READINGANDINTERPRETINGCONSTRUCTIONDRAWINGS

Reading and Interpreting Construction Drawings, Course #403 Presented by:

PDH Enterprises, LLC

PO Box 942
Morrisville, NC 27560
(919)208-5296
www.PDHSite.com

Course Author:
J.N. Ramaswamy, Ph.D., P.E.

CopyrightJ.N.Ramaswamy,Ph.D.,P.E.www.pdhsite.com

READINGANDINTERPRETINGCONSTRUCTIONDRAWINGS
By
J.N.Ramaswamy,Ph.D.,P.E.


TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
I. Introduction..1
II. ReadingMeasuringTools.3
III. LinesandSymbols.5
IV. OrthographicDrawings.12
V. ScaleReadingandDimensioning18
VI. PlotDrawings23
VII. FoundationDrawings.28
VIII.

FramingDrawings.35

IX. PlumbingDrawings..42
X. HVACDrawings46
XI. ElectricalDrawings48
XII. WeldingDrawings.54

LISTOFFIGURES

II.1.MeasuringTape3
II.2.RelationshipbetweenInchandMillimeter4
III.1.CommonLines5
III.2.DimensionandExtensionLines6
III.3.BreakLines7
III.4.SectionCuttingLines7
III.5.SectionLines8
III.6.ListofSymbols911
IV.1.ProjectionofOrthographicViews12

IV.2.ObjectwithinaGlassCube.13
IV.3.BlockwithaNotch13
IV.4.OrthographicViewoftheNotchedBlock13
IV.5.SectionalView16
IV.6.DetailsofaCornice17
V.1.ArchitectsScale19
V.2.EngineersScale20
V.3.DimensioningMasonryWalls21
V.4.DimensioningWindowsinMasonryandFrameBuildings21
VI.1.ContourLineswithElevationandGeneralPlotLayout24
VI.2.ContourswithSection..25
VI.3.ContourLineswithDecreasingElevationsTowardtheMiddle25
VI.4.ContourLineswithIncreasingElevationsTowardtheMiddle26
VI.5.ContourLineswithOriginalandFinishedGrade26
VI.6.CommonTopographicSymbols27
VII.1.Footing28
VII.2.WallandFootingPartialFoundationPlan29
VII.3.FoundationWellSection30
VII.4.SectionandPlanofAugerCastPile31
VII.5.SteelHPileFoundation32
VII.6.MonolithicSlabfoundation33
VII.7.SlabfloorWithinFoundationWalls33
VII.8.ThickenedSlabbelowLoadbearingWalls34
VIII.1.FloorFramingComponents35
VIII.2.AdditionalFloorFramingMembers36
VIII.3.DimensioningofExteriorWall37
VIII.4.PlatformFraming38
VIII.5.BalloonFraming38
VIII.6.WallFrameComponents39
VIII.7.LoadbearingPartitions40
VIII.8.ATypicalDoorSchedule40
VIII.9.CommonRoofStyles41
VIII.10.CommonRoofFramingTerms41
IX.1.CommonPlumbingSymbols43
IX.2.WaterDistributionSystem(Isometricview)44
X.1.AirConditioningSymbols46
XI.1.CommonSymbolsonElectricalPlan48
XI.2.TypicalControlWiringDiagram49

XI.3.OnLineDiagram50
XI.4.PanelSchedule51
XI.5.EquipmentSchedule52
XII.1.BasicWeldingSymbol54
XII.2.BasicWeldsymbols55
XII.3.WeldDimensions55
XII.4.ContourSymbols56
XII.5.GrooveSymbols57
XII.6.SpotWeldSymbols57
XII.7.WeldallAroundSymbols58
XII.8.FieldWeldSymbol58
XII.9.MeltthroughSymbol58

I. INTRODUCTION

Constructiondrawingsareusedtocommunicatethearchitecturalandengineeringdesignofa
constructionproject.Therearetwotypesofconstructiondrawings:(1)Pictorialdrawingsand
(2)Orthographicprojections.Pictorialdrawingsarecalledrenderingsandareusedfor
presentationsandarenotintendedtoshowconstructiondetails.Orthographicprojectionsare
usedinconstructionprojectsandshowdifferentviewsofthesubjectsuchasabuilding.Each
viewistakenfromadifferentreferencepointandallowsallthedetailsofastructure.The
viewsusedinconstructiondrawingsarethetop,front,side,andback.Thetopviewiscalleda
plandrawing.Front.Side,andbackviewsarecalledelevations.Aviewoftheinteriorofthe
buildingiscalledsectionorinteriorelevation.Readingconstructiondrawingsisthe
gatheringofinformationfromadrawing.Itinvolvestwoprincipalelements:visualizationand
interpretation.Visualizationistheabilitytocreateamentalimageofabuildingfromasetof
workingdrawings.Astudyofdrawingreadingprinciplesandlearningtosketchwillhelpone
visualizeconstructiondrawings.Interpretationistheabilitytounderstandlines,symbols,
dimensions,notes,andotherinformationontheworkingdrawings.
I.1.Typeofdrawings
Drawingsareusuallyarrangedintheapproximateorderofconstruction.Asetofdrawings
consistsof:Civil(C1,C2,etc),Structural(S1,S2,etc),Architectural(A1,A2,etc),Electrical
(E1,E2,etc),Mechanical(M1,M2,etc),andPlumbing(P1,P2,etc).
Civilengineeringdrawings(C)includeplotorsiteplans,utilities,easements,grading,and
landscapedetails.Thesiteplancanalsoincludecontourlines,walks,driveways,propertylines,
buildingsetbacks,andutilitylocations.
Structuraldrawings(S)includefoundation,structuralsteel,buildingsupportsystem,androof
framingsystemalongwithsectionsanddetails.
Architecturaldrawings(A)includefloorplans,elevations,buildingsections,doorandwindow
schedules,androomfinishes.Thefloorplanisanimportantdrawingbecauseitprovidesthe
mostimportantinformationandactsasareferenceforthelocationofadditionalsectionsand
details.Thefloorplanshowsfloorfinishes,walls,doors,stairways,fireplaces,builtincabinets,

andmechanicalequipment.Elevationsareviewsoftheexteriorfeaturesofthebuilding.
Usuallyaminimumoffourelevationdrawingsisneededtoshowthedesignofallsidesofthe
structure.Sectionsareviewsshowingthebuildingasifitwerecutapart.Theyshowwalls,
stairsandotherdetailsnotclearlyshowninotherdrawings.Sectionstakenthroughtheshort
dimensionofabuildingareknownastransversesections.Thosetakenthroughthelong
dimensionareknownaslongitudinalsections.Detaildrawingsarepreparedforcomplex
buildingcomponentsandunusualconstructionsuchasanarch,acornice,astructuralsteel
connectionoraretainingwall.Schedulesarelistsofmaterialsneededintheconstruction
process.Aschedulenormallyliststheitem,anidentificationmark,size,numberrequired,and
anyotherusefulinformation.Differenttypeofschedulesinclude:doorschedules,window
schedules,lightingfixtureschedules,androomfinishschedules.
TheElectricaldrawings(E)includetheelectricalwiring,lightingplan,reflectedceilingplan,and
panelschedules.
TheMechanicaldrawings(M)includeheating,ventilating,andairconditioning(HVAC)plans,
plumbingplans,sprinklersystems,andscheduleforpipeandfittings,HVACequipment,and
plumbingfixtures.
Theplumbingplan(P)showsthelayoutforthehotandcoldwatersystems,thesewage
disposalsystem,andthelocationofplumbingfixtures.
Structuralframingplans(S)maybeincludedinasetofplansfortheframingoftheroof,floors,
andvariouselevationorwallsections.


II. READINGMEASURINGTOOLS

Toolsusedinconstructionindustryare:framingsquares,benchrules,steelrules,andtapes.In
thecustomary(alsocalledEnglish)measurementsystem,thedistancesaredividedintofeet,
inches,andfractionsofaninch.Theruleusedwiththissystemiscalledfractionalrule.In
metricsystem,thedivisionsareinmeters,centimeters,andmillimeters.Thisruleiscalled
metricrule.
II.1.FractionalruleThisruleisdividedinto16ths.SeeFigureII.1.Inthisfigure,theinchis
dividedinto16parts.Thus,eachsmalldivisionis1/16thofaninch.

FigureII.1.MeasuringTape

II.2.MetricruleThebasicunitoflinearmeasureinthemetricsystemisthemeter(m).Other
linearunitsareeitherfractionsormultiplesofameter.Themostcommonunitsarethe
following:
UnitAbbreviationEqualto
Millimetermm1/1000thm
Centimetercm1/100thm
Kilometerkm1000m

Metricdimensionsarebettertoworkbecausetheycanbeaddedorsubtractedmoreeasily
thanEnglishunits.However,thecustomarysystemisusedalmostexclusivelyinthiscountry.
Therelationshipbetweenthecustomaryandthemetricsystemsisgivenbelow:
1inch=25.4millimeters
1foot=304.8millimeters
1yard(3feet)=914.4millimeter
39.37inches=1meter
FigureII.2illustratestheaboverelationship.

FigureII.2RelationshipbetweenInchandMillimeter


III. LINESANDSYMBOLS

III.1.LinesSeveraltypesoflinesareusedinconstructiondrawings.Theseareknownas
alphabetlines.Alllinesaredrawninthesamecolor.Somevaryinwidth.Somearesolid,
othersareacombinationofbrokenlines.Eachconveysadifferentmeaning.FigureIII.1
illustratessomecommonlinesandareexplainedbelow:

FigureIII.1.CommonLines

PropertylineThepropertylineisanextraheavylinemadeupoflongdashesand
alternatingwithtwoshortdashes.

BorderlineBorderlinesarelocatedneartheedgeofthesheetofthedrawing
paper.Theyarealsousedtoseparatethevariousportionsofthedrawingsuchas
thetitleblock,notes,andtherevisionblock.

ObjectlineObjectlinesrepresentthemainoutlineofthefeaturesoftheobject,
building,orwalk.Theobjectlineisaheavy,continuouslineshowingalledgesand
surfaces.

HiddenlineHiddenlinesaremediumweightandarecomposedofshortdashes.
Theydefineedgesandsurfacesthatarenotvisibleinaparticularview.Onemust
lookforanotherviewinthesetofdrawingstofindwheretheseedgesoccur.
Hiddenlinesareomittediftheydonotclarifythedrawings.

Equipment,andfixtures.Thecenterlineisalsousedtoindicateafinishedfloorline.
Thelineislightinweightandcomposedofalternatinglongandshortdashes.

DimensioningandextensionlinesDimensionandextensionlinesarethinlines
thatindicatetheextentanddirectionofdimensions.SeeFigureIII.2foran
illustration.

FigureIII.2DimensionandExtensionLines

Dimensionlinesextendthelengthofthedistancebeingmeasured.Amarking
devicesuchasanarrow,dotortickmark,isplacedattheendofthedimensionline.

Extensionlinesaredrawnperpendiculartothedimensionlinetospecifythe
featuresbetweenwhichthedimensionapplies.

BreaklinesBreaklinesareusedtoindicatethatanobjectcontinuesbutisnot
shownonthedrawingortoindicatethattheobjectsfulllengthisnotshownto
savespace.SeeFigureIII.3foranillustration.

Figure3.3BreakLines

SectioncuttinglinesSectioncuttinglinesareusedwithsectionalviews.SeeFigure
III.4foranexample.


FigureIII.4SectionCuttingLines

Asectioncuttinglinemarksthepartofthedrawingbeingcuttocreatea
sectionalview.Arrowsontheendofthelineindicatethedirectionfromwhichthe
sectionisbeingviewed.Ifthesectionalviewisonanotherdrawing,thedrawing
numberisincludedwiththesectionidentification.

SectionlinesandrenderingSectionlines,alsocalledcrosshatchlinesarethin
lines,usuallydrawnata450angle.SeeFigureIII.5foranexample.

FigureIII.5SectionLines
(Theyareusedinasectionalviewtoshowmaterialthathasbeencutbythe
cuttingplaneline.

III.2.SymbolsAnumberofsymbolsarecommonlyusedonconstructiondrawings.These
symbolsrepresentbuildingmaterialsandfixtures.Normally,symbolsareidentifiedinalegend
whichisalistofsymbolsandtheircorrespondingmeanings.FigureIII.6,showninthenext
threepages,exhibitsthedifferentsymbols.

10

FigureIII.6ListofSymbols

11


FigureIII.6ListofSymbols

12

IV. ORTHOGRAPHICDRAWINGS

Nearlyalldrawingsusedonaconstructionprojectareorthographicdrawings.Theyare
preferredbecausemoredetailscanbeshown.Thesedrawingsarecreatedusing
orthographicprojection,aprocessbywhichanobjectorstructureisdescribedusingvarious
views.Eachviewdefinesoneface,orside,oftheobject.Theviewsofanorthographic
drawingareprojectedatarightangle(900)toeachother.Thebestwaytovisualizethisis
bycuttingandunfoldingacardboardboxasshowninFigureIV.1.

FigureIV.1ProjectionofOrthographicViews

Thefrontviewremainsinposition.Thefouradjoiningviewsrevolve900aroundthefolds
bringingthemintothesameplaneasthefrontview.Therearviewisshownnexttotheleft
sideview,butitcouldbeshowninseveralalternatepositions,asindicated.Ifanobjectis
placedinsideaglasscubeandviewedthroughanyofthecubessixsides,onlyonefaceof
theobjectcanbeseen.Eachviewthroughasideofthecubewouldcreateone
orthographicviewasshowninFigureIV.2.

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IV.1.Creatingorthographicdrawings

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FigureIV.2showsanobjectwithinaglasscube.Thecubehassixsidesandiftheobjectis
viewedthroughanyofthesides,onlyonefaceoftheobjectwouldbeseen.Eachview
throughthesideofthecubewouldcreateoneorthographicview.FigureIV.3showsablock
withanotchcutintoonecorner.TheorthographicdrawingoftheblockisshowninFigure
IV.4.Referringtothisfiguretheprocedurelistedbelowisfollowedforcreatingan
orthographicdrawing.
1. Beginbydrawingthefrontview.Allviewsshouldbedrawntoscale.Selectthe
objectspositionsothatmostofthefeaturesarelocatedonthefront,side,andtop.
2. Ateveryedgeandfeatureshownonthefrontview,perpendicularprojectorsare
drawnintheverticalandhorizontaldirections.Theseconstructionlinesaredrawn
lightly,anderasedwhenthedrawingiscomplete.
3. Drawthetopandsideviews.Theprojectionlinesconnectcommonfeatures
betweenviews.
4. Fromthefrontedgeofthetopview,drawahorizontalprojectionline.Drawa
verticalprojectionlinefromthefrontedgeofthesideview.
5. Attheintersectionoftheselines,drawalineata450angle.Projectionlinesfor
featurescommontothetopandsideviewswillintersectatthisline.
IV.2.ConstructiondrawingsForconstructiondrawings,differentviewsofthebuildingsuchas
floorplansandelevationsareobtainedusingorthographicprojection.
IV.2.1.PlanviewsThetopviewofthebuildingiscalledaplanview.Planviewsaretakenat
differentlevelsthroughoutthebuilding.Incomplicatedbuildings,eachfloormayrequire
multipleplanviewstoillustrateallconstructiondetails.
IV.2.1.1.FloorplanThefloorplanshowsthelayoutofthebuildingandshowswalls,doors,
windows,rooms,andstairs.Otheritemssuchasplumbingandelectricalcanalsobeshownif
spaceisavailable.Floorplansaredrawnusuallytoscale1/48or1/4=10.Aseparate
drawingismadeforeachfloorincludingthebasement.
IV.2.1.2.FoundationplanThefoundationplanissimilartothefloorplan,exceptitshowsthe
foundationofthebuildingandincludesbasement,foundationwalls,slabs,piers,andfootings.
IV.2.1.3.FramingplanFramingplanshowsthelayoutofthestructuralmemberssupportinga
floororroof.Aframingplanisoftenincludedforeachfloor.Ifthereisroom,detaildrawings
oftheconnectionsbetweenmembersmaybeincluded.

15

IV.2.1.4.ElectricalplanElectricalplanincludeslocationofreceptacles,switches,andfixtures.
Anothertypeofelectricalplan,thereflectedceilingplanincludesceilingmountedlight
fixtures.
IV2.1.5.PlumbingplanTheplumbingplanshowsheatingandcirculatingequipment,supply
andwastesystems,plumbingfixtures,andthespotwherethewaterpipeentersthebuilding.
IV.2.1.5.MechanicalplanAmechanicalplanshowstheheating,ventilating,andair
conditioningsystem(HVAC)andanymechanicalequipmentandsystemslocatedinthe
building.
IV.2.2.ElevationsElevationsareorthographic,exteriorviewsofabuildingandshowfeatures
suchasthestyleofthebuilding,doors,windows,chimneys,andmoldings.Elevationsare
designatedasFront,Right,Left,andRear.Theymaybealsoidentifiedbytheplan
directionthattheelevationfacessuchasEastelevationandWestelevationetc.Interior
elevationsmaybeprovidedtoshowtheconstructionofaparticularinteriorwallorarea.The
basementorfoundationwallsandfootingsareshownwithhiddenlinesonelevations.
IV.2.3.SectionsBesidestheplansandelevations,itmaybenecessarytoshowtheinsideof
awall,cabinet,orroofstructuretoclarifyconstructionprocedures.Whenthedrawingisan
imaginarycutthroughawallorotherfeature,itisknownassectionalvieworsection.
Sectionsareprovidedforwalls,cabinets,chimneys,stairs,andotherfeatureswhose
constructionisnotshownclearlyontheplanorelevation.FigureIV.5,shownbelow,isan
exampleofasectionalviewshowingconstructiondetails.

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FigureIV.5SectionalView

IV.2.4.DetailsDuetothescaleatwhichconstructiondrawingsareusuallymade,certain
featuresarenotclearlyshownontheplan,elevation,orsectionalviews.Thesefeatureswill
requirealargescaleillustrationtoprovideinformationnecessaryforconstruction.Inthese
situationsadetaileddrawingisused.Detailsaredrawnatalargerscalethanplans,elevations,
andsectionsandusuallytakeprecedenceoverdrawingsshowninlessdetail.FigureIV.6isan
exampleforadetaildrawing.Detaildrawingsmaybeplacedonthesamesheetastheplanor
elevationviewsoronaseparatesheetandreferencedbydetailandsheetnumber.

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FigureIV.6DetailsofaCornice

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V. SCALEREADINGANDDIMENSIONING

Constructiondrawingsaredrawntoareducedscale(smallerthanactualsize).Thescaleof
aparticularplan,elevation,ordetailisindicatedonthesheeteitherinthetitleblockor
beneaththedrawingitself.Onadrawing,thescaleisdefinedinthefollowingmanner:
SCALE:=10.Thismeansthatalengthonthescaledrawingisequaltoalengthof
onefootinreality.
V.1.ArchitectsscaleInadditiontoreferringtotherelativesizeatwhichadrawinghas
beenmade,thetermscalealsoreferstotheinstrument(ruler)usedtomeasuredistances
onadrawing.Themostcommonscaleusedinthiscountryisthearchitectsscale;the
engineersscaleisalsoused.Bothmeasureincustomaryunits.Thearchitectsscalecanbe
usedtomeasuredistancesonadrawingbymatchingthedrawingscaletotheappropriate
scalelistedontheinstrument.Architectsandengineersscalesareavailableinboththree
sided(triangular)andflatforms(twosided).Typicalscalesfoundonathreesided
architectsscalearelistedonthefollowingtable.
ScaleSmallesttickmark
3/323
3/162
1/82
1/41
3/81/2
3/41/4
1/21/4
11/8
11/16
31/16
Thescalemostcommonlyusedforfloorplansinthecustomarymeasurementsystemis

19

1/4=10or1/48size(therearefortyeight1/4"unitsin1).Thisiscommonlyreferredto
asquarterscale.Normallyscalesfordetaildrawingsrangefrom1/2=10tofullsize.
WhenmeasuringadistancewithanarchitectsscalethemethodshowninFigureV.1must
beused.
0mark
67

0760

FigureV.1ArchitectsScale

Placethescaleonthedrawingsuchthatoneendofthelineispastthe0markintotheparts
ofafootandinchesarea.Next,aligntheotherendofthelinewiththenearestfootmark.
Notetheinchesandfractionsbeyondthe0mark,andaddthatmeasurementtothe
indicatednumberoffeettofindthedistancerepresentedbytheline.Aproperlyprepared
drawingwillincludeallneededdimensions.Scalingadrawingformeasurementsnot
providedmustbedonecarefully.

V.2.EngineersscaleTheengineersscaleistypicallyusedoncivildrawingssuchasthe
siteplansandhighwayprojects.Engineersscalesarereferredtoinwholenumbersandare
relatedtosomanyfeetperinch.A20scalewouldbenotedas1=20thismeansevery
inchonthedrawingequals20feetinreality.Thepurposeoftheengineersscaleistobe
abletolayoutlargerareasofaprojectandgettheprojectononedrawing.Typicalscales
foundonathreesidedengineersscaleare:

1=10(alsocanrepresent100,1000oreven10,000)
1=20(200,200020,000)
1=30(300,300030,000)
1=40(400,400040,000)
1=50(500,500050,000)
1=60(600,600060,000)

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FigureV.2showsthemeasurementofalineusingengineersscaleof1=10.

FigureV.2EngineersScale

V.3.MetricsystemThemetricsystemofmeasurementhasseenlittleuseinthiscountry
primarilybecausemetricconstructionstandardshavenotbeenestablished.Oncemetric
standardshavebeenadoptedandmetricmodularmaterialsbecomeavailable,metric
dimensioningwillbeused.Themetricscalecloselyrepresentingthecustomaryquarter
inchscale(1/48)sizeisthe1:50scale(1/50size)inwhichatwocentimeterlengthonthe
drawingequalsaonemeter(100cm)lengthontheactualobject.

V.4.DimensioningtechniqueAdimensionlinecanterminateinanarrowhead,dot,ortick
mark.Thedimensionscanbewrittenabove,below,orwithinthedimensionline.Any
dimensionthatcanbeneededduringconstructionshouldbeincludedonthedrawing.
Unnecessarydimensionsshouldnotbeincluded.

V.4.1.DimensioningfloorplansThedimensionsonthefloorplanmustbecorrectbecause
otherdrawingswillusefloorplanastheirbasis.Dimensionsofwalls,windows,anddoors
areincluded.Whendimensioningwalls,differenttypesofwallsaredimensioned
differently.MasonrywallsdimensionedtotheirexteriorsurfaceasinFigureV.3

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FigureV.3DimensioningMasonryWalls

Dimensionsofexteriorwallsofframeandbrickveneerbuildingsusuallystartattheexterior
surfaceofthestudwallasinFigureV.4.

FigureV.4DimensioningWindowsinMasonryandFrameBuildings

Interiorwallsareusuallydimensionedtothecenterorsideofpartitions.Windowanddoor
openingsarelocatedbytheircenterlinesforframeconstruction.Formasonry
construction,theseopeningsaredimensionedtotheedgesofthemasonrysurface
openings.

V.4.2.DimensioningelevationsDimensionsprovidedonelevationdrawingsarethose
relatedtotheverticalplane.Footingthickness,depthoffootingbelowgrade,floorand
ceilingheights,windowanddoorheights,andchimneyheightareprovidedonelevation
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drawings.Inadditiontoverticaldimensions,informationisprovidedthroughnoteson
gradeinformation,materials,andspecialdetails.Roofslopeisusuallygivenonadrawingas
aslopetriangle.Thisdiagramrepresentstheratiobetweenrise(changeinelevationfrom
toptobottomofroof)andrun(onehalftheentirespanofthebuilding).Atypicalslope
wouldbe4:12or4unitsofrisefor12unitsofrun.

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VI. PLOTDRAWINGS

VI.1.FeaturesofplotdrawingsAplotdrawingisusuallycalledaplotplanorasiteplan.It
isaviewfromabovethepropertythatshowsthelocationofthebuildingonthelot.Many
featuresasshownbelowmaybeshownontheplotplan:

Lotandblocknumberoraddress.

Bearing(direction)andlengthofpropertylines.

Northarrow.

Dimensionsoffront,rear,andsideyards.

Locationofotheraccessorybuildings(carport,garage,etc).

Locationofwalks,drives,fences,andpatios.

Locationofeasementsetbacks.

Locationofutilities(gas,electric,water,andsewage).

Elevationsatthevariouslocations.

Treesandshrubstoberetained.

Gradesandtopographyofthesite.

VI.1.1.NortharrowThenortharrowindicatesthenorthdirectionandwillhelptovisualize
thestructure.Ifthewallsofthebuildingarenotparalleltothecompassdirections,aplan
northmaybedesignated.Theplannorthwillbeslightlydifferentfromthetruenorth.A
plannorthisprovidedsothatthereisareferencedirectionalignedwiththebuilding.
VI.1.2.PropertylinesLinesoutliningthebuildingplotarecalledpropertylines.Thelength
andbearing(direction)ofeachpropertylineisidentifiedontheplotplan.Bearingis
expressedasdegreeseastorwestornorthorsouthandgivenindegrees,minutes,and
seconds.(Aminuteis1/60thofadegree,asecondis1/60thofaminute).Whenthe
propertylineisacurveinsteadofastraightline,itisidentifiedbyaradius,lengthofcurve,
anditsangleoftangency.

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VI.1.3.ContourlinesContourlinesarelinesthatidentifythegroundelevation.Allpoints
alongacontourlineareatthesameelevation.Theelevationofthelineislisted.SeeFigure
VI.1.

FigureVI.1ContourLineswith
ElevationandGeneralPlotLayout

Theintervalbetweencontourlines(thechangeintheverticaldistance)canbeany
convenientdistancesuchas1,5,or10.Iftheintervalistoosmall,therewillbetoomany
contourlinesandthedrawingwillbecomecrowdedandhardtointerpret.Iftheintervalis
toolarge,somedetailwillbelost.Contourlinesthatarefarapartindicateagradualslope
ofthelandandlinesthatareclosetogetherindicateadeepslope.SeeFigureVI.2.

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FigureVI.2ContourwithSection

FigureVI.3indicatesthetopographyandsectionasapondorvalleywiththenumbers
decreasingtowardthemiddle.

FigureVI.3ContourLineswithDecreasing
ElevationsTowardtheMiddle

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FigureVI.4ContourLineswithIncreasing
ElevationsTowardtheMiddle

FigureVI.4showsthesameconfigurationwiththeelevationnumbersincreasingtowardthe
middle,indicatingahillinplan.Contourlinesarelong,freehanddashedlines.Whenitis
desiredtoshowboththeoriginalgradeandafinishgradeofcontour,theoriginalisshown
inshortdashedlines,thefinishgradeinsolidlinesSeeFigureVI.5.

FigureVI.5ContourLineswithOriginal
andFinishedGrade

Theelevationsonaparticularplotarereferencedtoalocalpermanentmarkerofknown
elevation,suchasasurveymarkerplate,afirehydrant,oramanholecover.
VI.1.4.TopographicfeaturesThetopography(locationandelevationoffeatures)isoften
displayedontheplotplan.Topographicfeaturesincludenaturalobjectssuchastreesor
shrubs,andhumanmadeobjects.FigureVI.6illustratescommontopographicalsymbols

27

usedonplans.Plotplansshouldalsoincludealistofsymbolsusedtoidentifyfeatures.
Thislistiscalledalegend.

FigureVI.6CommonTopographicSymbols

VI.1.5.BuildinglocationAnoutlineofthestructureisshownontheplotplan.Oftenthe
elevationofthefirstfloorisalsoincluded.Thedistancesfromthepropertylinestothe
buildingareshown.Mostlocalbuildingcodesspecifyaminimumdistancebetweenthe
buildingandthepropertylines.Thisdistanceiscalledasetbackdistance.Thisdistance
canalsobeshownontheplotplan.Theconnectionsbetweenthemainutilitylinesandthe
buildingareshownontheplotplan.Undergroundpipesandcablesareshownasdashed
lines.Theselinesareidentifiedonthedrawingusingabbreviationsdefinedinthelegend.

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VII. FOUNDATIONDRAWINGS

Oncethebuildinghasbeenlocatedontheplotandtherequiredsiteclearanceandexcavation
iscomplete,workstartsontheconcretefootingsandfoundationwalls.Thedetailsof
constructionforthefootingsandfoundationwallsforthebuildingarefoundonthefoundation
plan(orbasementplan).
VII.1.FootingsFootingsarethefeetuponwhichtheentirebuildingrests.SeeFigureVII.1

FigureVII.1Footing

Thesizesofthefootingsareshownonthefoundationplanoronadetailofthefoundation
plan.Therearemanytypesoffoundationsystemsasshownbelow:

Footingsandwalls.

Gradebeams.

Augercastpiles.

Caissons.

SteelHpiles.

Footingsarealsorequiredundercolumns.Thesefootingsareusuallywiderandthickerthan
thoseforfoundationwallsbecausethecolumnloadsareconcentratedononespot.Fireplace
29

chimneysandsimilarconcentrationsofweightalsorequirelargerfootings.Footingsmustrest
onundisturbedsoilbelowthefrostline,thedeepestpointtowhichthegroundwillfreezeina
givenlocation.Thelocalbuildingcodewillgivethedepthofthefrostline,andhowfarbelowit
thebottomsofthefootingsmustbeplaced.Whenapouredconcretefoundationwallistobe
erectedonthefooting,thedrawingmaycallforakeywaytobecastinthefootingtoanchor
thewallasshowninFigureVII.1.Onthefoundationplan,footingsareshownashiddenlinesas
showninFigureVII.2

FigureVII.2Wall&FootingPartialFoundationPlan

Thewidthofthefootingunderthefoundationwallsandcolumnsisshown.Reinforcingrods
areshownasdotsinsectionalviews.Onelevationdrawings,theserodsareshownaslong
dashedlines.
VII.2.FoundationwallsFoundationwallsarethebaseofthebuilding.Theytransferthe
weightofthebuildingtothefootingsandtothegroundbelow.Foundationwallsandcolumns
areshownassolidlinesonthefoundationplanandashiddenlinesinelevationviews.A
foundationwallsectionisshowninFigureVII.3.
30


FigureVII.3FoundationWallSection

Fireplacesandchimneysareshownonthefoundationplanwithappropriatedimensionsand
necessarydetailsforconstruction.
VII.3.AugercastpilesThistypeoffoundationisdrilledwitha1214steelaugertothe
appropriatedesigndepth.Whilethedrillingshaftisbeingraisedoutofthehole,concreteis
pumpeddowntheshafttofillupthecavity.Inanaugercastpilesystemonadrawingthereare
severalaugercastpilesclusteredtogether.Theyaretoppedwithapilecaptomakethecluster
workasatotalloadsystemasshowninFigureVII.4.

31


FigureVII.4SectionandPlanofAugerCastPile
AFrictionpile.BBearingpile

VII.4.CaissonsCaissonsarealsodrilledtothedesigndepthandareusuallyfrom1872in
diameter.Thedrillisthenremovedandthebottomofthecaissontestedforsoilloadcapacity.
Aftertheholepassesinspection,asteelreinforcingcageisinstalled,andtheholeisfilledwith
concrete.
VII.5.SteelpilesAsteelpileisalongHshaped(Hpile)orround(pipepile)steelmemberthat
ishammerdrivenintotheearth.Thepileisdriventoasuitablesupportstratumordrivento
frictionresistanceofthesoil(thistypeofpileisreferredtoasafrictionpile).Onadrawingwith
thistypeoffoundationsystem,severalsteelpilescanbeseenclusteredtogetherandtopped
withapilecaptomaketheclusterworkastotalloadsystem.SeeFigureVII.5.
32


FigureVII.5SteelHPileFoundation

VII.6.SlabongradeAconcreteslabpouredatgroundleveliscalledslabongrade.Concrete
slabsareusedasbothbasementfloorsandmainfloors.Floatingslabconstructionusesa
monolithicslab(onecontinuousunit)asinFigureVII.6.

33


FigureVII.6MonolithicSlabFoundation

Anothermethodofproducingaslabflooristopourthefoundationwallstofloorheight.Then,
theareawithinthewallsisfilledwithsoilandgravel.Finally,thefloorispouredwithinthe
walls,separatedbyanexpansionjointasshowninFigureVII.7.

FigureVII.7SlabFloorwithinthefoundationWalls

LoadbearingwallsoverslabfloorsrequireathickenedslabasinFigureVII.8.Theseareasare
indicatedbyhiddenlinesandanote.

34


FigureVII.8ThickenedSlabBelow
LoadbearingWall

VII.7.FoundationelevationsElevationsforafoundationaremarkedonthefoundationplan
view.Dependingonthetypeoffoundation,theelevationswillbegivenforvariouspartsofthe
system.Forwallfootings,thetopofthefootingisgivenandsometimesthebottomofthe
footingwillalsobemarkedasanelevation.Foraugercastpiles,caissons,andsteelpiles,the
topofthepilecapistheelevationgiven.
VII.8.SlabreinforcementSteelreinforcingrodsorweldedwirefabricarecastintheconcrete
whenaslabissubjectedtodryingshrinkage.Reinforcementisalsousedwhentheconcrete
slabisexpectedtobesubjectedtotensionduetothesettlingofadirtfillorheavyload.A
typicalnotespecifyingweldedwirefabricinaconcretefloorwouldreadas:#4@12o/cEW
OVER4ABC.
VII.9.WaterproofingfoundationsWaterproofingoffoundationwallsisneededinareaswhere
soilandclimaticconditionsdemandprotectionfromundergroundwater.Residential
waterproofingusuallyconsistsofmoppingtheoutsideofthefoundationwallwithtaror
asphalt.Sometimesapolyethylenesheetisappliedoverthetar.Drawingsforafoundationto
bewaterproofedwillhaveaheavyblacklineontheexteriorwallwithanoteindicating
location.Alayerofcrushedrockorgravelislaidbelowthefloorarea.Thislayeristhen
coveredwithaheavyplasticvaporbarriertokeepthedampnessinthegroundfrom
transferringtotheslab.

35


VIII.

FRAMINGDRAWINGS

VIII.1.WoodframingWoodisthemostwidelyusedresidentialconstructionmaterialdue
toitsavailabilityandaffordability.Woodhasproventobeadurable,dependablematerial
forhouses.Themethodsofwoodframingarewidelyknown.
VIII.2.FloorframesThebasiccomponentsofafloorframe,showninFigureVIII.1,are
explainedbelow:

FigureVIII.1FloorFrameComponents

Sillplate:Thesillplateisaboardattachedtotopsurfaceofthefoundationwall.Anchor
boltscastintheconcreteareusedfortheconnection.A2x6memberisoftenusedfor
thesillplate.
Header:Theheaderisnailedtothetopofthesillplateatitsexterioredge.Theheader
ispositionedwithitslongercrosssectionaldimensionvertical.Theheaderisofthe
samesizeasthejoistsattachedtoit.
Joists:Theendsofthesefloorsupportbeamsrestonthesillplate,andarenailedtothe
header.Joistsarenormallyspaced1216apart.Commonlumbersizesusedasjoists
are2x8,2x10,and2x12.

36

Subfloor:Thejoistsandheaderarecoveredwithsubflooring.Asheetmaterialsuchas
plywoodisnormallyusedandthesubfloorisnailedtothejoists.Thefinishedfloorwill
coverthesubfloor.FigureVIII.2showsadditionalfloorframingmembers.

FigureVIII.2AdditionalFloorFramingMembers

Doubleheader:Whenanopeningthatdisruptstheframingpatternisneeded,adouble
header,samesizeasthejoists,isinstalledperpendiculartothejoists.
Doubletrimmer:Twojoistsarenailedtogethernexttoanopening.
Tailjoist:Thesearejoistsinterruptedbyanopening.Theynormallyrunbetweenthe
doubleheaderandthesillplate.
Ledger:Aledgerisasmallpieceoflumber,suchas2x2,nailedtothesideofthedouble
header,atitsbottomedge.Thispieceservesasaledgeonwhichthetailjoistsrest.
Notchesmustbecutintothejoists.
Bridging:Thesesmallmembersareconnectedbetweenthesidesoftheadjacentjoists.
Bridgingprovideslateralstabilityforthejoistsandhelpstotransmitloadbetweenthe
joists.Manytypesofbridgingareused:joistsizedmembers,crossed2x4s,orcrossed
metalbars.
Thefloorframingsystemisoftenshownonthefloorplan.Thesizesofthemembersaregiven.
Joistswillbespecifiedinmannersimilarto2x12JOISTS16O.C.(oncenter),followedby
markstoindicatedirectionofthespan.
A2x12memberisusedforeachjoist.Thejoistsarespaced16fromoneanother.Joistsona
planrepresentthejoistsabovethelevelshown.

37

VIII.3.DimensioningfloorframesNormally,dimensionsforexteriorwallsaregiventothe
outsideofthestudwallforframeandbrickveneerbuildings.SeeFigureVIII.3

FigureVIII.3Dimensioningof
ExteriorWall

Anotemaybeaddedtothedrawingtoread:exteriordimensionsaretooutsideofstuds;
interiordimensionsaretocenterofstuds.Drawingsshouldbecheckedcarefullytoverifythe
dimensioningpracticeused.Usuallyinteriorwallsofframeconstructionaredimensionedto
theiredges,butsometimestotheircenterlines.Masonryinteriorwallsaredimensionedto
theirfaces,withthewallthicknessalsodimensioned.Housesthathavesecondstoriessmaller
thanthefirstarecalledoneandahalfstoryhouses.Thesehousesusuallyinvolvekneewalls
(shortwallsjoinedbyaslopingceiling)anddormers.Splitlevelhouseshavefloorplansin
whichthelevelsareseparatedbyhalfflightofstairs.Manyvariationsarecalledforinframing
ofthistypeofstructure.
VIII.4.WallframesTherearethreebasictypesoflightframeconstruction:platform,balloon,
andparkandbeam.
VIII.4.1.PlatformframingPlatformframing,alsoknownaswesternframing,isthemost
widelyusedtype.Thefirstfloorisbuiltontopofthefoundation,soitresemblesaplatform
whenthesubflooringiscomplete.Thefirstfloorandwallsectionsareraisedandasecond
floorplatformisbuiltontopofthesewalls.Then,thesecondfloorwallsectionsareraisedand
anotherplatformforthesecondstoryceilingisconstructed.Eachfloorisaseparateunitbuilt
onthestructurebelow.SeeFigureVIII.4.

38


FigureVIII.4PlatformFraming

VIII.4.2.BalloonframingBalloonframingisnotusedtoanylargeextenttoday.Inthistypeof
framing,thestudsextendunbrokenfromthefirstfloorsillplatetothetopplateofthehighest
floor.Secondfloorjoistsrestonamembercalledaribbonwhichissetintothestuds.See
FigureVIII.5.

FigureVIII.5BalloonFraming

39

VIII.4.3.PlankandbeamframingThisframingconsistsofheavytimbermaterialforpostsin
wallsectionsand2thickplankmaterialsupportingfloorandroofsections.Thestructural
membersareplacedatwiderintervalsthaninothermethodsofframing.Thistypeofframing
lendsitselftoextensiveuseofglassandexposedwoodsections.
VariouscomponentsofawallframeareillustratedinFigureVIII.6andaredescribedbelow:

FigureVIII.6WallFrameComponents

Soleplate:Thisservesasabaseforthewallframe.Thesoleplateisthesamesize
memberasthestuds(normally2x4or2x6)andisnailedtothesubfloor.
Studs:Studsaretheverticalmembersinthewallframe,runningfromthesoleplateto
thetopplate.Studsarenormally2x4or2x6members.
Header:Whensomestudsmustbeleftouttomakeroomforawindoworroom,a
headerisusedtodistributetheweightofthebuildingaroundtheopening.Most
commonwayofconstructingheadersistoruntwo2x4memberssidewaysandinsert
a3/8spacer.Theheaderisnailedinplace.
Trimmerstud:Astudisalwayslocatedoneithersideofaheader.Nexttothesestuds
andbelowtheheader,trimmerstudsareplaced.Atrimmerstudextendsfromthe
soleplatetothebottomoftheheader.Itisattachedtoboththestudatthesideand
totheheader.
Roughsill:Aroughsillispositionedtosupportawindow.
Cripplestud:Cripplestudsareshortandextendbetweenthetopplateandtheheader
orthesoleplateandroughsill.Theyaresimilartotrimmerstuds,butarenotpaired
withanadjacentstud.
40

 Blocking:Blockingisusedtopreventthespreadofthefirefromfloortofloorthrough
studandspaces.
Topplate:Thetopplate(showninFigureVIII.6asadoubleplate)restsabovethestuds.
Thenextlevelofjoistsorraftersissupportedbythetopplate.
Interiorwallsthatcarrytheceilingorfloorloadfromabovearecalledloadbearingpartitions.
Usuallytheyarelocatedoverabeamorbearingwall.SeeFigureVIII.7.

FigureVIII.7LoadbearingPartitions

VIII.5.SchedulesDoorsandwindowschedulesgivethenumberandsizeofalldoorsand
windowsinthebuilding.SeeFigureVIII.8foratypicaldoorschedule.

FigureVIII.8ATypicalDoorSchedule
Unitslistedintheschedulearereferencedtotheplanviewwithaletterornumber.Some
times,roughopeningsizeisprovidedintheschedule.
VIII.6.SectionalviewsSectionalviewsofwallsaredrawntoalargerscaleandincludedonthe
drawingstoclarifyconstructiondetails.Thesectionlocationsareidentifiedontheplanview
withareferenceline.Fullsectionsarecutthroughwidthorlengthofabuilding.These
41

sectionalviewsshowfeaturessuchasfloors,walls,andceilingsassections.Featuresbeyond
thecuttingplaneareshownastheyappearintheinteriorofabuilding.
VIII.7.RoofframesSketchesofvariousroofstylesfoundinhouseconstructionareshownin
FigureVIII.9.Thestyleoftheroofismosteasilyidentifiedinelevationdrawings.

FigureVIII.9CommonRoofStyles

FigureVIII.10illustratessomecommontermsusedinroofframing:

FigureVIII.10CommonRoofFramingTerms

42


IX. PLUMBINGDRAWINGS

Inmostresidences,plumbingconsistsofthewaterdistributionsystem,sewagedisposal
system,andpipingneededforheatingandcoolingsystems.Sometimes,pipingdiagramsare
unnecessary.Symbolsontheplandrawingslocatefixturessuchassinks,waterclosets,floor
drains,andexteriorhosebibs.Theplumberinstallsthesysteminaccordancewiththe
specificationsandlocalgovernmentcodes.Plumbersmustcoordinatetheirworkassignment
withothercraftspeople,becauseplumbingtakesplaceduringthreedifferentstagesof
construction:
Initialstageprovidesfortheserviceentranceofthewatersupplyandsewerdraintothe
buildingaremadepriortothepouringofthefoundation.
Thenextstageistheroughinplumbing,whichincludesinstallingwatersupplypipes
andsewagedrainpipes.Theroughinworkisperformedbeforetheslabispouredin
slabongradeconstructionandbeforewallcoveringmaterialsareplacedonthewall
framing.
Thefinalstageisthefinishplumbing,whichincludestheinstallationandconnectionof
fixturesafterthefloorandwallsarefinished.
IX.1.WaterdistributionsystemThewaterdistributionsystemincludesthemainsupplyline
tothebuildingfromthemunicipalwatermeter,individualwell,orothersourceofsupply.All
pipesthattakewaterfromthemaintothevariousserviceoutlets(waterheaters,sinks,water
closets,hosebibsetc.)arecalleddistributionpipes.Thedistributionsystemalsoincludesallof
thecontrolvalves.Symbolsforplumbingfixturesarepictorialrepresentativesofthefixtures
andtheyareshownontheplanviewsandoninteriorelevationviews.Themostcommonly
usedsymbolsforplumbingareshowninFigureIX.1

43


FigureIX.1CommonPlumbingSymbols

IX.2.DistributionpipingmaterialsPipingmaterialsusedforwaterdistributionincludecopper,
galvanizedsteel,brass,andplastic.Copperandplasticarethemostcommon.Copperpiping
shouldnotbeembeddedinconcreteslabs,masonrywalls,orfootings.Whenitisnecessaryfor
thepipetogothroughaslaborawall,aplasticsleeveoralargerpipeshouldbeplaced
betweenthecopperwaterpipeandconcrete.Thiswillpermitmovementduetoexpansionof
thecopper.Galvanizedsteelpipehasgreatstrengthanddimensionalstability.Thegalvanized
coatingprotectsthepipeagainstrusting.Brasspipeisusedforhighlycorrosivewater.This
typeofpipewouldbeusedinsituationssuchascoastalareaswheresaltwaterisusedfor
cooling,baths,orotherapplications.Plasticpipeisusedextensively.Threeofthemost
commontypesareacrylonitrilebutadienestyrene(ABS),polyvinylchloride(PVC),and
polybutylene.Plasticpipesandfittingsusesolventweldedjoints.FigureIX.2showsan
isometricviewofthewaterdistributionsystem.
IX.3.SewagedisposalsystemThesewagedisposalsystemisalsoknownasthe
drain/waste/vent(DWV)system.Itincludesaverticalsoil(waste)stack,avent,andatrapfor
eachfixture.Thewastestackcarriesthewastewatertothebuildingdrain,tothebuilding
sewerlineoutsidethebuilding,andtothepublicsewerorseptictank.Atthebaseofeach
stack,fittingscalledcleanouts(CO)areinstalledtoprovideaccesstocleanoutthecloggedline
withaplumbersrodortape.Pipingcanbeshownonplanandelevationviews,butoftenan
isometricdrawingofthesystemisprovided.
44

FigureIX.2WaterDistributionSystem(IsometricView)

IX.4.SewagepipingmaterialsSewagedisposalsystemscanbemadefrommanydifferent
kindsofpipematerials.Castiron,copper,andplasticpipesareused.Castironpipehasgood
strengthandresistancetocorrosion.Copperandplasticpipesareusedextensivelybecauseof
easeofinstallation.
IX.5.GasandfueloilsystemsSometimes,thepipingforgasoroilheatingsystemisincluded
intheplumbingdrawing.Materialsmostcommonlyusedforgaspipingareblackwroughtiron,
45

galvanizedsteel,oryellowbrass.Coppertubingisbannedbymostbuildingcodesbecauseit
corrodeswhenexposedtosomegases.Blackwroughtironpipeisoftenrequiredbybuilding
codesforpipingcombustiblegases,suchasnaturalgas.
IX.6.PlumbingcodesModelcodessuchastheUniformPlumbingCodeandthelocal
governmentcodecontrolallaspectsofplumbingwork.Theseincludethekindandsizesofpipe
used,locationsoftrapsandcleanouts,plumbingfixturerequirements,ventingprovisions,and
connectionstowatersupplyandsewerlines.Thesecodesalsospecifytheleaktestingtobe
conductedonwatersupplylinesandwastelines.

46


X. HVACDRAWINGS

Heating,ventilating,andairconditioning(HVAC)systemsproducethemovementofairwithina
building.Thisairmaybeheatedorcooled,thenmovedtoanotherlocationtochangetheair
conditions.TheHVACsystemmakesaspacemorecomfortableforthepeopleoccupyingit.
Thetreatmentinvolvescontrollingthetemperature,humidity(moistureintheair),andair
cleanliness.Toaccomplishthedesiredairconditioninginabuilding,aheatingsystemanda
coolingsystemareneeded.
HVACplansaredrawnonthefloorplanofthestructure.Symbolsforheatingandcooling
systemsareshowninFigureX.1.

FigureX.1AirconditioningSymbols

X.1.HeatingsystemTherearethreetypesofheatingsystemsusedinnewconstruction:
forcedair,hydronic(hotwater),andelectricradiantheating.
X.1.1.ForcedairsystemInaforcedairsystem,theheatedairfromthefurnaceorheatpump
chamberistransferredbymeansofamotordrivenfanthroughaseriesofductstoregistersor
diffusersinthevariousrooms.Coolairisgatheredthroughregistersnearthefloorand
47

returnedtotheheatingunitthroughductsandafilteringsystemtobereheatedandre
circulated.Sourcesofheatforforcedairsystemsarenaturalgas,liquefiedpetroleumgas
(LPG),oil,coal,orelectricity.Drawingsoftenspecifytheairflowrateatagivenpointincubic
feetperminute(CFM).
X.1.2.HydronicheatingsystemInahydronicheatingsystem,waterisheatedtoa
temperatureof2000F(900C)inaboiler.Then,thehotwateriscirculatedbyapumpandpiping
systemtoconvectorsinthespacestobeheated.Drawings,whenprovided,aresuperimposed
overthefloorplanorgiveninanisometricdiagram.
X.1.3.ElectricradiantheatingElectricradiantheatingisusuallyprovidedbywiresembedded
intheceilings,walls,orfloorsandbaseboardsofthebuilding.Radiantheatisgivenoffbythe
materials(suchasconcreteorplaster)thatarewarmedbyresistanceinducedinthewires
embeddedinthem.Heatingsystemdrawingscanbesuperimposedoverthefloorplansona
separatediagramprovidedwithappropriatenotes.Whendrawingsarenotprovided,the
amountofheatrequiredforeachspaceisnotedonthefloorplan.
X.2.CoolingsystemsCoolingsystemscanbegroupedasunitsystems(windoworwall
mounted)andremotesystems(refrigerationequipmentlocatedawayfromtheareatobe
conditioned).Athirdsystem,evaporativesystem,isusedinspecialcircumstances.
X.2.1.UnitcoolingsystemsUnitcoolingsystemsareprovidedtocoolaroomandareinstalled
inawindoworspaceprovidedinanexteriorwall.Verylittleconstructionisinstalledintheir
installation.
X.2.2.RemotecoolingsystemsRemotecoolingsystemshavethecondensingunitinaremote
spaceawayfromtheareatobecooled.Theevaporatorisinthemainduct,whereafanforces
airpastthecoolingcoilsandcirculatestheairtotheroomstobecooled.
X.2.3.EvaporativecoolingsystemsEvaporativecoolingsystemsaremosteffectiveindry
climateswheretherelativehumidityislow(20%orless).Thesystemfunctionsbymovingair
rapidlyoverapadofloosefibersthatiskeptmoistbyawaterspraymist.Theairiscooledasit
passesthroughthepad,andthencarriedthroughaductsystemtotherooms.Thesupplyduct
layoutforanevaporativecoolingsystemissimilartothatofaforcedairsystem.
X.3.AirfiltersMostheatingandcoolingsystemsprovideameansoffilteringtheairthatflows
throughthesystem.Thefiltersusuallyhaveanadhesiveoroilcoatthatcollectlintanddust
particles.Thesefiltersmaybedisposableorwashable.Anelectrostaticfilterisusuallya
separateunitaddedtothesystem.Itisnotedontheheatingandcoolingplananddetailedin
thespecifications.

48

49

XI. ELECTRICALDRAWINGS

XI.1.ElectricalplansAnelectricalplanshowsthelocationsofthedistributionpanel,
receptacles,switches,andlights.Someofthemorecommonsymbolsusedonelectrical
drawingsareshowninFigureXI.1.

FigureXI.1CommonSymbolsonElectricalPlan
50

Alegendlistingthesymbolsisusuallyshownontheelectricalplan.Brokenlinesindicatewhich
outletsandswitchesareconnected.However,thepathofthewiringisnotnecessarilywhere
thelinesaredrawn.Theelectricalplanmayalsoshowthewireandconduitsizes.Thelines
showthestartingandendingpointsoftheconduitrun.Again,thelinedoesnotshowtheexact
locationwheretheconduitshouldbelocated.
XI.2.WiringdiagramsAwiringdiagram,asshowninFigureXI.2,isusedwhenwiringdetails
cannotbeshownclearlyontheplan.

FigureXI.2TypicalControlWiringDiagram

Wiringdiagramscorrespondtoaspecificpieceofequipment.Thetypesofwirerunning
betweentheequipmentanditspowersource,sensors,gauges,andotherrelatedequipment
areshown.
XI.3.OnelinediagramsOnelinediagramsareschematicdrawingsasshowninFigureXI.3.
Theyshowwhichpiecesofequipmentareconnectedelectricallyandwhatisusedtoconnect
them.

51


FigureXI.3OneLineDiagram

XI.4.SchedulesTherearemanykindsofSchedulesusedwithelectricaldrawingsandthe
followingthreearemostlyused.
XI.4.1.PanelscheduleAlltheinformationassociatedwithacircuitbreakerbox(alsocalled
lightingpanel,powerpanel,breakerpanel,ordistributionpanel)isincludedinthepanel
scheduleasshowninFigureXI.4.Thevoltageenteringthebox,thenumberandsizeofthe
breakers,andabriefdescriptionofthedevicesprotectedbythebreakersareincluded.

52


FigureXI.4PanelSchedule

XI.4.2.LightingscheduleInalightingschedule,thepermanentlymountedlightfixturesused
intheprojectarelisted.Eachfixtureismarkedonthedrawingwithanidentifyingletterthat
referencestheschedule.Thebrandoffixture,catalognumber,andpowerrequirementsare
listed.
XI.4.3.EquipmentscheduleAnequipmentschedule,asshowninFigureXI.5,issimilartoa
lightingschedule.Itlistsequipmentinsteadoflightfixtures.Moredetailedwiringandpower
informationisincludedintheequipmentschedule.

53


FigureXI.5EquipmentSchedule

XI.5.ElectricalcircuitsAcircuitisthepathofelectricityfromasource(distributionpanel)
throughthecomponents(receptacles,lights)andbacktothesource.Circuitsarenumberedon
thediagramandconnectedbyaheavyline,endinginanarrowthatindicatesthecircuitis
connectedtothedistributionpanel.Electricityisbroughtintothebuildingbywayofthe
serviceentrancethroughthemeterandontothedistributionpanel.Formostresidences,one
distributionpanelissufficient.Therearebranchcircuitsasshownbelow:
Generallightingcircuitsusedprimarilyforlightingandsmallportableappliancessuchas
radios,TVsets,andvacuumcleaners.
Generalappliancecircuitsusedforthoseoutletsalongthekitchencounterserving
toasters,waffleirons,mixers,andotherappliances.
Individualappliancecircuitsusedformajorappliancesthatrequirelargeamountsof
electricity,suchasrangeovens,washers,dryers,andwaterheaters.
Equipmentcircuitsthatfurnishpowertomotordrivenequipment.

54

 Dedicatedcircuitsforcomputersandotherspecialequipmentthatcannottolerate
voltagefluctuationsorinterruptions.
XI.6.Groundfaultcircuitinterrupters(GFCI)TheuseofaGFCIisdefinedintheNational
ElectricalCodeandtheyareinstalledinareaswheremoisturemaybepresentorwherethe
userofanelectricallypoweredtoolorappliancecouldcomeincontactwithagroundedmetal
surface.TheuseofaGFCIisdefinedintheNationalElectricalCode(NEC).AGFCIwillopenthe
circuitifacurrentleakageorfault(toground)occursinexcessof0.006amperes.These
interruptionsoccurwhenthedifferenceincurrententeringandcurrentleavingthecircuitare
notidentical.TheGFCIautomaticallysensesthefaultandturnsoffthepowerwithin25to30
milliseconds.Thesedevicesmustbeusedinthefollowingsituations:

Inkitchenswherereceptaclesarewithin66ofthesink.

Inbathrooms.

Ingarageswheremoistureispresentorthereisdirectaccesstograde,unlessthe
receptacleisnotreadilyaccessibleorisdedicatedtoafixedappliance,suchasafreezer.

Forexteriorreceptacleswhereaccesstogradeispossible.

55


XII. WELDINGDRAWINGS

Weldingisoneoftheprincipalmeansoffasteningmembersinstructuralsteelwork.The
AmericanWeldingSociety(AWS)hasdevelopedstandardproceduresforusingsymbolsto
indicatethelocation,size,strength,geometry,anddetailsofaweld.
XII.1.WeldingsymbolsThereisadifferencebetweenaweldsymbolandaweldingsymbol.
Theweldsymbolindicatesthespecifictypeofweldwhiletheweldingsymbol,asinFigureXII.1,
consistsoftheweldsymbolandthefollowingelements:

FigureXII.1BasicWeldingSymbol

Thereferencelineisthehorizontallineportionofaweldingsymbol.Ithasan
arrowatoneendandatailattheother.Insomeinstances,thereferencelinemay
bevertical.

Anarrowisusedtoconnecttheweldingsymbolreferencelinetoonesideofthe
jointtobewelded.Thisisconsideredasthearrowsideofthejoint.Theside
oppositethearrowistermedtheothersideofthejoint.

Notesareplacedwithinthetailtodesignatetheweldingspecification,process,or
otherreference.

XII.2BasicweldsymbolsThebasicweldsymbolsforvarioustypesofweldsareshownin
FigureXII.2.Ifthesymbolisabovethereferenceline,theweldisplacedonthearrowsideof
thejoint.Ifthesymbolisbelowthereferenceline,theweldismadeontheothersideofthe
joint.Ifbothsymbolsarepresent,theweldismadeonbothsidesofthejoint.

56

FigureXII.2BasicWeldSymbols

XII.3WelddimensionsThesearedrawnonthesamesideofthereferencelineastheweld
symbol.SeeFigureXII.3(A).Whenthedimensionsarecoveredbyageneralnote,thewelding
symbolneednotbedimensionedasinFigureXII.3(B).Whenbothweldshavethesame
dimensions,oneorbothcanbedimensionedasinFigureXII.3(C).Thepitchofstaggered
intermittentweldisshowntotherightoftheweldasinFigureXII.3(D).

FigureXII.3WeldDimensions

57

XII.4.TypesofweldThefollowingaretheusualweldsinpractice:
XII.4.1.FilletweldFilletweldistobeflat,orconvexfacedorconcavefaced,asinFigureXII.4.
Theyareindicatedbyacontoursymbolnexttotheweldsymbol.

XII.4.2.GrooveweldThegrooveangleisshownonthesamesideofthereferencelineasthe
weldsymbol.Thesize(depth)ofgrooveweldisshowntotheleftoftheweldsymbol.Theroot
openingofagrooveweldisshowninsidetheweldsymbolasinFigureXII.5.

58

XII.4.3.SpotweldThesearespecifiedbytheirdiameter,strengthinpounds,pitch(centerto
center),andnumberofweldsasshowninFigureXII.6.

XII.4.4.AllaroundweldTheweldallaroundsymbol,asshowninFigureXII.7,indicatesthat
theweldextendscompletelyaroundajoint.

59

XII.4.5.FieldweldForthistypeofweld,asymbol,asshowninFigureXII.8,consistingofa
smalllineandtriangleoriginatingattheintersectionofthereferencelineandarrowis
provided.Thissymbolidentifiesweldstobemadeattheconstructionsite,ratherthaninthe
assemblyshop.

XII.4.6.MeltthroughweldForthistypeofweld,asymbolindicateswhere100%jointor
memberpenetrationisrequiredfromoneside.SeeFigureXII.9.Whentheseweldsaretobe
finishedbymachineorsomeothermeans,acontoursymbolisadded.

60