Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Thermal spreading resistance characteristics of a high power light

emitting diode module
Kai-Shing Yang a, Chi-Hung Chung b, Cheng-Wei Tu a, Cheng-Chou Wong c,
Tsung-Yi Yang b, Ming-Tsang Lee b, *
a
Green Energy & Environment Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 310, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan, ROC
c
Material & Chemical Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 310, Taiwan, ROC

h i g h l i g h t s

We performed an experimental and numerical study for heat transfer in a LED.

The thermal spreading resistance effect is significant in the LED module.

Lateral thermal conductivity of the substrate is critical to the spreading resistance.

The thermal spreading resistance effect increases with increasing of LED power.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, effects of the dimensions and the thermal conductivity of the substrate on the heat transfer
Received 14 February 2014 characteristics of a LED module are investigated. The total thermal resistance corresponding to a LED
Accepted 10 May 2014 module operating at different power levels is measured using a method following JESD51-1 and JESD51-
Available online 20 May 2014
14 standards. In addition, a finite element method (FEM) numerical simulation is carried out to analyze
the heat transfer phenomena in the LED module. It is found that, for the current experimental conditions,
Keywords:
the importance of the thermal spreading resistance effect increases with decreasing substrate thickness
LED
and/or increasing input power of the LED module, which corresponds to an increase in the total thermal
Electronic package heat transfer
Thermal resistance measurement
resistance and correspondingly a higher chip temperature. Experimental and numerical results show
Spreading resistance that the thermal spreading resistance and thus the chip temperature can be reduced by increasing the
substrate thickness or by utilizing materials with high lateral thermal conductivities (directionally-
dependent) for the substrate. In consequence, for LED modules with the same substrate thickness, using
graphite composite to replace aluminum as the substrate material reduces the spreading resistance by
nearly 14% in the current study.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The development of light emitting diodes (LEDs) systems has
received a lot of attention due to requirements for energy efficient
lighting sources in a variety of applications worldwide. In addition
to high energy efficiency, LEDs also are preferred for their fast
response and low environmental impact [1,2]. The performance of
LEDs in terms of light output quality has improved significantly and
efforts have been made to replace traditional lighting sources with
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mtlee@nchu.edu.tw (M.-T. Lee).
LEDs in many countries [3]. However, the light emitted from LEDs
degrades over time [4e8]. Possible reasons contributing to the light
degradation of LEDs include thermal-induced deterioration of the
encapsulation, die-attach [9], reflector and lead wires, as well as
impurities and crystalline defects [5,10,11]. The chip temperature
has a significant impact on these factors. In addition, nearly 80% of
the energy input to a LED can be dissipated as heat [12]. Thus,
thermal management is critical to attain high efficient, high power
and long lasting LEDs [13e15].
Thermal management of a LED system includes two major
factors: packaging and system performance [16]. In addition to
the design and optimization of heat sinks such as fin arrays
[17e19] and single phase liquid cooling device [20], advanced

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.05.028
1359-4311/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
362 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368
Nomenclature
A in-plane surface area [m2]
hfc convective heat transfer coefficient [W m1 K1]
Kf K factor [K V1]
k thermal conductivity [W m1 K1]
Pi input electrical power [W]
000
q_ volumetric heat source [W m3]
Q input power as heat [W]
R thermal resistance [ C W1]
Rt total thermal resistance of the LED module [ C W1]
Ta ambient temperature [ C]
Tj junction (chip) temperature [ C]
T average temperature [ C]
t thickness [m]
Greek symbols
3 aspect ratio
DTj change in the LED's junction (chip) temperature [ C]
DVf change in the LED's forward voltage [V]
Subscripts
p substrate
s source
thermal management techniques have been studied for the sys-
tem and/or the heat sink section for LEDs. For example, Wang
et al. [21,22] utilized a vapor chamber based plate to successfully
cool a high power LED module. Oscillating heat pipes have also
been applied to improve the thermal performance of two-phase
flow chamber based heat sinks [23]. Chen et al. [24] applied
ionic wind to induce convection and thus promote the rate of
heat transfer for a LED module. The package aspect of thermal
management involves design of the structure, selection of ma-
terials for chip, die-attach and substrate [25]. Heat generated in
the chip is transferred through these layered structures. In
practice, the thickness of these layers is much thinner than the
thickness of the heat sink. However, the package does contribute
to a significant fraction of the overall thermal resistance due to
low thermal conductivities and small surface areas that result
from the fabrication and electrical insulation limitations. In
addition, studies of the thermal spreading resistance have
emphasized varying the ratio of the chip (heat source) area to the
substrate area (heat sink), i.e. the aspect ratio [26e31]. It was
found that the thermal spreading resistance effect can be sig-
nificant for electronic packaging should be included in LED
package design. However, there is lack of study for the spreading
resistance effects with respect to the power of the heat source
(chip), which is one of the issues to be addressed in the present
work.
In this study, experiments and numerical analysis were carried
out to investigate the thermal performance of LED modules, espe-
cially for high power LEDs. The effects of substrate materials and
thicknesses on the thermal spreading resistances are discussed
based on the results. In particular, a new approach to study the
thermal spreading resistance effects was designed and conducted
on a LED module with an anisotropic medium (directionally-
dependent thermal conductivities) as the substrate material and
adjustable input power; this contrasts with the usual approach
where isotropic materials (same thermal conductivity in all di-
rections) are used, and the aspect ratio is the controlling parameter.
Recommendations for the design of the LED thermal spreader are
provided.
2. Experimental apparatus and measurements
A schematic of the experiment is shown in Fig. 1(a). A thermal
resistance testing system (T3Ster®) was utilized in conjunction with
a data acquisition system, booster extension box (for boosting high
power LEDs) and power supply. A thermoelectric cooler (TEC
model: Arroyo instruments 5310-TEC Source and 286-TEC Mount,
accuracy: ±0.004  C) was used to maintain the temperature of the
LED substrate (bottom surface) at 25  C. The detailed measurement
procedure is provided in a previously published work [32]. A chip-
on-board structured LED module with adjustable input power from
10 to 50 W was used as the testing module. A photograph of the
testing LED is shown in Fig. 1(b). Geometrical configurations and
materials of different layers of the LED module are presented in
Table 1 and in Fig. 3. Four substrates were tested: aluminum plates
with 0.9 mm, 1.1 mm, 1.6 mm thicknesses and a graphite composite
plate with a 1.6 mm thickness. The graphite composite plate was
fabricated at the Industrial Technology Research Institute in
Taiwan. The graphite composite plate is an anisotropic medium,
where the thermal conductivities in the x, y and z directions are
503.1, 531.4 and 178.3 W m1 K1, respectively (Fig. 3 shows the
corresponding directions). Thermal conductivity measurements
were carried out using an LFA 447 NanoFlash™ system (range:
0.1 W m1 K1 to 2000 W m1 K1, accuracy: ±5%, repeatability:
±3%) in the Material & Chemical Research Laboratories of Industrial
Technology Research Institute in Taiwan. Measurements of the
thermal performance of the LED module were carried out for power
inputs from 10 to 50 W, with 5 W intervals, for all four substrates. A
thermal pad with a thermal conductivity k ¼ 2.8 W m1 K1 is used
between the LED and substrate to reduce the thermal contact
resistance.
The principle of the measurements is that of the Joint Electron
Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) standard. The electrical test
method (ETM) is based on the JESD51-1 standard [33], and the
transient dual interface measurement (TDIM) for the thermal
resistance is based on the JESD51-14 standard [34]. First, the tem-
perature sensitivity parameter (TSP) noted as the K-factor was
calibrated for every LED module to be tested. The K-factor is defined
as:
DTj
Kf ¼ (1)
DVf
where DTj is the change in the junction (chip) temperature and DVf
is the change in the forward voltage of the LED, respectively. In the
present study, K-factors were calibrated with 1 mA bias current
from 25 to 115  C, and the results are shown in Fig. 2. Note that in
the temperature range of the current study junction temperature
varies linearly with the forward voltage. K-factors for those four
tested LED-substrate modules are listed in Fig. 2. All four cases have
comparable K-factors since the same LED was utilized on all the
substrates. This result confirms the repeatability of the K-factor
measurement. Based on the calibrated K-factor, the junction tem-
perature variation with respect to time (i.e., the cooling curve)
during the thermal resistance measurement can be obtained from
the recorded transient forward voltage data. The thermal resistance
of each layer of the LED module from the chip to the environment
can then be identified and determined from the structure function
that is derived from the cooling curve. Uncertainty analysis for the
thermal resistance measurements was performed according to the
specifications of instrument and the experimental conditions [35].
The uncertainty in the thermal resistance measurement results is
estimated to be less than 5.1%. Detailed information for the test
method of the thermal resistance of semiconductor devices with
heat flow through a single path utilized with the T3Ster® system is
 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368 363

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of the experimental setup; (b) picture of the testing LED module.

presented in the JEDEC Standard Document (JESD51-14), technical directions, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Therefore, a quarter section is
references [36e40], and in our previously published work [32]. analyzed as shown in Fig. 3. As previously noted, the thermal
conductivity of the graphite composite utilized as the substrate is
3. Numerical analysis directionally-dependent; thus, the equation for the conservation of
energy is:
A numerical analysis for the thermal field was carried out to



assist in understanding the heat transfer phenomena in the high v vT v vT v vT 000
kx þ ky þ kz þ q_ ¼ 0 (2)
power LED module. The LED module is symmetrical in the x and y vx vx vy vy vz vz
364 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368

Table 1
Dimensions and materials of package layers of the testing LED module.

Layer Material Size (mm) Thermal conductivity

(W m1 K1)

Encapsulant Silicon Radius ¼ 4.25 0.19

Chip InGaN Length*width*thickness 33
¼ 1.1*1.1*0.17
Die-attach Eutectic Thickness ¼ 0.01 58
Submount AlN 9*9*0.5 120
Copper foil Cu Length*width*thickness 385
¼ 32*32*0.035
Dielectric Epoxy Length*width*thickness 1.2
layer ¼ 32*32*0.08
Substrate Al Length*width ¼ 32*32; 160
thickness ¼ 0.9, 1.1, 1.6
Graphite Length*width ¼ 32*32; kx ¼ 503.1
composite thickness ¼ 1.6 ky ¼ 531.4
kz ¼ 178.3
Thermal pad Length*width*thickness 2.8
¼ 35*35*0.3

Fig. 3. Schematic of the modeling domain of the LED module.

Thermal conductivities of the materials used in this study are
000
given in Table 1. Note that the volumetric heat source term, q_ ,
applies only on the 4  4 chip array (cf. Fig. 3) and is assumed to be
uniformly distributed in each chip unit. As previously noted, a
thermoelectric cooler (TEC) composed of an electrical cooler and a
fan was used to cool the LED module during the experiment.
Therefore, the forced convection boundary condition is specified on
the bottom surface of the substrate. Natural convective heat
transfer boundary conditions are applied for the other surfaces of
the LED module with the convective heat transfer coefficient ob-
tained from Ref. [41].
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Experimental results
Experimental results for thermal resistances of the aluminum
substrate with different thicknesses are shown in Fig. 4. The ther-
mal resistance Rt measured with the T3Ster® testing system is
defined as:
 
Rt ¼ Tj  Ta Pi
Note that results of Rt were obtained from the structure function
measured by using the standard procedure of the T3Ster® testing
system [32]. From the experimental results, thermal resistance
increases with decreasing thickness of the substrate because of the
spreading resistance effect. For example, at an input power of 10 W,
the thermal resistance of the aluminum substrate with 1.6 mm
thickness is 1.3 K W1, which is 41% lower than that of the 0.9 mm
thick aluminum substrate. Chen et al. [28,29] investigated the effect
of thermal resistance in a typical electronic packaging that includes
a rectangular thin-plate heat source and a rectangular heat
spreader plate. In their analysis, an aspect ratio (3 ) is defined as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 ¼ As =Ap , where As and Ap are the in-plane surface areas of the
heat source (i.e. chip) and the spreader plate (i.e. substrate),
respectively. For a small (concentrated) heat source attached to a
relatively large substrate as shown in Fig. 5(a), two effects
contribute significantly to the overall thermal resistance of the
spreader plate: (1) the “one-dimensional” conduction resistance in
the z direction and, (2) the spreading resistance in the lateral di-
rection (xey planes) [27e30]. The thermal spreading resistance,
Rspreading, is defined by the temperatures on the heated surface as
shown in Eq. (4) [28]:
(3)  
Rspreading ¼ Tða; b; tÞ  Tðz ¼ tÞ Q (4)
3.5

Thickness:1.6mm
3.0 Thickness:1.1mm
Thickness:0.9mm

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
10 20 30 40 50

Input power (W)

Fig. 4. Thermal resistances for aluminum substrate with different thicknesses

Fig. 2. Results for the K-factor calibration. (experimental results).
 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368 365

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic of a heat spreader plate with a relatively small heat source placed in the center. (b) Heat flux plot (adiabats) of a heat source on a substrate with an aspect ratio
3 ¼ 1. (c) Heat flux plot of a heat source on a substrate with an aspect ratio 3 < 1. (d) Heat flux plot of a heat source on a substrate with an aspect ratio 3 < 1 and the substrate thicker
than the substrate in (c).

where T(a,b,t) is the temperature at the center on the surface of the effect is more significant for thinner substrates because the adia-
substrate attached to the heat source (cf. Fig. 5(a)). Fig. 5(b)e(d) bats extend more in the lateral direction. This profile of the adiabats
schematically illustrates the spreading resistance effect. The side results from the small convection on the bottom surface of the
walls in the lateral directions are assumed to be adiabatic (omitting substrate which causes more heat to be conducted in the lateral
the small heat transfer associated with the small area and small direction. The extended lateral profile of the adiabats and the
natural convection effect). For an aspect ratio of unity (cf. Fig. 5(b)), correspondingly increased spreading resistance can be reduced by
the spreading resistance is approximately zero because the tem- increasing the thickness of the substrate as shown in Fig. 5(d) [29].
perature distribution on the top surface of the substrate (z ¼ t) is The thermal spreading resistance reaches a constant value at a
uniform. The characteristic length for conduction in the substrate critical thickness of the substrate so that further increasing the
then equals the thickness of the substrate (t); thus, the overall substrate thickness leads to no further change in the lateral
thermal resistance equals the one-dimensional (z-direction) ther- extension of the adiabats [28,31]. Thus after the critical thickness is
mal resistance. For an aspect ratio less than one, i.e. a concentrated reached, further increases in the substrate thickness will increase
heat source, the “paths for the heat transfer” (adiabats) in the the overall thermal resistance because the one-dimensional
substrate are distorted as shown in Fig. 5(c) and (d) [31]. The
adiabats are closely spaced near the heat source and more broadly
2.0
spaced near the cooler surface on the substrate. The temperature
distribution on the top surface of the substrate is non-uniform; thus 1.8
Aluminum
the spreading resistance is non-zero according to its definition by Graphite
1.6
Eq. (4). The characteristic lengths for conduction in the substrate
are larger than the thickness of the substrate (t), thus increasing the 1.4
overall thermal resistance [28,31]. Vermeersch et al. [42] studied
1.2
the dependence of thermal resistance on the convective heat
transfer coefficient (h) in typical electronic packaging. Their results 1.0
indicated that, for common single phase cooling technologies used
0.8
in electronic packaging systems, the thermal spreading effect
should be considered to prevent underestimating the overall 0.6
thermal resistance. Furthermore, the one-dimensional conduction
0.4
resistance increases proportional to the substrate thickness, while
the spreading resistance decreases with increasing substrate 0.2
thickness because the adiabats are less distorted and shorter as
0.0
illustrated in Fig. 5(d). Previous studies [28,29,31] indicated that, 10 20 30 40 50
for a concentrated heat source, the overall thermal resistance of the
Input power (W)
substrate first decreases with an increase in its thickness when the
spreading resistance is dominant and before a critical thickness is Fig. 6. Thermal resistances for aluminum and graphite substrates (experimental
reached. As illustrated in Fig. 5(c) and (d), the spreading resistance results).
366 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368
400
Aluminum_Experiment
Aluminum_Simulation
Graphite_Experiment
380
Graphite_Simulation
Temperature (K)
360
340
320
300
0 10 20 30 40
Input power (W)
Fig. 7. Comparison of the numerical results for the chip temperature with the
experimental results for aluminum and graphite composite substrates.
thermal resistance is now dominant. For the LED module in the
present study, the overall thermal resistance decreases with
increasing thickness, which indicates that the spreading resistance
is dominant. In this case, the spreading resistance and thus the
overall thermal resistance can be reduced by increasing the sub-
strate thickness or by increasing the thermal conductivity of the
substrate, especially in the lateral directions. The effect of
increasing the lateral direction thermal conductivity will be dis-
cussed in a later section.
In the present study the input electrical power is increased from
10 to 50 W. From the experimental results as shown in Fig. 4,
increasing input power increases the overall thermal resistance,
which is attributed to the increasing spreading resistance since it is
the dominant resistance. Thus, it is concluded that, for the current
experimental condition, the spreading resistance increases (adia-
bats extend more laterally) with increasing input power.
To investigate the effect of thermal conductivity on the thermal
resistance of the substrate, the aluminum plate of 1.6 mm thickness
was replaced by a graphite plate of the same dimensions (same
Fig. 8. Top view of the temperature profile for the LED module at 50 W input power (a) aluminum substrate. (b) Graphite composite substrate.
width, length and thickness). As previously discussed, the thermal
conductivities of the graphite composite are directionally depen-
dent (cf. Table 1). The lateral thermal conductivities (kx and ky) are
approximately three times the thermal conductivity in the z-di-
rection (kz). As can be seen in Fig. 6, thermal resistances of the
graphite composite substrate are lower than that of the aluminum
substrate for all input power levels used in the present study. The
reductions in thermal resistance at input powers of 10 W and 50 W
are 11.8% and 13.6%, respectively. Note that the thermal conduc-
tivity in the z-direction of the graphite composite substrate is
similar to that of the aluminum substrate. Therefore, the one-
dimensional thermal resistances of these two substrates are
similar. The reduction in the overall thermal resistance is thus
attributed to the reduction in spreading resistance associated with
the increased lateral thermal conductivities. This result is consis-
50 60 tent with the results of Chen et al. [28], where the ratio of kz to kx
(assuming kx ¼ ky) was varied from 0.1 to 1. Their results indicated
that the spreading resistance can be reduced by increasing the
lateral thermal conductivities. This is achieved by effectively
spreading the heat from the source with high lateral thermal con-
ductivity of the substrate. The temperature distribution is more
greatly extended in the lateral direction, and thus the spreading
resistance is decreased. One limiting case would be for very large
lateral thermal conductivity, so that the heat would be very effec-
tively spread laterally in the substrate. The temperature profile in
the substrate then becomes essentially one dimensional (z-direc-
tion) and the spreading resistance becomes very small.
4.2. Numerical results
A multi-physics finite element computational software program
(COMSOL®) was utilized to further understand the transport phe-
nomena in the LED module. The computed domain is shown in
Fig. 3. Testing of the stability of the numerical solution to mesh size
was performed. It was found that the numerical results of highest
(chip) temperature are 384.89 K, 384.71 K and 384.72 K for a total
number of 420,298 elements, 986,817 elements and 2,634,036 el-
ements, respectively. The latter two cases differ by less than
0.0026%. Thus, the mesh system with 986,817 elements was used
for the simulation. Natural convection boundary conditions with
 K.-S. Yang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 70 (2014) 361e368
the environment temperature of 25  C were used on the outer
surfaces of the LED module except for the bottom surface of the
substrate, where a TEC was utilized to extract heat from the sub-
strate. The TEC is composed of an electrical cooler and a fan.
Therefore, an effective forced convection boundary condition
should be used to simulate the strong cooling effect. To obtain the
convective heat transfer coefficient (hfc) for this boundary, a
computation was carried out for the case of 10 W input power with
an aluminum substrate of 1.6 mm thickness. With hfc of
3500 W m2 K1, the computed chip temperature is very close to
the measured result, with an error of 0.4%. Therefore, this value of
hfc was used. In addition, 70% of the input electrical power is
assumed to be converted as heat and dissipated from the chip [32].
Fig. 7 shows a comparison of the numerical results for the chip
temperatures with the experimental results for aluminum and
graphite composite substrates at different input powers. There is
generally good agreement among the results. For input powers
from 10 to 30 W, the differences between the numerical and
experimental results are less than 0.5%. The numerical results are
slightly lower than the experimental results for high input powers
(40 W and 50 W). It is possible that by increasing the input power
and thus the operating temperature, the luminance efficiency of the
LED decreases, and more input electrical power is converted to
heat. Therefore, the waste heat dissipated from the chip was
increased to 75% and 83% for 40 W and 50 W of the input power,
respectively, and then the numerical analysis was repeated. Note
that this assumption is within a reasonable range for common LED
modules [32,43]. Consequently, the difference between numerical
results and experimental data for the chip temperatures could be
reduced to 0.5%. In future studies the luminance efficiency of the
LED should be measured to attain better estimations of the waste
heat.
As shown in Fig. 7, the chip temperature increases with an in-
crease of input power. At input powers from 10 to 20 W, the chip
temperature of the LED module with the aluminum substrate is
close to that of the graphite composite substrate. At higher input
powers the difference between chip temperatures with different
substrates becomes significant. Fig. 8 shows the temperature pro-
file on the top surface of the substrate (cf. Fig. 3). The temperature
distribution is more uniform for the graphite composite substrate
due to its larger lateral thermal conductivities. Consequently, the
spreading resistance is smaller for the graphite substrate, as shown
in Fig. 9. Note that the thermal spreading resistance (cf. Eq. (4)) is
calculated using the numerical results for the temperature. This
1.0
Aluminum
Graphite
0.8
0.6
Rspreading
0.4
0.2
0.0
10 20 30 40 50
Input power (W)
Fig. 9. Thermal spreading resistances of the LED module (numerical results).
367
result is consistent with the experimental results as shown in Fig. 6,
i.e., the thermal spreading resistance and thus the overall thermal
resistance for the graphite substrate is lower than that for the
aluminum substrate. It should be emphasized, again, that the one-
dimensional thermal resistances in the z-direction are similar for
both materials. Thus, the thermal spreading resistance effect is
important in the present cases, and yields large difference in the
chip temperatures of these two substrates.
5. Conclusions
In this study, experiments and numerical analyses were con-
ducted for a LED module mounted on four types of substrate. The
effects of substrate thickness and thermal conductivity are studied
based on the measured and computed results. For aluminum sub-
strates, the thermal resistance increases with decreasing thickness
of the substrate. For the same thickness, the thermal resistance for
graphite composite with anisotropic substrate is approximately
12e14% smaller than that of aluminum substrate, depends on the
input power of the module. Consequently, the chip temperature of
an LED module with a graphite substrate is lower than one with an
aluminum substrate. In addition, the aspect ratio of the heat source
to the substrate was fixed and the input power of the LED module
was varied to directly investigate the effects of input power on the
thermal spreading resistance. It is found that the spreading resis-
tance and thus the chip temperature increase with increasing input
power.
Numerical results are in reasonably good agreement with the
experimental data. At the same input power, the lateral tempera-
ture distribution for the larger lateral thermal conductivity graphite
substrate is more uniform than the lateral temperature distribution
for the smaller lateral conductivity aluminum substrate. These re-
sults indicate that the thermal spreading resistance effect is sig-
nificant in the present LED configurations, and should be taken into
account for the LED module design. It is also found that the effect of
the thermal conductivity of the substrate is more important for
high power LEDs. Thus, advanced materials with higher thermal
conductivities (especially in the lateral directions) should be
considered for high power LEDs.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to acknowledge the supports from the Bu-
reau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Republic of Taiwan,
and the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, R.O.C. (under
project number NSC 103-2218-E-005-004). Dr. Ming-Tsang Lee
wishes to express great thanks to Professor Ralph Greif at the
University of California at Berkeley for discussions and suggestions
to this study.
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