing tradition. This is not very surprising since the tradition has
had its existence both in living people and in texts available for
recovery and translation, and whether from the one or from the other
there has been an explicit continuation of education in the same styles
of thought and practice.
The historiography of science is concerned then with the history of
scientific argument, and with intellectual and moral behaviour in
relation to such argument. On this I shall make two further
comments. First, if we insist upon the cultural specificity of the
Western scientific tradition in its origins and initial development, and
upon its enduring identity in diffusion to other cultures, we do not
have to look far below the surface of scientific inquiry and its
immediate results to see that the whole historical process has gone on
in a context of intellectual and moral commitments, expectations,
dispositions and memories that have varied greatly with different
periods, societies and circumstances. These have affected both the
problems perceived and the solutions found acceptable, and also the
evaluations of desirable and undesirable ends and their motivations.
The whole affair as I have said elsewhere is an invitation to treat the
historiography of science as a kind of comparative historical anthropology of scientific thinking. Before all we must be concerned with
people and their vision, with their perceptions of problems and their
expectations in the uncertainty of an unknown future, and with their
response both in accepting and in opposing innovation and change.
As ourselves products of a particular time and culture, we may then
give ourselves the therapeutic surprise that effective scientific thinking
could be based on assumptions and have aims and motivations so
various and so different from our own.
Secondly, accepting all this, we do not likewise have to look far
into the scientific tradition to see that the whole programme has
presupposed the stability at once of nature and of human thinking.
267
Nobody knows what nature is, Koyre once said to me, except that it is
whatever it is that falsifies our hypotheses. The scientific movement
has comprised distinct kinds of knowledge which have had to be
tested in different ways. Propositions asserting factual regularities
could be tested directly by observation and have been the most stable.
Propositions asserting theoretical explanations must be tested by their
observable consequences and have tended to be replaced with the
development of more precise or more general theories. Propositions
asserting beliefs about the fundamental nature of the world have not
usually been proposed for testing but have been assumed in the
development of theories, until they have been replaced by the
rethinking of the foundations. From whatever level of its activity, the
Western scientific movement has generated through its history a
progressive accumulation of objective and reproducible knowledge,
and of methods and techniques for acquiring and developing it, that
are communicable to all mankind. This is an historical phenomenon
of the profoundest human importance of which historians and philosophers are, or should be if they have any intellectual responsibility,
obliged to take account. When Galileo insisted that we cannot cheat
nature, however much we may cheat our fellow men, he was defining
the identity at once of nature and of natural science.4 For it was
impossible to solve problems in nature whether theoretical or
practical by magic or by commercial bargaining or political convenience or chicanery. A large part of the argument within the scientific
movement, notably in the 17th century, has been directed towards
establishing its identity as distinct from other forms of contemporary
erudition. The specific history of science as a problem-solving activity
is not then the same as the history of ideas or ideology lacking its
identifying modes of self-correction and criteria of acceptability. Only
someone with no grasp of scientific knowledge, little of the history of
thought, and motivated no doubt by some catastrophic ideology,
would want to think it was.5
The illumination given by Koyre to our understanding of Galileo
came from his perception of Galileo as primarily a theoretical thinker
by contrast with the dedicated experimenter then currently presented.
There can be no doubt of the importance and influence of that illumination, which has guided the reshaping of all subsequent studies of
4.
268
A. Koyr6, "Galileo and Plato", Journal of the History of Ideas, 1943, v, p. 400428; cf. A.C. Crombie and A. Carugo, Galileo's Natural Philosophy,
(forthcoming), with full bibliography.
7. Galileo, De motu gravium, in Le opere, i, p. 300.
8. Cf. Galileo to Pierre Carcavy, 5 June 1637, in Le opere, vii, p. 90-91, and to G.B.
Baliani, 7 January 1639, in ibid, xviii, p. 11-13; A.C. Crombie, "The primary
properties and secondary qualities in Galileo Galilei's natural philosophy", in C.
Maccagni (ed.), Saggi su Galileo Galilei, Firenze, G. Barbera, preprint 1969,
"Sources of Galileo's early natural philosophy", in M.L. Righini Bonelli and W.R.
Shea (ed.), Reason, Experiment, and Mysticism in the Scientific Revolution, New
York, Science History Publications, 1975, p. 157-175, 303-305, "Philosophical
presuppostions and shifting interpretations of Galileo", in J. Hintikka, D.
Gruender and E. Agazzi (ed.), Theory Change, Ancient Axiomatics, and Galileo's
Methodology: Proceedings of the 1978 Conference on the History and Philosophy
of Science, Dordrecht, D. Reidel, 1981, i, p. 271-286; A. Carugo and A.C.
Crombie, "The Jesuits and Galileo's ideas of science and of nature", Annali...
(as above n. 3), 1983, viii. 2, p. 3-68, with further references; A.C. Crombie and
A. Carugo, Galileo's Natural Philosophy (forthcoming).
6.
269
270
2 71
within their works that Mersenne must have written his theorems,
deriving the ratio by considering bodies falling perpendicularly, on an
inclined plane, and then in a circle, by the end of 1633,17 whereas
Galileo seems almost certainly to have written his first statement of it
between 7 April and 9 June 1635. The former date is established by
his correspondence with Fulgenzio Micanzio in Venice who with
others there commented on his progress in writing the First Day of
the Discorsi (dealing with the pendulum and acoustics) as he sent
him successive pages of his manuscript; the latter date is established
by Galileo's letter to Elie Diodati saying that on it he had sent a
manuscript including the First Day to Giovanni Pieroni in Germany.
This survives in Florence as the only extant manuscript of the
Discorsi.18 There is no positive evidence that Galileo knew the
pendulum ratio before he wrote this part of the Discorsi, and there is
negative evidence that he did not.19 But Diodati sent Galileo a copy
of Mersenne's Les mechaniques de Galilee on 10 April 1635, just
when he would have reached the appropriate point in his manuscript.20 Galileo has left no comment.
Apart from these dates, other circumstances and coincidences are
sufficiently arresting to invite the suspicion that Galileo learnt the
ratio from Mersenne. First, his bare announcement in the Discorsi of
so important a proposition contrasts strikingly with his usual practice
of offering full mathamatical and experimental demonstrations of his
novelties. Again, even if he never received or never read Les mechaniques de Galilee, Mersenne had sent in advance of publication printed
sections of his Harmonie universelle containing his theorems both to
Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc in Aix-en-Provence and to Giovanni Battista
Doni in Rome during 1634.21 Both were in touch with Galileo and his
close friends in Florence, and these in turn were in touch with over17. See for the pendulum ratio Mersenne, Harmonie universelle, "Traite des
instrumens", i, props, xix-xx, and "Traitez de la nature des sons et des
mouvemens de toutes sortes de corps", ii, props, xii-xvi; and Mersenne to Peiresc,
10 March 1634, and subsequent correspondence in Correspondance, iv, p. 81-82,
105, 134, 175-177, 181-182, 186-187, 218-219, 225-227, 240-241, 253-255,
259-260, 267-269, 280-281, 286-287, 345, 368, 379, 388, 392-394, v, p. 33, 35,
136-137; cf. A.C. Crombie, "Mathematics, music and medical science", in Actes
du XII* Congres International d'Histoire des Sciences, Paris, 1968, Paris, Albert
Blanchard, 1971, i. B, p. 295-310 (reprinted in Science, Optics and Music in
Medieval and Early Modem Thought, London, Hambledon Press, 1990),
Crombie 1974 (note 14 above), Styles . . . ch. 10, (note 3 above), Marin
Mersenne (note 14 above), Crombie and Carugo, Galileo's Natural Philosophy
(notes 8,13 above).
18. MS Banco Raro 31; cf- Galileo, Le opere, xvi, pp. 271-274 with Pieromi to
Galileo, 11 and 18 August and 15 December 1635, ibid. pp. 300-304, 359-361;
Crombie 1971, n. 24, with other references in note 17 above.
19. Cf. Crombie, Styles . . . ch. 10,1994 (note 3 above), Crombie and Carugo, ibid.
20. Galileo, Le opere, xvi, p. 255; Mersenne, Correspondance, v, 132, cf. vi, 242.
21. Cf. Crombie, Crombie and Carugo (notes 17, 19 above).
272
22. Galileo, Le opere, xvi, p. 152; Michelini was known in his order as Francesco di
San Giuseppe or delle Scuole Pie.
23. Cf. Castelli to Galileo and Michelini to Galileo, both 8 April 1634, in Le opere,
xvi, p. 75-76.
24. Mersenne to Peiresc, 28 July 1634, Correspondence, iv, p. 267-268, Doni to
Mersenne, ibid., p. 384-385, and 392-394 on Harmonie universelle, "Traite des
instrumens", ii; cf. note 17 above.
25. Magiotti to Galileo, and to Michelini, both 25 April 1637, in Le opere, xvii, p. 6364, and again to Galileo, 16 May 1637, in ibid., p. 80-81; also in Mersenne,
Correspondance, vi, p. 241-243, 255.
26. See Mersenne, "Premiere observation" and "Seconde observation" inserted in the
second volume of Harmonie universelle (1637) immediately following the "Table
des matieres", and Les nouvelles pensees de Galilee (1639), livre i, arts. 17, 2024, ed. P. Costabel et M.-P. Lerner, Paris, J. Vrin, 1973; cf. Crombie, references
in notes 14 and 17 above.
273
Vincenzo Galilei, Dialogo della musica antica, et della moderna (1581): title pageGalileo's father Vincenzo Galilei (c. 1520-1591) was a leading and controversial
musical theorist, experimenter and scholar, and a skilled lutanist. It was he
who may have introduced Galileo to experimental science by his investigations
into the laws of vibrating strings, while Galileo was living in his house during
158589. Galileo reported results, corresponding to those described in his
father's books and manuscripts, in his DLscorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a
due nuove scienze (1638).
14
1
This essay is based on my book Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition, ch. 14
(London, 1994) with full bibliography; the subject is elaborated in my Marin Mersenne: Science,
Music and Language (forthcoming).
276
assertion that possession of the true name gave occult power over the thing
named.2
The need for an effective means of intellectual communication among men
of different languages and cultures had been stressed by Augustine (De civitate
Dei, xix.7), and the problem was recognised with renewed urgency in the
thirteenth century in the theological and geographical context of Western
Christendom. The natural language of mankind might be Hebrew, but its
pristine universality had been lost in the confusion of Babel. The universality
of Latin stopped at the boundaries of the West. Christians had a religious
obligation to communicate the truth revealed to them. At the same time,
whether there was a natural language of mankind and whether it was Hebrew,
again became disputed questions. The Emperor Frederick II was said to have
'tried to find out by experiment what language or speech boys would have
when they grew up, if they could speak to no one'.3 Roger Bacon located the
problem within Augustine's distinction in De doctrina Christiana (ii.2-4)
between natural and conventional or given signs. Natural signs were those
which, 'without any desire or intention of signifying, make us aware of
something beyond themselves', as smoke signified fire, or a track a passing
animal. Given signs were those which living creatures made to each other
intentionally in order 'to produce and transfer to another mind what happens
in the mind of the person who makes the sign'. Bacon, after citing Augustine,
went on to ask what was 'the first language of Adam and how he gave names to
things; and whether boys reared in solitude would use any language by
themselves, and if they met each other how they would indicate their natural
states of mind'.4 Dante, in De vulgari eloquentia (i.6), had no doubt that the
original human language was Hebrew, for 'a certain form of speech was
created by God, together with the first soul', comprising both names and
grammatical structure, and this was inherited after the confusion of Babel only
by the Hebrews. Others took a different view in a much more scientific spirit.
Thus his French contemporary Jean de Jandun in his questions 'Super De
sensu' returned critically to the case of the isolated child, which he compared
to that of a deaf mute:
It has been said that because such a mute has not heard any meaningful speech,
he cannot utter any. In question is: if a boy were reared in a forest, where he had
never heard any kind of language, whether he would speak any language. . . .
Some say that he would speak Hebrew, and that that language is natural; but this
is not true, because then it would be adapted to all men and all would speak
naturally that, which is false and evident to sense. Likewise there is no habit of
2
Cf. Roger Bacon, Opus mains, iv, ed. John Henry Bridges (Oxford), i, p. 395-7, Opus tertium
c.26 (as below n. 4); Marsilio Ficino, De vita coelitus comparanda, iii.21 in Opera (Basileae, 1576);
Henricus Cornelius Agrippa, De occulta philosophia, i.69-74 (Antwerpiae, 1531).
3
Salimbene de Adam, Cronica, a cura di Giuseppe Scalia (Bari, 1966), i, p. 510.
4
Roger Bacon, Opus tertium, c.27 in Opera quaedam hactenus inedita, ed. J.S. Brewer
(London, 1859), i, p. 100-2.
211
any speech unless through the social intercourse of men, and hence I say that he
would not speak a language; he could well from natural appetite form sounds, but
no consistent
expressions unless he were later to have intercourse with others
5
(q-7).
Joannes de Janduno, Quaestiones super Parvis naturalibus (Venetiis, 1589), f. A7r; cf. Agrimi
as in next note.
6
Le 'Quaestiones De sensu' attribute a Oresme e Alberto di Sassonia, a cura di Jole Agrimi
(Firenze, 1983), pp. 71-2.1 am grateful to Chiara Cristiani for this important reference. There are
certain parallels in the story by the 12th-century Hispano-Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufail, Hayy
Ibn Yaqzdn, texte arabe . . . et traduction franchise par Leon Gauthier, 2e ed. (Beirut, 1936). The
story was translated first into Latin by Edward Pococke (1671); cf. Gul A. Russell,' "The Rusty
Mirror of the Mind": Ibn Tufayl and Avicenna's Psychology' in Interdesciplinary Perspectives on
Ibn Tufayl, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Oxford, forthcoming).
7
Marsilius of Inghen, Questiones De sensu et sensato, q. 3, quodlibet 1, MS Erfurt F. 334, f.
7(8)r: translated from Agrimi as in preceding note.
278
See Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, Lettres a Claude Saumaise et a son entourage (16201637), ed. A. Bresson, (Firenze, 1992).
9
Raimundus Lullus, Tractatus de modo convertandi infideles' (1292) in Opera latina, ed.
Maioricensis Scholae Lullisticae, Mallorca, Publicaciones de la Consejo Superior de Investicaciones Cientificas, 1954, fasc. iii, p. 104-5.
279
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS lat. 17, 262, pp. 511, 536, cf. MS lat. 17, 261, pp. 3-6;
280
Mersenne set out his notable theory of the origins, history and empirical
science of language finally in his Harmonie universelle (1636-37) and Harmonicorum libri (1636). He insisted that a true language must be a vehicle of
conscious meaning, and that this was possible only for human beings. Spoken
words were physical sounds just as written words were visible symbols which
had been given meanings in the course of human history arbitrarily by use. The
sounds made by animals, like their visible signals, were means of communication with functions in their bodily lives, but they operated within systems of
unconscious physical stimulus and response. They were no more a language in
the human sense than the communications within a machine, even though the
analogy of animal and mechanical communication could provide a means of
analysis of true human language. He proposed to model meaning. Just as the
effects of music varied with race, way of life, period and culture, so different
groups of men had come to express their common understanding of meaning in
a variety of languages diversified by their different historical experiences,
environments, needs, temperaments and customs. Because men shared reason
it was possible to translate the expression of a common meaning from any
language into any other, but no existing language was naturally prior to all
others. He ingeniously explored the acquisition of language in Harmonie
universelle. Traitez de la voix, et des chantes', i: 'De la voix, des parties qui
servent a la former, de sa definition, de ses proprietez, et de 1'ouye'. He
insisted:
La voix des animaux est necessaire, et celle des homines est libre; c'est a dire que
1'homme parle librement, et que les animaux crient, chantent, et se servent de
leurs voix necessairement . . . ; car leur appetit sensitif estant echauffe par
1'impression de 1'imagination, commande necessairement a la faculte motrice de
mouvoir toutes les parties qui sont necessaires a la voix (prop. viii).
This led to the question: 'A scavoir si 1'homme pourrait parler ou chanter s'il
n'entendoit point de sons ni de paroles'. The answer seemed to depend on a
virtually impossible experiment, that was to isolate a child from all sounds and
words from the day of its birth for twenty or thirty years.
C'est pourquoy il faut se servir de la seule raison, qui dicte qu'un homme ne
parleroit point s'il n'avoit iamais ouy de paroles, parce qu'il ne s'imagineroit pas
que les paroles peussent servir a expliquer les pensees de 1'esprit, et les desirs de
la volonte: et quand il se 1'imagineroit, il ne sc.auroit pas de quelles dictions il
devroit se servir pour se faire entendre. On peut done ce semble conclure que
1'homme ne parleroit point s'il n'avoit appris a parler.
Nevertheless, since birds sang naturally, and a man could imagine that high
and low notes could represent different things, Ton peut dire que 1'homme
parleroit encore qu'il n'eust point oily parler, pourveu qu'il eust quelqu'un a
Robert Lenoble, Mann Mersenne ou la naissance du mecanisme (Paris, 1943), p. 514-5, 517.
281
qui il addressast ses paroles' (prop. x). If the experiment with one isolated
child was too difficult:
Suppose que Ton nourrist des enfans en un lieu ou ils n'entendissent point parler,
a sc.avoir, de quelle langue ils se serviroient pour parler entr'eux. le suppose que
les enfans . . . inventeroient des sons, et des dictions pour signifier leurs desirs,
car nous ne sommes plus dans la difficulte precedente, qui considere un homme
tout seul qui n'a personne a qui parler. Or si nous ne supposions la verite de la
foy, qui nous apprend que le premier homme a este cree droit, juste et servant,
nous croirions avec les philosophes payens, que les premiers hommes ont invente
la premiere langue, qui peut estre appellee langue originaire ou matrice, d'ou les
autres ont este tirees: . . . ie dy premierement qu'ils formerent des sons pour se
communiquer leurs pensees. Secondement, qu'il est impossible de sc.avoir de
quels sons ou de quelles paroles ils useroient pour se faire entendre les uns aus
autres; car toutes les paroles estant indifferentes pour signifier tout ce que Ton
veut, il n'y a que la seule volonte qui les puisse determiner a signifier une chose
plustost qu'une entre (prop. xi).
This led again to the question of a natural language, or failing that whether
through 'la science des sons dont les langues sont formees . . . un musicien
philosophe . . . peut inventer la meillieure langue de toutes les possibles'. He
was not asking for 'une langue qui signifie naturellement les choses', for 'il n'est
pas necessaire qu'une langue soit naturelle pour estre la meillieure de toutes,
mais il suffit qu'elle exprime le plus nettement et le plus briefvement qui peut
se faire les pensees de 1'esprit, et les desirs de la volonte'. But by means of a
combinatory calculus described in the Traitez . . . ' book ii, 'Des chants',
showing how many dictions could be made with any number of letters, it could
be possible 'establir une langue universelle, qui seroit la meillieure de toutes
les possibles, si 1'on sc,avoit 1'ordre des idees que Dieu a de toutes choses'
(prop. xii). He went on to ask:
Si nous avions une langue naturelle, . . . si nous la pourrions establir, suppose
qu'elle se perdist: et parce que nous confessons que nous ne sgaurions maintenant
trouver une langue naturelle, encore que nous soyons de mesme condition que
celle ou nous serions apres 1'avoir perdue, il faut semblablement avoiier que 1'art
et la raison que nous avons ne pourroit nous fournir les mesmes voix qui nous
servent naturellement a expliquer nos passions, si nous en avions perdu 1'usage.
For no one could foresee that, among various possible signs, tears and sobs
would indicate sadness and laughter joy. Moreover 'si Ton remarque les voix
dont les animaux expriment leurs passions et leurs affections, on les iugera
aussi indifferentes pour signifier lesdites passions, comme sont les paroles pour
signifier nos conceptions, ou les autres choses dont nous voulons parler'. Thus
the syllable kik, by which a hen (as described by Fabrici in De brutorum
loquela) told her chickens to run and hide, had no more relation to events than
the syllable glo by which she called them back. The fundamental difference
between animal and human speech was not that 'la nature les auroit privez des
organes necessaires a la parole', as we might have thought if we had not taught
birds to speak, but that TAuteur de la nature, ou la nature intelligente
282
determine les animaux, et les conduit tellement, qu'ils n'ont nulle liberte en
leurs actions' (prop. xiv). He went on to discuss in some detail how the muscles
of the vocal organs of different peoples became habituated to pronouncing
their own languages and refractory to pronouncing others (prop, xxxvii), and
to raise again the question, presented by the comparative anatomy studied by
Fabrici, of what was lacking in some birds and in all quadrupeds that prevented
them from being taught to imitate human speech. As for animal language, 'il
n'y a nul doute que le jargon des oiseaux, et les cris des animaux, leurs servent
de paroles, que Ton peut appeller la langue, et I'idiome des bestes, car Ton
experimente que celles qui sont de mesme espece s'entendent aussi bien par
leur voix differentes, que les hommes par leurs paroles' (prop, xxxix). The
elements of speech could be explored also by the imitation of the animal and
human voice by musical instruments, and by the methodical study of
comparative anatomy and physiology. For 'la langue et les autres instrumens
de la voix usent de differens mouvemens en prononc,ant les syllables et les
lettres, comme il est difficile de les expliquer, a raison que nous ne pouvons
voir ces mouvemens' (prop, xliii).
Mersenne saw in his analysis of human knowledge and of its expression
through the common elements of language an opening into the possibility of
inventing a perfect system of communication for all men, a new universal
language capable of conveying information without error. He began experimenting with the idea of making a new artificial universal language by means of
the combinatory calculus showing the number of possible permutations and
combinations of a given set of elements with which he had tried, in La verite
des sciences (iii.10), to devise the best tune from among the number that could
be composed from a given set of notes. In 1629 he forwarded to Descartes a
project by an unnamed author for a new universal language. Descartes in his
reply proposed as a model for the true, as distinct from an artificial, universal
language, not the generalised structure that could be extracted from existing
languages, but mathematics. But Tinvention de cette langue depend de la
vraie philosophic', and even if it were achieved so that it represented to the
judgement 'si distinctement toutes choses, qu'il lui serait presque impossible
de se tromper', this could be expected only in 'un paradis terrestre'.11
Mersenne went ahead on the assumption that such an universal language could
be usefully established before the perfection of the true philosophy. He argued
that the only certain knowledge of things available to us was of their
measurable quantities. He proposed then to combine his linguistic with his
musical investigations by using his combinatory calculus to construct a system
of sounds and notation for representing such quantities. Thus he wrote in
Harmonie universelle, 'Traitez de la nature des sons', i: 'L'on peut se servir des
sons de chaque instrument de musique, et des differens mouvenmens que 1'on
11
283
284
Whether all the congenitally deaf are dumb. Some have maintained that speech is
convertible, namely that all the deaf are dumb and vice versa because, since some
powers are mutually connected, if there is an impediment in one there will also be
one in the other. . . . But this is not valid. . . . And therefore I say that someone
congenitally deaf is necessarily dumb because anyone who cannot learn how to
form meaningful speech at will is in that way necessarily dumb. This is selfevident, because knowing how to form meaningful speech at will comes about
only through habit and social intercourse with people, but someone congenitally
deaf cannot become accustomed to the expression of meaningful speech, because
this requires that he hears speech of this kind.14
Again in the sixteenth century some medical authorities recognised that the
deaf were dumb only because they had never heard speech. Girolamo Cardano
insisted that deaf mutes were just as intelligent as the rest of humanity and
could be educated through vision.15 Mersenne reported with enthusiasm the
pioneering Spanish work in teaching deaf-mutes to speak. He cited in 'De la
voix' the account given by the king's physician Francisco Valles of the method
devised by Pedro Ponce de Leon:
Quant aux muets, encore que plusieurs croyent qu'ils n'est pas possible qu'ils
parlent autrement que par les signes ordinaires qu'ils font avec les mains, les
yeux, et les autres parties du corps, parce qu'ils ne peuvent oiiir aucune
instruction, a raison qu'ils sont sourds; il n'y a neantmoins nul doute que Ton peut
tellement leur apprendre a remuer la langue, qu'ils formeront des paroles, dont
on pourra leur apprendre la signification en leur presentant devant les yeux, ou
leur faisant toucher les choses qu'elles signifient. D'ou Ton peut conclure qu'il
faut commencer par 1'escriture pour faire parler les sourds, comme Ton
commence par la parole pour enseigner a parler aux autres: de sorte que la parole
et 1'escriture sont quasi une mesme chose. . . . Or 1'unique moyen d'enseigner a
lire et a escrire aux sourds et aux muets consiste a leur faire comprendre que les
caracteres dont on use, representent ce que Ton leur montre, et ce qu'ils voyent:
car la pronunciation des lettres et des vocables, c'est a dire la parole, ne
represente pas plus naturellement les choses signifiees que 1'escriture quelle
qu'elle soil, puis qu'elles dependent toutes deux egalement de la volonte et de
1'institution des hommes, sans laquelle elles ne significient rien. . . . Cecy estant
pose, il est facile d'enseigner a escrire toutes sortes de choses aux sourds,
pourveu qu'elles puissant tomber sous le sens de la veue, ou du toucher, ou
qu'elles puissent estre goustees, ou flairee; main il est plus mal-aise de les faire
parler, dautant que Ton ne peut leur monstrer tous les mouvemens de la langue,
et des autres parties qui forment la parole. . . . Valesius dit que son amy Ponce
enseignoit tellement les sourds par le moyen de 1'escriture, qu'il les faisoit parler
en leur monstrant premierement au doigt les choses qui estoient signifiees par
1'escriture, et puis en leur faisant remuer la langue jusques a ce qu'ils eussent
profere quelque parole, ou fait quelque espece de son ou de voix (prop, li).16
14
Cf. above n. 5; and for the supposed irremediable link between the ear and the vocal organs
Galen, Deplacitis Hippocratis et Platonis, ii.4. 12-15, 40-2, 5.1-97, De usu partium, xvi.3-4, ix.12,
xi.10, De locis affectis, iv.9.
15
Cardano, Opera omnia, ii (Lugduni, 1663), pp. 72-3, x, p. 462.
16
Cf. Franciscus Vallesius, De sacra philosophia, c.3 (Lugduni, 1588), p. 78; Lorenzo Hervas y
Panduro, Escuola Espanola de sordomudos (Madrid, 1795), 2t.; Abraham Farrar, 'Histrocial
Introduction' to Juan Pablo Bonet, ^implication of the Letters of the Alphabet and Method of
285
Teaching Deaf-Mutes to Speak, transl. H.N. Dixon (Harrogate, 1890); Ruth Elaine Bender, The
Conquest of Deafness (Cleveland, Ohio, 2nd ed., 1970); Harlan Lane, When the Mind Hears: A
History of the Dea/(New York, 1984); with also A.C. Crombie, 'Mathematics, Music and Medical
Science' (1971), reprinted in Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought
(London, 1990), pp..363-78.
286
Further References
Mersenne, Les mechaniques de Galilee, ed. B. Rochot (Paris, 1966), Les nouvelles pensees de
Galilee (Paris, 1639), ed. P. Costabel et M.-P. Lerner, 2 vol. (Paris, 1973); C.S.F. Burnett, M.
Fend and P. Gouk, The Second Sense: Studies in hearing and musical judgement from antiquity to
the seventeenth century (London, 1991); V. Coelho (ed.), Music and Science in the Age of Galileo
(Dordrecht, 1992); H.F. Cohen, Quantifying Music (Dordrecht, 1984); P. Dear, Mersenne and the
Learning of the Schools (Ithaca, NY., 1988); A.E. Moyer, Musica scientia: Musical scholarship in
the Italian Renaissance (Ithaca, N. Y., 1992); and for language K. O. Apel, Die Idee der Sprache in
der Tradition des Humanismus von Dante bis Vico (Bonn, 1963, 3rd ed. 1980); H. Arens,
Sprachwissenschaft (Miinchen, 1955, 2nd ed. Freiburg, 1969); A. Borst, Der Turmbau von Bable,
4 vol. (Stuttgart, 1957-63); O.V.C.M. Funke, Zum Weltsprachenproblem in England im
17'.Jahrhundert (Anglistische Forschungen, xlix; Heidelberg, 1929); G. Gusdorf, Les sciences
humaines et la pensee occidentale, ii, iii.2 (Paris, 1967-69); J.R. Knowlson, Universal Language
Schemes in England and France 1600-1800 (Toronto, 1975); G. Mounin, Histoire de la linguistique
(Paris, 1967); R.H. Robins, A Short History of Linguistics (New York, 1967); Paolo Rossi, Clavis
universalis (Milano/Napoli, 1960), V.G. Salmon, The Study of Language in 17th-Century England
(Amsterdam, 1979); M.M. Slaughter, Universal Languages and Scientific Taxonomy in the 17th
Century (Cambridge, 1982); G.F. Strasser, Lingua universalis, Kryptologie und Theorie der
Universalsprachen in 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden, 1988); F.A. Yates, Giordano Bruno
(London, 1964), The Art of Memory (London, 1966), Theatre of the World (London, 1969),
Collected Essays, 3 vol. (London, 1982-84); see also A.C. Crombie, Science, Optics and Music. . .
chs. 9, 13, 14, 15 (1990), Styles of Scientific Thinking . . . chs. 10, 14 (1994), and above ch. 13,
below ch. 15.
Appendix
Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc
Lettres a Claude Saumaise et a son entourage (1620-1637),
edited by Agnes Bresson (Florence, 1992).
A Monsieur, M. Nicolas Claude Fabry Sieur de Peiresc et de Callas, Baron de
Rians, Abbe et Seigneur de Guistres, et Conseiller du Roy en la Cour de
Parlement d'Aix en Provence. 'In this dedication to Peiresc of the Traitez des
Consonances. . . . ', which formed part of his great Harmonic universelle
(1636), Marin Mersenne offered a portrait of his friend, whose 'liberalite' had
provided so much for the 'honnestes gens' and 'hommes sgavans' of all of
Europe. 'Car vous ne leur fournissez seulement pas les tres-rares manuscrits,
1 es medailles et les autres reliques de la venerable antiquite dont votre Cabinet
est enrichi . . . mais vous leur faites venir tout ce qu'il y a plus curieux au
Levant, et dans toutes les autres parties de la terre, sans en pretendre autre
chose que d'ayder a faire valoir le talent d'un chacun, et a faire paroistre la
portee et 1'estendue de 1'esprit humain.' Anyone who visited Peiresc was left
with the impression 'que vous n'ayez dresse vostre Cabinet que pour luy, et
que tous vos biens soient aussi communs aux sgavans, que 1'air et 1'eau a tous
ceux qui respirent'.
Belonging to a family original from Pisa, Nicolas-Claude Fabri (1580-1637)
took the name Peiresc from a village in the Alpes de Provence inherited from
his mother. Education, travel and a wide circle of friendships established his
style of erudition essentially as a collector, patron and organiser, but also as a
practical researcher, over almost the whole range of the liberal arts and
sciences. His interests were eclectic in the style of his sixteenth-century
predecessors, by contrast with that of the contemporary generation of
systematic philosophers, but his curiosity had a purpose and could be sharply
focused. A Jesuit schooling introduced him to astronomy. On a journey to
Italy during 1599-1600, he met at Padua the antiquarian Giovanni Vincenzo
Pinelli and Galileo, and visited galleries, stimulating an interest in Antiquity,
and in the diversity of nature, that was to mature in the study of law at
Montpellier under the philologist Jules Pacius. Travel to England and the
Netherlands brought him in touch with Dutch botanists, to whom he was to
send seeds and the names of Provencal plants. After reading Galileo's Sidereus
nuncius, he and the Provencal astronomer Joseph Gaultier were the first in
288
Appendix
289
period. The volume will be of particular value for the new historical interest in
collectors, collections and museums, for the history of science, for the history
of languages and for orientalists.
Peiresc is properly located for the first time in this splendid volume in the
variegated life especially of the Mediterranean world in the early seventeenth
century. He emerges as a savant for whom the natural sciences belonged as
much as literary learning to a humanist culture, and who organized his
collecting in the service of the whole Republic of Letters. The enthusiastic
intelligence of these letters and their vivid detailing of so many objects of his
curiosity make them a continuous pleasure to read. We meet his competition
with Lord Arundel for the purchase of the Arundel marbles now in the
Ashmolean Museum; postal facilities and travel in the Mediterranean area;
Turkish pirates who captured and threw overboard Pinelli's library, and the
recovery from the sea of those sections of it now in the Ambrosiana and
Marciana libraries. Pursuit of aspects of life in the ancient Mediterranean area,
Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, leads to requests for information and manuscripts about systems of money, numerals and computing,
weights and measures, military arms and uniforms, strategy and tactics,
chronology, astronomy, music, divination, plants and animals. Peiresc
acquired in manuscript 'un livre arabe assez ample de 1'histoire des animaulx
ou il se trouvera possible quelque chose de plus que ce que nous en avons dans
les anciens grecs, puis qu'ils sont sur les lieux ou les animaulx estranges
habitent'. There is a long saga of attempts to identify a particular 'animal
etrange' which arrived from Ethiopia at Marseilles for the King: a kind of
antelope now called Oryx beisa. He collected ancient inscriptions, medals,
coins and bronzes, ivories, enamels, paintings and other works of art; he
researched into the history of medicine, drugs, epidemics and hygiene; and
from all these inquiries built up an important collection of manuscripts in
Greek, Latin, Italian, Arabic, Coptic and other European and oriental
languages.
It was in his investigations into the origins and filiations of languages that
Peiresc appears at his most inventive in this remarkable correspondence. He
was a pioneer in historical derivation by the comparative method. This had
been initiated for languages in the sixteenth century by Sigismundus Gelenius
and Guillaume Postel, and developed among others by Conrad Gessner, using
the methods of Aristotelian biological taxonomy. By the end of the century, it
had been recognised that there were correspondences between apparently
diverse languages, such as German and Persian, as between Arabic and
Hebrew. The guiding principle was introduced in 1599 by Joseph-Juste
Scaliger, by using common elements of European languages to show that these
could be arranged in a genetic order of more ancient matrices linguae and their
more recent derivatives. Scholars then looked for rules of etymological
derivation to explain the transition of one language into another. The first
approaches to historical philology could be arbitrarily formal and limited only
to the derivation of words, but the horizon was expanded empirically by such
290
15
Le Corps a la Renaissance: Theories ofPerceiver
and Perceived in Hearing
Music has been strangely neglected by historians of science until very recently,
yet music was one of the fundamental Greek mathematical sciences, an important
part of the medieval mathematical quadrivium, and from the middle of the 16th
century the subject of active mathematical and experimental research1. The science of
music, like that of optics, was concerned primarily with the relation of perceiver to
perceived: with the identification and quantitative analysis of clues to sensations. For
music there were two basic questions : the discovery of the acoustical quantities
expressible in numbers that stimulated the diversities of auditory perception, and the
discovery of the anatomical structure and physiological functioning of the ear as the
receiver of those quantitative clues. In the first question science entered immediately
1. Cf. G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages (New York, 1940), Music in the Renaissance, 2nd ed.
(London, 1954); M.R. Cohen and LE. Drabkin. A Source Book in Greek Scince (New York, 1948); C.A.
Traesdell, "The theory of aerial sound. 1687-1788" in Leonhard Euler, Opera omnia, 2 series, ed. A.
Speiser, E. Trost, C. Blanc, LG. du Pasqrier, xiii (Lausaimae, 1955), pp. vii-cxvii, "Hie rational
mechanics of flexible or elastic bodies, 1638-1788" in ibid, xi 2 (Turici, 1960). 15-141 ; C.V. Palisca,
"Scientific empiricism in musical thought" in Seventeenth Century Science and the Arts, ed. H.H. Rhys
(Princeton, NJ., 1961), 91-137, "The science of sound and musical practice" in Science and the Arts in
the Renaissance, ed. J.W. Shirley and F.D. Hoeniger (Washington, D.C., 1985a), 59-73 ; D.P. Walker,
Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (1967-76) (London, 1978) ; A.C. Crombie,
"Mathematics, music and medical science" (1971) in Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early
Modern Thought (London: Hambledon Press, 1990), Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European
Tradition, chs 3, 7, 10 (London: G. Duckworth, 1994), Marin Mersenne: Science, Music and
Language (forthcoming), A.C. Crombie and A. Carugo, Galileo Galilei's Natural Philosophy
(forthcoming); S. Dostrovsky, "Early vibration theory : physics and music in the seventeenth century",
Archive for History of Exact Sciences, xiv (1975), 169-218 ; F.W. Hunt, Origins in Acoustics : The
science of sound from antiquity to the age of Newton (New Haven, Conn., 1978) ; J.C. Kassler, The
Science of Music in Britain, 1714-1830, 2 vol. (London & New York, 1979), introduction : "The
'science' of music to 1830" reprinted in Archives Internationales d'histoire des sciences, xxx (1980),
292
into the problems of art through the analysis of consonance and dissonance,
resonance and related phenomena, and the devising of scales (to be embodied in the
tuning of musical instruments) that were at once ordered on some rational principle
and able to satisfy the needs of the ear. Why was the number of consonances limited,
and what determined the frontier between consonances and dissonances ? These were
fundamental questions for musical theory from the 14th century.
Musical theory in the medieval quadrivium was based primarily on Boethius's
De institutione musicae. Sound was propagated through the air as a succession of
impulses. Pitch depended on their frequency. Consonances were produced by the
blending of high and low notes with frequencies in the ratios of the perfect set of
numbers 1 to 4. They affected the soul because of its structural conformity through
these ratios with the harmonies alike of the cosmos and of musical sound. Hence the
moral power of music stressed in the Timaeus (35B-36B, 46C-47E), by Aristotle in
the Politics (viii, 5) and by Augustine. Within this context at once of educational
doctrine, natural philosophy and mathematical science, medieval students of music
had a choice of two main types of theory : that of Plato and the later Pythagoreans,
which related the consonances to purely numerical ratios, and was associated with
cosmic numerology ; and that of the Aristotelians, which began with experience and
looked beyond mere numbers for physical and causal explanations of sound and its
effects in sensation. Thus Aristoxenus made the ear and not numerical theory the
proper judge of consonance and dissonance. Grosseteste offered a sophisticated
explanation both of the physical propagation of sound and of its effects on sentient
beings. Later in the 13th century knowledge of Aristotelian theories was greatly
extended by the translation into Latin of the commentary or paraphrase by
Themistius on De anima, and of the Problemata then believed to be by Aristotle
himself. Scientific discussion of the whole subject entered a new phase with the
exposition of this work by Pietro d'Abano in the commentary which he completed at
Padua in 1310. Pietro d'Abano promoted a causal as distinct from simply numerical
treatment of the phenomena of sound (in particular pitch and consonance) that was to
re-establish the Aristotelian as opposed to the Platonic or late Pythagorean approach
to the science of music. His influence on musical theory was comparable to that of
Roger Bacon on optical theory through his exposition of Alhazen2.
From this time a number of different factors promoted the development of
musical science along with musical practice and of disputes that accompanied both.
111-36, "Music as a model in early science". History of Science, xx (1982), 103-39 ; P.M. Gouk, "Tlie
rede of acoustics and musical theory in the scientific work of Robert Hooke", Annals of Science, TOO. vii
(1980), 573-605, "Acoustics in the early Royal Society 1660-1680", Notes and Records of the Royal
Society, xxx vi (1982), 155-75, The Anatomy of Music : Sound and science in seventeenth - century
England (London : G. Duch worth, forthcoming) ; H.F. Cohen, Quantifying Music : The science of music
at the first stage of the scientific revolution, 1580-1650 (Dordrecht, 1984) ; F. de Buzon, "Science de la
nature et theorie musicale chez Isaac Beeckman (1588-1637)", Revue d'histoire des sciences, xxx viii
(1985), 97-120.
2. Cf. Palisca (1985), Crombie, Styles..., chs. 7,10.
293
294
polyphonic practice by including among the consonances the major third (5:4), minor
third (6:5) and major sixth (5:3), and he also proposed rules of composition based on
the new limit3. It was in offering to the composer Cipriano de Rone an analysis of the
musical problems involved in tuning that the mathematician Giovanni Battista
Benedetti took the first step towards the mathematical and physical demonstration of
the fundamental proposition that pitch depended on frequency of vibrations or
impulses, and hence that the musical intervals were ratios of these frequencies,
whatever instrument produced them4. Benedetti proposed a physical explanation of
consonance which would account for these phenomena. Starting from the proposition
that the frequencies of two strings with the same tension were inversely proportional
to their lengths, he argued that the consonance of intervals depended on the
coincidence of the terminations of their vibrations. Then, since the the more frequent
the coincidence the higher the degree of consonance, he could arrange the
consonances in an order by multiplying the two terms of each of their ratios. This put
relative consonance and dissonance alike on a continuous scale which ignored the
boundary of the senario.
The complexity of the relation of science to art in this period is exemplified by
Vincenzo Galilei. He again was led by musical problems of consonance and tuning to
a scientific study of sound. As a skilled lutanist he was sent by his humanist patron
Count Giovanni Bardi in Florence to study musical theory with Zarlino in Venice,
just before Zarlino succeeded Cipriano de Rore at St. Mark's. On his return, Galilei
then became musical preceptor to the musical academy of the Camerata which met at
Bardi's home, and a composer. Starting in agreement with Zarlino he turned, under
the influence of the humanist musical scholar Girolamo Mei, who worked in the
Vatican Library, into his most ruthless critic. Mei argued for an empirical conception
of the art of music. How was it Galilei asked him "that the practitioner does not
follow at all the designs of the theorist, as he should, since the theorist gives the
reason why" ? Mei replied that "considering and understanding are one thing and
putting into operation another. The former belongs to the intellect and the latter to
sense. But the sense of hearing is not as perfect as the judgement of the intellect
because of the material and other circumstances that always necessarily accompany
the former". Hence "the practitioner, having simply to satisfy the sense"5, needed no
further precision than would achieve that end. The ear could tolerate considerable
deviations from any mathematical scale.
3. Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia, U istitutioni harmoniche (Venetia, 1558; new eds. 1573,1589); M.
Shirlaw, The Theory of Harmony (London, no date : 1917? reprinted De Kalb, DI, 1955) ; J.M. Barbour,
Tuning and Temperament, 2nd ed. (East Lansing, Mich., 1953) ; cf. Palisca (1961). Humanism in Italian
Renaissance Musical Thought (New Haven, Conn., 1985b) ; D.P. Walker (1978). Music, Spirit and
Language in the Renaissance (London, 1985). Cohen (1984).
4. Cf. Baibour (1953), Shirlaw (19177). Palisca (1961). (1985a). Cohen (1984).
5. C.V. Palisca, Girodamo Mei (1519-1594) : Letters on Ancient and Modern Music to Vincenzo
Galilei and Giovanni Bardi (American Institute of Musicology, 1960), 65, 66,103,125-6.
295
296
2:1, for their tensions it was the squares of these numbers 4:1, and he asserted that for
organ pipes it was their cubes 8:1, the ratio of their volumes. Likewise the ratios of
tensions of strings were for the fifth 9:4 and for the fourth 16:9. It seems clear that, as
he claimed, Galilei must have made his experiments with strings, but he cannot have
reached his proportion for pipes by experiment for the pitch of a pipe is proportional
to its length, not its volume. He could easily have discovered this from an organ
builder. Galilei seems to have been captivated by a neat mathematical sequence
making the consonances depend successively on the unit, square and cube (for the
octave 2:1, 4:1 and 8:1) of the three quantities he considered8. Nevertheless he
showed not only that the accepted story of Pythagoras's experiments with hammers
must be false, but also that if other quantities besides length of strings were
considered, ratios outside Zarlino's senario produced recognized consonances. Like
Benedetti (who had not explicitly drawn this conclusion) Galilei showed that there
was no natural or numerical boundary between consonance and dissonance, but that
they were distinguished by ear. Moreover an could complement nature, could yield
conclusions about nature, and could transcend nature in artificial things.
Galilei's analysis of the relation of perceiver to perceived in hearing was to be
developed into a systematic doctrine by Isaac Beeckman, Descartes and Mersenne.
Using essentially Benedetti's theory of consonances, Descartes wrote in 1630 to
Mersenne that the "calcul que je faisois des retours des sons pour faire consonances"
showed that in terms of the physical motions or blows producing them some intervals
were simpler than others. "Je dis plus simple, non pas plus agreable [...] Mais pour
determiner ce qui est plus agrdable, il faut supposer la capacit6 de 1'auditeur, laquelle
change comme le goust, selon les personnes [...]; de mesme que Tun aime mieux ce
qui est doux, et 1'autre ce qui est un peu aigre ou amer, etc."9. Thus concerning the
perfection of consonances, "il y a deux choses a distinguer, a s^avoir ce qui les rend
8. Vincentio Galilei, Discorso... (Fiorenza, 1S89), replying to Zarlino, Sopplimenti maicali (Venelia,
1588), with Galilei, "Discorso particolare intomo alia diversita delle forme del diapason" MSS Galileiani
3, ff. 45'-47r, 54", "Discorso partioolare intomo all* unisono", ibid., ff. 5^-57'; cf. Procissi, i (1959), 3-6,
8 ; Nicomachus, Harmonicos manuale c.6, Macrobius, Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis ii.l, and
Boethius De institution* musica i. 10-11 for the story of Pythagoras's alleged discoveries ; Galileo
Galilei, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze Giomata i (Leida, 1638) in
Le Opere, ed. nazionale, viii (Fircnze, 1898), 138-50, cf. x, 86-87, xix, 594, 599, 602, 604, and the
Discorsi a cure di A. Carugo e L. Geymonat (Torino, 1958) for similar acoustical experiments perhaps
bagun with his father at Florence ; Palisca (1961), (1985a), D.P. Walker, "Some aspects of the musical
theory of Vincenzo Galilei and Galileo Galilei", Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, c (197374), 33-47, reprinted with changes in (1978). Unfortunately Walker's assertion in this article, that Galileo
could not possibly have made his famous experiments with a file and with a goblet of water to show that
the musical intervals were ratios of frequencies (Opere, viii, 141-5), was based on his failure to
understand that Galileo was dealing not with vibrations but with what are now called standing waves: cf.
Crombie, Styles..., ch. 10.
9. Descartes to Mersenne L 1630 in Mersenne, Correspondence, publiee et annotee par C. De Waard
avec R. Pintard, ii (Paris. 1937), 370-1 ; cf. A. Pino, Descartes et la musique (Paris, 1907) ; B. Augst,
"Descartes'* Compendium on Music", Journal of the History of Ideas, xxvi (1965), 119-32 ; Buzon,
(1981), Cohen (1984).
297
plus simples et accordances, et ce qui les rend plus agreables a 1'oreille. On, pour ce
qui les rend plus agr&bles, cela depend des lieus ou elles sont employees, et il se
trouve des lieus ou mesme les fausses quintes et autres dissonances sont plus
agreables que les consonances, de sorte qu'on ne scauroit determiner absolument
qu'une consonance soit plus agitable que 1'autre." Musical perceptions then were
often subjective and influenced by their context. "Mais on peut dire absolument
quelles consonances sont les plus simples et plus accordantes, car cela ne depend que
de ce que leurs sons s'unissent davantage Tun avec I'autre, et qu'elles approchent
plus de la nature de 1'unisson ; en sorte qu'in peut dire absolument que la quarte est
plus accordante que la tierce majeure, encore pour I'ordinaire elle ne soit pas si
agr6able; comme la casse est bien plus douce que les olives, mais non pas si agr&ble
a nostre goust"10. Mersenne was to elaborate this line of analysis into a comparative
physiological and ethological inquiry into the variation of the effects of music on the
ear and the emotions according to age and temperament, to the musical context, to
the cultural habits of different peoples, and in different kinds of animals. In his great
Harmonic universelle (1636-37), in which he presented his own fundamental
researches, together with those of relevant predecessors, into the mathematical
physics and the psychology of sound, he established for the first time a systematic
science of music in all its aspects11.
Those inquiring into the way in which sound effected sensations in a sensitive
body found themselves confronted by a number of different kinds of problem : the
physical propagation and motions of sound and their acoustical quantities, the
physiological mechanisms by which the ear responds to them, the means of relating
these physical quantities and motions to the sensations they produced, and the
empirical phenomena of auditory perception. Before the work of Mersenne,
Descartes and other contemporaries made these distinctions explicit, invertigators
working in different intellectual and academic contexts did focus during the 16th
century on different kinds of problems which they developed into different subjectmatters for research. Thus while students of music as a mathematical science and art
were inveitigating the acoustical quantities and their effects in musical sensation, and
philosophers were explaining in their own ways the interactions between body and
soul, anatomists in the medical schools had been looking into the physiology of the
ear. Anatomical research, starting in Italy early in the 16th century not far in advance
of where Galen had left off, had by the beginning of the 17th century clarified and in
large part discovered the main macroscopic details of the human auditory mechanism
and its innervation12. According to the current theory derived from Aristotle (De
10. Descartes to Mersenne 13.i. 1631, ibid., iii, 2* ed. par B. Rochot (1969), 24-25.
11. Cf. R. Lenoble, Marin Mersenne, ou la naissance du mecanisme (Paris. 1943) ; A.C. Crombie,
"Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648)" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C. Gillitpie, ix (New Yoik.
1974), 316-22, Styles... ch. 10, Science, Optics and Music..., Marin Mersenne.
12. Cf. A. Politzer, Geschichte der Okrenkeilkunde, i (Stuttgart, 1907); A.C. Crombie, The study of
the senses in Renaissance science" (1964) in Science, Optics and Music...
298
anima ii. 8), the motion transmitted from a sounding body through the air produced a
corresponding motion of the air enclosed in the ear. Elaborating this with anatomical
details, the Dutch physician Volcher Goiter in his "De auditus instrumento" (1573)13,
the first special monograph to be written on the ear, identified the proper organ of
hearing as the internal air in the cavity of the middle ear. "To have a sensation of
anything" he wrote, "there must be a mutual action and affection (actio et passio)
between the sentient thing and the thing sensed, and for this there must be mutual
agreement between the two. Whence it follows that when the external air acts, the
internal or implanted air is affected, the internal air receiving the alteration of the
external air and being moved in the same way from outside. But this does not happen
immediately, but through the interposition of the membrane and of certain ossicles
wonderfully designed by nature". The external air "affected by the quality of sound"
transmitted its pulsations to the drum, whence they were transmitted through the
ossicles to the "enclosed air" and thence through the windings of the ear unaltered to
"the auditory nerve. By means of this passage and agency, the image of the sound
(strepitus imago) is at last transmitted to be seat of sensation (principiwn sentiendi)"
(c. 1). He thought that the bony labyrinth and cochlea of the inner ear acted like the
coils of a musical instrument to augment the sound (c. 15). Discussion of the
physiology of hearing concentrated on the identification of the sensitive organ and on
its mode of operation with that of the other parts, on the analogy of the operation of
the eye in focusing visual images. Somewhat earlier than Goiter the Italian anatomist
Guido Guidi had proposed that "the principal instrument of hearing" was the air
enclosed in the inner ear, adding that his proposals "are to be understood more as
conjectures than as scientific knowledge"14. Later in 1600 Andre* du Laurens located
the proper organ of sensation in the cochlea, but insisted that it was not the enclosed
air but must be the termination of the auditory nerve15. Guilio Casserio insisted on
this likewise in his De vocis auditusque organis historia anatomica (1600-01), a
marvellously illustrated work which with Girolamo Fabrici'sDe visione, voce, auditu
(1600) systematized auditory anatomy16.
Attempts at more quantitative investigations of auditory physiology followed
Mersenne's prescription that no one could succeed in this "unless he combines the
13. Volcher Colter, "De auditus instrumento" in Exiernarum et internarum principalium Humani
corpora partium tabulae (Nurembergae, 1573) ; cf. Politzer (1907), Crombie (1964), R. Herrlinger,
Volcher Colter, 1534-1576 (Nuremberg, 1952).
14. Vidus Vidius, De anatomia carports humani libri vii, vii, c.5 (Ars medicinalis, iii, Venetiis, 1611),
322-3.
15. Andrea Laurentius, Historia anatomica humani corporis, xi, quaestiones 9-10 (Francofurti,
1600), 428-9.
16. Cf. L. Premuda, "Casseri (or Casserio), Giulio (c. 1552-1616)" in Diet. Sci. Biog. iii (1971), 98 100 ; B. Zanobio, "Fabrici, Girolamo (or Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Geronimo Fabrizio) (c. 15331619)" in ibid., iv (1971), 507-12.
299
17. Marinus Mersennus, Quaestiones in Genesim, c.iv., vers 21, q. 57, art. 16 (Lutetiae Parisiorum,
1623), 1696b.
18. Thomas Willis, De anima brutorum, pan i, cc. 10, cf. 3-15 (Oxonii, 1672) ; G.S. Brett, The
Philosophy of Gassendi (London, 1908) ; P.P. Cranefield, "A sevcntcenth-ccntuiy view of mental
deficiency and schizophrenia : Thomas Willis on 'stupidity or foolishness", Bulletin of the history of
Medicine, xxxv (1961), 219-316 ; A. Meyer and R. Hierons, "On Thomas Willis's conception of
neurophysiology", Medical History, ix (1965), 1-15,142-55.
\9.Histoire de I'Acadtmie Royale des Sciences, i (Paris, 1733), 18, 35-37 (1667), 117 (1670), 223
(1677).
20. Joseph Guichard Duvemey, Trait/ de I'organe de I'owe (Paris, 1683), 68-9 ; cf. R.S. Stevenson
and D. Guthrie, A History of Oto-Laryngology (Edinburgh, 1949) ; Crombie (1964).
16
302
3
Leibniz, Elementa physicae, ii (c. 1682-1684) in Philosophical Papers and Letters, ed. and transl.
L. E. Loemker (Dordrecht, 1969), p. 284.
Fig. 2. Euclidean
vision: from
303
optics and perspective by taking the eye as the point of origin of lines of vision,
of which he postulated the essential properties: that they were rectilinear, that
they formed a perspective cone with its apex at the eye and its base at the
object seen, that things appeared to be equal, larger or smaller according to
whether the angles subtended at the eye were equal, larger or smaller, and so
on. In this way he could demonstrate from his premises, without immediate
observation, the appearances that things must have in direct vision and in the
extension of visual space in plane and curved mirrors (Figs 1 and 2). The
problems recognized in Greek optics all followed from the primary commitment of all its theories after Euclid, whether geometrical, physiological or
philosophical, to making the process by which vision was effected yield an
immediate explanation of visual perception. This was the commitment of
Ptolemy in his combination of experimental measurement with geometry, of
Galen in his inquiry into the physiological functions of the different parts of
the eye and his identification of the anterior surface of the crystallinus (the
modern lens) as the sensitive receptor, and of the philosophers whether
Platonic, Aristotelian, Stoic or Epicurean in their theories of how vision was
caused.
304
305
like a dead camera obscura containing a lens. The other problems of the
relation of perceiver to perceived, the empirical psychology of perception, and
the causation by a physical agent of sensation in sentient beings, could then
likewise all be liberated from each other, investigated separately, and their
relations re-examined.
From the viewpoint of the seventeenth century we can distinguish then four
quite different kinds of question wrapped up together in the visual theory
inherited from the Greeks, which were separated in the new theory coming
from Kepler and Descartes. The first was physical and physiological: the
operation of the eye as an optical instrument like any other physical instrument. Secondly there was the relation of the formation of images in the eye to
the perception of the objects of these images, and more generally the relation
of visual perception to the physiological clues involved. Thirdly there was the
ontological question of the relation of a physical stimulus as cause to sensation
as an effect in a quite different category. Fourthly there was the empirical
psychology of visual perception as a matter of independent autonomous
observation apart from physiological or philosophical theory.
Alhazen accepted as his starting point the Greek commitment of optics to
finding an immediate explanation of visual perception, but he transformed the
subject both conceptually and by his style of argument. He transformed optical
theory by explicitly distinguishing light from vision, and by investigating first
the properties of light and then on that basis the process by which light effected
vision by means of the eye. At the same time he developed systematically a
specifically experimental as well as mathematical argument in exemplary
combination. He took from Alkindi the basic principle that everything in the
world emits rays in every direction and applied this to light. In a series of
experiments with sighting tubes and other devices, and with a camera obscura
of which he studied the operation, he demonstrated the basic postulates of his
optics: that light was emitted rectilinearly in all directions from all points on
the surface of both luminous and illuminated bodies, whether these were
terrestrial or were celestial like the Sun and Moon; and that its propagation
was rectilinear whatever its form, whether direct, reflected or refracted. He
recognized with brilliant originality that the eye did not simply receive the
likenesses of things seen, but must be treated as an optical instrument that
itself formed images of them from the light entering it. He rejected the
extromission theory that sight was brought about by some kind of action sent
out by the eye as supposed in their different versions by Euclid, Ptolemy and
Galen; and he rejected the Epicurean intromission theory supposing that
already-formed copies of objects entered the eye. The pain inflicted by very
bright light, after-images both of bright objects and of bright colours, and a
variety of other observations showed that 'light produces some effect in the
eye', that 'illuminated colours act on the eye' and that light and colour were
306
Fig. 3. The anatomy of the eye from a contemporary illustration inserted by Risner in editing
Alhazen, Optica I, 4 (Basel, 1572).
virtually identical so that colours were apprehended only through light.4 His
problem then was to discover how the eye formed images of bodies from the
light emitted from all their points in all directions.
Alhazen adopted the basic ocular anatomy which Galen had related to
Ptolemy's geometrical optical analysis and which had been described in detail
by Hunain ibn Ishaq (Fig. 3).5 In the globular body of the eyeball with its coats
*Opticae thesaurus Alhazeni Arabis libri septem . . . Vitellionis Thuringopoloni libri x, omnes
instaurati... a Federico Risnero (Basel, 1572); i, 1.1, p. 1 and i, 3.3, p. 3. All references in the text
are to this edition. See Al-Hasan ibn al-Haitham, The Optics, books i-iii: "On direct vision",
transl. with introduction and commentary by A. I. Sabra, 2 vols. (London, 1989). On Alhazen see
also M. Schramm, 'Zur Entwicklung der physiologischen Optik in der arabischen Literatur',
Sudhoffs Archiv 43 (1959), 289-316; M. Schramm, Ibn al-Hay (hams Weg zur Physik (Wiesbaden,
1963); M. Schramm, 'Ibn al-Haythams Stellung in der Geschichte der Wissenschaften', Fikrun Wa
Fann 6 (Hamburg, 1965), 1-22; G. F. Vescovini, Studi sulla prospettiva medievale (Turin, 1965a);
Crombie (1967: above n. 1); R. Rashed, 'Le Discours de la lumiere d'Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)',
Revue d'histoire des sciences, 21 (1968), 197-224; R. Rashed, 'Optique geometrique et doctrine
optique chez Ibn al-Haytham', Archive for History of Exact Sciences 6 (1970), 271-298; S. M.
Straker, Kepler's Optics (Indiana University Ph.D. Thesis, 1971; Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980); A. I.
Sabra, 'Ibn al-Haytham... (965-c. 1040)', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography 6 (New York,
1972), pp. 189-210 (for writings in Arabic including those on the camera obscura, etc. not
translated into Latin); A. I. Sabra, The physical and the mathematical in Ibn al-Haytham's theory
of light and vision', in Commemoration volume of Biruni International Congress in Tehran (Tehran,
1976), pp. 439-478; A. I. Sabra, 'Sensation and inference in Alhazen's theory of visual perception',
in Studies in Perception, P. K. Machamer and R. G. Turnbull (eds) (Columbus, Ohio, 1978),
pp. 160-185; D. C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler (Chicago, 1976); G. A.
Russell, 'The emergence of physiological optics', in Science in Islamic Civilisation, R. Rashed and
R. Morelou (eds) (London, 1990). For Greek geometrical optics see Euclid, L'optique et la
catoptrique, transl. into French by P. Ver Eecke (Paris and Bruges, 1938); Ptolemy, IS optique,
A. Lejeune (ed.) (Louvain, 1956); A. Lejeune, Euclide et Ptolemee (Louvain, 1948); A. Lejeune,
Recherches sur la catoptrique grecque (Brussels, 1957).
'Hunain ibn Ishaq, The Book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye, M. Meyerhof (ed.) (Cairo, 1928).
307
Fig. 4. From The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon, v. /. Hi. 3, ed. Bridges ii. 24 (Oxford, 1897). The
diagram is not anatomical, but a geometrical model showing the curvatures of the different refracting
media according to Alhazen's optical theory of the eye. The 'centre of the eye' (centrum oculi, b)
coincides with the centres of curvature of the cornea, the aqueous humour (albugineus) and the
anterior surface of the glacialis. In front of this are the centres of the vitreous humour and the choroid
(uvea), and behind it is the centre of the sclerotic (consolidativa). The object al sends rays which pass
perpendicularly through the cornea at m, o and strike the anterior surface of the glacialis
perpendicularly at c, d, thus passing through without refraction. At the posterior surface of the
glacialis the rays are refracted away from the centre so that they do not intersect; thus an erect image
of the object reaches the entrance of the optic nerve at the back of the eye.
surrounding its transparent humours each part had its ordained function. He
accepted and extended Galen's argument showing that the anterior surface of
the crystallinus and that alone was the sensitive receptor, of which all the other
parts were the instruments. (The crystallinus formed the anterior part of the
spherical glacialis, and was sometimes called the anterior glacialis or simply
308
glacialis; the posterior part was the vitreus humor.) But he formulated the
problem of image-formation in the tradition not of medical physiology but of
the mathematical sciences. His stroke of genius was to impose on ocular
anatomy and physiology a geometrical-optical model that would meet the
requirements of his theory of visual perception. He postulated that in the
optical system of the eye all the surfaces were spherical, with centres on the line
passing from the centre of the pupil to the centre of the termination of the
optic nerve at the back (i.4.4-12, pp. 3-7; Fig. 4). When light entered through
the pupil, it was known 'that it is a property of light to act on the eye and that
it is the nature of the eye to be affected by light' (i.5.14, pp. 7-8). But if all the
forms of light and colour entering the pupil from every point on the surface of
an object stimulated the crystallinus, all would be confused and no clear image
could be formed. His solution was to postulate that only the forms striking its
anterior surface perpendicularly, and without weakening by refraction, would
cause sensation. As Risner (the editor of the 1572 Latin edition) summarized it
in his heading: 'Distinct vision is brought about by straight lines coming from
the visible object perpendicular to the surface of the eye and thus single points
of the visible object maintain the same position on the surface of the eye as on
the visible object'. Alhazen justified his choice of the perpendicular by arguing
that among all the lines that reached the eye at different angles it was unique,
whereas none of the others could be distinguished from any other as 'more
fitting', and that 'the action of the light coming along that perpendicular is
stronger than the action of light coming along oblique lines. It is therefore
more fitting that the crystallinus should sense from any point only the form
coming to that particular point along the rectilinear perpendicular, and should
not sense from that point what comes to it along refracted lines' (i.5.18,
pp. 9-10). This postulate of his theory of visual perception required the further
postulate of his anatomical geometry that the centres of curvature of both
surfaces of the cornea, of the albugineous (or aqueus) humour, and of the
anterior surface of the crystallinus should all coincide at the centre of the
eyeball, so that the forms falling perpendicularly on the first should pass
perpendicularly without refraction through them all (i.4.4-12, pp. 3-7; Fig. 4).
Thus his style of argument was to impose on both ocular anatomy and on
optical physiology geometrical postulates that would satisfy the immediate
expectations of vision.
'Vision is brought about through a pyramid of which the apex is in the eye
and the base on the visible object' (i.5.19, pp. 10-12), as Risner headed
Alhazen's account of the construction of the visual cone or pyramid which he
followed Ptolemy and Galen in taking over from Euclid. This would be
geometrically the same whether vision took place by intromission or extromission, but Alhazen having refuted extromission composed it only of the forms
of light and colour entering the eye along the perpendiculars. Because the
309
crystallinus was optically both transparent and dense, it received the forms but
prevented them from passing right through: 'Thus the forms are fixed in its
surface and body, but weakly: it is the same with any transparent body that is
somewhat dense'. Now 'the glacialis is disposed (praeparatus) both to receive
those forms and to sense them. Therefore the forms pass into it because of its
receiving and sensing power (propter virtutem sensibilem recipienteni). When
the form reaches the surface of the glacialis it acts on it and the glacialis is
affected (patitur) by it, because it is a property of light to act on the eye and a
property of the eye to be affected by light'. This action passed into the glacialis
'only along straight radial lines, because the glacialis is disposed to receive the
forms of light vertically on radial lines'. The light was accompanied by colour,
'and from this action and affection will arise the sensation of the glacialis from
the forms of visible things that are at its surface and pass into its whole body;
and from the ordering (ordinatio) of the parts of the form at its surface and in
its whole body will arise its sensation from the ordering of the parts' (i.5.25,
p.15).
This action which light effects in the glacialis is of the same kind as pain . . . . From
there this sensation occurring in the glacialis is extended to the optic nerve and
comes to the anterior part of the brain, and there resides the ultimate sensation and
the ultimate sentient (ultimus sensus et sentiens ultimum), which is the sensitive power
(virtus sensitiva) that is in the anterior part of the brain. That power apprehends the
sensible things (comprehendit sensibilia), but the eye is only an instrument of that
power, because the eye receives the forms of things seen and sends them to the
ultimate sentient, and the ultimate sentient apprehends those forms and apprehends
from them the visible things that are in them. That form at the surface of the
glacialis is extended into its body, and thence into the subtle body that is in the
concavity of the nerve until it reaches the common nerve, and with the arrival of the
form at the common nerve vision is completed. By means of the form arriving at the
common nerve the ultimate sentient apprehends the forms of things seen (i.5.26, pp.
15-16).
Alhazen thus took over from Galen both his basic ocular anatomy and his
conception of the process of visual sensation and perception completed in the
brain. He also adopted and adapted from Aristotle his conception that the
forms of light and colour, transmitted in straight lines as qualities of visible
objects, brought about vision by altering in turn the transparent medium and
through that the eye, where they endowed the anterior glacialis with those
qualities. Thus 'essential light (lux essentialis) is apprehended by the sentient
from the illumination of the sentient body, and colour is apprehended by the
sentient from the alteration (alteratio) of the form of the sentient body and
from its coloration'. Accidental light coming from illuminated objects was
apprehended in the same way (ii. 2.18, p. 35; cf. i.5.28, i.5.30, pp. 17-18; ii.
2.16, pp. 34-35). The anterior glacialis was naturally disposed or prepared
(nr0nnmtu<!\ hoth to receive and to sense these forms, but to sense them onlv
310
selectively in the direction of the perpendicular, from which they were also
stronger (i.5.14, pp. 7-8; i.5.18, pp. 9-10; i.5.25, p. 15; ii.1.4, p. 26; ii.2.42^4,
pp. 57-58). Of the forms emitted by each point of the visible object, those
which stimulated corresponding points of the anterior glacialis reproduced
there the form of the whole object, made up of the forms of these separate
points which maintained the order they had in the object. This form was a
pattern of stimulations perceptible only from within by the sensitive power
itself; it was not an optical image visible to an external observer such as was
produced in a camera obscura.6 Each of the eyes corresponded exactly to the
other in structure and in position relative to the common nerve, so that in
normal binocular vision, when both their axes were directed towards an object,
the form of the object would be reproduced at corresponding points in each
eye. Thus the object was seen as one 'because the two forms coming from a
single thing to the two eyes run together on reaching the common nerve and
are superimposed one on the other and made into one form: and by means of
that form made up of two forms the ultimate sentient apprehends the form of
that thing'. If the spectator pushed one eye out of place he would see two
things instead of one, so that the thing must be apprehended, sometimes as one
and sometimes as two, not in the eyes but beyond them in 'another sentient' to
which the two forms came either united or separately. The evidence that the
forms of things seen are extended through the concavity of the nerve and come
to the ultimate sentient, and after that vision is completed, is that an obstruction in that nerve destroys vision and when the obstruction is destroyed vision
is restored. The art of medicine attests this'. But what it was that passed
beyond the eyes was a problem. 'It could be said that the forms coming to the
eye do not come through to the common nerve, but a sensation (sensus) is
extended from the eye to the common nerve, just as the sensations of pain and
touch are extended, and the ultimate sentient then apprehends that sensible
thing'. Certainly 'the sensation reaching the common nerve is a sensation of
light and colour and ordering, and that by means of which the ultimate
sentient apprehends light and colour in some kind of form' (i.5.27, pp. 16-17).
The problem was: what kind?
The relation of the forms of light and colour to the optical physiological
requirements of his theory of visual perception remained a problem to the end.
Alhazen argued that 'transparent bodies are not changed by colours, nor are
they altered (alterantur) by them with a fixed alteration, but the property of
colour and light is that their forms are extended along straight lines' (i.5.28,
p. 17). Nor were the lights and colours passing through a transparent medium
affected by each other, as he showed by an experiment with a camera obscura.
For
6
311
when in one place several candles are put at various different points, all opposite an
opening leading into a dark place (locus obscurus), with a wall or an opaque body
opposite the opening, the lights of those candles appear on the body or that wall
distinctly according to the number of the candles. Each one of them appears
opposite one candle on a line passing through the opening. If one of the candles is
screened off, only the light opposite that one candle disappears, and if the screen is
removed the light reappears. This can be tried at any time: for if the lights
intermixed in the air they would become intermixed in the air in the opening and
would have to pass through intermixed, and they would not become separate later.
But we do not find this so. Hence the lights are not intermixed in the air, but each
one of them extends on straight lines.
Thus the 'form of each and every light' was extended through the transparency
of the air 'which does not lose its own form. And what we say about light and
colour and air is to be understood of all transparent bodies, and the transparent coats of the eye' (i.5.29, p. 17). But the camera obscura was not a model
for the eye, for in it all the forms of light and colour passing rectilinearly
through the aperture to the screen would contribute to the image there,
whereas in the eye only those falling on the anterior glacialis perpendicularly
would contribute to the form of the object seen. 'Indeed the sentient member
(membrum sentiens), namely the glacialis, does not receive the form of light and
colour as the air and other nonsentient transparent bodies receive it, but in a
way different from that way. Since that member is disposed (praeparatum) to
receive that form, so it receives it in so far as it is sentient and in so far as it is
transparent'. As he had already explained (i.5.26), 'its affection (passio) by that
form is of the same kind as pain. Hence the quality of its reception from that
form is different from the quality of reception by nonsentient transparent
bodies'. Thus 'the glacialis is altered (alteratur) by light and colour to the
extent that it senses (sentiat)\ by an 'alteration (alteratioy that 'is necessary but
with a nature not fixed', for it disappeared when the light did. The glacialis was
so 'disposed to be affected by colours and lights and to sense them' in a way
that air and other transparent bodies and the transparent coats of the eye
anterior to it were not. As again he had already explained (i.5.19), of the many
forms of light and colour emitted into the air and transparent bodies, 'the
eye... apprehends those according to the pyramid which is distinguished
between them and the centre of the eye' (i.5.30, pp. 17-18). In the whole
process the eye and all its parts 'are instruments by which vision is completed'.
The cornea covering the pupil (foramen uveae) retained the fluid albugineous
humour, which like the cornea was transparent 'so that the forms would pass
through it and reach the glacial humour'. The black, strong, spherical uvea
which contained the albugineous humour 'is black so that the albugineous
humour and glacialis would be obscured in such a way that the forms of light
would make their appearance in them weak: because weak light is more visible
in a dark place and escapes notice in a place full of light'. This seems to suggest
312
Fig. 5. From Roger Bacon, Opus maius, v. i. viii. /: Oxford MS Bodleian Library, Digby 234 (15
cent.) f. 247.The rays from the right (dextrum m) and left (sinistrum p) ends (labelled in reverse in
MS) of the visible object pass perpendicularly through the anterior surface of the flattened glacialis
(g, f) and are refracted at its posterior surface (q, u) so that instead of intersecting (below a) they
reach the optic nerve (c) with the image correctly orientated. The rays passing into the vitreous
humour (held to be optically denser than the glacialis) are refracted according to Ptolemy's rules
towards the perpendiculars (bl, bs) meeting at its centre of curvature (b).
that the eye was like a camera obscura with the glacialis as its screen. The
glacialis had 'many properties by which sensation is completed', but it was still
an instrument to that end. 'But the optic nerve, on which the whole eye is
constructed, is hollow so that the visual spirit may run through it from the
brain and may reach the glacialis and may in turn give to it sensitive power
(virtus sensibilis), and so that the forms may pass through in the subtle body
running in its concavity until they reach the ultimate sentient which is the
anterior part of the brain' (i.6.33, pp. 20-21).
Alhazen's treatment of the fundamental problem that followed from this
analysis exemplifies the decisive dominance of his optical theory by his
commitment to finding an immediate explanation of visual perception. For
313
how did the 'sensible image' of the object made on the anterior glacialis
maintain its necessary order in its passage through the posterior transparent
media of the eye to the common nerve where it was finally perceived by the
ultimate sentient? The first stage of the problem was geometrical, for if the
forms coming on the visual pyramid reached its vertex at the centre of the eye
they would be reduced to a point, which being dimensionless had no order; and
if they passed beyond the vertex their order would be inverted and reversed.
His solution again was to contrive further optical and anatomical postulates to
prevent these happenings. He supposed that the centre of curvature of the
posterior surface of the anterior glacialis forming its interface with the
posterior glacialis or vitreous humour and that interface itself were in front
of the centre of the eye, and that the anterior and posterior glacialis had
different transparencies, that is optical densities. Then, applying Ptolemy's
rules and constructions for refraction at plane surfaces to sections of spheres,
he argued that the forms would be refracted at the posterior surface of the
anterior glacialis in the directions preventing their meeting at the vertex of the
pyramid (Figs 4 and 5). This would require that the vitreous humour was the
denser. He structured his argument formally in hypothetical syllogisms leading
by elimination to the one true conclusion:
If therefore the form does not reach the concavity of this nerve arranged as it is on
the glacialis, neither will it reach the common nerve with its proper arrangements.
But the form cannot extend from the surface of the glacialis to the concavity of the
nerve in straight lines and still preserve the proper positions of its parts: for all those
lines meet at the centre of the eye, and when they continued straight on past the
centre their positions would be reversed: what is right would become left and vice
versa, and what is above would become below and below above.
Thus, if the form was extended on straight radial lines it would be congregated at the
centre of the eye and become as it were a single point. And . . . if it was extended on
straight radial lines and passed through the centre, it would become reversed in
accordance with the reversal of the intersecting lines along which it was extended.
Therefore the form can come from the surface of the glacialis to the concavity of the
nerve with its parts in their proper positions only on refracted lines, cutting across
radial lines.... This refraction must occur before it reaches the centre, because if
the lines were refracted after passing through the centre they would be reversed. It
has been shown [i.5.18] that this form passes through the body of the glacialis on
straight radial lines:... therefore the form is refracted only by its passage through
the body of the glacialis. It has been said [i.4.4]... that the body of the glacialis is o
unequal transparency and that its posterior part, called the vitreous humour, has a
different transparency from the anterior part. There is no body in the glacialis
different in constitution (forma) from the anterior body except the body of the
vitreous. It is a property of the forms of light and colour that they are refracted
when they meet another body of different transparency from the first. Therefore the
forms are refracted only at their entry into the vitreous humour. This body has a
transparency different from that of the body of the anterior glacialis only in order
314
that the forms can be refracted in it. Its surface must be in front of the centre of the
eye so that the forms are refracted at this surface before they pass through the
centre; and this surface must be correspondingly ordered, because if it were not the
form would appear monstrous after refraction (ii.1.2, p. 25).
The second stage of the problem concerned what happened after the forms
had passed into the vitreous humour. For
the radial lines play no part in the ordering of the thing seen except only at the
glacialis, because at this member is the origin of sensation. It has also been shown
[i.5.15, 16, 18] that it is impossible for the form of the thing seen to be ordered on the
surface of the eye with the likeness (imago) of the thing seen and the smallness of the
sentient thing except through these lines. These lines are then nothing but the
instrument of the eye through which the apprehension of things seen is completed
with their proper arrangement. But the arrival of the forms at the ultimate sentient
does not require the extension of these lines rectitudinally (ii.1.3, pp. 25-26; cf. ii.1.8,
p. 29).
Moreover, as he had asserted (i.5.30), the glacialis did not receive the forms
like other transparent bodies 'because the sentient member receives these forms
and senses them and they pass through it because of its transparency and the
sensitive power that is in it. Thus it receives these forms according to the
reception of sensation (sensus). But transparent bodies receive them only with
the reception by which they receive for reflection (ad reddendwri), and they do
not sense them'. Because of this difference 'the extension of the forms into the
sentient body does not have to be in straight lines, as transparent bodies
demand'. Hence 'only the anterior part of the glacialis is made appropriate for
the reception of the forms on straight radial lines; but the posterior part, which
is the vitreous humour, and the receptive power which is in that body, is not
made appropriate to the sensation of those forms but only to the preservation
of their ordering' (ii.1.4, p. 26). Therefore forms are refracted at the vitreous
humour by two causes, of which one is the difference of transparency of the
two bodies, and the other the difference of the quality of reception of sensation
between these two bodies'. If their transparencies were the same, the form
would be extended into the vitreous humour along the straight radial lines
without refraction; 'but it would be refracted because of the difference of the
quality of sensitivity (sensus); and thus because of refraction the form would be
monstrous, or because of its arrangement there would be two forms'. In fact
both causes acted corroboratively so that after refraction a single form passed
from the glacialis through to the optic nerve. Therefore the forms reach the
vitreous humour ordered according to their order on the surface of the eye,
and this body receives them and senses them'. They were refracted by the two
causes on entering the vitreous humour, and 'then this sensation and these
315
forms are extended through this body until they reach the ultimate sentient', by
way of the hollow optic nerve, 'like the extension of the sensations of touch
and of pain to the ultimate sentient' (ii.1.5, p. 26; cf. i.5.25, p. 15; i.5.27, p. 16).
The forms were not refracted on passing through the posterior surface of the
vitreous humour into the visual spirit or 'sentient body, which is in the
concavity of the nerve', because their transparency or density was the same
(ii. 1.6, p. 27).
Despite his geometrical model, Alhazen confined his whole analysis of the
properties of the eye within the inherited Greek conception of it as a living
sentient organ. He did not distinguish exclusively and consistently the different
kinds of question involved in vision, which were to become clear only in the
different conceptual context of the 17th century: fundamentally those of the
physical properties of light and the operation of the eye as an optical
instrument independently of its function in perception. It operated like a dead
optical instrument only in so far as it shared the optical properties of insentient
transparent bodies, but it was unlike them in being itself an active agent of
perception. Alhazen's forms of light and colour were emitted in straight lines
by all luminous or illuminated bodies whether or not there was an eye present
to see them, and they entered the pupil just as they might enter any optical
instrument. But once they had struck the anterior glacialis they were sorted,
not by a purely geometrical optical process but by its selective directional
sensitivity, into a sensible and not a geometrical optical image of the object
seen. He tailored ocular anatomy to the requirements of this theory of
sensation. These included the symmetry of the two eyes and optic nerves so
that each of their images would be formed at corresponding points and could
unite as a single image at the common nerve filled with the visual spirit, so to
reach the ultimate sentient (i.5.27, pp. 16-17; cf. ii.1.6, pp. 26-27; ii.2.16, pp.
34-35; Hi.2.2-17, pp. 76-87; vii.6-36, pp. 267-268). He described how the eye,
by its selective directional sensitivity operating through the central axis of the
visual pyramid on which the forms struck the surface of the anterior glacialis
perpendicularly, certified its perception of the whole visible object by means of
rapid movements taking the axis over the separate points from which the forms
were emitted (ii. 1.7-9, pp. 27-30; ii.2.42-44, pp. 57-58; ii.3.64-69, 75,
pp. 67-71, 73-74; vii.6.37, pp. 268-270). But he never made clear whether it
was the form of light and colour coming from the object seen, or its action in
producing a sensible image in the anterior glacialis, or both together, that
passed inwards from the posterior surface of that body to the ultimate sentient
located in the region extending from the common nerve to the anterior part of
the brain. Exactly how far its propagation continued to be optical and
rectilinear, and where it became something different, remained ambiguous.
Following Galen he distinguished between the sensation occurring in the
anterior glacialis and the discriminative perception made by the ultimate
316
sentient. Essential to this was that the sensation should retain its order as it
passed through the visual spirit connecting them. Again the ambiguity over
what passed produced a matching ambiguity as in Galen over the relative
functions of those sentient bodies, but Alhazen explained the process of
perception very clearly. The particular qualities (intentiones) that are
distinguished by the sense of vision' he wrote 'are many, but generally divided
into 22'. These included light, colour, distance, location, shape, size, number,
motion, transparency, shadow. Others were perceived by combinations of
these, as straightness or curvature, increase or decrease, dryness or wetness by
the relative stability or movement of the parts, and emotions by the
expressions produced by the movements of the face (ii.2.15, p. 34; cf. ii.2.12,
p. 31). The qualities of light and colour going from the object seen into the eye
thus differed in different ways which had to be distinguished and interpreted:
And since it is so, distinction and inference (argumentatio) by the distinctive power
(virtus distinctivd), and recognition of the forms and their signs, will occur only by
the recognition or distinction of the distinctive power of the forms coming into the
concavity of the common nerve to the apprehension of the ultimate sentient, and by
the recognition of the signs of these forms. And so the sentient body extended from
the surface of the sentient member all the way to the concavity of the common nerve,
namely the visual spirit, is sentient throughout, because the sensitive power is in the
whole of this body. Since therefore the form is extended from the surface of the
sentient member all the way to the concavity of the common nerve, any part of the
sentient body will sense the form; and when the form reaches the concavity of the
common nerve, it is apprehended by the ultimate sentient, and then distinction and
inference will occur.... In this way apprehension of the forms of visible things will
occur in the sensitive power, the ultimate sentient, and the distinctive power.....
But distinction occurs only by the distinctive, not the sensitive, power (ii.2.16, pp.
34-35).
Alhazen's Optica provided on its arrival in the Latin West in the 13th
century a model of scientific argument, a guide to the relation of perceiver to
perceived not simply in vision but in general, and the definitive treatment of
optics in all its aspects for nearly four hundred years. The Latin Optica
established the subject as a major experimental and mathematical physical
science in the scheme of medieval theoretical and practical knowledge. Historically most important of all was the adoption by Roger Bacon, especially in the
Opus maius (completed by 1267), followed by John Pecham and Witelo, of
Alhazen's geometrical model of the eye as an image-forming device. Witelo
wrote his Perspectiva or Opticae libri decem (in 1270 or soon afterwards) as a
compendium of Alhazen's Optica and provided jointly with the latter the
essential account of the subject (eventually to be published by Risner in 1572 in
one integrated volume) until the 17th century. Bacon (in Opus maius v. 3.2.2-4)
also developed Robert Grosseteste's conception of a magnifying glass by
317
See E. Rosen, The invention of eyeglasses', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied
Sciences 11 (1956), 183-218; Crombie (1967: above n. 1); V. Illardi, Occhiali alia corte di Francesco
e Galeazzo Maria Sforza (Milan, 1976a), and 'Eyeglasses and concave lenses in fifteenth-century
Florence and Milan', Renaissance Quarterly 29 (1976b), 341-360.
"See D. C. Lindberg, The theory of pinhole images from antiquity to the thirteenth century',
Archive for History of Exact Sciences 5 (1968), 154-176; 'A reconsideration of Roger Bacon's
theory of pinhole images', ibid. 6 (1970a), 214-223; The theory of pinhole images in the fourteenth
century', ibid. 6 (1970b), 299-325. See also Straker (1971: above n. 4), and his 'Kepler, Tycho, and
the 'Optical part of astronomy': the genesis of Kepler's theory of pinhole images', Archive for
History of Exact Sciences 24 (1981), 267-293.
318
Fig. 6. Alberti's grid (1435): from Diirer, Underweysung der Messung (1538).
Ciuitaiij I poM
does not hold to the common laws of nature (leges communes nature), but claims for
itself a special privilege. This propagation does not take place except in an animate
medium, as in the nerves of the senses; for the image follows the tortuosity of the
nerve and pays no attention to the straight path. This happens through the power of
319
the soul in regulating the path of the image, according to what the operations of an
animate thing require (iv.2.2).
Thus for the benefit of natural order 'the capability of the power of the soul'
could dispense the image from the 'common laws of natural propagations
(leges communes multiplicationum naturalium)' (v. 1.7.1) shared by light and
other forms of energy.9 Pecham a little later used similar terminology and
noted in discussing the possibility of deviation from rectilinear propagation in
the camera obscura that this must happen in the visual spirits in the optic nerve
in order to preserve the image. Here 'the mode (via) of the spirits brings about
that advance of the image partly outside the rectitudinal', but in the camera
obscura this would be done by a 'natural fittingness (convenientta)'. But, he
added, 'these things are asserted without prejudice to a better opinion'.10
The Latin perspectivists established Alhazen's geometrical model of vision
and made these related optical problems familiar in the West equally for
mathematical natural philosophers and for visual artists. Thus Lorenzo
Ghiberti, belonging to the first generation of artists to exploit the new
technique of linear perspective invented early in the 15th century by Filippo
Brunelleschi, used in his discussion of the theory and practice of the method in
sculpture all the main optical writers from Aristotle and Euclid to Bacon,
Witelo and Pecham and an Italian version of Alhazen's Optica made in the
century before.11 The theory of perspective, described for the first time by his
younger contemporary Leon Battista Alberti, was based on the visual pyramid
or cone extending from the eye as its apex to the object seen as its base. A
drawing in true perspective was then a plane cross-section of this pyramid: he
described how to make it correctly by viewing the object through a chequered
screen or grid (Figs 6 and 7).12 The technique of perspective, showing by means
of calculated visual clues how to represent a three-dimensional object on a
plane surface, produced in effect a perceptual model of the scene before the
eyes. Its exact measurement and true scaling introduced into science and
technology a completely fresh means of communicating information through
pictorial illustrations, and at the same time a new conception of modelling.
Especially dramatic were the effects on the depiction of the external and
9
Cf. Roger Bacon, De multiplicatione specierum, ii.2, ed. and transl. by D. C. Lindberg in Roger
Bacon's Philosophy of Nature (Oxford, 1983), pp. 102-103; Lindberg (1970a: above n. 8).
'"John Pecham, Perspectiva communis, ed. and transl. by D. C. Lindberg in John Pecham and the
Science of Optics (Madison, Wisconsin, 1970), i. 7 revised, pp. 78-81.
"Lorenzo Ghiberti, 7 Commentarii, i. 1, ii. 12, 22, iii. 2, J. von Schlosser (ed.) (Berlin, 1912); cf.
G. F. Vescovini, 'Contribute per la storia della fortuna di Alhazen in Italia', Rinasdmento 2nd
Series, 5 (1965b), 17-49.
12
Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura (1435) in On Painting and On Sculpture, C. Grayson (ed.)
(London, 1972); cf. Albrecht Diirer, Underweysung der Messung (Nuremberg, 1525, revised 1538);
E. Panofsky, The Life and Art of Albrecht Diirer (Princeton, N.J., 1943, revised 1955); S.Y.
Edgerton Jr., The Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective (New York, 1975); F. Borsi, Leon
Battista Alberti (Oxford, 1977; M. Kemp, The Science of Art (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
320
internal structures of animals, plants and minerals and their arrangements and
of those of machines. Depiction became an instrument of research. Most
compelling in the exact information they could provide were the views showing
sections cut through an anatomized corpse or a machine at different angles and
through different parts, the views with the outside cut away to reveal the
internal parts in position, the rotated view as developed by Albrecht Diirer,
and above all the transparent view of the internal arrangements and the
exploded view depicting both the whole and the parts taken out and shown
separately in accurately scaled diagrams. Through the 15th century the new
techniques of perspective and chiaroscuro rapidly transformed the working
drawings of architecture and engineering as they had the design of paintings.
The Sienese engineer Mariano di Jacopo called Taccola, who knew Brunelleschi, and a generation later Francesco di Giorgio Martini, both seem to have
designed their machinery by means of inventive drawing on paper before
building it. The new pictorial language was used with even greater sophistication by Leonardo da Vinci, and with the printed book it became in the 16th
and 17th centuries as normal a means of finding out and conveying information as the written word. Thus appeared the presentation of the mechanisms of
pumps, water-driven mills and other devices by Agricola in his treatise on
mining and metallurgy, and by Jacques Besson, Agostino Ramelli and Vittorio
Zonca in their richly illustrated volumes on machines. There was likewise the
increasingly sophisticated presentation of their anatomical researches by
Leonardo da Vinci with his drawing of the skull and its contents; by Andreas
Vesalius with his illustrations also of the skull, of the opened heart and its
valves, and of the eye as a whole and in transverse vertical section accompanied by the dissected parts taken out and shown separately; by Felix Plater
with his exploded views of the parts of the eye; by Girolamo Fabrici da
Aquapendente and later by Giulio Casserio depicting the organs of the five
senses with attention to comparative anatomy.13
Comparisons of living organs with inanimate artifacts were not at this time
new, but the familiarity of two such artifacts provided especially efficacious
conditions for modelling the eye. The glass or crystal lens became well known
during the 16th century as a focusing device in spectacles. The camera obscura
was likewise widely used both in astronomy for observing solar eclipses and in
art for demonstrating the projection of a scene in perspective upon its
translucent screen. Artists as well as mathematicians and natural philosophers
began to turn their attention to how the eye itself, receiving the visual clues
from the scene or painting in front of it, operated as an instrument of vision. It
seems to have been Leonardo who first proposed a camera obscura
"Cf. S. Y. Edgerton Jr., The Renaissance development of scientific illustration', in Science and
the Arts in the Renaissance, J. W. Shirley and F. D. Hoeniger (eds) (Washington, D.C., 1985),
pp. 168-197; Crombie, Styles chs. 8,13 (above n. 1).
321
Fig. 8(a). From Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Atlanticus, f. 337 illustrating his comparison of the eye
with a camera obscura. In this construction the rays intersect for a second time in the centre of the
lens in order to preserve the correct orientation of the image at the optic nerve. The ocular anatomy is
peculiar, showing the aqueous humour extending all round inside the dark choroid (uvea), and the
vitreous humour in front of the spherical crystallinus.
322
Fig. 8(b). From Codex D,f.3v: model of the eye (top right). A hollow glass sphere cut away at the
top ( right) is fitted in a box with a small hole in the bottom as the pupil, and filled with water:
inside is a smaller glass sphere as the crystallinus. With his face in the water the observer's eye would
receive the image of the object seen on the visual pyramid entering the pupil hole on the rays coming
from s t. At the left is a matching diagram of the eye itself with the optic nerve emerging on the right
at a place corresponding to the observers eye in the model.
323
Fig. 9. From Gemma Frisius, De radio astronomico et geometrico (Antwerp, 1545) f.31rv:
observing a solar eclipse in a camera obscura.
incorporating a glass lens as a model of the eye, and thus he introduced the
conception of the image formed in the eye as a picture on a screen (Fig. 8).14
He introduced at the same time into the analysis of vision the idea of exploiting
the conformity of nature with art and of living with dead. But he still looked
with Alhazen his analysis for an immediate explanation of visual perception.
He recognized the need to explain optically the path through the eye of the
rays forming the image. He assumed that the visual power lay not in the
crystallinus but in the widened extremity of the optic nerve, which received the
images and transmitted them to the common sense in the seat of judgement.
The crystallinus was simply a refracting device whose essential function was to
prevent the image from reaching the visual power inverted, as in a camera
obscura. The eye was not simply a passive instrument like a camera obscura,
but a living organ with active vital powers of selection, but for it to see
correctly the image must be orientated as well as ordered in the same way as its
object. This brilliant model was not known in print in time to have any
influence, but the camera obscura itself was widely publicized by writers both
on astronomy and on art. Gemma Frisius described and illustrated how to
observe solar eclipses in a darkened room in which sunlight admitted through
a small hole would produce an inverted image of the Sun on a suitably placed
14
Leonardo da Vinci, Codex D in Les manuscrits, M. C. Ravaisson-Mollien (ed.), 6 vols. (Paris,
1881-1891); // Codico Atlantico nella Biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano, transcribed by G. Piumati,
8 vols. (Milan, 1894-1904); cf. The Notebooks, arranged etc. by E. MacCurdy, 2 vols. (London,
1938); M. Kemp, Leonardo da Vinci: The marvellous works of nature and art (London, 1981).
324
17
325
The primary organ (pars) of vision, namely the optic nerve dilated into the grey
hemispherical retina (retiformis) after it enters the eye: which receives and discriminates the forms (species) and colours of external things that fall with the illumination
into the eye through the aperture of the pupil and are presented to it by its eyeglass
(perspicillwri) It has affinity with the substance of the brain, with which through
the nerve it is continuous.
Later he came to:
Three very clear humours, which in distinct situations fill the cavity of the eye and
assist the act of vision.... First, the crystalline humour, which is the eyeglass of the
visual nerve: placed facing this nerve and the aperture of the pupil, it collects the
images (species) or rays falling into the eye and, spreading them over the area of the
whole retiform nerve, it presents these magnified, in the manner of an internal
eyeglass (perspicilli penitus modo), so that the nerve can take possession of them
more easily (pp. 186-187)."
Plater like Vesalius did not consider how the eye operated as the instrument of
vision. Hence the question of the inverted image did not arise. They illustrate
the insulation of the anatomists of the medical faculties from the mathematical
sciences and arts and the fundamental illumination they had brought to the
physiology of vision, as likewise of hearing. But clearly, besides Plater's radical
identification of the retina as the sensitive visual receptor, reducing the
crystallinus simply to a lens, an accurate general ocular anatomy was essential
for a true optical analysis of its physiology.
The culmination of these anatomical investigations was the superbly illustrated triple treatise by Girolamo Fabrici, De visione, voce, auditu (1600), with
'De oculo visus organo liber' as its first book. Fabrici incorporated in 'De
oculo' the corrections to Vesalius made by Colombo and others, with an
accurate woodcut of the crystallinus (p. 35), but he still showed the optic nerve
entering the eyeball centrally (iii.8, p. 105). His visual theory was essentially a
combination of the formulations of the problem by Aristotle and Galen with a
version of the optical scheme with which Alhazen had prevented the reversal of
the image as the visual cone passed through the transparent media. He likened
the crystallinus to eyeglasses (ocularia specilla), 'in which art excells nature' in
restoring youth to old eyes by means of refraction (iii.5, pp. 82-83; cf. iii.l, 2,
pp. 61, 73-78, iii.7, pp. 102-103). But the crystallinus was also 'the special
organ of vision' (iii.7, p. 96) entirely responsible for visual perception within
the eye (ii.7, pp. 51-54; iii.7, pp. 96-104). He specifically denied visual sensitivity to the retina and the arenea (iii.8-9, pp. 104-106), and insisted that any
transmission of images beyond the crystallinus was both anatomically and
optically impossible (iii.10-11, pp. 106-114). With some concessions to optical
science, he remained firmly within the medical tradition.
"Cf. Crombie (1967: above n. 1); H.M. Koelbing, Renaissance der Augenheilkunde 1540-1630
(Bern. 1967).
326
327
pupilla and carried through its depth without meeting, that is before coinciding, are
carried in their own proper orientation (in suomet situ) to the optic nerve and present
the image (species) in its proper position (in sua positione).
The pupilla (crystallinus) was not simply a lens but also the sensitive visual
receptor, constituted 'for suffering affection' (adpatiendwri) and 'for sensation'
(ad sentiendwri): it received the images of things at its anterior surface and
transmitted them from its posterior surface through the optic nerve to the
common sense. 'But how vision is effected, whether under some law of
refraction (lex fractionis) or of spirits, was by no means easy to decide'. He
wished that he could take his account either 'from natural philosophy (physica)
or from mathematics alone: because we would reach the goal of truth by
following either the one or the other, whether by borrowing the sensitive power
from natural philosophy or the law of the refraction of rays from mathematics'
(pp. 72-74). He went on to adapt Alhazen's construction for bringing about a
point-point correspondence between object and image to show how the
crystallinus, with its 'lenticular shape' (figura lenticularis) (p. 75, cf. 76), must
refract and transmit the rays according to the law of refraction in such a way
that there was no inversion. If he remained bound by the spell of the erect and
correctly orientated image, his technical analysis of lenses marked a considerable advance in scientific knowledge of the natural organ and the artificial
model alike. He related defective types of vision to the shape of the lens, and
prescribed different kinds of spectacles to 'correct the failure of nature' in short
and long sight (pp. 76-78). Thus, again using pupilla for crystallinus, 'because
the transmission of the visual rays through the pupillae happens no differently
from that through spectacles convex on both sides, we may not at all unjustly
define the pupillae as the spectacles of nature' (p. 80).
Maurolico's optical writings, like Leonardo's, did not become publicly
known until after the crucial period of these investigations. It was Giovanni
Battista Benedetti who, two years after Plater, published a geometrical comparison of the eye with a camera obscura in which the images of external things
were projected through the pupil onto the retina. Benedetti was familiar with
Daniele Barbaro's account of a camera obscura with a lens, which he paraphrased in one of the letters included in his Diversarum speculationum mathematicarum et physicarum liber (1585; p. 270). He published his geometrical
comparison of the optics of the eye with that of a camera obscura in another
brief letter 'De visu'.21 In the eye the rays that would form the optical image of
an object were projected through the small pupil and the refracting humours
onto the branching nerve (i.e. retina) at the back of the eye as onto the screen
of a camera obscura, and the same would happen if they were to proceed
directly without refraction 'yet not in its place (in suis locis)\ By this laconic
2l
Cf. T. Frangenberg, 'II "De visu" de G. B. Benedetti', in Giovan Battista Benedetti e il suo
tempo, presented by A. Ghetti (Venice, 1985), pp. 271-282.
328
comment he seems to have meant that without refraction the image would be
inverted, as it was in his geometrical account of the camera obscura which had
no lens or other refracting medium. These puzzles indicate how difficult these
optical problems were both technically and conceptually even for a mathematical scientist as sophisticated as Benedetti.
Benedetti's analysis of vision like that of music published in the same
volume was apparently not read by contemporaries, but a comparison of the
eye with a camera obscura first mentioned briefly by Giambattista della Porta
in the first edition of his Magia naturalis (1558) became widely known in the
much enlarged edition of 1589. He presented it in the context not of science but
of entertainment and optical conjuring. After describing the inverted and
reversed scenes that could be projected onto the screen of a camera obscura, he
wrote: 'If you put a small lenticular crystal glass (crystallina lens) to the hole',
these could be made clearer and restored 'upright, as they are'. The instrument
could be used to copy a sunlit picture by placing a white sheet of paper inside
the hole, and moving it forwards or backwards until a 'perfect representation'
of the picture was cast upon this table (tabula) or screen: then one 'must lay on
colours where they are in the table', so that when all is done and the original
picture removed,
the picture (impressio) will remain on the table.... From this it may be clear to
philosophers and opticians where vision is effected; and an end is put to the question
of intromission agitated for so long, nor can both be demonstrated by any other
artifice (artificium). The image (idolum) is sent in through the pupil, as by the
opening of a window, and the part of the crystalline sphere located in the middle of
the eye takes the place of the screen (tabula).... It is described more fully in our
optics (xvii. 6, pp. 266-26V).22
In his optical work De refractione (1593) Porta firmly located the full power of
vision in the crystallinus, where the image was received correctly orientated to
correspond to the object seen. To prevent inversion he argued contrary to
Vesalius that the crystallinus must be found in front of the centre of the eyeball
where the intersection of the rays would occur (iii.l, 13-15, pp. 65-68, 83-86).
It was then the anterior surface of the crystallinus that corresponded to the
screen of the camera obscura: 'I say that just as light passing through the
confined opening of a window represents bodies illuminated by the Sun on a
paper underneath, so likewise it depicts on the crystallinus the images (spectra)
of seen things entering through the opening of the pupil' (iv.l, p. 91; cf. iv. 1-2,
pp. 87-95). He rejected as anatomically impossible Alhazen's theory that
vision was completed by the transmission of images beyond the crystallinus
through the optic nerves (vi. 1, pp. 139-146).
"Porta, Magiae naturalis libri xx (Naples, 1589), transl. as Natural Magick (London, 1658) with
corrections; De refractione optices parte libri novem (Naples, 1593).
330
instrument to measure the apparent sizes of the sun and moon in solar eclipses.
Having adapted a form of dioptral camera for the purpose, Tycho came to
realize that systematic allowance had to be made in his observations for the
size of the aperture. He measured this and subtracted it from that of the image
from which he computed the apparent solar diameter. Then he found to his
surprise that the apparent diameter of the moon calculated from observations
of the solar eclipse of 1598 was about one fifth smaller during the eclipse than
it was at other times when astronomical theory showed the moon to be equally
distant. Since he found the same anomaly on all occasions he revised his lunar
tables accordingly, and looked for an optical cause in the moon itself. When
Kepler, already familiar with the camera obscura for observing solar eclipses,
heard of this 'optical paradox' he looked first in the same direction, but he
refused to accept Michael Mastlin's anodyne comment that 'observation
cannot be perfectly exact', and hoped that 'I could elicit a sure response by
means of skilful methods'. After visiting Tycho near Prague in 1600, he
returned in June to Graz ready for the solar eclipse expected in July 'with a
skilful observation which I am considering' and 'especially to explore by
observation ... the striking affirmation' made by Tycho.1 This he did with a
dioptral camera with a movable screen. Having learnt from Tycho to measure
not only the object being observed but also the essential variables of the size of
the aperture and its distance from the screen in the instrument, what he came
to explore was the optics of the camera obscura and the experimental error to
which the method of observation itself gave rise. He recorded his results in his
'Eclipse Notebook' written during July 1600 and concluded with a set of
numbered propositions.2 Early on he asserted the principle that light was
propagated rectilinearly in all directions from all points of a luminous source
(proposition 6), and then developed his analysis by treating a finite aperture as
an assembly of points through each of which an inverted image of the source
was cast on the screen (proposition 13). Like Maurolico he demonstrated that
at a given ratio between the size of the aperture and its distance from the
screen the composite image must conform to the shape of the source; if the
aperture were enlarged or its distance decreased the image would assume the
shape of the aperture (proposition 14). During July, he reported later in the
year to Mastlin, 'I have written a Paralipomena to the Second Book of the
'Kepler to Herwart von Hohenburg 30.v. 1599, in Kepler's Gesammelte Werke, edited by W. von
Dyck, M. Caspar and F. Hammer. 18 vols (Munich, 1937-1959), xiii, 339; Mastlin to Kepler
2.V.1598 and Kepler to Mastlin 8.xii.l598, ibid., 213, 253; cf. S.M. Straker, Kepler's Optics
(Indiana University Ph.D. thesis, 1971; Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980), and 'Kepler, Tycho, and the
"Optical part of astronomy": the genesis of Kepler's theory of pinhole images', Archive for History
of Exact Sciences 24 (1981), 267-293. On Kepler's optics see also F. Hammer, 'Nachbericht', in
Gesammelte Werke, ii (1939), 393-436; A.C. Crombie, 'The mechanistic hypothesis and the
scientific study of vision', Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society 2 (1967), 3-112, reprinted
in Science, Optics and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought (London, 1990); and D.C.
Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler (Chicago, 1976).
2
So named with essential references and analysis by Straker (1981: above note 1).
3 31
Optics of Witelo'. As for Tycho's anomaly, this was an artifact arising from the
instrument: 'Therefore any eclipses that have been observed in this manner
stand in need of correction'.3 He wrote again about the camera obscura in
December 1601: 'Why should it not happen in the eye what I demonstrated in
the aperture, that lights are amplified and shadows are constructed? For there
is an aperture in the eye'.4
Kepler's Eclipse Notebook was in effect a draft for Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur (1604): Things appended to
Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated, a critique using
Risner's standard Latin edition of 1572 of the texts of both Witelo and
Alhazen. This he set out over the following three years in the same order of
topics, linked by his analysis of image formation in the camera obscura. In the
first five chapters he covered critically the optical questions of the nature of
light and colour, the camera obscura, the location of the image reflected by
plane and curved surfaces, the measurement of refraction in different media,
and the operation of vision. In the last six chapters he dealt with the
application of optics to astronomy. He explained this programme in his
dedicatory letter to the Emperor Rudolph II, concluding: '... nor have I
satisfied the mind with the speculations of abstract geometry, to wit with
pictures . . . but I have tracked down geometry through the manifest bodies of
the world, having followed the footsteps of the Creator with sweat and
panting'.5 Since light was the vehicle of observation and also of its deceptions,
knowledge of its properties was necessary for scientific practice. Because, he
wrote in chapter I 'De natura lucis', 'nature must exhibit God the primary
founder of all things in so far as it could', and the spherical form assumed by
light was 'the image of the Trinity', and light was likewise 'the natural and
fittest image of the corporeal world', introduced by Moses as 'a sort of
instrument of the Creator' and 'the link between the corporeal and the spiritual
world', knowledge of it was essential for fundamental physical and metaphysical theory. Kepler started from 'Euclid, Witelo and others'. Light he continued 'illuminates everything all around' (chapter I, proposition ii); 'the lines
of these emissions are straight, called rays' and 'the shape of a sphere is
assumed by light' (proposition iv); its 'motion is not in time, but in a moment'
therefore 'the speed of light is infinite' (proposition v). But the 'ray of light is
not the light itself going out' for 'the ray is nothing but the motion of light.
Just as in physical motion the motion is a straight line, but the physical thing
that moves is a body, so in the same way in light the motion itself is a straight
line but what moves is a certain surface' (proposition viii). This led to the
photometric law: 'As with spherical surfaces having a source of light for centre
'Kepler to Mastlin 9.ix.l600, Ges. Werke, xiv, 150-151.
Kepler 10/20.xii.l601, ibid. 207.
s
Ges. Werke, ii, 8-10. References in the text are to this edition, where they are indicated by GW.
332
the wider is to the narrower, so is the strength or density of the rays of light in
the narrower to that in the wider spherical surface, that is conversely' (proposition ix; GW\\, 18-22).
He devoted the whole of chapter II 'De figuratione lucis' (GW ii, 46-61) to
the camera obscura, starting with the history, from Aristotle through Witelo
and Pecham to Gemma and Tycho, of unsuccessful attempts to solve the
problem of the shape of images projected through small openings, and
concluding with a long presentation of his true solution in its most general
form. He described how he came to see the truth by an experiment in which the
geometry was displayed by threads replacing rays so that he eliminated 'the
cover of the arcane nature of light' into which both Pecham (called here
Pisanus) and Witelo had retreated. Diirer had explained perspective in 1525 by
means of a similar physical model, but Kepler did not mention that.6 Kepler
showed how the threads, and likewise the rectilinear rays, would produce an
image either of the aperture or of the luminous or illuminated source entirely
according to their geometrical disposition. Later in the astronomical part of his
book he showed how he made the camera obscura an essential instrument for
his solar observations, corrected Gemma's and Tycho's understanding of it,
published his own computations, and so on (chapters VIII, XI; GW ii, 256257, 288-301). Essential for the accuracy of astronomy was the measurement
of refraction to which he devoted his long chapter IV (GW ii, 78-143). He
developed a theory of the causes of refraction explicitly by the use of varieties
of analogy. This involved a study of conic sections, presented as a system, for
which he introduced the term focus (literally, hearth). 'We must use the
geometrical languages (voces) of analogy' he wrote; 'for indeed I greatly love
analogies, the most trustworthy of my instructors, the confidants of all the
secrets of nature: especially to be esteemed in geometry', where 'they brilliantly
put in front of the eyes the whole essence of any thing' (chapter IV, pp. 91-92).
He proposed an approximation to the still undefined ratio between the angles
of refraction and incidence, and improved on Ptolemy's tables as published by
Witelo.7
He came to the central subject in chapter V: 'De modo visionis' (GW\\, 143197).8 The 'deception of vision' in the recorded measurements of planetary
diameters and of solar eclipses, he began, 'arises partly from the instruments of
observation, as we discussed above in chapter two, and partly just from vision
itself; and this, as long as it is not counteracted, makes considerable trouble for
'Straker (1971: above, note 1) 390 sqq. (1981, above note 1), and The eye made "other": Diirer,
Kepler, and the mechanization of light and vision', in L. A. Knafla, M. S. Staum and T. H. E.
Travers (eds), Science, Technology, and Culture in Historical Perspective (Calgary, Canada, 1976),
pp. 7-24.
7
Cf. G. Buchdahl, 'Methodological aspects of Kepler's theory of refraction1, Studies in History
and Philosophy of Science 3 (1972), 265-268.
"Translated by Crombie, 'Kepler: de modo visionis', in Melanges Alexandre Koyre, i (Paris,
1964), p. 141, with slight changes; see alsoCrombie (1967: above note 1).
333
investigators and detracts from scientific judgement. The source of the errors in
vision is to be sought in the structure and functioning of the eye itself. Had
Alhazen and Witelo and then the anatomists dealt with the matter properly he
would not have had to add this chapter to his Paralipomena ad Vitellionem. As
334
335
painted on our retina, which Kepler had pointed out in his proposition xxiii
(below). 'It seems that Plater was led to this opinion by that anatomical
experiment, of which I have heard from other medical men, namely that if the
crystalline humour, having been taken out from the other humours, is placed
on top of tiny letters it shows those larger. But this is something different from
this matter. For vision occurs by means of the picture on the retina. But this
deception happens not through a picture, but because of the image. Hence this
magnification of letters by the crystallinus (or something analogous to it in the
eye) does not fashion vision'. Thus he concluded: 'Compare the true mode of
operation (modus) of vision proposed by me with that given by Plater, and you
will see that this famous man is no farther from the truth than is compatible
with being a medical man who deliberately does not treat mathematics' (pp.
185-187). Of Porta he wrote that it was he who 'in Magia naturalis xvii.6 first
proposed the artifice (artificiwri) of that matter of which in the second chapter
above I have set out a formal demonstration: namely by what cause all the
things outside illuminated by the Sun are seen with their colours in the
darkness' of the camera obscura. Next, Kepler continued, Porta 'added a few
words de modo visionis1, and he quoted Porta's passage on making it 'clear to
philosophers and opticians where vision is effected' and how 'the crystalline
sphere located in the middle of the eye takes the place of the screen'. But, he
addressed Porta, 'if I understand you well, when you ask where vision is
effected, you reply on the surface of the crystallinus or screen'. For Porta had
said that 'vision comes from that kind of picture (picturd)' which Kepler had
demonstrated in his second chapter (prop, vii): 'and so to conclude, most
skilful Porta, if you had added to your opinion only this': that the picture on
the crystallinus is still confused by the wide opening of the uvea, and vision
does not come about by the conjunction of light with the crystallinus, but the
light descends onto the retina, with the separation and then reunion of the
radiation to a point, 'and the place of gathering together to a point is on the
retina itself, which exhibits the clearness of the picture, and it comes about that
through that intersection the image (imago) is inverted and through this
gathering together that it is most distinct and clear: if you had added this I say
to your opinion, clearly you would have unravelled the mode of operation
(modus) of vision' (pp. 187-189; cf. v.2, pp. 151-158; below). Kepler here made
explicit his debt to Porta's artifice or model. He followed Porta in his
comparison between a camera obscura and the eye as far as the anterior
surface of the crystallinus onto which an optical image was cast as onto a
screen (cf. v.2, p. 155; v.3, pp. 162, 177-178; below); then going beyond Porta
he identified the function of the crystallinus as a lens which focused the image
onto the retina, and he dealt with the geometry of how this happened. The
image, as Porta had failed to understand, was inverted and reversed on the
crystallinus and remained so on the retina. In an autographical passage Kepler
336
described how he himself like all his predecessors was at first embarrassed by
the inverted and reversed image and looked hard for means to show that it was
rectified (p. 185; see below). But he was forced to accept the conclusions of his
geometrical optical analysis which he set out in chapter V 2-4.
In a new intellectual context Kepler's treatment of the operation of the eye
as an optical instrument marked a radical change in the conception of vision
accepted by his ancient and medieval predecessors, which enabled him to open
a new approach to the relation of physiology to perception, even while he used
many of the same analytical techniques. The analogy of the camera obscura, a
formal analogy without identity of material parts, enabled him to isolate the
geometrical optics of the eye as an immediately soluble physical problem to be
treated first and apart from all questions of sensation and perception. With this
new conception of the subject-matter he could reduce physiological optics to
inanimate physics and banish from this passive physical mechanism any active
sensitive power to look at an object or to receive stimuli selectively. He could
formulate the fundamental problem of the image not as Alhazen had done, as
that of how the eye produced an internal pattern of stimulated points, but as
the wholly different problem of how the eye focused a completely different
kind of image, an optical image itself visible from without like the inverted
image focused on the screen of a camera obscura. Alhazen's eye did not focus
but selected the image; he attributed to it explicitly vital sensitive properties
which enabled it to deliver to the back of the eye an erect image both ordered
and orientated as its object appeared to the viewer. Kepler's image made the
need to avoid confusion by the selective perception only of the perpendicular
rays irrelevant.
The camera obscura became the true model of the eye. Kepler's restructuring of optical geometry to make it not a vital perceiver of a correctly
ordered and orientated image conducted on the Euclidean persective cone, but
like any inanimate focusing device, immediately raised in a precisely geometrical form the question of the identity and location of the sensitive receptor on
which the image was cast. He could undertake a purely geometrical analysis of
the paths of the rays of physical light through the crystalline lens and other
physical refracting media until they were focused as an optical image on the
retina as a screen. Of the innumerable physical rays, going in all directions
from every point of a luminous or illuminated source, some fell on the pupil.
He demonstrated how an inverted and reversed image must be focused in the
eye by means of a construction which at the same time showed that the image
must fall on the retina, and hence that this (as Plater had suggested) must be
the sensitive receptor. He demonstrated how from an apex at each point on the
visible object a multitude of radiant cones passed through the pupil, intersected, and went to a common base on the anterior surface of the crystalline
lens, where their positions were reversed and inverted. This surface corres-
337
Fig. 2. From Descartes, La dioptrique, v (Leiden 1637): illustrating Kepler's ocular dioptrics. Rays
from each point on the object (VXY) are refracted through the cornea (BCD) and lens (L) to foci
(RST) on the retina where they form an inverted image of the object. The man looking at the eye,
with its back removed, set in a camera obscura would see the inverted image on the translucent retinal
SCREEN.
ponded in this way to the screen of a camera obscura, which became as Porta
had recognized the true model of the eye up to this location. But Kepler for the
first time and for good anatomical reasons carried his optical analysis beyond
this. He showed how the lens then focused each radiant cone from the common
base in a matching cone to a point on the retina corresponding to that on the
object from which it came. The multitude of such points recomposed the image
SHIPS 22:1-G
338
of the object (Fig. 2), just as did analogously the multitude of double pyramids
in the camera obscura without a lens.10 He related this inverted and reversed
image to the scene perceived by a simple geometrical rule making the points of
this composite picture correspond to their sources on the object but not in
orientation. But at the retina optics ended and the rays of light were succeeded
by a different kind of motion. This, and how the visual faculty of the soul
effected perception by means of the retinal image, he put outside his optical
analysis as a problem for natural philosophy. Thus:
I have described how vision takes place in such a way that the functions of each
separate part can be seen, these so far as I know, having been investigated and
discovered by no one else. And so I ask mathematicians to study this carefully, so
that something certain about this noblest of functions may at last take its place in
philosophy. I say that vision occurs when the image (idolum) of the whole hemisphere of the world which is in front of the eye, and a little more, is formed on the
reddish white concave surface of the retina (retina). I leave it to natural philosophers
(physici) to discuss the way in which this image or picture (picturd) is put together by
the spiritual principles of vision residing in the retina and in the nerves, and whether
it is made to appear before the soul or tribunal of the faculty of vision by a spirit
within the cerebral cavities, or the faculty of vision, like a magistrate sent by the
soul, goes out from the council chamber of the brain to meet this image in the optic
nerves and retina, as it were descending to a lower court. For the equipment of
opticians does not take them beyond this opaque surface which first presents itself in
the eye. I do not think that we should listen to Witelo (book iii, proposition xx), who
thinks that these images of light (idola lucis) go out farther through the nerve, until
they meet at the junction half way along each optic nerve, and then separate again,
one going to each cerebral cavity. For, by the laws of optics (leges optices), what can
be said about this hidden motion which, since it takes place through opaque and
hence dark parts and is brought about by spirits which differ in every respect from
the humours of the eye and other transparent things, immediately puts itself outside
the field of optical laws? (And yet it is this motion that brings about vision, from
which the name optics is derived; and so it is wrong to exclude it from the science of
optics simply because, in the present limited state of our knowledge, it cannot be
accommodated in optics)... This image (species) existing separately from the
presentation of the thing seen is not present in the humours or coats of the eye, as
shown above; hence vision takes place in the spirits and through the impression
(impressio) of these images (species) on the spirit. But really this impression does not
belong to optics but to natural philosophy (physicd) and the study of the wonderful.
But this by the way. I will return to the explanation of how vision takes place.
Thus vision is brought about by a picture of the thing seen being formed on the
concave surface of the retina. That which is to the right outside is depicted on the
left on the retina, that to the left on the right, that above below, and that below
'"See Straker (1981: above note I) 291-292. Lindberg (1976: above note 1) 202-206 seems
perverse in denying this debt and in continuing to maintain that 'Kepler himself remained firmly
within the medieval framework' (p. 207), and similarly later, e.g. 'Continuity and discontinuity in
the history of optics: Kepler and the medieval tradition', History and Technology 4 (1987), 431448; followed in this by J.V. Field, Two mathematical inventions in Kepler's Ad Vitellionem
Paralipomena', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 17 (1986), 449-468.
339
above. Green is depicted green, and in general things are depicted by whatever
colour they have. So, if it were possible for this picture on the retina to persist if
taken out into the light by removing the anterior parts of the eye which form it, and
if it were possible to find someone with sufficiently sharp sight, he would recognize
the exact shape of the hemisphere compressed into the confined space of the retina.
For a proportion is kept, so that if straight lines are drawn from separate points on
the thing seen to some determined point within the eye, the separate parts are
depicted in the eye at almost the same angle as that at which these lines meet. Thus,
not neglecting the smallest points, the greater the acuity of vision of a given person,
the finer will be the picture formed in his eye.
So that I may go on to treat this process of painting (pingendi) and prepare myself
gradually for a demonstration of it, I say that this picture (picturd) consists of as
many pairs of cones as there are points on the thing seen, with both always having
the same base, namely the width of the crystallinus or part of it. Thus while one of
the cones has its vertex at the point seen and its base on the crystallinus (varied to
some extent by refraction on entering the cornea), the other has the same base on the
crystallinus as the first one and the vertex extends to some point of the picture on the
surface of the retina; this cone undergoes refraction on passing out of the crystallinus
(Figs 2 and 3). All the outer cones meet in the pupil, so that they intersect in that
space, and right becomes left... In fact more or less the same thing happens as we
showed in chapter ii in a closed chamber (camera clausd). The pupil (pupilld)
corresponds to the window and the crystallinus to the screen (tabula) opposite it,
provided that the pupil and crystallinus are not so near that intersection is incomplete and everything is confused.... And so if finally straight lines are drawn from
points on the visible hemisphere through the centre of the eye" and the vitreous
humour, these lines will imprint points forming a picture of the radiating points on
the retina opposite. If this did not happen the size of things seen indistinctly to the
side would keep changing when the eyes were turned, as happens when spectacles are
worn. For these, although fixed immovably in relation to the eye, if they are moved
round with it represent things at rest as having some motion, because of the varying
amount of the hemisphere appearing at the sides Finally the sensory power
(virtus sensorid) or spirit diffused through the nerve is more concentrated and
stronger where the retina meets direct cones, because of its source and where it has
to go: from that point it is diffused over the sphere of the retina, gets farther from
the source, and hence becomes weaker Thus when we see a thing perfectly, w
see it within the whole surrounding area of the visible hemisphere. For this reason
oblique vision satisfies the soul least and only invites the turning of the eyes in that
direction so that they may see directly . . .
The pupil did not affect the focusing of the light, but by dilating or contracting
controlled the amount of light entering the eye. Thus the position of the
aperture (foramen) is where the rays intersect, and it exists for the sake of the
crystallinus...' (v. 2, pp. 151-158).
Demonstration of the conclusions stated concerning how vision takes place through
the crystallinus. Nearly everything said so far about the crystallinus can be observed
in everyday experiments with crystal balls and glass urinary flasks filled with clear
water. For if one stands at the glazed window of a room with a globe of this kind of
"The sense requires oculi instead of retinae as in the printed texts.
340
Fig. 3. From Kepler, Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, v. 3, prop xxiii (Frankfurt, 1604): illustrating
his model for demonstrating ocular dioptrics using for simplicity a spherical lens made of a flask of
water (a) placed inside the small window fe f) of a camera obscura. Kepler explained how rays from
each point (i) of the object were brought together through n m to form in his model a somewhat
indistinct image on the screen placed at k 1.
crystal or water, and arranges a sheet of white paper behind the globe at a distance
equal to half the diameter of the globe, the glazed window with the fluted wooden or
leaden divisions between the lights will be very clearly painted on the paper, but
inverted. The same effect can be obtained with other things, if the place is darkened
a little. Thus, using a globe of water set up in a chamber opposite a small window, as
we described above in chapter ii, proposition vii, everything that can reach the globe
through the width of the small window or opening will be depicted very clearly and
341
delightfully on the paper opposite. Since the picture is clear at this one distance
(namely with the paper a semi-diameter of the globe away from it), it will become
indistinct at positions in front of or behind this one. But the direct opposite happens
using the eyes...
If the eye were put in the place of the paper, things would be seen erect where
they had been inverted on the paper.
Since the crystallinus is convex and is denser than the surrounding humours, just as
the water in the glass flask is denser than the air, therefore whatever we have
demonstrated in this way with the globe of water, and using these media, will have
been proved also for the crystallinus, except in so far as it has a different convexity
from the globe. So let us proceed with the demonstration of matters belonging to the
crystalline or glass globe... (v. 3, p. 162).
'Thus' he added in a note, 'we may seek some light from method', for there was
one 'form of refraction through a globe by which vision is deceived by
imagining to itself simulacra which are not real (we called them imagines)' (cf.
props, vii, xvii-xviii), and another 'by which real pictures of things are formed'
(cf. props, xix-xxii and xxiii). He concluded with the corollary: 'Here is seen the
function of the pupil (foramen uveae) in the eye; also why the sides of the retina
are nearer the crystallinus than the bottom' (prop, xxiii, pp. 177-178). In the
next proposition he used his knowledge of conic sections, citing Apollonius, to
342
demonstrate the operation of his model lens, concluding with the corollary:
Thus is seen the design of nature concerning the posterior surface of the
crystalline humour in the eye. She wants all the rays entering the pupil from a
visible object to come together at one point on the retina, both so that each
point of the picture will be so much the clearer, and so that the other points of
the picture will not be accidentally confused with other, unfocused or focused
rays. It is also seen that the dilation of the pupil has no other purpose than that
which I said above, nor does it confuse the picture but only makes it clearer'
(prop, xxiv, pp. 178-179),
He went on to face the question of visual perception:
The sensation (passio) of vision follows the action of illumination, in measure
(modus) and proportion. The retina is illuminated distinctly point by point from
individual points of objects, and most strongly so at its individual points. Therefore
in the retina, and nowhere else, can distinct and clear vision come about. This is so
much the more evident because distortion of the proportions of the picture leads to
faults of vision, as has been demonstrated. And I do not know whether Democritus
was celebrating with his name idolum rather this picture, by which vision happens,
than that mirroring ...
But 'the inversion of my picture can be brought against me, which Witelo with
great assiduity dodged And I really tortured myself for a long time in
order to show that the cones, having turned right into left in the entrance of
the pupil, are made to intersect again behind the crystallinus in the middle of
the vitreous humour, so that another inversion is brought about, and what
were made left again become right, before they reach the retina'. But he gave
up 'this useless trouble'.
And so if you are bothered by the inversion of this picture and fear that this would
lead to inverted vision, I ask you to consider the following. Just as vision is not an
action (actio), simply because illumination is an action, but contrary to an action an
affection (passio), so also, in order that the positions may correspond, the capacity
for affection (patientia) must be in a direction opposite to the agents. Now the
positions are perfectly opposite when all the lines connecting opposite points run
through the same centre, which would not have been so if the picture had been erect.
And so in the inverted picture, although right and left are interchanged everywhere
and with respect to any common line, nonetheless with respect to themselves the
right-hand parts of the object are perfectly opposed to the right-hand parts of the
picture, and the upper parts of the object to the upper parts of the picture, as a
hollow to a hollow . . . Therefore with the picture inverted none of that absurdity is
committed from which Witelo so much ran away, and in which lessen followed . . .
(v.4, pp. 184-186).
In this somewhat contrived way Kepler was saying that so long as the parts
of the image retained with respect to themselves the order found in the visible
object, the reversal and inversion of their orientation did not matter. The
question nevertheless still puzzled contemporaries like Johann Brengger.
343
Some years later in 1620 the English diplomat Henry Wotton described to
Francis Bacon a moving visit he had made to Kepler at Linz. This 'famous
man in the sciences', to whom Wotton proposed to bring one of Bacon's
books, was using a camera obscura as an aid to painting a scene just as Daniele
Barbaro had advised. Kepler had in his study a landscape which he said that
l2
Cf. dedicatory letter, Ges. Werke, iv, 331, and Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (1610), ibid. 293
on Porta's 'perspicilla'; Straker (1971: above note 1), 467-479, with M. Caspar und F. Hammer,
'Nachbericht' in Kepler, ibid, iv (1941) 415^21.
"The term superficiaria in Roman law meant situated on another man's land
344
345
346
Ar<i5
Naiur*,TuI>i
ct
Oculj,
in
ipecielui
ioUritj
patienUndis
con&nfuf'.
N.
3.
Fig. 4. from Schemer, Rosa ursina, ii. 23 (Bracciani, 1630): illustrating his comparison between the
eye and a camera obscura with a lens system, and the effects on each of using further lenses.
347
exemplify 'the admirable agreement of nature and art' (ii.23-33, pp. 106-136)
in a detailed comparison between the eye and a camera obscura containing a
system of lenses, studying the effects on each of adding further lenses as with
spectacles and in the telescope, helioscope and microscope (cf. Fig. 4).18
Scheiner helped to establish the camera obscura as a model of the eye. Thus
Johann Christoph Kohlhans in his Tractatus opticus (1663) cited Schemer's
two books for his account: 'Of the application of the camera to the eye' (ii.2.3,
p. 257); 'The agreement of art and nature is wonderful: thus as the eye is a
natural camera obscura, so is the camera obscura an artificial eye' (p. 501).
Likewise Johann Christoph Sturm in his Collegium Experimentale (1676)
asserted 'the eye to be nothing other than a little camera obscura' (ii, p.7).19
More original was Christiaan Huygens's demonstration in his Dioptrica (prop,
xxxi; 1703), written probably during 1667-1691, of the optical system of a
simplified eye reduced to a single spherical refracting surface and of a model
constructed as a camera obscura with a cornea, a lens and a diaphragm
corresponding to the iris.20 But the new theory was by no means evidently true
even to everybody competent to understand it. The Jesuit mathematician
Francois Aguilon in his Opticorum libri (i.l, 27, 1613, pp. 2-6, 26-27), a work
covering the whole range of optical science from ocular physiology and
perception through physics to perspective and geometrical projection, argued
that the sensitive organ was the lens capsule (aranea), which he believed to be
an extension of the retina and the optic nerve.21 Edme Mariotte provoked a
long controversy, centred in the Academic Royale des Sciences and involving
especially Jean Pequet and Claude Perrault, with Jean Mery and Philippe de
La Hire, by questioning whether his discovery of the blind spot at the entry of
the optic nerve still allowed the retina to be regarded as the sensitive organ of
vision.22 If Kepler himself provided an exemplary model for the analysis of the
composite problem of vision into its parts, so that his solution of ocular optics
allowed the further psychological and philosophical questions of vision to be
reintroduced on that scientific foundation, he still left these questions largely
"Cf. M. von Rohr, 'Ausgewahlte Stiicke aus Christoph Scheiners Augenbuch', Zeitschrift fur
opthalmologische Optik 7 (1919), 35^4, 53-64, 76-91, 101-113, 121-133, 'Zur Wurdigung von
Scheiners Augenstudien', Archiv fur Augenheilktinde 86 (1920), 247-263; Crombie (1967: above
note 1).
"Cf. also Johann Andrea Volland, Oculus (Altdorf, 1679) on the eye as a camera obscura; and
Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, Dissertatio visionis sensum (1699), published Gottingen (1748), 169,
on Schemer's experiments removing the back of the eye.
20
Huygens, Dioptrica in Opera posthuma (Louvain, 1703), 112-116; cf. J. P. C. Southall, 'The
beginnings of optical science1, and 'Early pioneers in physiological optics', Journal of the Optical
Society of America 6 (1922), 292-311, 827-842.
21
Cf. M. von Rohr, 'Auswahl aus der Behandlung des Horopters bei Fr. Aguilonius um 1613',
Zeitschrift fur opthalmologische Optik 11 (1923), 41-59.
22
Cf. M. D. Grmek, 'Un debat scientifique exemplaire: Mariotte, Pecquet et Perrault a la
recherche du siege de la perception visuelle', History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 7 (1985),
217-255.
348
unformulated, let alone answered. There were such psychophysiological problems as the relations between direct and indirect vision and between the visual
fields of the two eyes. There was the perennial philosophical problem of the
relation between physical stimuli of any kind and unphysical sensations.
It was Descartes who explicitly clarified the analysis of vision into its
component problems, with full acknowledgement to Kepler.23 In doing so he
showed how to use the modelling of nature by art as an instrument not simply
of technical, but more generally of logical and conceptual analysis and
exploration. Following Kepler's convincing lead, the mathematicians from
Scheiner and Descartes down to Huygens and Newton who investigated the
technical frontiers of visual physiology came to see in the precise relating of
perceiver to perceived a central problem of the scientific movement. Descartes
shared with all concerned the ancient ambition to improve nature by art, for he
opened La dioptrique (i, 1637; Oeuvres, vi): 'The whole conduct of our life
depends on our senses, among which vision being the noblest and most
universal, there can be no doubt that inventions serving to increase its power
are the most useful there can possibly be'. It would be difficult to find a better
example than the telescope, but 'to the shame of our sciences this invention, so
useful and so admirable, was found first only by experiment and chance' by
someone without mathematical knowledge. He proposed to develop a true
science of optics. His more general contribution to scientific thinking was to
show that by liberating systematically from each other the different kinds of
question and frontier involved in the traditional formulation of vision, each
could then be explored without confusion from the others. Descartes, with
Marin Mersenne, approached the question left by Kepler of how the retinal
image could give us sensations and perceptions by distinguishing, on more
"Descartes to Mersenne 31.iii.1638, Oeuvres, eds C. Adam and P. Tannery, 12 vols (Paris, 18971913), ii, 86; cf. for Descartes's optics J. Pucelle, 'La theorie de la perception exterieure chez
Descartes', Revue d'histoire des sciences 12 (1935), 297-339, M. H. Pirenne, 'Descartes and the
body-mind problem in physiology', The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 1 (1950), 4359, Vision and the Eye, 2nd edn (London, 1967), G. Leisegang, Descartes Dioptrik (Meisenheim am
Glan, 1954), R. L. Gregory, Eye and Brain (London, 1966), The Intelligent Eye (London, 1970),
Crombie (1967: above note 1), N. Pastore, Selective History of Theories of Visual Perception: 16501950 (New York, 1971), W. Van Hoorn, As Images Unwind: Ancient and modern theories of visual
perception (Amsterdam, 1972), G. Simon, 'On the theory of visual perception of Kepler and
Descartes' in A. Beer and P. Beer (eds), Kepler: Four Hundred Years (Vistas in Astronomy 18;
Oxford, 1975), G. C. Hatfield and W. Epstein, The sensory core and the medieval foundations of
early modern perceptual theory', Isis 70 (1979), 363-383, A. M. Smith, Descartes' Theory of Light
and Refraction. (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 77) 3; (Philadelphia, Pa.,
1987); and for the discovery of the sine law of refraction J. W. Shirley, 'An early experimental
demonstration of Snell's law', American Journal of Physics 19 (1951), 507-508, E. Rosen 'Harriot's
science: the intellectual background', in J. W. Shirley (ed.), Thomas Harriot: Renaissance Scientist
(Oxford, 1974), pp. 2-4, J. A. Lohne, 'Zur Geschichte der Brechungsgesetzes', Sudhoffs Archiv 47
(1963), 152-172, D. J. Struik, 'Snel, Willebrord (1580-1626)', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography
12 (1975), 499-502, P. Costabel, Demarches originates de Descartes savant (Paris, 1982), pp. 63-76.
After the announcement of the sine law by Descartes to Marin Mersenne in June 1632, it was the
latter who published it for the first time in his Harmonie universelle, Traitez de la nature des sons
...', i, prop, xxix (Paris, 1636), 65-66, cf. Correspondance, ed. C. De Waard, 2nd edn, iii (Paris,
1969), pp. 316, 318-319.
349
general philosophical grounds, the case of men from that of animals acting
simply as natural automata made by God, responding to physical stimuli from
which God had given them no capacity to receive sensations. The image
formed in the eyes of animals was purely physiological. In the animal machine
he could push Kepler's optical analysis to the limit by asking what purely
physiological motions followed from this physiological image and passed
through the body. Thus he could complete the technical isolation of the
formation of the image from the logical or ontological problem (recognized
since Plato) of how any physical image or motion could cause sensation and
perception, effects in a different category, in a sentient body.
La dioptrique is an essay at once in mathematical and experimental science
and in the use of hypothetical models, the most elegant and the most successful
of his scientific writings. In it he disposed of certain technical advantages over
his predecessors, in particular by his knowledge of the sine law of refraction,
discovered independently long before by Thomas Harriot and Willebrord Snel
and perhaps also independently by himself. He surpassed them all in
presenting a new science of vision within the context of a new science of the
senses in general. By this time he had developed several different and not
wholly reconcilable hypothetical physical models for light and its effects in
vision. He would begin his account of vision with 'the explanation of light and
its rays' but, since he was concerned here only with how it entered and was
refracted through the eye, 'there is no need for me to undertake to say what
truly is its nature'. Our embodied soul could know external objects only
through the motions which these produced in our nerves. We were in a
position like that when we found our way about in the dark with a stick, or
that of men born blind who had found their way about by touch all their lives
so that 'one could almost say that they see with the hands'. Now we could
suppose that light is nothing but 'a certain movement, or a very rapid and very
lively action' that passed through transparent media into our eyes, just as the
movement or resistance encountered by the stick passed into the hands of the
blind man (i). The operation of the senses in animals was purely physical and
physiological. But in man 'we know already well enough that it is the soul that
senses, and not the body . . . And we know that it is not properly speaking
because it is in the members that serve as organs of the external senses that it
senses, but because it is in the brain, where it exercises that faculty called the
common sense . . . Finally we know that it is through the nerves that the
impressions that objects make on the external members reach the soul in the
brain'. But we must
take care not to suppose that, in order to sense, the soul needs to look at images
which may be sent by the objects as far as the brain, as our philosophers commonly
do; or, at least, we must conceive the nature of these images quite otherwise than
they do. For . . . they do not consider in them anything else except that they must
350
have a resemblance to the objects with they represent... instead of considering that
there are several other things besides images that can stimulate our thought; as for
example signs and words, which do not resemble in any way the things which they
signify. And if, in order to separate ourselves as little as possible from the opinions
already received, we prefer to acknowledge that the objects which we sense really
send their images as far as the interior of our brain, we must at least note that there
are no images which must resemble in everything the objects which they represent.
Just as Kepler had used the experience of painting to form his conception of
the retinal picture, so Descartes did likewise to replace this simple conception
by the sophisticated conception of symbolic representation of an object by
sensory clues:
Just as you see that engravings, made only of a bit of ink put here and there on a
piece of paper, represent to us forests, towns, men and even battles and storms, even
though, from the infinity of diverse qualities which they make us conceive in these
objects, there may be none but the shape alone to which they have properly a
resemblance; and even then it is a very imperfect resemblance, seeing that they
represent on an entirely flat surface bodies elevated and sunk and that even,
following the rules of perspective, they often represent circles better by ovals than by
other circles, and squares by lozenges than by other squares, and likewise with all the
other shapes: so that often, in order to be perfect as images, and to represent an
object better, they must not resemble it. Now we must think in just the same way of
the images that are formed in our brain, and we must note that it is only a question
of knowing how they can furnish the soul with the means of sensing all the diverse
qualities of objects to which they correspond, and not at all how in themselves they
resemble them. Just as, when the blind man of whom we have spoken above touches
some bodies with his stick, it is certain that those bodies do not send anything else to
him except that, by making his stick move diversely according to the diverse
qualities that are in them, they move by this means the nerves of his hand and then
the places in his brain from which these nerves come; this is what gives occasion to
his soul to sense as many of the diverse qualities in these bodies as there are varieties
in the movements that are caused by them in his brain (La dioptrique iv).
'You see well enough then that, in order to sense, the soul does not need to
look at any images similar to the things which it senses; but that does not stop
it being true that the objects which we look at imprint quite perfect images in
the bottom of our eyes'. This 'some people have already very ingeniously
explained by comparison with what happens in a chamber', a camera obscura:
'For they say that this chamber represents the eye' with all its essential parts.
One could demonstrate this by 'taking the eye of a man freshly dead, or failing
that of an ox or some other large animal', cutting away the back and replacing
it with a translucent white body such as a piece of paper or eggshell, and
putting the eye into a hole in a dark room with its pupil facing a sunlit scene
outside (Fig. 2). Then 'if you look at the white body RST you will see, not
perhaps without admiration and pleasure, a painting which will represent very
naturally in perspective all the objects that are outside towards VXY, proportioned to their distance, at least if you make sure that this eye keeps its natural
351
Fig. 5. From Descartes, La dioptrique, v (Leiden, 1637): illustrating the transmission of light from
the object (VXY) to form a visual image in each eye (RST, rst), and then of these images through
the optic nerves to form corresponding patterns (789) in the cerebral cavities.
shape'. Now, 'having seen this painting in the eye of a dead animal, and having
considered its causes, one cannot doubt that an entirely similar painting is
formed in that of a living man, on the internal skin, in the place of which we
have substituted the white body RST . . . Moreover, the images of objects are
not only formed at the bottom of the eye, but they also pass beyond as far as
the brain, as you can easily understand if you suppose that, for example, the
rays that come into the eye from the object V (Fig. 5) touch at the point R the
extremity of one of the little threads of the optic nerve which takes its origin at
the place 7 on the interior surface of the brain 789'. Similarly for the other
objects X and Y. 'From which it is clear that once more a painting 789 is
formed, sufficiently similar to the objects V, X, Y, on the interior surface of the
brain facing its cavities' (La dioptrique v). Thus 'although this painting, in
passing thus as far as the inside of our head, always retains something of a
resemblance to the objects from which it proceeds', vet it is not 'bv means of
352
Cf. Descartes, L'Homme (Oeuvres, xi), pp. 143-144, 174-177 and Meditationes de prima
philosophiae, ii, vi (1641), Principia philosophiae, ii. 1-2, iv. 189 (1644), Les passions de I'dme, arts.
23, 36 (1649); A. C. Crombie (1967: above note 1), The study of the senses in Renaissance science',
in Actes du X' Congres International d'Histoire des Sciences: 1962 (Paris, 1964), pp. 93-114,
'Mathematics, music and medical science', Actes du XIf Congres ... 1968 (Paris, 1971), pp. 295310, 'Marin Mersenne and the seventeenth-century problem of scientific acceptability', Physis 17
(1975), 186-204, Marin Mersenne (forthcoming).
353
Xr
Fig. 6. From Schemer, Oculus, /. /. 9 (Oeniponti, 1619): showing the structure of the eye, with the
refracting media of the cornea (E) and lens (MN), and the optic nerve (O) entering the eyeball to
one side of the point of central vision on the retina (D).
ways met Descartes's stark division of the created world into extended
unthinking body and unextended thinking mind by offering other accounts of
the mediation and coordination of the information received through the
senses. Hobbes elaborated especially in his optical writings a purely corporeal,
mechanistic psychology.25 Gassendi set out from the Greek atomists to devise
another conjectural model.26 Both agreed with Descartes that objects in the
external world were represented symbolically in the motions they produced
through the senses; both attempted to formulate clearly the problems of
correlating sensory with physiological states; and both made valuable observations on this subject. A basic principle of the whole programme, however often
it was breached, was that the speculative models designed to explore these
problems should lead to solutions testable by observation. This opened two
interesting questions. One concerned the differentation of the senses. Descartes
had argued in La dioptrique and L'Homme that while the special sense organs
were so designed that they were normally stimulated only by specific kinds of
physical motion (as light, sound or pressure), the kinds of sensation that
resulted were determined not by those kinds of external motion but by the part
of the brain to which they were conducted. Against this Thomas Willis,
influenced by Gassendi, maintained that it was the different kinds of external
motion or particle that determined the specificity of the senses, and that those
'proportionate to one sensory are incommunicable to most others'.27 It was not
technically possible to settle this dispute, but the second question proved
easier. Descartes had assumed that the coordination of the information
received through the different senses had been included in the inherited design
of the animate body, so that a blind man groping about with two sticks would
form a conception of the geometry of space exactly as did a sighted man.
"Hobbes, 'Opticae', first published by Mersenne, Universae geometricae, mixtae mathematicae
synopsis (Paris, 1644), pp. 567-589, and in Objectiones iii to Descartes, Meditationes ii.
26
Gassendi, Syntagma philosophicum, Physica, iii.2.2.1-4, vi.2, viii.2-4 in Opera, ii (Lyon, 1658),
237 sqq., 338 sqq., 402 sqq., and in Obj. v to Descartes, Meditationes ii, vi.
"Willis, De anima brutorum, i.10 (Oxford, 1672), p. 159.
354
355
and so proceeding a priori has come to form models (moduli, modelli) and figures
(typi) of them, with which he places before the eyes the causes of these effects and
gives the reason for them a priori and, aided by their rational sequence, understanding the mode of operation of nature, he constructs physiology and pathology
and then the art of medicine. A clear experimental proof of this is the optical
camera, in which the mathematician produces all the effects that are observed in
vision in the state of health and disease in animals, demonstrating a priori the
necessity of those effects that follow from variation in the shape of the lens and from
the too great distance or nearness of the parts; so that the mode of operation (ratio
modo) and the defects of vision are demonstrated from knowledge of the mechanism
made by man analogous to the eye.32
"Malpighi, Opera posthuma (Amsterdam, 1698), pp. 276, 289-290: completed 1687; in Latin and
Italian.
17
Contingent Expectation and Uncertain Choice:
Historical Contexts of Arguments from Probabilities1
i
HE STORY of Aristomenes in the Roman novel Metamorphoses or The Golden Ass of Apuleius offers a peculiar view
of chance and luck in the ancient world. Apuleius was
writing in the second century A.D. His character Aristomenes
finds on a journey a long lost friend miserably reduced to half-starvation in filthy rags. His friend responds to his greeting by urging
him to keep away and let Fortune do what she would with him as
long as she pleases. Instead Aristomenes takes him to the baths,
scrubs him down, and gives him fresh clothes, a good meal, and a
bed at the inn. But his friend's warning was just. Bad luck is
catching, and soon Aristomenes becomes himself likewise afflicted, forced into exile, never again to return to home or happiness.
We are here in a different moral cosmology from that of the Good
Samaritan. We are in a different world also from that of Aristotle's
ethics and of Greek medicine, let alone astronomy, for we are in
an arbitrary world of chance whose consequences might be feared
but were essentially unpredictable. We are in a region which Aristotle had placed for that reason essentially outside rational knowledge, yet it was part of the total world in which some people saw
themselves living. That total world is something we should always
i. This paper is based on corresponding chapters of my book Styles of Scientific
Thinking in the European Tradition (London: Gerald Duckworth and Co., 1994),
which contains full documentation both of original sources and of my considerable
debt to other scholars. An earlier version was published as "Pari sur le hazard et
choix dans 1'incertain", in Medicine et probabilities: Actes de la journ&e d'etudes
du 15 decembie 1979, 6d. A. Fagot (Paris, 1982), pp. 1-42,. Basic information about
most of the persons discussed will be found in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C. C. Gillispie (New York, 1970-80; 16 vols.)
358
359
could not be reduced to a simple logical or mathematical or dogmatic certainty. An experimenter exploring a complex subjectmatter could assent to a scientific hypothesis only contingently
on the evidence obtained so far, just as a physician or judge or a
navigator or a military commander or a merchant or a gamester
must decide at the moment of action only on a contingent expectation from the choice which he judged the most likely to gain his
ends.
The history of Western thinking in probabilities on this kind of
subject-matter has had then two main concerns, ( i ) It has been a
search for dependable criteria of judgement that would reduce
uncertain expectation to as exact a probability as the subject-matter would allow. We can ask historically then: On what grounds
did people give, or not give, assent to evidence, explanations,
theories, courses of action? (2) At the same time Western thinking
has been an exploration of nature and its expectations, of the
relation of expectations available to us to expectations embodied
in nature, hence of possible conceptions of nature and its knowability. On what grounds then did people of a particular period
expect that future events would happen, and that past events had
happened, in any context?
It is illuminating, indeed essential, to look at these issues comparatively in different historical contexts. Thereby we can see how
some questions came to be asked (while others remained unasked)
which came to establish the intellectual character of an age. I can
best illustrate the comparative history of thinking in probabilities
by pointing briefly to its central focus in examples from suitably
different historical circumstances: ancient, medieval, and early
modern, with a final glance at the theory of natural selection as a
general theory of decision applied to human and natural choice
alike. In each of these periods problems appeared under its own
distinctive vision and in each the attempts to reduce uncertainty
to probability were made within the limitations imposed both by
that vision and by the subject-matter: persuasive when they could
not be demonstrative, qualitative in antiquity, and quantified in
early modern Europe by bringing the contingent and variable
within the realm of mathematical order. Each through the survival
of texts made its distinctive contribution to its successors.
360
The Greeks developed thinking in probability with great originality in medicine and law. Focusing on the different types of argument appropriate to different subject-matters, they provided a
classification in which to place probable judgement of the uncertain situations both of nature and of practical human life. Let me
illustrate this with a brief collage of quotations. First the Hippocratic Prognostic: "I hold that it is an excellent thing for a physician
to practice forecasting. For if he discovers and declares unaided at
the side of his patients the present, the past and the future, and
fills in the gaps in the account given by the sick, he will be believed
to understand the cases, so that men will confidently entrust
themselves to him for treatment. Furthermore he will carry out
the treatment best if he knows beforehand from the present
symptoms what will take place later." But some diseases did kill:
"it is necessary therefore to learn the nature of such diseases, how
much they exceed the strength of men's bodies, and to learn how
to forecast them. . . . For the longer you plan to meet each
emergency, the greater your power to save those who have a chance
of recovery . . . " (c. i).
Hippocratic diagnosis and prognosis was an inference, from collections of symptoms usually present, to their probable antecedents and consequences. Thus the famous signs of death (c. 2). The
possibility of predicting the course of a disease was based on a
classification both of patients and of diseases, so that patients of
a type would all react alike to the same disease, and diseases of a
type would always run the same course, within the same general
environmental conditions. But Hippocratic authors also noted
considerable differences in the predictability of different ailments.
Some authors were more impressed by the essential natural uniformity of human beings, indeed of men with animals, of kinds of
disease, and of comparable environmental conditions. Others were
more impressed by the irreducible uncertainty introduced by a
variability so great, both in the human body and in external conditions, as to make each individual case virtually unique. Individual
bodies differed so much in general, as well as according to sex and
age and type, that except in specific ailments such as lesions
prognosis seemed virtually impossible. In all cases it was essential
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363
364
being the other has come into being before or after, is a sign of the
other's being or having come into being" (Prior Analytics ii.27, /oa
3-9). Signs might be infallible as a woman's "giving milk is a sign
that she has lately borne a child", or fallible as "that a man
breathes fast is a sign that a man has a fever" (Rhet. i.2, 13573
2
3~37/ b3, 15, 18) but he might do so without a fever. But "no
particular probability is universally probable. . . . For what is
improbable does happen, and therefore it is probable that improbable things will happen" (ibid, ii.24, 104239-12).
Central to Aristotle's whole treatment of probability was his
insistence that human beings could initiate choice both in their
opinions and in their actions. Within the subject-matter of
mathematical and natural necessity "understanding is universal
and through necessities, and what is necessary cannot be otherwise"; whereas "opinion is about what is true but can also be
otherwise" (Post.An.al. 1.33, 88b 30-8934), and was as unstable as
its object. Hence in dealing with human behaviour above all "we
must be content..., in speaking about things that are only for the
most part true and with premises of the same kind, to reach
conclusions that are no better...; for it is the mark of an educated
man to look for precision in each class of things just so far as the
nature of the subject admits. It is evidently equally foolish to
accept probable reasoning from a mathematician and to demand
from a rhetorician scientific proofs" (Nicomachean Ethics i. 3,
io94b 19-27). Opinion was open to persuasion, and persuasion
could likewise be turned simply to winning a case, for: "If you
have no witnesses on your side, you will argue that the judges
must decide from what is probable. . . . If you have witnesses and
the other man has not, you will argue that probabilities cannot be
put on their trial" (Rhet. i, 15, 13763 18-22).
By contrast with the pragmatic motives of politicians and
lawyers aiming rather at effect than truth, the first aim of persuasion in ancient philosophy was to persuade oneself. Some diverse
examples will illustrate the drive of ancient as of later analysis to
stabilize the uncertain by defining the limits and degrees of its
probability in comparison with the certain. Of particular interest
were the criteria offered by the Greek sceptic Carneades of Gyrene
by which to distinguish, in between the clearly true and the clearly
false, the limits and degrees of what could be known only as more
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neades would "prefer the probable and tested to the simply probable, and to both of these the presentation that is probable and
tested and uncontradicted" (Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 1.2.29). They "use probability as the guide of life" (ibid,
i. 231); and they held that in all natural inquiries it was by expert
observation that false arguments were detected: for "it is not the
dialectician who will expose them, but the experts in each particular art who grasp the connection of the facts" (ibid. 11.236).
For Carneades then as for most other ancient philosophers the
need for a method of probable argument arose from the uncertainty
not of natural causation but of our knowledge of it. It was only the
Epicurean "swerve" of atoms from their course "at quite uncertain
times and uncertain places" (Lucretius, Dererumnatura, ii. 218-9)
that introduced a systematic intrinsic indetermination into Greek
conceptions of the nature of things. Thus the Stoics in their debates with the sceptics resolved the evident contradiction between
the possible and the determined by agreeing that to designate a
realm of the possible implied no objective contingency, but designated only what seemed possible to us. Hence the meaning of
chance was simply "that chance is a specific relation of men
towards cause, and thus the same event appears to one as chance
and to another not, depending on whether or not one knows the
cause" (Alexander of Aphrodisias, De anima ii, "De fortuna":
Scripta minora, ed. Bruns, 1892, p. 179).
It was in the practical contexts of medicine and law that ancient
writers developed their criteria of probable judgement in most
detail. Cicero in his programme of making Greek philosophy available in Latin established probabalis as the technical term best
expressing the range of meanings in its Greek equivalents. No one
"could conduct his life without decisions". Hence the wise man,
when he could not have certainty, "employs probabilities
(Academica ii: Lucullus, 34.109-11). Then: "That is probable
(probabile) which for the most part comes to pass, or which is part
of the ordinary beliefs of mankind" (De inventions, i. 19.46). Arguments for probability came from signs, credibility, previous judgements, and comparability: "some principle of similarity running
through diverse materials" (ibid. i. 20.48). A powerful argument
used in both law and medicine was the convergence of evidence.
Faced with indications of murder "some one or two of these things
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369
370
371
372
373
plague, and venereal and other diseases,6 and with usury.7 Rules
were developed likewise for the exegesis of the Scriptural revelation.8 In all these diverse contexts the search for grounds for
tion, ed. E. M. Peters (Philadelphia, 1980); G. Henningsen, The Witches'Advocates:
Basque witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition, 1609-1614 (SanRemo, NV, 1980).
6. Cf. the sections by M. McVaugh on methods of diagnosis etc. in A Source Book
in Medieval Science, ed. E. Grant (Cambridge, MA, 1974), pp. 745-808, and also
the preceding sections on medical theory, pp. 700 ff ; K. Sudhoff, "Pestschriften aus
den ersten 150 Jahren nach der Epidemic des Schwarzen Todes 1348", Archivfur
Geschichte der Medizin, 2-17 (1909-1925), Aus der Friihgeschichte der Syphilis
(Studien zur Geschichte der Medizin, vol. IX; Leipzig, 1912); M. Neuburger, Geschichte der Medizin (Stuttgart, 1911), vol. II; A. C. Klebs et E. Droz, Remedes
contre la peste: Facsimiles, notes et liste bibliographique des incunables sur la
peste (Paris, 1925); A. M. Campbell, The Black Death and Men of Learning (New
York, 1931); D. P. Lockwood, Ugo Benzi: Medieval philosopher and physician,
1376-1439 (Chicago, 1951); P. Richards, The Medieval Leper and his Northern
Heirs (Cambridge, 1977); G. Baader und G. Keil, "Mittelalterliche Diagnostik: ein
Bericht", in Medizinische Diagnostik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, hrg, C. Habrich, E Marguthund J. H. Wolf (Munchen, 1978), pp. 135 ff.; J. AgrimieC. Crisciani,
Malato, medico e medicina nel medioevo (Torino, 1980); L. E. Demaitre, Doctor
Bernard of Gordon: Professor and practitioner (Toronto, 1980); S. Jarcho, The
Concept of Heart Failure from Avicenna to Albertini (Cambridge, MA, 1980); N.
G. Siraisi, Taddeo Alderotti and his Pupils: Two generations of Italian medical
learning (Princeton, 1981), and the next article in this volume; D. Palazzotto, The
Black Death and Medicine: A report and analysis of the tractates written between
1348 and 13 so (Ann Arbor, MI, 1980); D. Williman, The Black Death: The impact
of the fourteenth-century plague (Binghamton, NY, 1982).
7. Cf.}. T. Noonan, The Scholastic Analysis of Usury (Cambridge, MA, 1957),- J.
W. Baldwin, The Medieval Theories of the fust Price: Romanists, canonists, and
theologians in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, n.s. 49, part 4; Philadelphia, 1959); J. Gilchrist, The Church
and Economic Activity in the Middle Ages (London, 1969); B. Nelson, The Idea of
Usury, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1969); R. de Roover, La pensee economique des scolastiques: doctrines et methodes (Montreal, 1971), "The scholastic attitude toward
trade and entrepreneurship", in Business, Banking, and Economic Thought in Late
Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Selected studies, ed. J. Kirschner (Chicago,
J
974)/ PP- 336-45; J. Le Goff, Marchands et banquiers du moyen age, 2e e"d. (Paris,
1972); L. K. Little, Religious Poverty and the Profit Economy in Medieval Europe
(London, 1978).
8. Cf. H. Caplan, "The four senses of scriptural interpretation and the medieval
theory of preaching", Speculum, 4, part 2 (1929), 282-90; B. Spicq, Esquisse d'une
histoire de 1'exegese latine au moyen age (Paris, 1944); B. Smalley, The Study of
the Bible in the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1952); R. M. Grant, A Short History
of the Interpretation of the Bible, revised ed. (London, 1965); R. E. McNally,
"Exegesis, medieval", in New Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1967), vol. V,
707-12; G. W. H. Lampe, J. Leclercq, B. Smalley, E. I. J. Rosenthal, "The exposition
and exegesis of Scripture", in Cambridge History of the Bible, ed. P. R. Ackroyd et
al. (Cambridge, 1969), vol. II, 155-279,- The Bible and Western Culture, ed. W.
Lourdaux and D. Verbalist (Louvain, 1970).
374
375
rational pursuit of profit from any of its sources required thus both
personal enterprise and the habit of quantitative order, assisted
technically by the new commercial arithmetic and the new financial methods of double-entry bookkeeping and the bill of exchange.10 Bernardino of Siena in the fifteenth century advised
merchants, in a sermon, that if they were not assiduous in "subtly
estimating risks and opportunities, they are certainly not fit for
this business" (Sermo 33: "De mercationibus et artificibus . ..",
art.i,c.i,i427: Opera omnia, IV, 1956, p. 142). Merchants he insisted should be honest, should sell unadulterated goods with
correct weights and measures; and partners should settle up honestly at least once a year, and then go to confession (p. 143, cf.
i6i-2).u A merchant wrote his younger contemporary Benedetto
Cotrugli must above all estimate the future expectations guiding
his actions from a systematic record of past gains or losses, for:
"Mercantile records are means to remember all that a man does,
from whom he must take and to whom he must give, the costs of
wares, the profits and the losses, and every other transaction on
which a merchant is dependent. It should be noted that knowing
how to keep good and orderly records teaches one how to draw up
contracts, how to do business, and how to make a profit. A merchant should not rely on memory, for that has led to many misde 1'assurance maritime (Paris, 1968); F. Melis, Origini e sviluppi delle assicurazioni in Italia (secoli XIV-XVI) (Roma, 1975), vol. i.
10. Cf. A. P. Usher, "The origins of banking: the primitive bank deposit (12001600)", Economic History Review, 4 (1932-34), 399-428, The Early History of
Deposit Banking in Mediterranean Europe (Cambridge, MA, 1943); R. de Roover,
"Aux origines d'une technique intellectuelle: la formation et 1'expansion de la
compatabilite' partie double", Annales d'histoire economique et sociale, 9 (1937),
171-93, 270-98, Involution de la lettre de change (Paris, 1953), "The development
of accounting prior to Luca Pacioli according to the account books of medieval
merchants", in Business, Banking ... (note 7 above), pp. 119-79; E. Peragallo, The
Origin and Evolution of Double-Entry Bookkeeping: A study of Italian practice
from the fourteenth century (New York, 1938); F. Melis, Storia della ragioneria
(Bologna, 1950); R. S. Lopez, The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance (Charlottesville, VA, 1970), The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages, 950-1350 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971); Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade... (note 9 above),
PP- 359ffn. Cf. R. de Roover, San Bernardino of Siena and Sant'Antonio of Florence: Two
great economic thinkers of the middle ages (Boston, MA, 1967), especially pp.
13-14, "The scholastic attitude . .." (note 7 above), pp. 343-4; cf. M. G. Kendall,
"The beginnings of a probability calculus", Biometrika, 43 (1956), 1-14 for his
sermon on games of chance.
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
That scientific treatment of contingent expectation and uncertain choice had been transformed in concept and technique together by Pascal's aleae geometria, by Huygens's mathematical
expectatio, by the measure given in La logique of "la probabilite
qu'il arrive ou n'arrive pas" of an event as "geometriquement la
proportion que toutes ces choses ont ensemble"; and also by the
contemporary analysis in England and the Netherlands of life
expectancy was noted by the historically observant Leibniz. From
that viewpoint of explicit scientific recognition; the antecedent
and subsequent history alike of the calculus of expectation and
choice, both a priori and a posteriori, could be brought into intellectual perspective. Leibniz himself had looked independently for a
logic of degrees of probability for the contingent and the uncertain
first on the model of Roman jurisprudence. Turning then to
mathematics he came to look for a general calculus of inquiry
giving degrees of certainty according to the subject-matter, from
an ars combinatoria such as Ramon Lull had invented and more
recently Mersenne had used to calculate the possible combinations of a set of elements from which there could be realizations
in fact, whether of musical tunes or languages or natural events.
He seems to have brought together these two lines of inquiry only
after he had studied, in Paris during 1672-76, the treatment of
mathematical expectations a priori in games of chance by Pascal
and Huygens, and a posteriori in life insurances by Jan Hudde and
Jan de Witt and again by Huygens, himself then in Paris. Leibniz
aimed to develop an ample scheme of human knowledge in which
provision would be made for "a new logic for knowing degrees of
probability", an exact "art of weighing probabilities" (Leibniz to
Jean Frederic 1679, in Werke, hrg. Klopp, IV, 1865, pp. 422-23)
applicable to law and politics and medicine and the study of history and so on, "where one must come to a decision and take a
part even when there is no assurance" ("Nouvelles ouvertures",
Opuscules, par Couturat, 1903, pp. 225-27). Technical mastery of
this new style of scientific thinking was brought to its first maturity by Jakob Bernoulli in his Ars conjectandi (1713), concluding
in Part iv by "setting forth the use and application of the preceding
principles in civil, moral and economic affairs". In these and similar matters which we could not strictly know for certain, we had
to conjecture, and: "To conjecture about something is to measure
385
its probability; and therefore the art of conjecturing or the stochastic art (ars conjectandi sive stochastice) is defined by us as the art
of measuring as exactly as possible the probabilities of things with
this end in mind: that in our decisions or actions we may be able
always to choose or to follow what has been perceived as being
better, more advantageous, safer or better considered; in this alone
lies all the wisdom of the philosopher and all the prudence of the
statesman" (ibid. iv. 2).
In this truly seminal work Jakob Bernoulli identified problems
and offered solutions that were to guide inquiry for a century. The
new mathematical grasp of the regularities of numerical frequencies present in adequately numerous populations gave a mastery
of rational expectation and consequential action, within the limits
of errors both of events and of estimations, that was to be diversified thereafter into the varied subject-matters of nature and of
human society. Philosophical mathematicians and naturalists, in
their search for stable knowledge and reasoned decision, established through their insights, at once into the conception and into
the techniques of probable and statistical inference, both new
methods of scientific exploration and in the end a new economy
of nature. The term statistics appeared in this period in the traditional context of "civile, politica, statistica e militare scienza"
(Ghilini, Annali di Alessandria, "A'lettori lo stampatore", 1666) as
a comparative description of states, and the term was to retain also
that essentially descriptive meaning after it had been applied as
"statistik" as well to the numerical condition and the inferred
prospects of a society (Achenwall, Abriss dei neusten Staatswissenschaft. . ., 1749). It was under the different name of "political
arithemetick", supplied by William Petty (Political Arithmetick,
Dedication, 1690), that the new "application of mathematics to
economico-political matters" (Leibniz to Thomas Burnet i/n. ii.
1697, in Die Philosophischen Schriften, hrg. Gerhardt, III, 1887, p.
190) brought with it the first systematic collection of numerical
data made explicitly for the calculation of rates of change and
probabilities a posteriori, on which to base decision and action.19
From the numerical frequencies so discovered was then to come
the calculation, for any given moment, both of the individual
19. Cf. W. L. Letwin, The Origins of Scientific Economics: English economic
thought 1660-1776 (London, 1963).
386
387
388
389
390
Yet this could prove the perfection of providence: for "everything would be so ordered that a blind and necessary mathematics
executes what the most enlightened and free intelligence prescribed" (Maupertuis, ibid. p. 2,5). Thus, extending the Cartesian
mechanistic model from the biology of the individual organism to
the biology of populations, Maupertuis saw in the numerical proportions and the adaptations of living species to their needs and
environments, no longer the immediate operation of providence,
but the necessary generation of order out of chance and chaos by
the blind statistics of the least quantities required: varied birth and
selective survival. The economy of nature was not then a perpetual
pre-established harmony, but a shifting balance of perpetual trial
for survival or exclusion. The history of living things on the Earth
was a succession of states of dynamic equilibrium which had
generated through time the adaptive diversity that we now observed. This simple statistical principle he combined next with a
genetical hypothesis, giving to his "sketch of a system which we
have proposed to explain the formation of animals . . . only the
degree of assent that it deserves" (Venus physique, ii. 8, 1745,
Oeuvres, II, 130-1). Then:
Could we not explain by that how from only two individuals the multiplication of the most dissimilar species could have followed? They would
have owed their first origin only to some fortuitous productions in which
elementary particles would not have kept the order which they had in the
father or mother animals; each degree of error would have made a new
species; and by means of repeated deviations would have come the infinite
diversity of animals that we see today: which will perhaps go on increasing
with time, but to which perhaps the sequence of centuries will bring only
imperceptible increments (Systeme de la nature, xlv, Oeuvres, II, 148*49*)-
391
392
In this whole intellectual context we can surely see in the conception of an instantaneous real value developed from Halley to
Daniel Bernoulli and Buffon, with its immediate relevance to
economic life, a description likewise of the situation of a biological
species. It was Maupertuis who suggested to Daniel Bernoulli that
he should calculate the real advantage for mankind of inoculation
against smallpox. Considering the "total quantity of life" of a
sample born at the same time until the death of the last individual,
or the "average life" of each newborn child, Bernoulli offered a
theorem by which "we should decide whether to reject or to introduce inoculation for newborn children, in so far as we wished to
adopt the principle of the greatest utility for all mankind" ("Essai
d'une nouvelle analyse de la mortalite causee par la petite verole,
et des advantages de 1'inoculation pour la prevenir", 12, 14,
1760, pp. 27, 33, trans. Bradley, 1971, with changes). But the relative advantage for individuals had to be weighed against the risk
at every age, so that as d'Alembert pointed out "the interest of the
state and that of the individual should be calculated separately"
("Sur 1'application du calcul des probabilities a 1'inoculation de la
petite verole", 1761, p. 38).
Again Adam Smith saw in economic society a statistical
mechanism designed for an end which followed from "the order,
the regular and harmonious movement of the system, the machine
or economy by means of which it is produced" (Theory of Moral
Sentiments, iv. i, 1759, p. 348). Businesses in competition faced
the options of survival in various degrees or exclusion through the
statistical accumulation of gains or losses, or of transformation to
meet new circumstances. Competition stimulated structural and
technical innovation and expansion into new markets : for "increase in demand" for goods "encourages production, and thereby
increases the competition of the producers, who, in order to undersell one another, have recourse to new divisions of labour and new
improvements of art, which they might never otherwise have
thought of" (Wealth of Nations, 1776, ed. Campbell et al., V.i.e. 26,
1976, p. 748).
For individual or business or state, for part or whole, advantage
or disadvantage however marginal must accumulate with repetition and so with time must generate divergence. Laplace showed
that regularities hidden by the complexity of phenomena could be
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
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I'inoculation de la petite verole", Opuscules mathematiques (Paris, 1761),
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404
405
18
P.-L. Moreau de Maupertuis, F.R.S. (1698-1759).
Precurseur du Transformisme
I
408
409
410
411
412
et hors de la mere). En 1731, il publia un autre article excellent sur les differentes especes de scorpions15. II tait, en
effet, naturaliste de pure race, chose rare pour un math^maticien. Un ami decrivit sa maison a Berlin comme etant une
veritable menagerie, remplie d'animaux de toute espece, qui
n'y entretenaient pas la proprete. Dans les appartements,
troupes de chiens et de chats, perroquets, perruches, etc. II
fit venir une fois de Hambourg une cargaison de poules rares
avec leur coq. II etait dangereux quelquefois de passer a travers la plupart de ces animaux, par lesquels on etait attaque...
M. de Maupertuis se divertissait surtout a creer de nouvelles
especes par 1'accouplement de differentes races; et il montrait
avec complaisance les produits de ces accouplements, qui
participaient aux qualites des males et des femelles qui les
avaient engendres. J'aimais mieux voir les oiseaux, et surtout les perruches qui etaient charmantes 16.
Le meme ecrivain a decrit aussi comment M. de Maupertuis rassemblait avec beaucoup de peine et a grands frais
des animaux etrangers ou singuliers, pour observer leurs
allures et etudier en quelque sorte leur caractere .
II
413
ainsi expliquer a la maniere classique, le processus evolutionniste, de meme que Ton explique les mouvements des planetes
par la mecanique newtdnienne. En effet, pendant un siecle
environ, avant que, dans la deuxieme moitie du xixe siecle, la
theorie du transformisme ne soit generalement acceptee, beaucoup de biologistes se rendirent compte que bien des elements
militaient en faveur du processus historique, mais ils n'etaient
pas satisfaits des essais contemporains faits pour 1'expliquer17.
Dans un sens tres general, sans application particuliere a la
biologic, les explications evolutionnistes sont parmi les plus
anciennement connues de la science. Les premiers cosmologistes grecs ont cherche a montrer que toute la complexite du
monde que nous observons derivait d'un etat plus simple.
Mais, pour une raison ou pour une autre, de telles explications avaient passe de mode et une grande partie de 1'evidence de base par laquelle la theorie du transformisme organique s'etait renouvelee au xvnr siecle, fut, en effet, rassemblee par des biologistes qui ne la consideraient aucunement
en termes de transformisme. Au xvn* siecle et aux premieres
annees du xviii", le probleme le plus important pour les botanistes et pour les zoologistes, c'6tait d'elaborer un systeme
efficace de classification. Cela occupa tout biologiste d'importance (a part les physiologistes), depuis Belon et Cesalpino
au xvi' siecle, en passant par John Ray, Tournefort, Tyson et
d'autres, jusqu'k Linne, dont le Systema Naturae en 1735
resuma toute la serie des essais anterieurs 18. Dans le Syst&me
de Linne, les lignes principales de la classification moderne
des plantes avec la nomenclature binome se trouvaient etablies; la classification zoologique de Linn6 reussit moins bien
et il fallut la modifier considerablement plus tard. Mais ce
qui nous concerne le plus, ce sont les principes. Linne montra
comment mettre precisement en rapport logique avec tous les
autres, chaque espece, genre, ordre et classe, et comment
identifier un organisme inconnu, lui donner un nom, et le
mettre dans le Systeme de la Nature.
17. Cf. E. GtrrfNor, Les Sciences de la vie aux XVII" et XVIII" siecles,
Paris, 1941; P. G, FOTHERGILL,
Historical Aspects of Organic Evolution,
Londres, 1952; et pour1 une bibliographic excellente voir C.-C. GILUSPIE,
Genesis and Geology, Cambridge, Mass^ 1951, pp. 23 sqq. Cf. aussi
J.-T. MERZ, A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century,
Loadres, 1903, II, et E.-S. RUSSEL, Form and Function, Londres, 1916.
18. Cf. H. DAUDIN, Etudes d'histoire des sciences naturelles, Paris.
1926, I.
414
415
416
417
418
classique &*, et Robert Hooke, ail xvir siecle, avait signal^ que
1'histoire des fossiles montrait, selon son expression, qu'il y
a eu aux epoques anterieures beaucoup d'autres especes de
creatures, dont nous ne pouvons trouver aucun exemple
actuellement; et il se peut qu'il y ait actuellement beaucoup
de nouvelles especes, qui n'existaient pas au commencement S3. Buff on donna un premier compte rendu de la
succession de formes differentes dans les couches geologiques,
dans son Histoire de la Terre (1744), et une description plus
etendue, dans les Epoques de la Nature (1778).
L'evidence experimentale que des changements he're'ditaires
pouvaient avoir lieu dans 1'organisnie eiait attested par les
horticulteurs, en particulier par ceux qui cultivaient la fraise
et la tulipe (1'industrie des oignons hollandais commenc,ait a.
se developper), et par les eleveurs de pigeons et de chiens,
comme aussi par les anomalies humaines, telles que 1'albinisme chez les negres (un cas fut cite par Tyson34) et la
polydactylie.
Se basant sur tout cela, Buff on, en 1753, dans 1'article bien
connu de son Histoire Naturelle au sujet de L'Ane , donnait un aper^u brillant d'une conception ^volutionniste de
1'origine d'une meme souche de tous les animaux. Linne avait
classe le cheval (Equus cauda undique setosd) et 1'ane (Equus
cauda extreme setosa) comme deux especes du meme genre
(ou famille); pour Buff on, cela impliquait qu'ils devraient
avoir le meme parentage. Car, si Ton admet une fois qu'il
y ait des families dans les plantes et dans les animaux ,
ecrivit-il, que 1'ane soit de la famille du cheval, et qu'il n'en
differe que parce qu'il a degdnere, on pourra dire egalement
que le singe est de la famille de 1'homme, que c'est un homme
degenere, que l'homme et le singe ont eu une origine commune comme le cheval et 1'ane, que chaque famille, tant dans
les animaux que dans les vegetaux, n'a eu qu'une seule
souche, et meme que tous les animaux sont venus d'un seul
animal, qui, dans la succession des temps, a produit en se
32. Cf. P. DUHEM, Etudes sur Ldonard de Vinci, II, Paris, 1909, pp. 289,
307-8, 316-7, 323-4, 336-9; A.-C. CROMBIE, Avicenna's influence on the
medieval scientific tradition , dans Avicenna: scientist and philosopher, 6d. G. M. Wickens, Londres, 1952, pp. 97-99.
33. Robert HOOKE, A Discourse of Earthquake , Posthumous
Works, ed. R. Walter, Londres, 1705, p. 291.
34. Ashley MONTAGU, Edward Tyson, pp. 212-3.
419
420
421
422
423
424
de la disposition nouvelle, de sorte qu'apres quelques generations, la variete peut retourner au type normal49. Mais si
les facteurs qui produisent la variety continuent a f onctionner
pendant plusieurs generations, alors les particules donnant
de nouveaux assemblages, avec des souvenirs des nouvelles
situations, en viennent peu a peu a surpasser en nombre
celles propres a faire les traits originaires, de fa^on que la
variete soit etablie. Maupertuis suggera qu'on pouvait verifier cette theorie par 1'experience simple de trancher la queue
a des souris pendant plusieurs generations, pour voir s'il
serait possible de produire une race de souris sans queue. Les
particules de queue dans les liquides seminaux seraient peu
a peu reduits en nombre et finiraient par disparaitre.
Selon Maupertuis, les causes de ces nouvelles dispositions
de particules sont de deux sortes. D'abord, il y a des recombinaisons dans les liquides seininaux, produites par le
hasard , c'est-a-dire par certaines circonstances inconnues
fonctionnant dans les fluides mmes, dans lesquelles les
parties elementaires n'auroient pas retenu 1'ordre qu'elles
tenoient dans les animaux peres et meres 50.
D'autre part, des changements peuvent se produire du fait
du milieu, par exemple, par le climat, la nourriture, la mutilation. Etant donn6 la theorie de Maupertuis, les variationsvenant de ces deux causes seraient heritees. Parce que des
enfants negres nes de parents blancs se trouvaient incomparablement plus rares que des negres albinos, Maupertuis soutenait que le blane etait la couleur humaine primitive, et que
la chaleur de la zone torride fomenta les parties qui rendent
la peau noire 51. Un negre albinos etait ainsi un retour au
type primitif. Cette theorie tout entiere soulevait toutes les
difficult^s qu'il pouvait y avoir a accepter le recit de la
Genese sur la descendance de toute la race humaine partir
de deux parents originaux52.
Dans son Essai de Cosmologie et son Syst&me de la Nature,
Maupertuis se servit de cette theorie de Theredit^ pour donner
une explication generale de 1'origine des especes. Fai&ant la
supposition que de nouvelles dispositions des particules elementaires avaient eu lieu par le pass6 sans interruption, alors
dit-il : Chaque degr d'erreur aurait fait une nouvelle
49.
50.
51.
52.
Ibid.,
Ibid.,
Ibid.,
Ibid.,
pp. 119-21.
p. 148*.
p. 123.
p. 128.
425
426
427
428
19
430
Charles Darwin
431
432
Charles Darwin
433
434
Galapagos Islands in 1835." He was then twenty six. His attention, as he said later, was aroused by the way the animals and
plants varied slighttly from island to island of this group. In 1837
he opened his first note book on atransmutation of species*,11 and
wrote that the Galapagos species and the South American succession of fossils related to living forms were the origin of all his
views. In this note book he speculated optimistically on the unexplained phenomena evolution would be able to explain, and described the form of theory that would give the explanatory power he
was seeking. He shows that he was looking for a theory in which
the whole production of all past and present organic forms could
be shown to follow from given laws on the model of Newton's
theory of gravitation. This was before he had any clear idea of
what the laws of evolution might be. Thus he wrote : let attraction act according to certain law, such are inevitable consequences
let animals be created, then by the fixed laws of generation
such will be their successors*.12 These laws of change* would
then become the main object of study, to guide our speculations*.
Again and again in his writings he was to take Newtonian mechanics as the model for a scientific explanation. He had already
by 1837 connected the problem of extinction with that of adaptation. Then in 1838 he read Malthus on the pressure of population
against the means of subsistence. So, he concluded a famous autobiographical passage, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and
unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result would be the formation of a new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory with
which to work*.13 For the public he was writing at this time, in
the Journal of Researches, in terms of old concepts such as the
uniformity of action of the creative power* in producing similar
organisms in a given area.14
The prodigious labours in collecting facts to which Darwin
dedicated the rest of his life all stemmed from this new theoretical
source. Far from working ablindly*, without any theory* as
11. Life and Letters, ii. 5-8, i. 276; CHARLES DARWIN, Journal of Researches, London, 1839, pp. 474-5; Autobiography, p. 118; CHARLES DARWIN
and A. R. Wallace, Evolution by Natural Selection, ed. Sir. Gavin de Beer,
Cambridge, 1958, pp. 5-6, 25-26.
12. Life and Letters, ii. 9.
13. Autobiography, p. 120.
14. Journal of Researches, pp. 212, 469, 474,
Charles Darwin
435
436
Charles Darwin
437
difficult to see what the problems were than to solve them. 17 The
problem as he saw it was to make evolutionary theory quantitative
and predictive. Natural selection is still supported by far less
direct evidence than most contemporary physical theories. But few
biologists would deny its potential explanatory power. Not the
least part of Darwin's intellectual success was that he knew what
he was doing. Perhaps the most deceptive thing about his intellectual biography is that he reached his main conclusions so early.
He was fifty when the Origin was published, but he knew the
kind of evolutionary theory he wanted by the age of twenty-eight
and wrote out his first sketch of it at thirty-three.
20
440
science and of nature. We can trace this vision to the commitment of the
ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians and physicians, for whatever
reason, to the decision of questions by argument and evidence as distinct from
custom, edict, authority, revelation, rule-of-thumb or whatever else. In this
way they developed the notion of a problem as distinct from a doctrine, and
they initiated the history of science as the history of argument in a search for
principles at once of nature and of argument itself. They discovered two
fundamental principles from which the essential style of Western scientific
thinking has followed: those of exclusive natural causality, and matching that
of formal proof. The marvellous and fascinating scholarship which during
recent decades has so much enriched our knowledge of other major ancient
cultures has not, so far as I can see, revealed there a grasp of these principles,
whether in Babylon or Egypt, India or China, or Central America. They had
impressively ingenious and inventive technologies, including highly original
mathematical technologies as in Babylonian arithmetic and astronomy, in an
ambience of myths scarcely related to technical knowledge. In Western terms
they had no system of rational science.
The idea that the style of thinking arises from the intellectual and moral
commitments which provide the expectations, dispositions and memories of a
culture in an invitation to treat the history of science as a kind of comparative
historical anthropology of scientific thinking. This must be concerned before
all with people and their vision; we must learn to look at once with and into the
eye of the beholder. Styles of thinking and making decisions, established with
the commitments with which they began, habitually endure as long as these
remain. Hence the structural differences between different civilisations and
societies and the persistence in each of a specific identity, continuing through
all sorts of changes. It is an important question, as we look at the
westernisation of the globe, to ask at what levels general moral and intellectual
commitments are altered, and what remains the same.
Restricting the question to an historical anthropology only of Western
science, language is an indispensable guide both to theoretical ideas and to real
actions. Any language embodies a theory of meaning, a logic, a classification
of experience, a conception of perceiver, knower and agent and their objects,
and an apprehension of existence in space and time. We need to ask how
language conditioned scientific thinking and was in turn altered by it. We may
distinguish three levels: those of the structure of a language itself, of general
conceptions of the nature of things expressed in it, and of particular theories.
The language of causality for example is closely related to conceptions of
causality. It is hard to say which came first, but there is an obvious structural
conformity between the grammar of subject and predicate found in all
European languages, and the ontology of substance and attribute developed
most systematically by Aristotle. Aristotle's logic imposed on Western science
for many centuries a form of demonstration, relating cause to effect as premise
to conclusion, expressing this grammar and ontology of subject-predicate,
substance-attribute. His conception of causality was structural and non-
441
temporal and was focused on the definition, which explained both the
behaviour and the existence of something by its defining attributes. Parallel to
this the Greek mathematicians exploited the speculative power of geometry by
imposing upon the phenomena at once its deductive logic and an appropriate
geometrical model delineating for each its form in space. Thus they reduced
the phenomena of visual perspective to the properties of the straight line and
the angle, of astronomy to the properties of the sphere, of mechanics to the
relations of weights determined by the properties of the straight line and the
circle. They could then develop their immediate research into the phenomena
purely theoretically within the model itself. The geometrical conception of
causality was again structural and nontemporal, focused on space and place,
not on the sequence of events in time.
These conceptions, and specifically Aristotle's logic of subject and predicate, were to become a major obstacle to the medieval and early modern
natural philosophers and mathematicians of Latin Christendom who, in a
different intellectual context, came to develop a new conception of causality
based not on static structure by on rates of change. They came to express
causality in the language not of subject and predicate but of algebraic
functions, and they devised a new Latin terminology to express such
fundamental quantities as velocity, acceleration, instantaneous velocity, and
so on. These quantities were defined in the fourteenth century by mathematicians in Paris and Oxford, and their terminology was to be used by Galileo and
Newton. This new functional causality of classical physics related events as
sequences in time brought about only by contact or through a medium or field;
the disputed choice between these was based on wider ontological beliefs.
Starting with Roger Bacon causality came to incorporate a theology of laws of
nature laid down by the Creator: for as Dante put it 'dove Dio senza mezzo
governa, la legge natural nulla rileva (where God governs without intermediate the natural law has no relevance)' (Paradiso xxx. 122-3). Created law reestablished the stable predictability of nature within Hebrew-Christian
doctrine. Newton was to combine this theology with Euclid in calling his
fundamental dynamical principles 'axioms, or laws of motion' (Principia
mathematica). Such language clearly arises not from the interior of natural
science but from its intellectual context.
Must science in different linguistic cultures always acquire differences of
logical form, and must a language always impose its ontological presuppositions on the science developing within it? The technical language of science has
often been developed partly to escape from just such impositions, and to
detach a specific scientific meaning from misleading analogies coming from its
source in common vocabulary. The word current', wrote Michael Faraday, 'is
so expressive in common language that, when applied in the consideration of
electrical phenomena, we can hardly divest it sufficiently of its meaning, or
prevent our minds from being prejudiced by it' (Experimental Researches in
Electricity, i, London, 1839, p. 515). With the aid of William Whewell he
devised a new terminology to fit the exact context of electro-chemistry, for
442
21
Under this very general title I want to talk briefly about the relations between
medical science, the medical art of healing, and conceptions of disease. But
first it may be helpful to put this question within a much larger context of what
we may call a comparative historical anthropology of science and medicine,
focusing on people and their vision, and their circumstances both human and
physical.* The central history of science as I see it is the history of argument:
an argument initiated in the West by ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians and physicians in their search for principles at once of nature and of
argument itself. Of its essence have been periodic re-assessments, varying
considerably in different historical contexts, of its presuppositions about the
nature of what exists, about scientific cogency and validity, and about the
intellectual, practical and moral justification of the whole enterprise. Of its
essence also have been its genuine continuity, even after long breaks, based on
education and the study by any generation of texts written by its predecessors;
and its genuine progress both in scientific knowledge and in the analysis of
scientific argument with its various logical, experimental and mathematical
techniques. It has been a subtle historical question to assess what has
continued through different periods and societies and what has changed.
We can characterise the vision and the circumstances of people at different
times and places by what we may call their commitments. It is their intellectual
and moral commitments, involving their expectations, dispositions and
memories, that give to people their vision and their style of thinking and of
making decisions. We can distinguish two kinds of intellectual commitment in
the history of science:
1 Commitments to conceptions of nature and its knowability to man, within
the context of general beliefs about the nature of existence, and of man in
See A.C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition (London, 1994)
with 'Historical Commitments of biology', The British Journal for the History of Science, iii (1966)
97-108, 'Historical Commitments of European Science', Annali dell'Istituto e Museo di Storia delta
Scienza di Firenze, vii. 2 (1982) 29-51, 'Pari sur le hasard et choix dans 1'incertain' in Medecine et
probabilities, ed. A. Fagot (Paris, 1982) 3-41; and for various questions indicated below
Hippocrates, ed. W.H.S. Jones, i (London and New-York, 1923), P. Lain Entralgo , Mind and
Body: Psychosomatic Pathology (London, 1955), La Historia Clinica, 2nd ed. (Barcelona, 1961),
O. Temkin, 'The Scientific Approach to Disease: Specific Entity and Individual Sickness' in
444
445
these commitments, some given by nature, some made by man. Thus at the
level of nature there is historical ecology: the reconstruction of the physical
and bio-medical environment and of what people made of it, from both written
records and physical remains, as in striking recent work on palaeopathology,
palaeodemography, palaeobotany, and the history of climate.
Reconstruction at the levels of people and their vision requires the exegesis
of evidence including in its scope religion, law, politics and so on far beyond
simply scientific thought. At all levels historical questions demand in the
historian exact scientific and linguistic knowledge (as well as much else of the
intellectual, visual and other sorts of culture that mediate human experience)
to enable him to control the view of any present recorded through the eyes and
language of those who experience it.
It does not have to be demonstrated here that the road to understanding of
our human condition at any time, including the present, lies as much through
the study of history as through that of the nature and people immediately in
front of us. This is as true of scientific and medical thinking and practice as it is
of any other of our activities and habits. Styles and forms of thinking and
behaving become established with the commitments with which these began
and they persist as long as they remain. Hence the structural differences
between different civilisations, cultures and societies. Of course there is
development, change and occasionally revolution, but more often than not
retaining a structural similarity throughout from habit and education. One
may cite the persistent differences between China and Europe, and the
persistent similarities between Russia before and after 1917. Hence the need
for an historical dimension for a true perception of ourselves as human beings
in all our cultural diversity, and for an educated understanding of change itself.
This, like most human behaviour, begins in the mind.
I come now to medical science, medical art, and conceptions of disease. We
may start with the definition of medicine given in the Hippocratic Epidemics (i.
11): The art consists of three things: the disease, the patient and the physician.
The physician is the servant of the art. The patient must help the physician to
combat the disease'. The historian must study all three. They present the
subtle question of the relation of medical science to medical art, with goals that
are different, but intricately tied together.
Medical science aims through the analysis of its subject-matter at theoretical
understanding to be expressed in general statements. Since antiquity it has
been concerned with two main activities: (1) the observation and recording of
regularities of symptoms and their course through the duration of diseases:
this is found in the case-histories developed by Egyptian and Babylonian
physicians; but the whole method was transformed by (2) the search for
causes, introduced by the Greeks under the name of Hippocrates. The Greek
446
447
did others like Francois Broussais and some modern physicians dealing with
degenerative disorders and neuroses that diseases are abstractions and that it is
the patient who has to be treated.
It is the perception of the unique and responsible human individual that has
given rise to the ethical questions of Western medicine. People who saw their
lives within at once a physical and a moral cosmology took corresponding
attitudes to disease and calamity and choice of all kinds, stressing natural
causation or moral responsibility according to their beliefs. Job saw his
ailments within an entirely moral context and complained because, as a just
man, he should be so unjustly afflicted. In the ancient world there was an
immediate contrast between Greek medical thinking, which might reduce sin
to sickness, and Hebrew moral thinking reducing sickness to sin. This contrast
continued through the Christian middle ages, and it persists in some legal
attitudes to crime, and in the whole conception of diminished responsibility as
a pathological as distinct from a moral phenomenon. Boundaries have been
drawn differently in different periods and circumstances between the normal
and the abnormal: for example deaf-mutes were classified as imbeciles until it
was discovered by science in the seventeenth century that they were dumb
because they could not hear. Again personal attitudes to suffering and death
through illness, as to hard decisions like that of Thomas More which could lead
only to martyrdom, have differed fundamentally according to general beliefs
about human existence and its purpose. It made a difference whether the
prospect was Christian hope or simply extinction, and whether ultimate death
was of the body or of the soul.
It was through the form of argument and procedure developed through the
Hippocratic case-history, then the recognition of statistical regularities, and
eventually the clinical trial, that medical art and science found a way to come
together to relate individual illnesses to the general explanations reached by
scientific analysis. The Greeks remained purely qualitative in the regularities
they observed and the prognoses made from them. It was in the different
practical circumstances of the commercial expansion of late medieval Europe
that mainly Italian mathematicians began to grasp the idea of quantitative
expectation for such purposes as insurance and the division of profits. In the
seventeenth century Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens and Jakob Bernoulli
showed with great mathematical sophistication how, from the regular numerical frequencies present in adequate numbers of things, to stabilise uncertain
expectations as probabilities. This offered a new mastery of rational choice and
action in a whole range of subject-matters, from the sciences of nature to
commerce and politics. In medicine John Graunt in his Natural and Political
Observations . . . made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) set out explicitly the
fundamental discovery that statistical regularities appeared in large numbers
of things which were lost in small numbers. This was a phenomenon new to
science whose recognition came to transform scientific thinking. Starting from
the records of births and of deaths with their symptoms kept for London for
over half a century, Graunt arranged for a further regular recording of
448
information about all diseases and related data in the area, insisting that his
helpers should record only observed symptoms and other facts and should
ignore opinions, medical or otherwise. He saw that stable mortality rates, sexratios etc. could be translated immediately into approximate probabilities a
posteriori. This then provided for inferences in two directions: directly to the
probability of a possible event coming about, and conversely to the probable
causes of events already brought about. In this way he made an analysis of the
proportions of deaths in a population to be attributed to different causes,
distinguishing chronic or endemic diseases from epidemic diseases, and so on.
The next century and a half witnessed through the work of Buff on, Daniel
Bernoulli, Thomas Bayes, Laplace and many others an elaboration and
sophistication of statistical analysis and theory of probability without which the
quantitative study of disease would scarcely have been possible.
This began seriously with the institutional facilities provided by the modern
hospitals of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Here, by means of new
techniques of medical examination, quantitative data were accumulated for
describing individual illnesses in new and precise detail; by observing many
cases of the same disease standards and limits of normality were established;
clinical symptoms were related to physiology and pathology; a scientific
taxonomy of disease was developed. All this followed from a statistical
approach to the normal and the abnormal, and it led eventually to an
experimental approach to clinical science. The science and art of medicine
would scarcely be what they are now without the controlled therapeutic trial
for exploring the actions of drugs, and the statistical methods that have
revealed such hitherto obscure connections as that between smoking and
cancer. The essential scientific insight came here from R.A. Fisher's book The
Design of Experiments (1935).
I will conclude with three final historical questions. (1) The appearance of
disease as recorded historically must always depend on the eye of the
beholder: we must then examine the credentials, beliefs and methods of
observation of the witnesses who describe and identify diseases, as well as the
symptoms they describe. Likewise we must examine the eye of the modern
historian: we are inevitably alerted to phenomena of the past by current
interests, and that also we must monitor critically. The same applies to high
modern technology: could quantitative epidemiology itself invent diseases
existing only it its own results? (2) Our enthusiasm for medical science, with its
fascinating intellectual problems, can blind us to more mundane aspects of
medical history. For example the death rate in England, where full records
have been kept from the beginning of the eighteenth century, declined steadily
from that time, but the discoveries of causes of disease and the therapies
introduced over two centuries had no general effect on that steady decline
before the general use of sulphur drugs and antibiotics about fifty years ago.
The cause of the decline was not medical science but hygiene (town drains,
water supply), improved general nourishment, and public health. This might
have some bearing on some developing countries and groups in industrialised
449
counties now afflicted with AIDS. Like most aspect of human behaviour, the
problem begins in the mind. There is a case for making intensive studies both
of the historical ecology and of the historical anthropology of Africa, which
presents special problems for historical investigation because of the relative
lack of documentary evidence. (3) Lastly this: the self-critical European
tradition, which includes science and is unique among the cultures of the
world, has generated a capacity, albeit often uncertain, to see Western values
through alien eyes and all in comparison with each other. Hence Western
anthropology, and historiography of thought of many kinds and in many
contexts and periods. To do this is of course an immensely difficult exercise in
critical imagination, empathy and reasoning. We may the more easily grasp
other mentalities by exploring the scientific origins and development of our
own from the Greek search for principles at once of a subject-matter and of
argument about it. A true comparative intellectual anthropology must look
not only with, but also into the eye of the beholder.
22
452
453
454
The activist attitude that is essential to the research mentality, prepared not simply to contemplate knowledge gained from past writers but
to use it as a base for further advance, can already be seen in formation
in the writings of scholastic natural philosophers and mathematicians
such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Thomas
Bradwardine or Nicole Oresme. It was the motive behind the numerous
proposals for scientific method already characteristic of the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, as they were to become more abundantly of
the seventeenth. Moreover, Roger Bacon anticipated (with differences)
his namesake Francis in offering an analysis of the causes of error 9
and of the stagnation of science in contemporary Christendom, including
among the most important the neglect of mathematics and experimental
science 10 and the under-valuation of true learning. The low opinion of
7
loannes Saresberaensis; Metalogicon libri iv, iii-4, recognovit... C. C. J. Webb (Oxford, 1929).
The same remark is quoted by Alexander Neckam, De naturis rerum libri duo, i. 78, ed. T. Wright
(London, 1863); cf. R. Klibansky, Standing on the shoulders of giants, Isis , xxvi (1936) 147-98
Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, ii. 15, ed. J.H. Bridges, iii (London, 1900) 69-70.
Ibid., i.
10
Opus Majus, vi, De scientia experimental!, ed. Bridges, ii. On this cf. A. C. Crombic,
The relevance of the middle ages to the scientific movement, in Perspectives in Medieval History ,
ed. K. F. Drew and F. S. Lear (Chicago, 1963) 35-57, and with }. D. North, Bacon, Roger, in
Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York, in press); M Schramm, Aristotelianism basis and obstacle to scientific progress in the middle ages, History of Science , ii (1963) 104-9.
455
P. 51.
456
457
Cf. R. F. Jones, Ancients and Moderns, and ed. (St. Louis, 1961).
See J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress (London, 1920); Jones, op. cit.; H. Baron, Towards a
more positive evaluation of the fijteenthcentury renaissance, Journal of the History of Ideas , iv
(1943) 21-49, The ' Querelle ' of the Ancients and Moderns as a problem for renaissance scholarship,
ibid. , xx (1959) 3-22; V. I. Harris, All Coherence Gone (Chicago, 1949). Cf. G. Hakewill, An
Apologie of the Power and Providence of God in the Government of the World, or An examination
and censure of the common errour touching natures perpetuall and universall decay, 3rd ed., revised
and augmented (Oxford, 1635).
17
458
mentary and comprehensive, and they became the starting points for
disagreement as well as for development. Bacon stressed experiment and
utility; Descartes stressed mathematics and utility. This combination
provided the standard two-fold formula for future progress. Both writers used history, according to the commonplace repeated in Sir Walter
Ralegh's phrase, to teach by examples of times past, such wisdom as
may guide our desires and activities 18 . In both, the key to their conceptions of scientific method can be found in their view of the history
of science. In his peremptory references to the history of philosophy,
Descartes described how he found that only in mathematics, pure and
applied, had there been any grasp of truth 19 . His analysis of scientific
method was aimed at realizing the ideal of a universal mathematics
embracing all the sciences. Bacon went into the history of science much
more thoroughly than Descartes and offered the first detailed modern sociological and historical analysis of the conditions for, and causes of,
scientific progress and decline.
In the Advancement of Learning (1605) Bacon divided the study
of human history into three kinds, civil, ecclesiastical, and literary, each
with its own sources and problems. In his discussion of the third kind,
he set out a remarkable design for an intellectual history that would not
only include the origin and development of scientific thought in different
societies, but would also relate scientific progress and decay to the disposition of the people and their laws, religion and institutions. Bacon
had called for something which he found lacking in his time, a history
of the general state of learning to be described and represented from
age to age, as many have done the works of nature and the state civil
and ecclesiastical; without which the history of the world seemeth to
me to be as the statua of Polyphemus with his eye out; that part being
wanting which doth shew the spirit and life of the person.
He wanted something more than the small memorials of the schools,
authors, and books in the divers particular sciences and barren
relations touching the invention of arts or usages. What he wanted from
intellectual history, he wrote, was a just story of learning containing the
antiquities and originals of knowledges, and their sects; their inventions,
their traditions; their diverse administrations and managings; their flourishings, their oppositions, decays, depressions, oblivions, removes; with
the causes and occasions of them, and all other events concerning learning, throughout the ages of the world; I may truly affirm to be wanting.
The use and end of which work I do not so much design for curiosity,
or satisfaction of those that are the lovers of learning; but chiefly for a
18
19
History of the World, book ii, ch. xxi, 6 (London, 1614) 537.
Descartes, Regulae ad directionem tngfftii, iv; Discours de la methods, i.
459
more serious and grave purpose, which is this in few words, that it will
make learned men wise in the use and administration of learning 20 .
This was in effect a plea for the study of the history of science, and
characteristically, its conclusions were to be applied in contemporary
problems.
Bacon complained in the preface to The Great Instauration that
in the intellectual sciences there was no search for new knowledge. They
stand like statues, worshipped and celebrated, but not moved or advanced)). The mechanical arts had shown some progress, just because
they were by their nature in close touch with experience and practice.
Experiment, as he said famously, was essential for the a inquisition of
nature 21 ; it was the essential method of discovery; but in the past it
had not been properly conceived. In the Novum Organum (1620) he
described how, on the one hand, philosophers and men of learning had
failed to test their theories critically by a comparison with systematic
experiments and observations; whereas, on the other hand, the large
number of experiments made in the course of technological practice provided few of most use for the information of the understanding22. Philosophers had spun out general systems with too little reference to facts,
while mechanics were only interested in particular technical problems
and did not search for causes. Bacon believed that they should combine
their interests. His new experimental science was a method of acquiring
knowledge of causes, tested by designed experiments, that would provide
both explanations of nature and a rational basis for technology.
Bacon's analysis, in the Advancement of Learning and the Novum
Organum, of why science had not progressed in the past provided later
historians in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with their basic
views on the subject. He said that the sciences had fluorished during
only three short periods of history: among the ancient Greeks, among
the Romans, and, recently, among the nations of Western Europe. But
even in those relatively favourable periods scientific progress had not
been as great as it should have been. He gave several reasons for this.
Besides the lack of understanding of the experimental method and of an
effective approach to the ' inquisition of nature ', he emphasized the
lack of opportunity for a proper scientific education, of a scientific profession commanding proper respect and position, and of government
20
Francis Bacon, Advancement of Learning, book ii. See P. Smith, A History of Modern Culture, i (London, 1930) 255-7; H. Butterfield, The history of science and the study of history, Harvard Library Bulletin , xiii (1959) 329-47; P. Rossi, Francis Bacon: From magic to science (London,
1968).
21
Instauratio magna, in Francis Bacon, Worlds, collected and edited by J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis
and D. D. Heath, i (London, 1864) 126, 132, iv (1860) 14, 20; cf. Novum organum, i. 98.
22
Novum organum, i. 99; see i. 78-105.
460
461
ments in the arts and sciences. The scientific revolution was seen as the
most important part of the recent revival of the West. Is it not evident,
John Dryden wrote in 1668, not in a scientific work but in his Essay of Dramatic
Poesy, in the last hundred years (when the study of philosophy has been the
business of all the Virtuosi of Christendom), that almost a new Nature has
been revealed to us? that more errors of the school have been detected,
more useful experiments in philosophy have been made, more noble secrets
in optics, medicine, anatomy, astronomy, discovered, than in all those
credulous and doting ages from Aristotle to us? so true it is, that nothing
spreads more fast than science, when rightly and generally cultivated17.
During the second half of the seventeenth century and the first half
of the eighteenth, the new science radically changed the type of culture
of educated Europeans. It had been demonstrated that experimental and
mathematical analysis could solve interesting problems with useful applications. Theology and literary culture began to give way as dominant interests to a concern with the aims, methods, achievements, applications
and consequences of science. Science began to develop as one of the
learned professions, earning respect and sometimes reward, especially
in France where the government gave direct support. Scientists acquired
a new sense of solidarity among themselves. This is evident both in Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal Society, published in 1667 partly to
justify the policy of the Society,- and in the Eloges, obituary biographies
of great scientists of all nations, which Fontenelle wrote in the exercise
of the office of permanent secretary of the Academie des Sciences, which
he held from 1699 till 1741. Fontenelle popularized the scientific movement; books on botany were written for young ladies and on mathematics for the general public; Voltaire created literary events with his
exposition of English empirical philosophy and science in his Lettres
philosophiques, or Lettres sur les Anglais (1734), and with his exposition
of Newton's natural philosophy. Leading writers on many subjects
Locke, Hume, Vico, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot, Condorcet, Goethe studied science seriously and explored the possibility of extending
its methods, the only sources of certain knowledge, to all aspects of human life, behaviour, and history. Just as science had discovered the fixed
laws of nature, so they would try to discover those governing human behaviour and the progress and decline of civilizations. And just as scientific knowledge could be applied in technology, so they wrote history not
simply to interpret society but also to change it.
27
See P. Smith, A History of Modern Culture, 2 vols. (London, 1930-34); L. M. Marsak, Bernard de Fontenelle: the idea of science in the French Enlightenment, Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society , n. s. xlix. 7 (1959); above n. 17. Cf. W. Wotton, Reflections upon Ancient
and Modern Learning (London, 1694).
462
It was these interests and attitudes that initiated the first detailed
studies of the history of science, and of science as part of civilization. A
history of medicine by Daniel Le Clerc published in 1696 is an early
example of the Baconian analytical approach to intellectual history in a
particular science. There is, he wrote, abundance of difference between a History of Physick, that is, a collection of all that relates to their
persons, the titles, and number of their writings, and a History of Physick, that is, to set forth the opinions of the Physicians, their Systems,
and Methods and to trace step by step all their discoveries.... This History ... is obliged to penetrate into the very soul of every age, and every
Author; to relate faithfully and impartially the thoughts of all, and to
maintain everyone in his right, not giving to the Moderns what belongs
to the Antients, nor bestowing upon these latter what is due to the former;
leaving every body at liberty to make reflections for himself upon the
matters of Fact as they stand related"28.
Leibniz followed Bacon in proposing the writing of a history that
would include science, literature and religion as well as politics29. In 1751,
in the Preliminary discourse of the Encyclopedic, D'Alembert wrote:
The metaphysical exposition of the origin and of the liaison of the
sciences has been of great use to us in forming the encyclopaedic tree;
the historical exposition of the order in which our sciences have followed
one another will be no less advantageous in enlightening us on how to
transmit these sciences to our readers 30 . The next year, 1752, saw the
publication of Voltaire's Siecle de Louis XIV, followed in 1756 by his
Essai sur les moeurs et I'esprit des nations, written to convince his friend
Madame du Chatelet, the translator of Newton's Principia into French,
that the study of history could be as interesting as that of mathematics
and natural science and could give rise to principles of equal importance31. In these works Voltaire set out to give an example of history
written en philosophe, to discover the causes of progress and decline and
to teach by the results. One of his greatest achievements was to replace
the picture of world history guided by the hand of providence, as presented by Bossuet, by one in which events were explained by natural
causes. His contemporaries Maupertuis and Buff on were doing the same
28
D. Le Clcrc, The History of Physic^, Author's preface (London, 1699); ist ed., Histoire de
h medecine (Genevre, 1696). See F. N. L. Poynter, Medicine and the historian, Bulletin of the History
of Medicine , xxx (1956) 424; cf. W. Pagel, Aristotle and seventeenth-century biological thought, in
Science, Medicine and History , essays in honour of Charles Singer, i (Oxford, 1953) 509.
29
G. W. Leibniz, Sdmtliche Schriften, hrg. von der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
I Reihe, i (Darmstadt, 1923) 91, 103 (1670).
30
Cf. Smith, op. cit., ii, 250 sqq.
31
See Voltaire's introduction to the Siecle de Lotus XIV; his La philosophic de 1'histoire ,
printed as an introduction to the Essai; and his Remarques pour servir de supplement a 1'Essai ,
i-iii, xvii.
463
for the history of nature, of the earth and its plant and animal inhabitants through geological time32. Voltaire's basic theme was a survey of
European civilization from the time of Charlemagne to his own day, but
in pursuing his analytical objective he cast the civilization of Europe
against the background of world history. His account included a description of the history of the arts and sciences, religion, politics and commerce, populations and social structure, geography, climate and natural
resources of ancient Egypt, Babylon, Greece and Rome, India and China,
and of the life of savages, for comparison with the history of Europe.
Science had provided him with a model of analytical and comparative
methods of investigation; in return, he included in his comparative history of civilization a description of the history of science and technology.
Other historians in the second half of the eighteenth century, notably
Hume, Robertson, Gibbon and Condorcet, gave similar recognition, albeit sometimes peremptory, to the influence of science and technology
in history. The same period saw the appearance of specialized histories
of particular sciences. The publication of J. E. Montucla's great Histoire
des mathematiques, in fact a history of the physical sciences, in 1758 was
followed by other works of varying value including Joseph Priestley's
histories of electricity and optics and J. S. Bailly's history of astronomy33.
At the end of the century and in the early nineteenth century the succession
continued with the historical writings of Laplace, Cuvier, Thomas Young,
Delambre and, later, of Guglielmo Libri and William Whewell. Auguste
Comte now succeeded Francis Bacon as the formative influence on the
historiography of science34.
But by this time the general character of historiography had changed: it had become more accurate, but also more restricted. The eighteenth-century historians whose outlook had been formed by the intellectual revolution of early modern times may have seen history in the mirror of their own aspirations. They drew from the new science their model
of rational investigation; in repaying their debt, by making the history
32
See Bury, above n. 17; A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (Cambridge, Mass. 1936);
A. C. Crombie, P. L. Moreau de Maupertius, F. R. S. (1698-1759), precurseur du transformisme, Revue de synthese , Ixxviii (1957) 35-56; B. Glass, O. Temkin, W. L. Straus, jr. (editors), Forerunners of Darwin: 1745-1859 (Baltimore, 1959); J. Roger, Les sciences de la vie dans la pensee franfoise
du XVIII* siecle (Paris, 1963). For the parallel interest in the history of nature and the history of
mankind cf. R. Hooke, A Discourse of Earthquakes , Posthumous Worfa, ed. R. Waller (London,
1705) 291, 334, 426-7, 433-6; Fontenelle, Histoire de I'AcadSmie Royale des Sciences, Annee 1710
(Paris, 1731) 22; Button, Les Epoques de la nature, ed. critique, par J. Roger (Paris, 1962); A. C. Crombie and M. A. Hoskin, The scientific movement and the diffusion of scientific ideas, in New Cambridge Modern History , vi (Cambridge, 1969) 60-71.
33
Cf. Bailly, Lettres sur I'origine des sciences, et sur celles des peuples d'Asie, addresses a M.
dt Voltaire (Londres et Paris, 1777).
34
Cf. A. Comte, Cours de philosophic positive, i, Premiere lec.on (Paris, 1830); W. Whewell,
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2nd ed., ii (London, 1847) 320 sqq.; J. S. Mill, Auguste Comte
and Positivism, 2nd ed. (London, 1866) 6-8; Bury, op. cit., ch. 16.
464
23
David C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in
Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450 (The University of
Chicago Press, 1992).
466
467
468
discovering natural affinities. The fifth style, probabilistic analysis of contingent expectation and uncertain choice, was also broached qualitatively by
Greek logicians and physicians and Roman lawyers faced with making
decisions with incomplete but probable evidence, and it reappeared in
medieval treatments of similar cases. It was quantified practically in the fifteen
and sixteenth centuries in dealing with insurance and other commercial
questions, and theoretically in its two forms, analytic and synthetic, in the
seventeenth century. At the same time came the explicit discovery of a new
kind of regularity, the statistical regularities in adequately numerous populations of economic, medical and other events. Lastly, the method of historical
derivation, or the analysis and synthesis of genetic development, was again
used first by the Greeks in application to human cultures and civilisations,
before being appropriated in early modern Europe for the evolution of
languages, of the Earth, and then later of living organisms. The subject-matter
of historical derivation was defined by the diagnosis, from the common
characteristics of diverse existing things, of a common source earlier in time,
followed by the postulation of causes to account for the diversification from
that source.
Each style then defines the questions to be put to its subject-matter, and
those questions yield answers within that style. A change of style changes the
questions put to the same subject-matter, as the Aristotelian analysis of
motion in a qualitative taxonomy of causes was replaced, from the fourteenth
to the seventeenth century, by its analysis into quantitative functional
relations. Thus each style of questioning can exclude others, a point made
vigorously in this example by Galileo. But usually different styles are
combined in any particular research. Each style introduces a specific conception of causality, and hence the fundamental differences in the physical worlds
envisaged by geometrical postulation, but qualitative taxonomy, and by the
quantified mechanistic and the probabilistic conceptions of nature. Each style
again introduces new questions about the existence of its objects in nature as
distinct from their being products of its methods of abstraction, classification,
measurement, sampling and so on, or of its language.
Lindberg's survey is very different from the kind of intellectual analysis just
outlined. He begins his sketch of ancient science, occupying about a third of
the book, with a rapid conventional run through Greek ideas from Homer and
Hesiod to Plato and Aristotle. He rightly indicates that the fundamental
questions for Greek philosophy were those of the nature of the identity
persisting through change, causality, the structure of the cosmos and its
relation to its first cause, and the nature and knowability of that cause. No
sensible historian is likely to disagree with the statement that the 'proper
measure of a philosophical system is not the degree to which it anticipated
modern thought, but its degree of success in treating the philosophical
problems of its own day.' (p. 67), but similar remarks dotted through the book
seem to anticipate a fairly uneducated audience. Next come a brief account of
Hellenistic natural philosophy with some interesting references to ancient
469
470
471
studies of them by John North. Also missing in a book making the claims of its
subtitle is any reference to Dante. Coming to the physics of the sublunar
region, after a few pages on matter and alchemy, Lindberg reaches the
fundamental studies of his mentor, and his mentor's mentor, on the fundamental science of motion. This is well described in a few pages on the conception of
motion in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, its mathematical
representation, and dynamics and its quantification.
Next comes the science of optics on which Lindberg himself has published
good work, especially on the pinhole camera. The essential sources were
Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy and Alhazen, with for the eye also Galen, and the
essential medieval authors were Roger Bacon and Witelo. The study of the
history of optics were pioneered by Vasco Ronchi, and that of medieval optics
by myself, followed by A.I. Sabra, Lindberg, Stephen Straker with his
fundamental Kepler's Optics (1971; Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980) and 'Kepler,
Tycho, and the "Optical part of astronomy": The Genesis of Kepler's Theory
of Pinhole Images' in Archive for History of Exact Sciences, xxiv (1981) 267-93,
and later by others. Ronchi made his mistakes, as who does not, but he
established the field in which we have all worked and put us all in his debt, just
as Pierre Duhem did for medieval science in general. I note that Lindberg does
not cite me in his section on medieval optics. This is a mistake, because my
original monograph (1967) on the subject which he used is well known and is
now readily available in my collection Science, Optics and Music in Medieval
and Early Modern Science (London, 1990), and my more recent study,
'Expectation, Modelling and Assent in the History of Optics: i, Alhazen and
the Medieval Tradition; ii, Kepler and Descartes', has a direct bearing on some
of Lindberg's controversial opinions, especially on Kepler's relation to the
medieval tradition. This long article was published in Studies in History and
Philosophy of Science, xxi (1990) 605-32, xxii (1991) 89-115 and is reprinted
above, ch. 16. The last chapter of any substance is an account of medieval
medicine and natural history written under the guidance mainly of Nancy
Siraisi and Michael McVaugh. On the latter subject a strange omission is the
classic work of Agnes Arber on herbals, and more recently there are the
original and indispensable studies of the manuscript tradition by Evelyn
Hutchinson, Wilma George and, as further evidence of activity in the field, by
the contributors to Die Kunst und das Studium der Natur vom 14. zum 16.
Jahrhundert, herausgegeben von W. Prinz und A. Beyer (Weinheim, 1987).
Lindberg has missed the opportunity offered by this book to develop a
systematic historical study of important themes showing the character of
scientific thinking in particular contexts and its changes. For example, his
references to experiment are minimal, even though this is a subject of lively
and serious discussion by medievalists such as myself, Jole Agrimi and Chiara
Crisciani, and others. There is no reference at all to Pierre de Maricourt and
his systematic experimental investigation of magnetism, to be respectfully
acknowledged by William Gilbert. The well designed systematic experimental
investigation of the rainbow by Theodoric of Freiberg, with a telling use of
472
models, is mentioned in three lines without any indication of the experimentation but only as offering 'an explanation very close to the modern one' (p. 253;
no reference in the attendant footnote to my basic analysis in my Robert
Grosseteste and articles in Science, Optics and Music). This questionable
judgement entirely misses the opportunity to point out the change of scientific
style between Theodoric and Descartes. The change involved the fundamental
structure of scientific thinking and in the object of scientific inquiry. Theodoric
looked by an Aristotelian taxonomic analysis for the necessary and sufficient
causal conditions defining a particular phenomenon. Descartes looked for a
general quantitative law from which this and other such phenomena could be
quantitatively deduced.
Another example is the general question of quantification in medieval
physics. Theodoric gave a false figure for the maximum elevation of the
rainbow, which Roger Bacon had reported correctly from measurements with
an astrolabe. There is no reason to doubt that Bacon's contemporary Witelo
(only a passing reference by Lindberg) carried out original experiments which
he described showing the production of colours by refraction through
hexagonal crystals and spherical glass vessels filled with water, but there is
every reason to doubt whether he made his alleged experimental measurements, like those of Ptolemy, correlating angles of incidence and refraction (as
I pointed out in my Robert Grosseteste, pp. 223-5, and in my article of 1961 on
quantification reprinted in Science, Optics and Music, p. 79). Why was there
such manifest indifference to actual measurement? As I showed in this article,
we must look at the context. Physics as developed from Aristotle in the
universities, even the powerful procedures for representing qualitative change
quantitatively leading to new sciences of kinematics and dynamics, required no
reference to experiment or measurement in its internal logic, nor was this
imposed by external professional or practical pressure. Experiments in the
academic context were made in the mathematical scientiae mediae, notably
optics, or in the realm of natural magic like magnetism. Accurate measurements were made when they were required by practical need as in astronomy.
In my article I showed by comparing the treatment of three quantities, time,
space and weight, in the academic context and in that of the practical arts, that
it was practical demand that produced consistent measurement.
The penetration of causal physics by the concepts of the mathematical
scientiae mediae profoundly affected the whole structure and style of scientific
thinking. This is evident in the influence of the Timaeus in the twelvth century;
in the distinction by Grosseteste between the primary mathematical properties
of matter and the secondary sensory qualities they produced in us; and in the
conceptual shift in the fourteenth century that moved the object of inquiry
away from the definition of natures to the discovery of relations between
quantities expressible by what became algebraic functions. Corresponding to
this was the use of the term laws of nature (leges naturae) by Roger Bacon in a
scientific sense for the laws of reflection and refraction, with the notion of a
universal nature constituted by such laws (Science, Optics and Music, pp. 68-9,
473
77-8,148-50). In the end from Galileo onwards it was within the mathematical
middle sciences that physical problems were formulated, so that the certification of their conclusions by measurement came to yield there, and not in the
traditional conception of causes, the only true science of nature that could be
discovered.
It is a serious omission, both for understanding the scientific thinking and
for relating it to its cultural context, to exclude from a book like this a
discussion of the practical rational arts. The ingenious mechanism sketched in
the thirteenth century by the architect Villard d'Honnecourt, the mechanical
clock itself, the planetaria of Richard of Wallingford and Giovanni de' Dondi
in the fourteenth century, and many other devices, were all rationally designed
to facilitate the control of movements and the representation of quantities, the
last two by academic men. Scientific instruments, notably in astronomy, were a
product of the intercourse between theory and practice. Mechanisms also
provided analogies for scientific theory, as they did for Jean Buridan and
Nicole Oresme in likening the created world to a clock set going by God. At
the end of the fourteenth century the universities went into decline and the
leaders in original thought and action became a different group, largely outside
them, of what Leonardo Olschki called artist-engineers. Their expertise lay in
the rational control of materials, processes and practices of all kinds, from
painting to music, from architecture to machinery, from cartography and
navigation to accountancy. They brought about a general transformation of
European intellectual life. An obvious example is the control of visual
representation by means of the linear perspective invented by Filippo
Brunelleschi at the beginning of the fifteenth century and explained by Leon
Battista Alberti in his Depictura (1435). The analogy of artificial devices used
to explain and apply perspective in painting came later to transform the science
of vision. As I have shown in my article on Alhazen and Kepler (1990-91)
mentioned above, using Straker's excellent account of the camera obscura,
Alhazen in his brilliant geometrical model of ocular physiology did not make
the reception of the forms of visible objects in the eye a purely geometrical
inanimate process, as it was in inanimate transparent bodies, but a process
modified geometrically by the sensive power in the receptor. Kepler, by taking
the inanimate camera obscura as a true model of the eye, made ocular
geometry a purely physical process and, by separating this from the questions
of sensation and perception that had confused the issue since antiquity,
demonstrated the formation of the image on the retina. Certainly, as Lindberg
likes to insist, Kepler used his knowledge of existing optical theory in making
his analysis: what else? His solution required a radical conceptual change,
facilitated by the innovations and the innovative mentality of the rational arts.
Aspects of this subject are well presented in three recent books: Science and
the Arts in the Renaissance, edited by John Shirley and David Hoeniger
(Washington, D.C., 1985), The Science of Art by Martin Kemp (Yale
University Press, 1990), and The Heritage of Giotto's Geometry: Art and
Science of the Eve of the Scientific Revolution by Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr.
474
475
476
But when all is considered, the science of Galileo, Harvey and Newton was not
the same as that of Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus and Buridan. Not only were
their aims sometimes subtly and sometimes obviously different and the achievements of the later science infinitely the greater; they were not in fact connected by
an unbroken continuity of historical development. . . .
Apart from anything else, the enormously greater achievements and confidence of the seventeenth-century scientists make it obvious that they were not
simply carrying on the earlier methods though using them better. But if there is
no need to insist on the historical fact of a Scientific Revolution in the
seventeenth century, neither can there be any doubt about the existence of an
original scientific movement in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The
problem concerns the relations between them.
477
been given to it, not a rhetorical travesty. Since I seem to figure prominently in
this comedy, I have quoted some of my own continuing thoughts on the subject
above. Koyre greatly illuminated our understanding of Galileo, and much
else, by his brilliant demolition of the older image of Galileo as primarily
rather a dedicated experimenter than a theoretician, but he was not himself
much interested in experimental science and he misinterpreted Galileo's
attitude to experiment. I have discussed this in my articles 'Galileo Galilei: A
Philosophical Symbol' (1956) and 'Alexandre Koyre and Great Britain'
(1987), reprinted above, chs. 12,13. The history of the historiography of any
subject can be of profound and valuable interest for historians, and one of the
most interesting perceptions of it can come from the intellectual and social
contexts of knowledge and beliefs and prejudices within which the historical
vision of scholars like Duhem and Koyre developed. But that is beyond the
range here. Lindberg terminates his book with a list of medieval scientific
achievements somewhat different from the one I published in Augustine to
Galileo (1959), but coming to the same rather obvious conclusion: something
continued, something changed. The truly dramatic cultural change brought
about with the emergence of the new mentality of the Renaissance man of
virtu, the rational artist designing the control of all his thoughts and actions,
between the scholastic natural philosophers and the seventeenth century
rational experimental and mathematical scientists, is not noticed. Is this a
'landmark book' as the publisher claims on the back cover? I hardly think so. It
misses the lively innovative thought and research into the subject that has
continued since Federigo Enriques, Marshall Clagett and I and others
published our early books, and indeed to which some of us continue to
contribute. But it is written by a distinguished scholar who is also an
experienced teacher, and it will offer a valuable introduction to many
interesting aspects of the beginnings of Western science.
Postscript
H.F. Cohen, in his eccentric The Scientific Revolution (Chicago, 1994) 105-10,
153, manages to characterize me in a way similar to the above (p. 476), citing
Koyre on me but not me on Koyre (as above chs. 12, 13, cf. also ch. 1), and
referring to nothing published by me after 1963. This has some bizarre
consequences. He writes that "in the early eighties, William Wallace (roughly
simultaneously with Adriano Carugo and Alistaire Crombie) established a
direct link between Galileo and previous thought on nature through the Jesuit
Collegio Romano" (pp. 109-10; cf. 281-2, 573 n. 99). Everyone familiar with
this subject knows that Carugo discovered this link first during 1969-71
through Pereira and Toletus, then in 1975 through Carbone, that I discovered
in 1971 the link through Clavius, and that we gave this information to Wallace
in 1972: see above ch. 9 and ch. 10, n. 11 with Appendix (a), and my Styles of
Scientific Thinking . . . (1994) 549-51, 766 nn. 165-6, with for historiography
Part I, pp. 3-89 of this work.
Appendix to Chapter 10
(a)
480
Rome at the end of the previous year, exchanged some letters with him about
the demonstrations he had given in his theorems on centres of gravity (Opere,
x, 22-30; cf. above n. 17). Clavius suspected in these quotpetitur principium,
and perhaps also in Archimedes. Galileo explained more precisely. Clavius
remained unconvinced. The correspondence was entirely mathematical, with
no reference to logic or to Delia Valle or any other Jesuit, as was that
contemporaneously on the same subject with Guidobaldo del Monte (x, 2536). There is no evidence for any discussion of logic. The petitio principii is
evidently catching.
Since our paper was published Carugo has made a thorough examination of
the two massive volumes of Delia Valle's Logica and compared it with
Carbone and Galileo. He has written to me with his new conclusions as
follows:
I found no evidence that either was in any way dependent on Delia Valle.
Although similar questions were discussed by all three, as well as by many other
contemporary authors both in print and in manuscript (contrary to what we
believed in 1983; above p. 169), using the same stereotyped terminology, there is
no textual correspondence between either Carbone or Galileo and Delia Valle.
Beyond that there is positive evidence that Delia Valle could not have been the
source for Galileo. Focusing on questions treated by both, in particular the
praecognitiones, the species demonstrationis and the regressus, I found that Delia
Valle drew extensively from, and actually plagiarized, Zabarella's logical tracts
on these topics, frequently reprinted from 1586. For example:
Zabarella, Opera omnia, (Venetiis
1600): 'Liber de speciebus demonstrationis',
Appendix to Chapter 10
tertium, cui ambo insunt, sive a quo
ambo negantur; et causa ipsa
remota erit terminus medius, effectus maior extremitas, subiectum
vero minor extremitas . . .
"Liber de speciebus
demonstrationis",
Cap. xix: "In quo ostenditur etiam
respectu nostri nullam demonstrationem notificare propter quid est,
quin notificet etiam quod est."
(p.333).
481
482
Zabarella's detailed and subtly argued analysis of the mental process called
negotiatio intellectus or mentalis consideratio, by which the cause discovered
through the first phase of the regressus (demonstratio quia) becomes known
perfectly and precisely and can thus constitute the starting point of the second
phase (demonstratiopropter quid), was closely followed and often copied almost
word for word by Delia Valle:
Zabarella
'Liber de regressu', Caput iv: 'In
quo declaratur qualis sit in regressu
primus processus etc.' (pp. 350351).
Vallius
Quaest. 2: 'Quid sit regressus
demonstrativus et quomodo fiat',
Caput iii: 'Ostenditur qualis sit processus in demonstratione quia, quae
est prima in regressu.' (pp. 344345).
Cum duplex possit esse rerum cognitio, altera confusa, altera distincta; et utraque possit esse vel in
causa vel in effectu.
Effectum quidem tune distincte cognoscere dicamus quando cognosciumus ilium per cognitionem causae,
quando vero cognoscimus sine hoc,
confuse; et haec cognitio confusa
vocatur quod est, alia vero propter
quid, in qua simul etiam cognoscimus quid est.
Datur tamen causae qui que cognitio turn confusa, turn distincta: confusa quidem, quando ipsum esse
cognoscimus, sed quidnam sit ignoramus; distincta vero, quando cognoscimus etiam quid sit et ipsius
naturam penetramus.
Appendix to Chapter 10
Exemplum aliquod nobis proponamus, in quo ipsam regressus
naturam melius inspiciamus . . .
Sumamus demonstrationem Arist.
in lib. I Physicorum, qua ex generatione, quae substantiarum est,
ostendit materiam primam dari ex
effectu noto causam ignotam:
generatio enim sensu nobis cognita
est, subiecta vero materia maxime
incognita.
Qualis sit regies us facile intelligemus: id quod otime explicat Zabarella exemplo desumpto ex Arist. in
lib. I. Phys. ubi ex generatione,
quae convenit substantiis, ostendit
materiam primam dari. Ex effectu
omnibus noto, qui est generatio,
investigat existentiam materiae nobnis ignotissimae, quae est illius
generationis causa.
Caput v: "Quod facto primo processu non statim regredi ad effectum possumus, sed mediam
quandam considerationem interponi
necesse sit" (p.351-354)
Hanc intermediam intellectus considerationem aliqui vocant negotiationem intellectus, alii mentalem
examen. . .
483
Zabarella goes on to explain what this mentalis consideratio is and how it takes
place by examining in detail two examples of regressus taken from Aristotle. He
claims that nobody else has ever explained it in the same way. Delia Valle also
refers more briefly to the two Aristotelian examples of regressus examined by
Zabarella and adds this remark: 'Quae duo exempla ex Aristotele desumpta
explicat Zabarella Cap. 4, 5 et 6 de regressu, ubi audit se primum advertisse et
explicasse artificum Aristotelis in his duobus locis et regressibus, ab aliis antea
non animadversum' (p. 345). In Galileo's autograph the question 'An detur
regressus demonstrativus' is discussed without mentioning either Zabarella or his
explanation of the mentalis consideratio. Something corresponding to the latter is
484
Carugo's new work disposes of speculation that Delia Valle could have been
a source of Galileo's MS 27. In 1988 Wallace published with the Universita di
Padova a volume entitled ' Tractatio de praecognitionibus et praecognitis and
Tractatio de demonstration, transcribed from the Latin autograph by William
F. Edwards, with an introduction, notes and commentary by William A.
Wallace' (Padua 1988). From his preface we learn that Edwards had made an
incomplete transcription some years before which he had made available (see
also Wallace in the Times Literary Supplement, 3 January 1986, p. 13). Before
that Wallace had already used Carugo's transcription of MS 27 for his Galileo
and his Sources. He had now in his possession one complete and one seemingly
partial transcription. The relation between them will not be discussed here. It
is regrettable that Wallace's wild conjectures, repeated here, should be
mistaken for established facts by some, even if happily only very few, scholars
unfamiliar with the documentary evidence, including that in the Edizio
Nazionale, and with critical scholarship. Thus Anthony Grafton in his recent
review in Isis (Ixxx iii, 1992, p. 656) of the 1988 volume writes uncritically that
Wallace 'has redated' the logical essays in MS 27 'to the years 1589-1591', and
'identifies their ultimate source, convincingly, as a transcript or reportatio of
one of the courses in logic held at the Collegio Romano', then 'pinpointing the
course that Galileo probably used: that of Paulus Vallius'.
Wallace's principal objective, since we informed him of Galileo's use of
Jesuit textbooks for his scholastic essays on logic, cosmology and natural
philosophy, seems to have been to show that Galileo's Jesuit sources were
different from those which we have identified. Thus in his Prelude to Galileo he
wrote (omitting any reference to our information) that, following his article
'Galileo and the Thomists', his own 'subsequent research . . . has revealed that
the physical questions' (i.e. the Tractatus de alteratione et de elementis) 'are
based . . . on reportationes of lectures given by Jesuit professors at the Collegio
Romano around the year 1590' (p. 181). What Wallace has in fact shown is
nothing of the kind about either the content or the date of Galileo's essays, but
simply, in laborious detail, that these successions of lecture notes from the end
of the 16th century have general similarities in content and organization among
themselves and with Galileo's scholastic writings. This we might expect if they
were all based on the same Jesuit textbooks. But there are no specific
Appendix to Chapter 10
485
Cf. Michael Sharratt, Galileo: Decisive innovator (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994) 47-60,
226-8, for a scholarly account of these questions, refreshingly contrasting with the
neoscholastic axe-grinding, ideological posturing, and omissions currently plaguing too
much of the Galileo industry.
486
Appendix to Chapter 10
487
Tractatus de elementis and also for falling bodies in De motu gravium (above
pp. 220-3; and see Carugo, 'Les Jesuites et la philosophic naturelle de Galilee:
Benedictus Pererius et le De motu gravium de Galilee', History and Technology, iv, 1987, pp. 321-33). He used Clavius's Sphaera for the Tractatio de caelo
and again for his account of the 'horizontal plane' of the Earth in De motu
gravium, a question recurring in the Dialogo (Opere, vii, 174 sqq.; above pp.
221-2, cf. 177-8,226-7). He used Clavius yet again and another work by Pereira
for his dated Lettere a Madama Cristina (1615), and, as Carugo has informed
me, he drew from Giovanni Giorgio Locher, Disquisitiones mathematicae de
controversiis et novitatibus astronomicis (Ingolstadt, 1614), the formulation of
traditional arguments against the motion of the Earth discussed in the Dialogo
(1632).
Galileo's changes back and forth between Copernican and traditional
cosmology are an object lesson in the dangers of trying to link his undated with
his dated writings. In 1597 he defended Copernicus against Mazzoni and
claimed to Kepler, characteristically congratulating him for having avoided 'a
perverted method of philosophizing', that he himself had come to accept
Copernicus 'many years ago' but had not dared 'until now' to bring his
arguments into the open. A few years later in 1604 he assumed the traditional
cosmological arrangement to assert an explanation of the new star scarcely
compatible with his mathematical refutation of Mazzoni. Again in his Trattato
delta sfera, despite his reference to Copernicans, he assumed the old
cosmology. In the undated Tractatio de caelo he explicitly refuted Copernicus,
while in De motu gravium he cited him once on another subject but assumed
the geocentric cosmology throughout and made it explicit in the final draft of
the introduction (above pp. 176-8, 222-3). We cannot then draw any
conclusions about dating from this series of contradictory opinions presented
in the same assertive style, not even that Galileo could not have written De
motu gravium during his public campaign for Copernicus which opened in
1610. It seems clear that he composed the parts forming this work over a long
period, but for how long remains a problem. In several parts of De motu
gravium (Opere, i, 254-7, 269-72, 350-2) he applies to the motion of falling
bodies some theorems on floating bodies that he had first conceived early in
1612, when he reworked an account, drafted late in 1611, of an experimental
and philosophical dispute on floating bodies into the mathematical, experimental and philosophical treatise published in the summer of 1612 as the
Discorso (iv, 69). Again, as noted by Carugo, one of the writings De motu
gravium (i, 297-8) contains a mathematical demonstration of the motion of
bodies on inclined planes which was based on a theorem ascribed to Viete sent
by Giovanni Battista Baliani to Galileo in 1615 (xii, 186-8; above pp. 224-5).
Yet again, in these writings (ii, 261-6) there is a draft of the correct analysis and
definition of the accelerated motion of falling bodies, which Galileo first
published in the Discorsi (1638; viii, 197-8; cf. above pp. 226-7). Since there is
no mention of this in the Dialogo (1632), where Galileo makes a point of
informing the reader of his most interesting results concerning motion, should
488
we date this draft after 1632? As already shown above (pp. 225-6), the
Dialogo, planned in 1624-25, was linked with De motu gravium and the
scholastic essays on cosmology and natural philosophy both through the
fragmentary notes in MS 46 and through their common use of Jesuit sources. If
we must accept that MS 27 was written after 1597, is it absolutely impossible
that the essays in MS 46, with their links with Galileo's earlier interests at Pisa,
were written before that date? What about the passages in MSS 27 and 46 for
which no sources have come to light anywhere? Perhaps they all come from
some undiscovered Jesuit compendium hidden in some library?
'Far from it being true that he spoke with scorn and little respect of the
ancient philosophers, and particularly of Aristotle, as some of those who
profess to be his followers foolishly and wrongly assert', wrote Niccolo
Gherdardini, who had known him, 'he said only that this great man's way of
philosophizing did not satisfy him, and that there were in it fallacies and errors'
(Opere, xix, 645; see above ch. 9, p. 149). He defined his position in two letters
to Fortunio Liceti shortly before his death. 'I believe . . .' he wrote on 15
September 1940 'that to be truly a Peripatetic, that is an Aristotelian
philosopher, consists principally in philosophizing in conformity with Aristotelian teaching, proceeding with those methods and with those true suppositions
and principles on which scientific reasoning (discorso) is based, supposing
those general notions from which deviation would be the greatest flaw. Among
these suppositions is everything that Aristotle taught in his Dialectics (i.e.
Posterior Analytics), taking care to avoid fallacies of reasoning, directing and
disciplining it to syllogize well and to deduce from the admitted premises the
necessary conclusion; and such doctrine concerns the form of arguing directly.
With regard to this part, I believe that I have learnt from innumerable
advances in pure mathematics, never fallacious, such certainty in demonstration that, if not never, at least extremely rarely, have I in my arguments
fallen into equivocation. Here then I am a Peripatetic' (xviii, 248). Galileo was
confirming here his lifelong adherence to the conception of truly scientific
demonstration set out by Aristotle in the Posterior Analytics and most
perfectly examplified in mathematics (cf. above ch. 9, below ch. 13). He went
on in a letter of January 1641 to insist that, concerning the content as distinct
from the the form of natural philosophy, he was far from being a Peripatetic.
Natural philosophy, as he had said so often before, was not 'what is contained
in Aristotle's books', but rather 'I truly hold the book of philosophy to be that
which stands perpetually open before our eyes; but because it is written in
characters different from those of our alphabet, it cannot be read by everyone:
and the characters of such a book are triangles, squares, circles, spheres,
cones, pyramids and other mathematical figures, fittest for this sort of reading'
(xviii, 295). As his old friend Mazzoni had declared and he had illustrated in all
his mature investigations: 'Aristotle, from failure to apply mathematical
demonstrations in the proper places, has widely departed from the true
method of philosophizing' (above p. 197). Galileo himself failed to understand
that the criterion of range of confirmation as the test of a theory, which he so
brilliantly used, put an end to the possibility of reaching in natural philosophy
Aristotle's epistemological goal of necessary apodeictic demonstration (cf.
above ch. 9, p. 161).
(b)
490
dedicated to the supreme head of the Church; it was revised by those who are
responsible for the protection of true faith and who, by approving it, must also
have thought of the way to remove such a scruple' (National Edition, Volume
VI, page 486). On the other hand, Galileo was quick to point out, Grassi had
encountered the opposition of the Jesuits themselves over having his own book
printed in Rome and had to publish it abroad, in Paris, as Galileo wrote
'without his superiors' permission' ('senza licenza dei superiori').
Later on Galileo must have had some scruple himself, for in January 1628 he
wrote to his Benedictine friend Benedetto Castelli in Rome to ask him to
inquire of Padre Riccardi, Maestro del Sacro Palazzo, whether he was taking
Grassi's objections seriously. Castelli assured Galileo that Padre Riccardi was
on his side: 'He said that your opinions are not against the Faith, since they are
merely philosophical . . . and he intends to help you if any trouble should be
caused to you in the Tribunal of the Holy Office' (XIII, 393). The question was
never raised again in Galileo's correspondence, nor is it mentioned in any
other document in the National Edition.
The new document found by Redondi, which is an anonymous assessment of
Galileo's atomism in relation to the dogma of transubstantiation, and is
addressed to an unnamed Padre (possibly Padre Riccardi himself), throws
further light on this episode in Galileo's life. As such it constitutes an
interesting and important addition to the National Edition, but that is all.
As for 'Why the Church really quarrelled with Galileo', as announced on the
front page of the TLS, the unique issue of Copernicanism is unequivocally
documented in the records of the trial. There is no other doctrinal issue there,
but there was a disciplinary issue concerning Galileo's behaviour in breaking
his promise formally made in 1616 to Cardinal Bellarmine 'not to maintain,
teach, or defend in any way, in words of writing', the Copernican opinion.
Urban did not know of this promise, neither had Galileo informed him, when
in 1630 he gave Galileo permission to publish a dialogue discussing nonconclusively the philosophical and physical arguments for and against both the
Copernican and the Ptolemaic systems. This permission was given on
condition that the book was published in Rome with the imprimatur of the
Maestro del Sacro Palazzo. Because of the plague Galileo decided to have it
printed in Florence, and in order to start this he asked Riccardi to send him a
formal imprimatur on condition that he sent Riccardi the proofs sheet by sheet
for final approval. Galileo did not send the proofs except for those of the
preface and conclusion. The Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo
was published in 1632 in Florence with Riccardi's imprimatur, which applied
only in Rome, together with a second imprimatur from the Florentine
Inquisitor. When the Pope received his copy he was furious. The documents do
not state explicitly why. The first Commission which he appointed to examine
the case discovered among the earlier records that of Galileo's promise to
Bellarmine. The trial proceeded from there.
It seems to us that, like many complex and influential historical events, the
trigger was probably something accidental and even trivial, namely Urban's
Appendix to Chapter 10
491
irritation at the apparently deceptive way in which Galileo had manipulated his
permission to publish his book. Rivers of inky imagination have dramatized
this event in ways that distort the real intellectual importance of its
consequences. Recent writing on seventeenth-century history has been
plagued, notoriously by the neo-puritan, neo-Marxist persuasion, with supposititious 'reasons of state' and other hidden motives behind the plain
evidence of the documents. It would be a pity if Galileo studies were to go the
same way.
(c)
'It is in the royal interest to keep everybody suspended between fear and hope'
(p.20). The author of the contemporary handbook on court manners under
absolute princes quoted here went on to describe 'how the natural instability of
favour is in the interest of the powerful' (p.325), how the successful competitor
for 'the fruits of servitude' under princely patronage was permanently exposed
to danger from mutations of princely interest of which he had neither intimate
understanding nor control, and how on falling 'from the summit of favour one
does not descend through the same steps which lead to the top. Often nothing
stands between one's highest and lowest status' (p.327). The fallen favourite
could not comprehend what he had done wrong; he found himself shunned by
former friends at court; he did not just lose his privileges but had to be
humiliated. The mythology of the system required that the princely patron
possessed everything that he could possibly want. He received gifts, as he
provided favours, by pure grace. Yet in fact both sides needed the other, the
one for the benefits acquired, the other in order to manifest the honour and
power on which his position rested. The problem for the ambitious client lay in
the asymmetry of a relationship in which the prince alone had the power and
could demand unlimited service and honour without any obligations. It is
within a fascinating account of this courtly system that Mario Biagioli places
the second and most celebrated half of Galileo's long scientific career.
Galileo seems to have embarked in 1601 at the age of thirty-seven on the
strategy that would enable him to escape from his position as a mathematical
professor at Padua into an enhanced status at court. Along this social
trajectory he constructed what Professor Biagioli calls 'a new socioprofessional identity for himself (p.5) as a philosopher creating at once a new natural
philosophy and an audience for it. After some false starts with his military
compass presented to the Gonzaga at Mantua, and an adroitly flattering
emblematic play on the words cosmos and Cosimo II equating the attractive
power of the ruling Grand Duke of Tuscany with that of William Gilbert's
Appendix to Chapter 10
493
great cosmic magnet, he hit upon the right formula with his discovery of
Jupiter's four satellites early in 1610. By getting permission to call these the
Medicean stars and to dedicate the Sidereus Nuncius describing them to the
Grand Duke, he obliged this prince to endorse his discoveries. Since, he wrote
in his preface, 'under Your auspices, Most Serene Cosimo, I discovered these
stars unknown to all previous astronomers' (p. 132), they should rightly have
his family name. His reward was his invitation back to Florence as the Grand
Duke's chief mathematician and philosopher, a privileged entry into the world
of the court. Galileo particularly requested that his title should include
philosopher as well as mathematician, and this raises the interesting question
of when and how he acquired his quite considerable knowledge of Aristotle.
Certainly it was not as a student at Pisa, but some light may be thrown by the
discovery some years ago by Adriano Carugo and myself that three unpublished essays in his hand on Aristotelian logic, physics and cosmology were
based on well known textbooks written by, or associated with, Jesuit
professors at the Collegio Romano. These (despite some unhappy American
publications on the matter) cannot be dated by any known evidence, except
that, as we have shown, the logical essay cannot have been written before
1597. Since Galileo's earlier interests were essentially in mathematics and its
applications, it could be that his philosophical studies were part of his strategy
of 'self-fashioning as a court philosopher' (p. 11).
Besides this crucial move to the Florentine court, Biagioli gives detailed
treatment on the same sociological lines of some further important episodes in
Galileo's life: the dispute in 1611-13 over floating bodies which involved the
fundamental difference between Aristotelian and mathematical (here Archimedean) physics; the transfer of his patronage focus to Rome; the dispute in
1619-28 with the distinguished Jesuit Orazio Grassi over comets to which
Galileo contributed his brilliantly dialectical // Saggiatore (1623); and the
publication of the Dialogo (1632) on cosmological systems, followed by his
trial.
The whole book makes interesting reading, despite its frequent repetitiveness, and it was a good and original idea to locate Galileo within the world of
the courts, of which Biagioli gives so learned an account. Thus 'Galileo is
presented not only as a rational manipulator of the patronage machinery, but
also as somebody whose discourse, motivations, and intellectual choices were
informed by the patronage culture in which he operated throughout his life'
(p.4). He insists that Galileo's science was not 'determined by these concerns
. . . Power does not censor or legitimate some body of knowledge that exists
independently of it' (p.5). For all that he asserts repeatedly that Galileo's
position and title as court philosopher was 'a crucial resource for the
legitimation of Copernicanism and mathematical physics' (p.49); that this
connection 'gave Galileo credibility' (p.58); that 'Galileo's strategy was aimed
at legitimizing scientific theories by including them in the representation of his
patron's power' (p. 125); that his recognition by the Medici 'allowed him to
become even more credible and draw further assent to his discoveries from
494
others' (p. 133). Galileo certainly knew what he was doing in getting court
patronage, both in Florence and in Rome, to support his scientific work and his
personal career, but while he was a master of all the arts of rhetoric, persuasion
and political manoeuvre, he certainly did not confuse the presentation and
acceptance of his discoveries according to the manners of courtly culture with
their credibility to his scientific peers. Court culture was irrelevant to scientific
knowledge. Confirmation of the reliability of the telescope and of Galileo's
discoveries made with it were requested by Cardinal Bellarmine from the
competent Jesuit mathematicians at the Collegio Romano, and by the
Emperor Rudolph II and the Medici ambassador from Kepler. They knew
what they were doing. You cannot cheat nature was a favourite of Galileo's
aphorisms, however much you may cheat your fellow men; and in the margin
of the Dialogo: 'In the natural sciences the art of rhetoric is ineffective' (Opere,
vii, 78; cf. below ch. 11).
I had a sense in reading Professor Biagioli's reconstructions that Galileo and
his contemporaries and disputes were being translated from 17th-century Italy
into the world of 20th-century transatlantic sociology. Anthropological
comparisons across cultures far apart in time and place may indicate certain
constants of human behaviour, but may abstract these from recognizable
distinctions of different cultures and from the individuality of real people. For
all that the exercise can be illuminating, as in Biagioli's plausible, though not
necessarily credible, interpretation of Galileo's fall from Papal favour. 'I do
not hope for any relief, because I have not commited any crime', Galileo wrote
on 21 January 1635 to Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc, who had been trying through
the Pope's nephew Cardinal Francesco Barberini to get some relaxation of
Galileo's house arrest at Arcetri. 'I could hope for and obtain mercy and
pardon if I had erred, for faults are matters upon which a prince can exert
mercies and dispensations, whereas upon someone who has been innocently
condemned it is convenient to be rigorous, so that it seems that it has been
done according to the law' (Opere, xvi, 215). Galileo certainly knew the score,
even as a fallen favourite.
p. vii, ch. 12: for Theory and Change read Theory Change.
p. xvii: Science, Art and Nature 1995, Styles of Scientific Thinking 1994.
p. 24, para. 3, line 9: "overweening".
p. 29, para 3, line 3: "assertion".
p. 55, Fig. 1 caption line 7: for "respectively; the rays" read "respectively, the
rays".
p. 117, line 2 from bottom: for "local" read "logical".
p. 195, Fig. 17 caption line 4: after "ends" add "(labelled in reverse in MS)",
and line 7: after "with" add "the".
p. 228, Fig. 33 is printed upside down: see Fig. 49.
p. 258, line 3 from bottom: for "(1986)" read "(1983)".
p. 417: Further references were inadvertently omitted and will be found in the
present volume at the ends of chapters 13 and 14.
Index
Alexandria (city) 70
Alfarabi, Abu Nasr 59, 79, 96
Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) 55, 56, 132,
292, 336
, critics 331, 333, 334
, and history of optics 76, 305-17, 323,
326-7, 471, 473
, , model of eye 38
, , Optica 316, 319
, visual theories 304, 325, 327-8, 329,
354-5
Alkindi (Al-Kindi) 55, 305
Alphonsine tables 62
Ambrosian Library of Milan 175, 187,
288
America see United Sates
anatomical research 278, 320, 334
'Ancients and Moderns' 36, 453, 454,
460-1
Anglicus, Robertus 60
animals:
, and albinism 421
, antelope 288
, ass 418, 420
, chickens 412, 421
, dogs 418
, monkeys 418
, and origins of language 278, 280, 282
, pigeons 418
, salamander 411
, scorpion 412
antelope 288
antibiotics 448
Apollonius 341-2
Apuleius, Lucius 357
Aquinas, St Thomas 77, 81, 126, 183-4,
228
498
Index
Augustine, St (Augustine of Hippo) 69,
72, 127, 469, 470
, and expectation and choice 368
, and hearing 292
, on laws of nature 69, 72-5, 77
, and origins of language 276
, and Platonism 139
, and providential creation 27, 33
Augustine to Galileo (Crombie) 475-6
Avempace 153
Averroes 79, 126, 153, 189, 191
epicycles & eccentrics 181-2, 183
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 56, 76, 79, 190
Avignon 125
Babel 109, 276, 279
Babylonian astronomy 86
Bach, J. S. 427
Bacon, Francis 211, 258, 387, 454
, and expectation and choice 379-80,
383
, and history of optics 343
, and intellectual reform 17
, and new science 35, 36, 279, 459
, and scientific revolution 456, 457-60,
463
, and universal language 278
Bacon, Roger 276, 278, 471
, biography
, , birth, date of 51
, , family background 51
, , education 51, 54
, , and Franciscan order 52, 53
, , imprisonment 53, 61
, , last written work 53
, on alchemy 57, 63
, analytical skills of 58
, on astrology 52, 54, 58, 60-1
, and astronomy 54, 58, 61
, and benevolent destiny 27
, and calendar reform 58, 61, 62, 63
, and causality 441
, on church reform 53
, on experience 53-4
, and geography 59
, on geometry 58
, and Grosseteste 39, 47, 52, 55, 56,
61
, and language 51, 52, 56, 276
, on mathematics 52, 54, 56, 60, 97
, , and logic 59
, , usefulness of 58
, nature, and laws of 75-7, 472
, optics 52, 54, 55, 56, 63, 292
499
500
Index
Catena, Pietro 117
Catholicism 135, 166
, see also belief and doubt; Creator;
God; theology
causality 68, 71, 455, 459, 466-7
, language of 440-1
cause and effect 86, 446
Cavalieri, Bonaventura 118, 226, 485
Ceredi, Guiseppe 102, 132, 212, 301, 302
Cesi, Frederico 223, 226
chance, games of 381, 382, 384
Charles, E. 51
Charles V, King, of France 82
Charron, Pierre 167
Chatelet-Lomont, Gabrielle Emilie,
Marquise du 462
Chaucer, Geoffrey 81, 469, 470
Chiaramonti, Scipione 244, 245
chickens 412, 421
Children's Crusade 54
Chillingworth, William 380
Chinese medical practice 446
Chinese and origins of languages 278,
283
Christian moral theory 99
Christian theology 5, 72, 79, 99, 469
, and Aristotle 22, 151, 470
Christianity and cosmology 27
church reform 36, 53, 456
, see also belief and doubt
Cicero, Marcus Tullius 51, 127, 455, 469
, and expectation and choice 366-7
Cimabue, Giovanni 34, 453
Cimento, Academia del 118
, see also colleges and universities
Clagett, Marshall 477
Clarke, Samuel 408
classical languages 118
classification of species 413
Claudius Galius 129
Clavelin, Maurice 270
Clavius, Christopher 119, 122, 132n, 182
, on astronomy 155, 177, 178
, and calendar reform 62
, Galileo visits 156, 175, 479
, and influence on Galileo 176, 181,
194, 269-70
, and influence on Possevino 128, 131
, and mathematics 119-21, 122, 196,
198, 216
, and MS Galileiana 27, 479, 480
, and optics 326-7
, and science 181-3, 184, 185, 187
, and telescope 217
501
502
Index
d'Este, Cardinal Alessandro see Este,
Cardinal Alessandro d'
destiny, benevolent 27
determinism 22, 79
Dialogue (Galileo) 210-11
Diderot, Dennis 417, 427, 461
digestive system 111
Digges, Leonard 63
Dini, Piero 185
Diodati, Elie 271
, and undated writing of Galileo 225
disease 372, 372-3, 443-9
, AIDS 449
, records 386, 386-7
, smallpox 392
Disputationes (Galileo) 187-95
dissection 420, 433
dogs 418
Dominican order 53
Dondi, Giovanni de' 82, 473
Doni, Giovanni Battista 271, 272
Drake, Stillman 149, 161
Dryden, John 461
du Chatelet, Madam see ChateletLomont, Gabrielle Emilie, Marquise
du
du Laurens, Andre 298
Duhem, Pierre 37, 38, 132n, 257, 471
Duns Scotus, John 47
Diirer, Albrecht 99, 132, 320, 332
Duverney, Joseph Guichard 299
dynamics 180, 185
Earth, planet 160, 179
, movement of 183, 184-5, 470, 487
, orbit of 181
, radius of 60
Eastwood, Bruce 465
eclipses 52, 329-30
ecology 7
economy 16, 22, 392
Edgerton, Samuel Y., Jr 473
education 115-40
, arts/natural science 118
, in astronomy 115, 117
, classical languages 118
, history 118
, literature 118
, logic 118
, mathematics 118-40
, metaphysics 118
, moral science 118
, oriental languages 118
, physics 118
503
, theology 118
, see also colleges and universities
Edwards, William F. 484
Elizabeth I, Queen of England 62
Empedocles 391
empiricism 262
Engels, Friedrich 394n
engineering 23, 58, 96-7, 106, 320
England 35
, and calendar reform 62
, Peiresc travels to 286
, see also Great Britain
English philosophy 452
enlightenment 35
Enriques, Federigo 477
Epee, Charles Michel de L' 285
Epicurus 69
epicycles and eccentrics 181-2, 183, 184,
185
Erasmus 36, 455
Este, Cardinal Alessandro d' 254
ethics, Aristotelian 16
Ethiopia 288
Euclid 122, 123, 131, 132, 175, 486
, on acoustics 96
, and geometry 16, 17, 96, 217, 432-3,
469
, and logic 369
, and mathematics 96, 161, 196, 200
, and music 18, 293, 295
, and optics 55, 302-3, 305, 308, 471
, , and perspective 46, 137
, , treatise on 18
, andProclus 101, 175
, on ratios 58-9
, and science, language of 441
, and scientific argument 95
Eudoxus of Cnidus 68, 467
Euler, Leonhard 410
European groups and origins of
languages 278
European interest in medieval history 37
ever-burning lamps 57
evolution 22, 398, 407, 412, 428, 429-37
, see also Darwin, Charles; natural
selection; transmutationof species
evolution and the ass 418
expectation and choice 357-400
experience 53-4
experimental method 257
experimental philosophy 258, 262
experimental science 89-114, 467, 471
explosive powder 57
eyes 303-17, 319-28, 329, 333-42, 344-55
504
Index
, and correspondences with Carbone's
texts 169-72, 479
, and cosmology 23, 80, 155, 167, 177
, and court patronage 492-4
, and dynamics 185
, Earth, on motion of 184-5
, on epicycles and eccentrics 185
, and expectation and choice 383
, and experimental enquiry 258, 262
, and experimental physics 206-7
, on gravity 104
, on heat and light 219, 489
, and Koyre's understanding of 26770, 477
, letters 488
, , to Baliani 208
, , to Carcavy 208
, , to/from Castelli 211, 490
, , to Dini 185, 486
, , to father 198, 486
, , to/from Liceti 216-17, 229
, , to Mazzoni 198, 486
, , to Mazzoni/Kepler 176-7
, , to Vmta 179, 486
, and light 215
, and mathematics 118, 196, 197, 198,
212
, , his interest in 173, 217
, Mazzoni, studies with 486
, and mechanics 23, 103, 185, 212-13
, and moon 106
, and music 103, 219
, and natural philosophy 23, 139-61,
167, 208, 213, 267
, and new star of 1604 177
, and optics 217, 343
, meets Peiresc 286
, on pendulum 179, 208, 279-3, 485
, pendulum ratio, and discovery of
270-3
, and philosophy 179, 257-62, 486
, and properties/qualities 218
, and Redondi's document 490
, and rhetoric 6, 180-1, 216, 231-55,
494
, and science 20, 35
, science, and language of 441
, on science and nature 165-229
, and scientific revolution 456
, and scientific style 270, 468
, on sunspots 211
, , First Letter 87, 150, 180, 186,
215, 216
, , Second Letter 213
505
506
Index
'Historical Commitments of European
Science' (Crombie) 474-5
history
, of argument 12, 180-1, 357-400, 4439,467
, human 458-9
, Jesuit education 118
, of science 451-64
Hobbes, Thomas 48, 63, 352-3, 381,
394n
Hoeniger, David 473
Hohenburg, Hewart von 368
Holcot, Robert 81
Holy Scriptures 41, 53, 182, 470
Homer 68
Hook, Robert 418
Hooker, Joseph 431
Howard, Thomas, 2nd Earl of Arundel
288
Hudde, Jan 384
Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln 39
Hugh of St. Victor 33
humanists and scientific revolution 455
humankind, Western visions of 1-12
Humboldt, Alexander Baron von 59
Hume, David 258, 461, 463
Hunain (Hunayn) ibn Ishaq 56, 306
Hungary 125
Hutchinson, Evelyn 471
Huxley, Thomas Henry 398-9
Huygens, Christiaan 113, 347, 379, 3812,387
, and expectation and choice 384
, and mathematics 447
hydrostatic balance 224
hydrostatics 209, 211, 269
hypothesis 262, 467
Ibn al-Haytham see Alhazen
Ibn Sfna (Avicenna) 56, 76, 79, 190
Ignatius see Loyola
Indian medical practice 446
infinite power 67-88
inoculation 392
insurance 374, 384, 447
intellectual reform 16-17, 33
intellectual styles 2-6
Isabella of Castile 59
Islam 5, 54, 61, 470
isolated child, origins of language and
275, 276, 277, 280-1
Italian historians 453
Italian mathematicians 447
507
508
, philosophical 279
, of science 3, 439-42
, and Semitic groups 278
, technical 442
, universal 277, 278, 282
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, Marquis de 394,
396, 399, 448, 463
, and analysis of numbers 392-3
, and inverse probability 387
Larroque, Philippe Tamizey de 287
Latin language 3, 68, 276, 439, 441, 453
latitude/longitude 59, 60
laws of nature
, defined 86
, St Augustine on 69, 72-5, 77
Le Clerc, Daniel 462
Leaning Tower of Pisa 259
least action, principal of 21, 389, 411
Lebegue, Raymond 287
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 422
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 289, 408,
426, 462
, and expectation and choice 379, 384,
385
, and history of optics 301-2, 354
Leicester 39
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 28
Lenoble, Robert 263
lens 55, 56, 303, 304, 320, 343
Leo X, Pope 115
Leon, Pedro Ponce de 284
Leonardo da Vinci 19, 99, 100-1, 132n,
136, 252
, and history of optics 320-3, 327, 334
1'Epee, Abbe Charles-Michel see Epee,
Charles-Michel de L'
Lessius (Leonard Leys) 378
letters, unidentified, of Galileo 187
Leurechon, Jean 344
Lewis, C.S. 28
Leys, Leonard (Lessius) 378
Libri, Guglielmo 463
Liceti, Fortunio 140, 216, 217, 229, 488
light 40, 42, 42-43, 44, 45, 215-6
Lincoln 39, 41
Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of
Western Science 465, 468-74, 476-7
linear scale 203
Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linne) 41314, 414-15, 417, 418, 425
Linnean Society 431
Linz, Wotton 343
literature 118, 453, 455-6
Little, A.G. 51, 61, 62
Index
Locher, Giovanni Giorgio 487
Locke, John 354, 461
logic 51, 118, 260, 369, 440-1, 467
London 264
, population statistics 447
Louvain 345
Loyola, St. Ignatius 118-9, 121
Lucretius, Titus 56
, and expectation and choice 366, 390,
391
, nature, laws of 69-70, 388
, and origins of language 275
Lull, Ramon 278, 384
Lavrov, P.L. 394n
Lyell, Charles 6, 436
McCarthy, Senator Joseph 28
Mach, Ernst 260, 261
Machiavelli, Niccolo 35, 104, 453
macrocosm/microcosm 40
McVaugh, Michael 471
magic 57, 63, 278
Magiotti, Rafaello 272
magnetism 57, 59, 97, 111, 471, 493
magnification 55, 56, 316-17
Maieru, Alfonso 469
Malebranche, Nicolas 354
Malpighi, Marcello 118, 354
Malthus, Thomas 393, 434
Mantua 492
manual industry 97-8, 98, 100
Marciana library 288
Maricourt, Pierre de 57, 59, 97, 471
Mariotte, Edme 299, 347
Mars 185
Marseilles 288
Marsh, Adam 39, 52
Marsili, Cesare 226
Marsilius of Inghen 277
Martini, Francesco di Georgio 106, 320
Marx, Karl 394n
Mastlin, Michael 330, 344
mathematics 57, 87, 97, 442
, 16th century debate 21, 195-201
, and Archimedes 59, 151, 197
, and astronomy 99, 155, 183
, and Bacon, R. 52, 54, 56, 60, 97
, , and logic 59
, , and usefulness of 58
, at Bologna 115
, and Clavius 119-21, 122, 196, 198,
216
, and Euclid 96, 161, 196, 200
, and Galileo 118, 196, 197, 198, 212,
488
509
510
Index
, and causality 441
, and expectation and choice 389
, and language of science 441
, and laws of gravitation 434
, on laws of nature 67, 85, 186
, and mechanistic theory 434
, and scientific revolution 461
, translated by Madame du Chatelet
462
'Nicholas, Master' (teacher) 59
Nicholas (Nicolaus) of Cusa 61, 62, 99,
453
Nicole, Pierre 379, 382-4
Nicomachus 293
Nifo, Agostine 184
Noailles, Francois de 272
North, John 471
Novara, Domenico Maria 115
objectivity, scientific 13-30
Olschki, Leonardo 473
omnipotent Craftsman 247
Opus tertiwn (Bacon, R.) 52
Optica (Alhazen) 316, 319
optics 54, 55, 56, 58, 63, 99
, and art 105
, and colour 45
, and Galileo 217, 343
, history of
, , Alhazen 38, 301-28, 471, 473
, , Bacon, R. 52, 292, 316, 317-19,
326
, , Crombie 471
, , Descartes 345, 348-52, 354
, , Euclid 55, 302-3, 305, 308, 471
, , Fabrici 320, 325, 334
, , Galen 303, 307, 308, 309, 315-16,
325
, , Grosseteste 316-17
, , Kepler 38, 304-5, 329-45, 347-8,
350, 354-5
, , Leibniz 301-2, 354
, , Lindberg 471
, , Mersenne 348, 352
, and ocular physiology 301, 473
, see also eyes
Oresme, Nicole 80, 82-3, 277, 454
, and earth's rotation 470
, and the world clock 473
, and scientific vernaculars 469
oriental languages 118
The Origin of the Species (Darwin) 6,
429, 431, 435, 436
Oryx beisa (antelope) 288
511
512
Index
, history 453
, role of science 21
politics 21, 28, 29, 95, 453
Ponce de Leon, Pedro 110, 284
population 385
Porphyry 293
Port-Royal 382
Porta, Giambattista della, 223, 301, 328,
329, 335
Posidonius 129
positivism 259, 260, 261
Possevino, Antonio 124-32
, on astrology 132
, and calendar reform 125-6
, diplomatic missions 125
, friendships 175
, and influence of Clavius 128, 131
, and Jesuit society 125, 126
, as Papal Nuncio 125
, written work
, , Bibliotheca selecta 126-32, 133,
175
, , on Jesuit universities 125
, , on peace mission to Russia 125
Postel, Guillaume 288
postulation, theoretical, of Galileo 268-9
power 27, 67-88, 79-81
power, propogation of 55
Prado, Jeronimo 132n
Prague 334
Priestley, John 463
primary properties/secondary qualities
157, 218-19
Princeton 264
Priscian (Priscianus Caesariensis) 31, 223
probabilities 359, 468
, history of 360-7, 369-74
, , arguments from 357-400
, , and natural selection 388-400
, see also expectation and choice
probability theories 360-7,387, 389-92
Proclus 123, 131, 217, 269
, analysis and synthesis 209
, on Euclid 101, 175
, and mathematics 195, 196, 198, 216
proof, concept of 68, 466
Protestant reformation 36
Protestantism 455
Psalms, translation of 40
Psellus, Michael 131
psychiatry, Western 446
psychology 26
Ptolemy 59, 60, 62, 131, 175
, and astronomy 209
513
514
, and Darwin 6
, and Descartes 6
, and Ficino 249
, and Galileo 6, 180-1, 216, 231-55,
485, 494
, and Gherardini 149, 239
, and Gorgias 234
, and Hippocrates 235
, and J.D. Moss 231-2
, and Plato 92-3, 237, 362
, and Ptolemy 238
Riccardi, Padre, Maestno del Sacro
Palazzo 490
Richard of Wallingford 82, 470, 473
Ristoro, Juliano 117
Robertson, William 463
Rocco, Antonio 161, 186
Romanticism 37
Rome 271, 272, 346, 453, 489, 490, 494
, see also under colleges and
universities
Ronchi, Vasco 471
Rose, Cipriano de 294
Roshdi Rashed 470
Rossi-Monti, Paolo 267n
Rousseau, Jean Jacques 461
Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific
Papers 436
The Royal Society 258, 460, 461
Rudolph II, Emperor 331, 494
Rushworth, William 381
Russell, Gul 470
Sabra, A.I. 471
Sacrament of the Eucharist 489
Sacrobosco, Johannes de 60, 486
'Sagredo' (and Galileo) 226, 244, 251
salamander 411
'Salviati' as Galileo 226, 243-5, 247-8,
250-3, 261
Santillana, Giorgio de 257
Santorio Santorio 485
Sarpi, Pietro 176
Saturn 185
Saumaise, Claude 287, 289
Savoy 125
Scaliger, Joseph-Juste 278, 288
Scaliger, Julius Caesar 153
scepticism 20, 72, 128, 167
, see also Stoics/Stoicism
Scheiner, Christopher 180
and history of optics 345-7
science:
, and Clavius 181-3, 184, 185, 187
, experimental 89-114
, history of 31-8, 263-70, 440, 443-4,
451-64
, and Islam 54
, language of 3, 439-42
, of music 107-10
, and nature 1, 19, 54, 165-229
, new science 35, 36, 279, 459
, quantitative 20
, of vision 302
, , see also optics
, Western visions of 1-12
scientific language 439-42
scientific method of Darwin 429-37
scientific method of inquiry 10, 11, 12,
467-8
scientific objectivity, Western experience
of 13-30
scientific revolution 451-64
scientific style 159, 229, 270, 467-8, 472
scientific thought of R. Bacon 53-63
scorpion 412
Scriptures, Holy 41, 53, 182, 470
sculpture, Galileo's interest in 173
Sedgwick, Adam 433
Semitic groups and origins of language
278
Seneca, Lucius ('the Younger') 34, 51,
60
Sextus Empiricus 218, 365, 366, 379
Shakespeare, William 105, 416
Shea, William 157, 158
shell, tropical, at Shrewsbury 433
Shirley, John 473
Siculus, Diodorus 275
Silvestris, Bernard 33
Simon de Montfort 41, 59
'Simplicio'
, as Aristotle 243, 247, 250, 252, 253
, and undated writings of Galileo 226
Simplicius 183, 221
Siraisi, Nancy 471
Smith, Adam 392, 394, 396
Snel, Willebrord 349
social responsibility 99
, see also virtu
Socrates 32, 200, 233-6, 466
solar eclipses 329-30, 332
solar radiation 43
Soto, Domingo de 126
sound 42, 108-9, 219, 292, 296, 297-8
, see also hearing; music
South America 431, 434
Spain 110, 284
Index
species, classification of 413
Speculum astronomic, authorship
question of 61
Speroni, Sperone 126
Sprat, Thomas 461
stars 43, 57, 177, 178, 179
, see also astronomy; cosmology;
planets
statistics 11, 385-8, 399, 447, 448
, and economy 392
, and evolution 398
, and Maupertuis 390
Stoffler, Johannes 62
Stoics/Stoicism 21, 68, 71, 72, 128
, see also scepticism
Straker, Stephen 471, 473
Sturm, Johann Christoph 347
Suarez, Francisco 83, 84
submarines 33, 57
sulpher drugs 448
sun 179, 186, 211, 213
sunspots 207, 269
, Galileo on 211
, , First Letter 87, 150, 180, 186,
215, 216
, , Second Letter 213
, , Third Letter 215
Swammerdam, Jan 414
Sweden 125
Sydenham, Thomas 446
Taccola (Mariano di Jacopo) 106, 320
Tartaglia, Niccolo 132
Tartars 54
Tasso, Torquato 223
taxonomy and scientific style 11, 467-8
technology, modern 448-9
Tedeschi, Leonardo 177
telescope 87, 91, 186, 207, 217, 494
, discoveries 177, 185, 214
, of Kepler 343
, observations 106, 179, 217, 286-7
Telesio 249
Tempier, Bishop Stephen 53, 61, 80
Thabit ibn Qurra 62
Thales 130
Themistius 239, 292
Theodoric of Freiberg 38, 471-2
Theodosius 59
theological letters of Galileo 229
theology 23, 34, 54, 151
, and Archimedes 470
, and Aristotle 22, 151, 470
, Christian 5, 72, 79, 99, 469
515
516