ICHMT-02856; No of Pages 7

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

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Kai-Shing Yang a, Chi-Hung Chung b, Ming-Tsang Lee b, Song-Bor Chiang a,

Cheng-Chou Wong c, Chi-Chuan Wang d,
a

Green Energy & Environment Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 310, Taiwan
National Chung Hsing University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Taichung 402, Taiwan
Material & Chemical Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 310, Taiwan
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
b
c

i n f o

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e

In this study, thermal performance of the cooling modules applicable for Par 38 light bulb is investigated. A total
of six heat sink modules, including the basic reference design, metal foam, and carbon foam are tested and compared. Tests are performed and analyzed using the transient test method based on JESD51-1 standard. It is found
that the thermal resistance from junction to die attach is quite small. By contrast, the thermal resistance of the
heat sink dominates the total resistance, and it comprises 55% of the total resistance for the standard heat sink
module. With some slight opening on the base plate, the thermal resistance can be improved by approximately
12%. The thermal resistance for the carbon foam having an embedded metal plate shows the least thermal resistance of 1.14 K/W, followed by the carbon foam, and then the metal foam. The lower thermal resistance of carbon
foam in association with copper metal foam is due to its higher emissivity. In addition to better heat transfer performance as compared to the standard plate heat sink, the utilization of carbon foam and metal foam can also
signicantly reduce the weight of the heat sink. In this study, the weight of the heat sink can be reduced as
much as 33%.
2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Available online xxxx

Keywords:
LED
Metal foam
Carbon foam
Natural convection

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3Q1

An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using

metal/carbon foam

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1. Introduction

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The light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source emitting light operated at a specic wavelength. Note that when compared to
uorescent and incandescent lighting, LEDs feature fast response time,
simple structure, environmental benign, vivid colors, high energy efciency, longevity, and easier to put into mass production. Hence, LEDs
are gradually replacing traditional light sources in every aspect of lighting applications because of their versatile benets. However, in practice
LED converts only 1530% power input into light, leaving 7085% energy
into heat. In this regard, effective thermal management of the LED lighting is imperative to avoid failure of the LEDs [1].
Thermal managements of LED lighting span three major categories:
the package level, the board level, and the system level [2]. Thermal
management in package level or board level involves the selection of
die structure [3], die bonding material [4,5], and substrate [6]. In practice, the thermal resistance of the system level is very crucial. This is

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Communicated by W.J. Minkowycz.

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ccwang@mail.nctu.edu.tw (C.-C. Wang).

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because the size of heat sink implemented at system level normally

takes up the majority of the space, weight, and surface area of the
lamps and lanterns. In fact, the weight of the heat sink used in LED lighting can easily surpass 70% of its total weight. In this regard, it is crucial to
reduce the size and weight of the heat sink from the standpoint of practical applications. As a consequence, cellular structure like metal foam or
carbon foam can be considered as the heat sink applicable for LED lighting due to its signicant reduction of weight while still retains a gigantic
specic surface area for heat dissipation. There had been numerous
studies associated with metal foam concerning inuences like of PPI
[7], and porosity [8,9] on the overall performance. Experimental and
numerical studies for metal foam were also reported [1012]. The
prior study by Hsieh and Wu [13] indicated that the Nusselt number
of metal foam is increased with PPI. This is because more air ow can
penetrate into the internal porous structure and promote convective
heat transfer. However, the rise of PPI also leads to a decline of thermal
conductivity and may even deteriorate heat transfer [14].
In summary of the foregoing studies, cellar structures are considered
to be very effective in heat transfer augmentation and weight reduction
in natural convective applications. Hence, it is the objective of this study
to investigate its applicability in typical LED applications as compared to
the standard plate n heat sink design. The cellar structures include
copper metal foam and carbon foam.

0735-1933/$ see front matter 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

Nomenclature

T1:2
T1:3

C [W s K1]
IF [A]
IH [A]
IM [A]
K [W2 s K2]
Kf [K/V]
k [W m1 K1]
tf [mm]
tfoam [mm]
Wopening [mm]
R [K/W]
Tj [C]

T1:4
T1:5
T1:6
T1:7
T1:8
T1:9
T1:10
T1:11
T1:12
T1:13

Power Supply

Thermal capacitance
Forward current
Heating current
Measuring current
Differential structure function
K factor
Thermal conductivity
Thickness of copper plate n
Thickness of copper or carbon foam
Width of opening
Thermal resistance
Junction temperature

MX100

Power Supply

Natural Convection Temperature Chamber

Booster Extension Box

Booster

T1:1

T1:16
T1:17 Q3

Greek symbols
Tj
Vf [V]

(a)

The change in the LED's junction temperature

The change in the LED's forward voltage

T1:18

T1:24
T1:25
T1:26
T1:27

Steady-state
electrical
powering

Ambient
LED chip
Die attach
Heat sink
Metal Core Printed Circuit Board
Thermal
Thermal pad
substrate

2. Experimental setup and data reduction

78

The schematic of the test facility is shown in Fig. 1(a) which contains
an environmental chamber, a data acquisition system, a transient test
measuring system (T3ster measuring system), a booster extension
box, a power supply, and the test LED lighting module. The concept
thermal circuit of the measurement system is depicted in Fig. 1(b).
The high voltage LED lighting module is typically 1400 lm. The environmental chamber can regulate and control the ambient temperature. The
ambient temperature is controlled at 25 0.3 C throughout the experiments. A total of six heat sinks are used for testing and comparing
in a LED module as shown in Table 1. Detailed geometrical congurations can be seen in Fig. 2. The thickness of the base plate is 2 mm
while a total of six ns having triangular conguration were mounted
on the base heat sink module. The test sample #1 is the reference heat
sink with a solid copper n. Test sample #2 is identical to sample #1
except that there are some openings on the base plate. The opening is
used to entrain more air from the base plate to augment heat transfer.
Test sample #3 is similar to sample #1 but it replaces the copper n
with the metal foam. For sample #4, the metal foam is brazed on the
copper plate. Samples #5 and #6 are similar to those of samples #3
and #4, but the metal foam is replaced by carbon foam. Both copper
foam and carbon foam feature a relatively uniform distribution of pore
sizes and open cell structure; the copper foam is taken from the commercially available samples and the carbon foam is made by us.
The homemade carbon foam derived from a pitch precursor because
pitch is the only precursor which forms a highly aligned graphitic structure which is normally a requirement for high conductivity. The pitch
was melted in 140 to 450 C range and has risen to 400500 C range,
causing the low molecular weight compounds in the pitch to vaporize,

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103
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Thermal
test equipment

IH

IM

Switching-off
from IH to IM

(t)
(t)

(b)
Fig. 1. Schematic of the (a) test setup (b) conceptual connection circuit for thermal circuit.

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TEC
heat sink

IF

T1:28

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80

IF

T1:22
T1:23

Subscripts
amb
Chip
DA
HS
MCPCB
th
TP
sub

T1:20
T1:21

Test LED

T1:19

T3Ster

R
O

T1:15

T1:14

resulting in a pitch foam. Then, the pitch foam must be oxidatively stabilized by heated air. In this regard, the structure must be cross-linked
and the pitch must be set so it does not melt during carbonization.
The set or oxidized pitch is then carbonized in an inert atmosphere to
temperatures as high as 1100 C. Then, graphitization is performed at
temperatures as high as 3000 C to produce a high thermal conductivity
graphitic structure. The thermal conductivity of a highly aligned graphitic structure in the struts was estimated to be 1700 W m1 K1.
Carbon foam is a highly porosity material with k being about
150 W m1 K1, and its density is only one-fth of the aluminum.
The surface area is roughly 100 times that of the traditional heat
exchanger.
The power supply into the LED module is about 9.5 W with the
operational voltage and current of 267 V and 0.036 A, respectively.
To minimize the thermal contact resistance, a thermal pad with
k = 2.8 W m 1 K 1 is used amid the LED and thermal module.
The thermal resistances of the test samples are measured using the
transient test method based on EIA/JESD51-1 standard [15] (Electrical
Test Method) and a transient dual interface measurement (TDIM)
based on the JESD51-14standard [16]. A T3Ster Master system was used
to measure the total thermal resistance of a LED based on thermal

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx
t1:1
t1:2

52

Table 1
Photos and dimension of the heat sink modules (Unit: mm).

t1:3

Sample

Wopening

tf

tfoam

t1:4

#1

Cooper plate n

t1:5

#2

Copper plate n with

opening at the base

47

Fin type

120
4

#3

10

(a)

t1:6

26

Cooper metal foam

Copper metal foam with

embedded solid plate

t1:8

#5

Carbon foam

#6

Carbon foam with

embedded solid plate

27

tfoa

i
pen

Wo

t1:9

26
16

Wo

pen
ing

#4

tf

t1:7

Sample3

R
O

Other samples 7

ng

tfoam

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N
C
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Kf

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Fig. 2. Detailed dimension of the heat sink module (a) side view; and (b) top view
(unit: mm).

transient analysis. The measuring of T3Ster consists primarily of two parts

the hardware measurement and the software calculation. In the rst
step of hardware measurement, the temperature sensitivity parameter
(TSP, voltage is used in this study) was measured, which is termed the
K-factor. The K-factor is given as
T j
V f

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(b)

where Tj is the change in the LED's junction temperature and Vf is the

change in the LED's forward voltage. To calibrate the K-factor, 1 mA bias
current was used from ambient temperature of 25 C to 85 C as shown
in Fig. 3. The device under test was located in the chamber with the
forward voltage of the LED diode which was measured at different
temperatures. Notice that the relation of the forward-voltage drop
of a junction and the temperature of that junction is nearly linear,
therefore the K-factor is obtained. Hence, the calibrated K-factor is
5.97 K/V.

In the second step of the hardware measurement, the forwardvoltage transient data were recorded to determine the junction temperature change with the xed ambient temperature. The applied current
pulse and voltage vary during the measurement of thermal resistance.
A bias current was rst applied initially for certain period, and then
the current level was quickly switched to a higher level and stayed
there till the steady state of the LED was reached. Later on, the driving
current was replaced with the bias current, and the voltage transient
data were recorded subject to natural convective cooling process. In
this experiment, bias current was 1 mA and the operational current is
36 mA. The cooling curve was transformed into a Foster RC network,
which is called network identication by deconvolution. The differential
structure function is dened as the derivative of the cumulative thermal
capacitance with respect to the thermal resistance. The differential
structure function represents the thermal resistance from the junction
to the ambient.

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

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40

50

60

Ambient Temperature

70

80

90

(oC)

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Fig. 3. Calibration of K-factor against ambient temperature.

3. Results and discussion

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As can be seen in the thermal resistance structure in Fig. 4, the resistance path for the LED package consists of a chip (designated as A), a die
attach (B), a substrate (C), a MCPCB (D), a thermal pad (E), and the heat
sink module (F). Tests are conducted with the same LED module subject
to six different heat sinks at the xed ambient temperature of 25 C. The
structure function of the reference sample (#1) is shown in Fig. 5. It is
interesting to note that the heat sink module represents the major thermal resistance of 55%, while the percentages of the thermal resistance to
the total thermal resistance of the die, die attach, substrate, MCPCB, and
thermal pad are, 3%, 3%, 12,%, 19%, and 8%, respectively. The results implicate that the thermal resistance subject to natural convection on the
heat sink is the detrimental one. On the other hand, the thermal resistance of die and die attach is almost negligible. The results are opposite
to the numerical simulations carried out by Christensen and Graham
[17]. In their study, they clearly showed that the major thermal resistance in the die and die attach comprises more than 65% of the total thermal resistance. The results are quite confusing at rst sight. However, the
difference can be made clear from the study of Ji and Moon [18] who
clearly showed that the thermal resistance of the die attach is strongly
related to the die attach materials themselves. For example, at a same
thickness of 30 m, the thermal resistance is 32 C/W for Ag epoxy
while it is appreciably reduced to 2.9 C/W for the PbSn Solder. In this
study, the die attached materials are also of PbSn solder type, thereby
showing a rather small thermal resistance from the junction to the die
attached.
The test results for all the heat sink modules are displayed in Fig. 6.
Note that the test samples use the same LED/package/substrate. As a
consequence, the basic structure function for all the test samples
shows a nearly identical structure in regions AD. The major difference
in the structure function occurs mainly on the heat sink. However, thermal pad is used as a link between the LED package and the heat sink.
The adhesion of LED package and heat sink using thermal pad depends
on human operation. This is because some micro air gap may exist in
the thermal pad adhesion subject to human operation, and resulting in
some slight differences in thermal resistance of the thermal pad. In this
regard, one can see that there are some minor departures of the structure
function in the thermal pad region (E region). To overcome this situation,
a transient dual interface measurement (TDIM) based on the EIA/JESD5114standard [16] is conducted to minimize the human error. The process is
made available by adding a low thermal conductivity material on the
thermal pad, causing an increased thermal resistance of the thermal

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Tamb
Heat sink

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20

Voltage (V)

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pad. Hence, the rise of the effective thermal resistance in the E region
will reduce the error of the thermal pad.
The structure functions of all samples are shown in Fig. 7. From Fig. 7,
the corresponding thermal resistance of thermal pad and heat sink can
be obtained, and it is shown in Fig. 8. It is found that the sample with
carbon foam having an embedded metal plate (sample #6) shows the
least thermal resistance of 1.14 K/W, followed by samples #5, #2, #4,
#3 and #1. However, the pure carbon foam (sample #5) shows an
almost identical thermal resistance of 1.16 K/W as compared to that of
sample #6. Notice that the reference heat sink with solid copper n
shows the largest thermal resistance of 1.47 K/W. On the other hand,
the n for sample #2 is identical to that of sample #1 but it has several
extra openings in the base plate. Hence, the design will entrain airow
from the base and lead to an appreciable drop of thermal resistance to
1.29 K/W. In addition to the benets of improvement in thermal resistance, the utilization of carbon foam can also signicantly reduce the
weight of the heat sink. In this study, the weight of the heat sink can
be reduced by as much as 33% as shown in Fig. 8.
With the pure metal foam (sample #3), the thermal resistance is reduced by 10% to 1.31 K/W. The improvements by metal foam are in line
with the measurements of Xu et al. [19] who conducted natural convection for air in horizontally-positioned open-celled metal foams. Their results showed that the thermal resistance was reduced in the order of
10% as compared to that of solid metal. Although the specic surface
area of metal foam is tremendously increased, the rise of surface area
does not proportionally contribute to enhance heat transfer. This is
associated with several reasons. Firstly, with the high porosity of the
metal foam, its thermal conductivity is signicantly reduced. For instance, Sadeghi et al. [20] reported that the effective thermal conductivity of aluminum metal foam is in the order of 3.787.37 W/m which is
nearly one to two orders lower than that of the pure aluminum. In this
regard, conduction contribution in the metal foam is appreciably reduced
and n efciency of the metal foam is also considerably decreased. However, the signicant decline in thermal conductivity may not be the detrimental reason. This can be made clear from sample #4 which is also
made from metal foam but it is embedded with a solid copper plate
amid the metal foam. It appears that the thermal resistance is only
moderately reduced to 1.24 K/W. However, its corresponding effective
thermal conductivity is increased at least 20 times. Test results of Xu
et al. [20] for various porosities and PPI metal foams also show only
moderate difference in natural convective thermal resistance (around
515%). Secondly, the porous structure of metal foam provides signicant viscous force for the air ow within the metal foam, limiting the
air ow movement and convention accordingly. Hence, the thermal
resistance for metal foam is only slightly reduced in response to these

240

RHS
RTP
RMCPCB
Rsub
RDA

Thermal Pad
Substrate Chip

Die attach

MCPCB

RChip
Tj

Fig. 4. Schematic of the thermal network for a LED light bulb.

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

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AB

105

104

Cth (Ws/K)

103

103

102

102
101
101
100

K (W2s/K2)

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100

10-1

10-1
Thermal capacitance, C

10-3
0

Rth (K/W)

10-3

N
C
O

(a)

10-2

R
O

th
Differential s truction function, K

10-2

R Chip

: 3%

R DA

: 3%

R sub

: 12%

R MCPCB : 19%
R TP

: 8%

R HS

: 55%

(b)

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Fig. 5. (a) Structure function for sample #1and (b) thermal resistance percentage along the thermal pass.

251

two effects. The test results show that the carbon foam shows the
smallest thermal resistance of 1.14 K/W. The marginal decrease in thermal resistance for carbon foam may be mainly associated with its higher
emissivity (around 0.69, using Emissivity Measure model from Japan
Sensor Corporation, model TSS-5X) which is much higher than that of
the metal foam (~0.03), therefore the carbon foam shows a marginally
lower thermal resistance.

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4. Conclusions

253

In this study, an experimental study is conducted in cooling of LED

using metal/carbon foam. A total of six heat sink modules are made
and are implemented on a typical PAR38 LED light bulb. The test sample
#1 is the reference heat sink with a solid copper n. Test sample #2 is

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identical to sample #1 except that there are some openings on the

base plate. Test sample #3 is similar to sample #1 but it replaces the
copper n with the metal foam. For sample #4, the metal foam is brazed
on the copper plate. Samples #5 and #6 are similar to samples #3 and
#4 but the metal foam is replaced by carbon foam. The tests are
performed using the transient test method based on JESD51-1 standard.
Test results for the six samples are concluded as follows:

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(1) The thermal resistance from junction to die attach is quite small.
This is associated with the die-attached material.
(2) It is found that the thermal resistance of the heat sink is the dominant one which accounts for 55% of the total resistance for the
standard heat sink module. With some slight opening on the
base plate, the thermal resistance can be improved by approximately 12.2%.

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Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

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103

Cth (Ws/K)

102
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100

10-2

10-1

R
O

Normal thermal Pad

Low thermal conductivity material on the thermal pad

10-3
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Rth (K/W)

3.0

This work has been supported by the Energy Bureau from the Ministry 284
of Economic Affairs. Also grant from National Science Committee of 285
Taiwan is appreciated.
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105

280

Copper plate fin

104
103

Copper plate fin with opening at the base

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Acknowledgments

Copper matel foam

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the metal foam is about 3.8% lower than that of the standard 281
heat sink module with opening at the base.
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102

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275

(3) The thermal resistance for the carbon foam having an embedded
metal plate shows the least thermal resistance, followed by carbon
foam, and metal foam. The lower thermal resistance of carbon
foam is due to its higher emissivity which gives rise to larger radiation contribution. In addition to the benets of improvement in
thermal resistance, the utilization of carbon foam can also signicantly reduce the weight of the heat sink. In this study, the weight
of the heat sink can be reduced as much as 33%.
(4) The thermal resistance of the metal foam is about 15.6% lower than
that of the standard heat sink module. The thermal resistance of

Cth (Ws/K)

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Fig. 6. Structure function for LED modules with various thermal pads.

101
100

10-1
Copper matel foam with embedded solid plate
Graphite foam

10-2

Graphite foam with embedded solid plate

10-3
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Rth (K/W)
Fig. 7. Structure function for various LED modules.

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

K.-S. Yang et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxxxxx

1.6

300

1.0

R heat sinkl
R thermal pad

280

Weight

1.4

260

0.8

0.6

1.0

0.4

220
200
180

Weight (g)

1.2

Rthermal pad (K/W)

Rheat sink (K/W)

240

0.8

R
O

0.2

160

0.0

120
100

m
pl
e6
Sa

m
pl
e5
Sa

m
pl
e4
Sa

m
pl
e3
Sa

m
pl
e2
Sa

Sa

m
pl
e1

0.6

140

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[10] G. Hetsroni, M. Gurevich, R. Ozenblit, Natural convection in metal foam strips with
internal heat generation, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 32 (2008) 17401747.
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of high-power mini-devices, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 27 (2006) 259-226.
[12] C.Y. Zhao, T.J. Lu, H.P. Hodson, Natural convection in metal foams with open cells,
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aluminum-foam heat sinks, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 47 (2004) 51495157.
[14] Z. Qu, T. Wang, Experimental study of air natural convection on metallic foam-sintered
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[16] JESD51-14 standard, Transient dual interface test method for the measurement of
the thermal resistance junction to case of semiconductor devices with heat ow
through a single path, , 2010.
[17] A. Christensen, S. Graham, Thermal effects in packaging high power light emitting
diode arrays, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 364371.
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Fig. 8. The thermal resistance and weight of the LED modules.

Please cite this article as: K.-S. Yang, et al., An experimental study on the heat dissipation of LED lighting module using metal/carbon foam, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.022

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