Applied Thermal Engineering 156 (2019) 324–339

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

A comprehensive analysis and optimization process for an integrated liquid T

cooling plate for a prismatic lithium-ion battery module
Siqi Chen, Xiongbin Peng , Nengsheng Bao , Akhil Garg
⁎ ⁎

Intelligent Manufacturing Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education, Shantou University, Guangdong, China

HIGHLIGHTS

• Battery heat generation model is analysed with experiments to get thermal parameters.
• Temperature standard deviation is analysed in thermodynamics for heat uniformity.
• Maximum pressure, which affects running cost, is considered in fluid dynamics.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Thermal management of lithium-ion battery modules is essential to avoid thermal issues such as overheating and
Battery thermal management thermal runaway. Liquid-cooling is an efficient cooling method, and many publications can be found in this area.
Lithium-ion battery However, a parametric study on the influence of structural parameters on the cooling effect is still lacking. This
Sensitivity analysis article proposes a comprehensive way to quantitively evaluate the cooling effect of a liquid-cooled battery
Multi-objective optimization
module. Computational fluid dynamics is used to establish the fluid-solid coupled heat dissipation model, using
Heat dissipation
the thermal parameters values from experiments. Parameter combination samples are generated using the Latin
Hypercubes method, and the effect of structural parameters on heat dissipation performance is determined using
sensitivity analysis. Multi-Objective optimization is then performed to develop a cooling system with lower
temperature and lower energy consumption. The optimized design is then verified by heat-dissipation experi-
ments of a battery module set-up. The proposed method can be easily implemented in industrial battery pack
manufacturing. The results show that with the same input power, the temperature reduction will be higher,
1.87 °C; and the temperature deviation can also be controlled within a small range, 0.35 °C.

1. Introduction reliable battery thermal management system (BTMS) is of great importance

The sustainable vehicle has been developed as an alternative form of
transportation to alleviate severe problems such as pollution and the con-
sumption of fossil fuel, and lithium-ion cells have also become crucial bat-
tery technology components for the development of electric vehicles (EVs),
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
[1]. Broad application of lithium-ion batteries results from their advantages
such as high energy density [2], high nominal voltage, low self-discharge
ratio [3], and long cycle-life [4]. To prolong the lifetime of lithium-ion
batteries, phenomena such as exceeding the voltage, current or power limits
and thermal runaway should be avoided during discharge and charge
processes [5]. Furthermore, the state of each cell should be carefully
monitored and analyzed (electrically and thermally) to ensure safety and
required performance in real application [6,7].
To get optimal performance, regarding both efficiency and cycle-life, a
[8]. A BTMS is designed to ensure the temperature of a battery pack within
a desired temperature range regardless of whether it is in a low-temperature
environment or a high-temperature environment [9]. As an important
factor, temperature affects several aspects of a Li-ion cell, including its
thermal and electrochemical behaviors, ultimate performance and cycle-life
[10]. A internal operable temperature range for lithium-ion batteries is
between 20 °C and 40 °C, and the allowable outside temperature range may
be prolonged at −10 °C to 50 °C [11,12]. At present, there are mainly three
approaches to BTMSs: (i) air cooling, (ii) liquid cooling, and (iii) phase
change materials (PCM). Air cooling has been widely used in the auto-
mobile industry for its simplicity and low cost [13]. Compared with air
cooling, the weight and complexity of liquid cooling are relatively higher.
However, the efficiency and cooling performance of liquid cooling is sig-
nificantly higher due to its ability to absorb more heat [14]. Further, higher
air velocity is required to provide sufficient cooling effect for its low thermal

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: xbpeng@stu.edu.cn (X. Peng), nsbao@stu.edu.cn (N. Bao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.04.089
Received 24 January 2019; Received in revised form 18 April 2019; Accepted 20 April 2019
1359-4311/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Chen, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 156 (2019) 324–339

Nomenclature kx heat conductivity coefficient in x direction (W/(m⋅K))

ky heat conductivity coefficient in y direction (W/(m⋅K))
Symbols kz heat conductivity coefficient in z direction (W/(m⋅K))
Qv volumetric heat source in the battery (W)
Φ heating power of the battery (W) Uoc open-circuit voltage of the battery (V)
I current rate (A) ρc density of the coolant (kg/m3)
Ii current rate for the different reaction of each electrode (A) cc specific heat capacity of the coolant (J/(kg⋅K))
E0 open-circle voltage of the single cell (V) kc thermal conductivity of the coolant (W/(m⋅K))
E voltage of the single cell (V) v velocity vector of the coolant
Ei,avg theoretical open-circle voltage of each electrode (V) SAi sensitivity of the input variable (non-dimensional number)
T temperature of the battery (K) Wh width of the horizontal part of the mini-channel (mm)
Φ’ rate of heat absorption (W) Wv width of the vertical part of the mini-channel (mm)
Q total value of heat absorption (J) Dc central distance of the mini-channel (mm)
m weight of a single cell (kg) Dh horizontal distance between each channel (mm)
Cp specific heat capacity of the battery (J/(kg⋅K)) Dv vertical distance between each channel (mm)
q value of heat conduction (J) Th thickness of the mini-channel (mm)
δ thickness of the cell (mm) H distance between the mini-channel and the bottom (mm)
Δt temperature difference between the front surface and the Tmax maximum temperature of the structure (K)
back surface of the cell (K) TD standard temperature deviation (K)
f cross-sectional area of the mini-channel (m2) Pmax maximum pressure of the structure (Pa)
P perimeter for cross-sectional of the mini-channel (m)
a, b length and width for cross-sectional of the mini-channel Abbreviation
(m)
ρ density of the liquid (kg/m3) EV electric vehicle
v velocity of the liquid (m/s) HEV hybrid electric vehicle
Dh hydraulic diameter of the cross section of micro-channel PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
(mm) BTMS battery thermal management system
μ viscosity coefficient of the liquid (Pa⋅s) PCM phase change material
ρb mass density of the liquid (kg/m3) CFD computational fluid dynamics
Cb specific heat capacity of the liquid (J/(kg⋅K)) LCC liquid cooled cylinder
kb thermal conductivity of the battery (W/(m K)) LCP liquid cold plate
Q heat generation rate of the cell (W) UDF user-defined function
ρw mass density of the coolant (water) (kg/m3) DOE design of experiments
Cw specific heat capacity of the coolant (water) (J/(kg⋅K)) MMDO multi-objective design optimization
kw thermal conductivity of the coolant (water) (W/(m2⋅K)) UD uniform design
Tw temperature of the coolant (water) (K) CCD central composite design
v velocity of the coolant (water) (m/s) LHS latin hypercube sampling
p Pressure of the coolant (water) (Pa) RSM response surface methodology
Re Reynolds number SVM support vector machine

conductivity [15,16]. PCM uses the latent heat of phase change to keep the
temperature of batteries in the optimum range and obtain uniform tem-
perature distribution during the insulation process [17]. By this method, a
battery thermal management system can be designed without components
like fans or manifolds [18]. However, the thermophysical properties of
various forms of phase change materials are not clear enough. Currently the
principal selection criteria for a particular energy storage application are
focused on its melting point, thermal energy storage density and thermal
conductivity of the organic, inorganic, and eutectic phase-change materials.
There are few practical experiments and real applications constructed to
propose a reliable method that can be commonly used in energy storage
systems. Therefore, further research and deeper understanding of the
thermal-physical characteristics of phase-change materials are needed [19].
It has been proved that a battery thermal management system based
on liquid cooling can effectively prevent the phenomenon of over-
heating for lithium-ion cells over a wide range of charging rates.
Panchal et al. [20] adopted the approach of liquid cooling based on
cooling plates to control heat generation under the discharge rate of 4C.
Using cascade cooling method, Zhang et al. [23] significantly decreased
the temperature difference of a pack from 7 °C observed in cold plate
based method to 2 °C. Mini-channel was proved to be able to prevent
battery fratricide under the phenomenon of thermal runaway [24].
There are some previous studies conducted for the thermal perfor-
mance of liquid cooling using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
models. Zhao et al. [25] proposed a mini-channel liquid cooled cylinder
(LCC) to maintain the maximum temperature and local temperature
difference within an appropriate range. The cooling performance was
numerically investigated considering the effects of the number of
channels, mass flow rate, flow direction, and entrance size. The results
showed that the highest temperature could be controlled under 40 °C
for 42,110 cylindrical cells when the inlet mass flow rate was
1 × 10−3 kg/s and the number of mini-channels was limited to four.
Compared with free convection cooling, the cooling performance by an
LCC exhibited favorable circumstances when the channel quantity was
higher than eight. Saw et al. [26] conducted CFD analysis to investigate
the air-cooling performance of a battery pack with 38,120 cells. They
measured the heat generated by the cell using an accelerating rate ca-
lorimeter during the charging process. By steady state simulation,
thermal performances of the battery pack were analyzed among various
mass flow rates of the cooling air. The correlation between the Nusselt
number and Reynolds number was derived from the numerical mod-
eling results. A series of experiments were conducted on the battery
pack at different charging rates, and the results validated the correla-
tion. This study provides a useful method for the estimation of a battery
pack’s thermal performance when a pack is very large, and full transient
simulation is not feasible. Huo et al. [27] proposed a mini-channel
cooling plate for a rectangular Li-ion battery. In this study, a 3D thermal
model was developed and analyzed the cooling effect of some

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parameters (flow direction, inlet mass flow rate, channel quantity, and
ambient temperature) on temperature increment and temperature dis-
tribution during the discharging process. The results demonstrated that
the highest temperature of the battery pack decreased with increments
of channel quantity and inlet mass flow rate, and the effect of flow
direction was relatively small. It has also been concluded that with the
increase of inlet mass flow rate, the cooling performance was improved,
but the increasing trend became smaller, and the optimal cooling per-
formance was reached when the mass flow rate was 5 × 10−4 kg/s.
To achieve desired cooling performance with less expense and space, it
is necessary to combine the optimization work with CFD analysis. Jarrett Fig. 2. Schematic structure of the battery thermal management system based
et al. [28] designed a cooling plate for lithium-ion batteries. Optimization on liquid cooling.
work for the model was conducted by CFD simulation for the serpentine
channel. The results indicated that the design could satisfy the requirements
along the flow path; the temperature standard deviation of the thermal
of both average temperature and pressure but at the expense of temperature
management system should be evaluated with respect to the temperature
consistency. Jin et al. [29] proposed an oblique cut across the straight fins of
distribution and the temperature difference of the pack. The expense of a
a conventional straight channel configuration to improve the performance
battery thermal management system (such as cooling power, cost of
of the conventional channel with minimal pressure penalty. As shown in
equipment) should also be considered during the design process. These
Fig. 1, these oblique cuts across the straight fins formed an oblique fin array.
remaining concerns may undermine the overall effectiveness of a thermal
The liquid cold plate (LCP) adopted in this study contains these simple
management system.
oblique fins with optimized angle and width. The segmentation of the
In this paper, a liquid cooling system is designed using the multi-
continuous fins into oblique sections results in the re-initialization of
disciplinary multi-objective design optimization method (MMDO), and
boundary layers, which leads to elevated temperatures caused by a thick
the analysis of thermodynamics and fluid dynamics is conducted si-
boundary layer in the fully developed region. The results revealed that the
multaneously using CFD and experimental investigation.
heat transfer coefficients of an oblique mini-channel were higher than those
Previous reported studies have also outlined some pitfalls that need
of a conventional straight mini-channel. This unique structure proved to
to be solved by the multidisciplinary multi-objective design optimiza-
have the cooling ability of maintaining the battery surface average tem-
tion method, CFD and experimental investigation, which are described
perature below 50 °C under 1240 W heat load at less than 0.9 L/min flow
in the following statements:
rate.
There have been various different forms of research work focusing on
(1) For thermodynamics, existing research has mainly focused on the
the thermal characteristics of different cooling systems for Li-ion cells.
configurations, the design, and structure of the batteries and the
However, despite the fact that these proposed liquid cooling methods are
arrangement of modules to reduce the maximum temperature of
capable of preventing overheating, thermal non-uniformity still needs to be
battery packs. However, the temperature standard deviation, which
considered to avoid the resulting gradual temperature rise of the coolant
represents the temperature difference is also important and more

Fig. 1. Boundary layer development of (a) conventional straight channel and (b) oblique fin channel [29].

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Fig. 5. Placement of temperature sensors on the surface of the battery cell.

Fig. 3. The schematic diagram of the parameters of the cooling plate.

Table 1
Thermodynamic parameters of the cooling plate material and water [15].
Material ρ (kg⋅m−3) Cp (J⋅kg−1⋅K−1) λ (W⋅m−1⋅K−1) μ (Pa⋅s)

15-5H 7800 419 17.9 /

Water 998.2 4128 0.6 1.003e−3

Fig. 6. Linear fitting curve in the test of thermodynamic parameters of the

battery cell.

Table 2
Thermodynamic parameters of the battery.
Material ρ (kg⋅m−3) Cp (J⋅kg−1⋅K−1) λ (W⋅m−1⋅K−1)

Battery 2373.38 683.63 91.67

channel design leads to higher thermal conductivity, which enables the

Fig. 4. Experiments under cotton wrap thermal insulation.
difficult to analyze [25,30].
(2) For fluid dynamics, the maximum pressure of the cooling system
affects the inlet power and the size requirements of the hydraulic
pump. The maximum pressure also affects the pressure drop, which
results from the frictional resistance in the channels. The increase of
pressure drop requires a mechanically stronger cooling plate to
resist higher pressure, which significantly increases the cost of the
cooling system [31].
2. Heat dissipation model
2.1. Structure design of liquid cooling plate
Fig. 2 shows the schematic structure of the battery thermal man-
agement system based on liquid cooling. For the battery module, each
cooling plate is clamped by two batteries in the middle. This mini-
cooling plate to effectively remove a large amount of heat from the
battery thermal management system.
Fig. 3 illustrates the structure and parameters of the cooling plate in
detail. Wh and Wv represent the transverse and longitudinal widths of each
mini-channel, Dh and Dv represent the transverse and longitudinal spacing of
each channel, Dc represents the central spacing of the upper channel, Th
represents the depth of the channels, and H represents the distance between
the lower channel and the bottom of the cooling plate.
Because the inner dimension of the micro-channel is too small, it is
difficult to obtain by traditional processing methods. In this study,
structural steel 15-5H was processed by 3D printing. Given the rela-
tively easy availability of water in practical applications, and the fact
that there is not a big difference of thermal-physical parameters be-
tween water and the mixture of water and ethylene glycol, it was se-
lected as the coolant in this study. Table 1 lists the thermodynamic
parameters of 15-5H and water.
2.2. Acquisition of thermodynamic variables of lithium-ion battery
In this study, an 8Ah lithium-ion soft-pack battery was selected as
the research object. Its charge-discharge range is 3.6–4.2 V. For the

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Fig. 7. The simplified schematic diagram of the liquid cooling system. Fig. 10. Velocity distribution of the mini-channel.

where Φ represents the heating power of the battery; I represents the

current rate (when a cell is charging, the value will be positive, when a
cell is discharging, the value will be negative); Ii represents the current
rate for different reaction of each electrode; E represents the voltage of
a single cell; Ei,avg represents theoretical open-circle voltage of each
electrode; and T represents the temperature of the battery.
Because I = Ii Eq. (1) can be simplified as Eq. (2):
dEo
= I (Eo E) T
dT (2)

where E0 represents the open-circle voltage of the single cell.

The definition of specific heat capacity is described in Eq. (3):
Fig. 8. Grid independence test considering maximum temperature. Q
= dt
mcp dT
= dt
dT
= mcp dt (3)
’
where Φ represents the rate of heat absorption; Q represents the total
value of heat absorption; m represents the weight of a single cell; and cp
represents the specific heat capacity of the battery.
When a cell is in an environment of heat insulation, the value of
heat absorption is equal to the value of heat generation; the relationship
can be described as Φ = Φ’.
The relationship between ohmic resistance and the voltage of the
cell is described as Eo E = IRz .
Therefore, the equation can be described in Eqs. (4) and (5):
1 dT R T dE0
Fig. 9. Grid independence test considering maximum pressure. = Z I
I dt mcp mcp dT (4)

study of thermodynamic physical parameters, Bernardi [32] proposed a dEo

= I 2Rz IT
set of methods to measure the heating power and specific heat capacity dT (5)
of lithium-ion batteries. The method does not require complicated
where
dE
is related to chemical reaction, which is considered as a
T dTo
equipment, which makes it easy to implement [33].
constant value for a specific battery, so Eq. (4) is regarded as a linear
The model of heat generation is described in Eq. (1):
function of the current I.
According to the Fourier law of heat transfer, the equivalent thermal
dEi, avg
=( Ii Ei, avg IE ) Ii T conductivity of the cell can be calculated using Eq. (6) (Valid in steady
dT (1)
i i state):

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Fig. 11. Roadmap of the proposed optimization methodology.

Table 3
The independent variables and dependent variables of the optimization problem.
Independent variables Dependent variables

The width of the horizontal part of the mini-channel Wh The maximum temperature of the structure Tmax
The width of the vertical part of the mini-channel Wv The temperature standard deviation TD
The central distance of the mini-channel Dc Maximum pressure of the structure Pmax
The horizontal distance between each channel Dh
The vertical distance between each channel Dv
The thickness of the mini-channel Th
The distance between the mini-channel and the bottom
H

q between the front surface and the back surface of the cell.
=
t (6) As shown in Fig. 4, the experiment of measuring the thermodynamic
parameters of the battery was carried out under the condition of cotton
where q represents the value of heat conduction; δ represents the
wrap thermal insulation.
thickness of the cell; and Δt represents the temperature difference

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Table 4 length-width ratio of the channel section is less than 8, the equivalent
Ranges of independent variables and parameters of original design. hydraulic diameter can be calculated using Eq. (7). The Reynolds
Variable Notation Lower bound Upper bound Original design number can be calculated using Eq. (8), which is less than 2300, so the
laminar flow model is adopted. According to the normal application,
x1 Wh (mm) 1.00 6.00 2.00 the side of the battery module is defined as the convective heat transfer
x2 Wv (mm) 1.00 6.00 2.00
boundary, and the heat transfer coefficient is defined as 5 W/(m⋅K)
x3 Dc (mm) 5.00 15.00 10.00
x4 Dh (mm) 2.00 8.00 5.00
[25]. The liquid temperature at the entrance is defined as the ambient
x5 Dv (mm) 2.00 8.00 5.00 temperature (298.15 K).
x6 Th (mm) 0.10 1.50 1.00
x7 H (mm) 5.00 10.00 10.00
4f 2ab
Dh = =
P (a + b ) (7)

Fig. 12. Sensitivity diagram of the impacts of input variables on three objec-
tives.
Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of sensors on the cell during the test. Due
to the different heat generation in different parts of the battery, four ther-
mocouples with accuracy of < 1.0 °C were arranged at the positive, nega-
tive, middle and bottom of the battery in this experiment (see Fig. 6).
Considering the capacity of the cell (8Ah), five groups of tests were
designed for each cell to measure the equivalent specific heat capacity.
The experimental steps are as follows:
vDh
Re =
µ (8)
In Eqs. (7) and (8), f represents the cross-section area of the mini-
channel; P represents the circumference of the cross-section of the mini-
channel; and a and b respectively represent the length and width of the
cross-section of the mini-channel. Re represents the Reynolds number, μ
represents the fluid viscosity coefficient, ρ represents fluid density; v
represents fluid velocity; and Dh represent the hydraulic diameter of the
cross section of the micro-channel.
Figs. 8 and 9 show the grid independence test considering the maximum
temperature and pressure respectively. This can be used to ensure the re-
liability of subsequent simulation and optimization. As shown in the figures,
when the total number of grids is maintained between 24,645 and 25,512,
the result is to maintain a stable range. Therefore, the number of meshes is
defined as 24,988 to save computational cost.
Examination of the velocity distribution in the cooling channel is
conducted to verify if the model is able to describe the flow, which is
shown in Fig. 10.
2.4. Theoretical model
To analyze the fluid flow and thermal response, some assumptions
should be included:

(1) Charge each cell to ensure the state of charge is between 80% and (1) Steady-state flow;
100%. (2) Incompressible flow;
(2) Leave 30 min for heat dissipation. (3) Constant thermo-physical properties;
(3) Put each cell at an adiabatic environment and connect them with (4) No thermal energy source within fluid and fins;
the power supply. (5) Negligible heat loss due to radiation and natural convection
(4) Discharge at the rate of 1C, 1.2C, 1.5C, 1.8C and 2C for 12, 10, 8, [20,21];
6.7 and 6 min respectively (Temperature increases linearly with (6) Gravity is neglected;
time when the discharging time is short). (7) Flow is uniformly distributed in mini-channels.
(5) Conduct the linear regression work for the experimental data and
calculate the average equivalent specific heat capacity. To acquire the temperature distribution of a cell, the energy con-
servation equation of heat conduction for the cell is shown in Eq. (9):
Even cells are inconsistent; these parameters are calculated as the
average value of several cells from a series of experiments. The ther- cp
T
= kx
T
+ ky
T
+ kz
T
+ Qv
modynamic parameters of the cell monomer can be calculated and are x x y y z z (9)
listed in Table 2:
where ρ and cp are the density and specific heat capacity of the cell,
respectively; kx, ky, and kz are the heat conductivity coefficient in the x,
2.3. Heat dissipation model based on computational fluid dynamics y, and z directions, respectively; and Qv is the volumetric heat source in
the battery, which is generated by electrochemical enthalpy change and
Considering the symmetry and computational complexity of the heat internal thermal resistance. The specific form of Qv is shown in Eq. (10):
and mass flow model, the three-dimensional model is simplified to a single
dUoc
cell and a half condensation plate, as shown in Fig. 7. By the follow-up Qv = I (Uoc V) IT
dT (10)
experiments, the simulation process is set to discharge 720 s continuously at
1C discharge rate. In this process, UDF (user-defined function) is used to where I, T and Uoc are the current, temperature and open-circuit voltage of
define the heat source (lithium-ion battery). Because of the anisotropy of the battery, respectively. Theoretically, temperature and current are the
conductivity inside the battery, the battery is defined as a heat source rather main causes of heat generation dUoc is the entropic coefficient of the cell.
dT
than a surface heat flow boundary, so the temperature of the whole cross- Water is adopted as the coolant in this study. The energy con-
section of the battery can be calculated. Compared with heat conduction, servation equation of the liquid coolant is shown in Eq. (11):
the effect of thermal radiation can be neglected.
The meshing and numerical calculation of the model are carried out Tc kc
c + ·( c v Tc ) = · Tc
in ICEM CFD 15.0 and FLUENT 15.0 software respectively. Because the t cc (11)

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(a) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and Wv.

(b) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and Wh.

(c) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and Dv.
Fig. 13. 3-D sensitivity plots of output variables and input variables.

where ρc, cc and kc are the density, specific heat capacity and thermal v =0 (13)
conductivity of the coolant, respectively.
The continuous equation of the liquid coolant is shown in Eq. (12): where v is the velocity vector of the coolant.
The momentum equation of incompressible liquid is shown in Eq.
c (14):
+ ( c v) = 0
t (12)
dv 2v
= p+µ
In a state of stationary flow c
t
= 0 , and because coolant is an in- c
dt (14)
d
compressible fluid dtc = 0 .
where ρc and μ are static pressure and dynamic viscosity of the coolant,
The continuous equation of incompressible fluid can be obtained
respectively [22].
from Eq. (13):

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(d) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and Dh.

(e) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and Dc.

(f) 3-D sensitivity plot of Tmax, TD and Pmax versus to Th and H.

Fig. 13. (continued)

Table 5 3. Research problem and methodology

The setting of the multi-objective genetic algorithms NSGA II.
Parameters Values
The main purpose of this work is to develop a cooling system with
lower temperature and lower energy consumption. Therefore, this can
Initial sample size 100 be regarded as an optimization problem with two objectives. Fig. 11
Sample number per iteration 100 illustrates the methodology employed in the liquid cooling system op-
Maximum permissible Pareto percentage 70
timization. The coupled multidisciplinary optimization process is
Maximum iterations 20
Maximum number of candidate points/targets 3 mainly divided into four parts:

(1) The design of the liquid cooling system and CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) analysis;
(2) The DoE (design of experiments) and surrogate models;
(3) Formulation of the optimization model;

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(c) Pressure distribution for the symmetric face of the cooling plate.
Fig. 14. Temperature and pressure contours of the initial design at 720 s under 1C discharge.

Table 6 (4) Multi-objective optimization for the selection of the optimum

Candidate designs for minimizing the maximum temperature. scheme for the liquid cooling system.
Design Candidate Candidate Candidate
variables design 1 design 2 design 3 The liquid-cooled system in this study consists of two batteries that
are charged and discharged under normal driving conditions. The de-
Input parameters Wv (mm) 3.48 4.58 5.86 sign of a water-cooled BTMS as illustrated in Figs. 2 and 11 and con-
Wh (mm) 5.84 6 6
Dh (mm) 2.24 2 2.33
sidered in our optimization roadmap has been subject to prior in-
Dv (mm) 3.18 2 2 vestigation by Rao et al. [27]. The results showed that the pressure
Dc (mm) 12.24 11.33 14.26 difference is large when the number of channels is small, and the
Th (mm) 0.12 0.1 0.1 cooling performance cannot reach a satisfactory level in this case.
H (mm) 5.75 5.16 5
However, more channels will increase by driving power and cost [31].
Output parameters Tmax (K) 302.83 302.65 302.62 Based on the above considerations and previous studies, a three-
TD (K) 0.44 0.66 0.43 channel condenser plate is proposed considering the cooling perfor-
Pmax (Pa) 176,350 386,600 312,620
ΔT (K) 4.47 4.65 4.68
mance and cost in this study. The independent variables and dependent
Pinput (W) 158.72 347.94 281.36 variables are defined in Table 3.

Table 7 3.1. Surrogate model

Candidate designs for the minimizing the maximum temperature.
The surrogate model is used in this study. First, a high-fidelity CFD
Design Candidate Candidate Candidate
model based on a liquid-cooled battery heat management system was
variables design 4 design 5 design 6
established to evaluate the performance of the liquid-cooled structure.
Input parameters Wv (mm) 4.92 2.76 5.57 However, direct use of a high-fidelity CFD model based on liquid-cooled
Wh (mm) 5.70 1.13 2.44 battery heat management system will require a large amount of cal-
Dh (mm) 2.15 4.11 7.17
culation and time to optimize the work. The surrogate model was
Dv (mm) 5.90 4.61 7.35
Dc (mm) 14.84 8.07 11.66 adopted in this study to solve this problem.
Th (mm) 0.42 0.22 0.30 The surrogate model mainly consists of two parts: design of ex-
H (mm) 6.40 5.42 5 periments (DOE) and surrogate model formulation. There are many
Output parameters Tmax (K) 304.5 304.49 304.49 DoE methods, such as Uniform Design (UD) [9], Central Composite
TD (K) 0.38 0.39 0.42 Design (CCD) [22], and Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) [23]. There
Pmax (Pa) 710.01 5459.8 2629.9 are also many methods in the formulation of agent-based models, such
ΔT (K) 2.80 2.81 2.81
Pinput (W) 0.64 4.91 2.80
as RSM (Response Surface Methodology) [24], Kriging [25] and Sup-
port Vector Machine [26]. Latin hypercube sampling is the most com-
monly used experimental design method, which has also been used in
this study. The support vector machine (SVM) is used to calculate the

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Fig. 15. Temperature and pressure contours of the optimized design at 720 s under 1C discharge.

Table 8 maximum temperature, temperature standard deviation and maximum

Candidate designs for minimizing both maximum temperature and maximum pressure. There are 100 designs for the optimization work in this study,
pressure. and detailed information is shown in the Appendix. The dependent
Design Candidate Candidate Candidate variables are represented in Eq. (15):
variables design 7 design 8 design 9
Tmax = fT max (Wh, Wv, Dc , Dh , Dv , Th, H )
Input parameters Wv (mm) 4.16 5.20 3.28 TTD = fTD (Wh, Wv , Dc, Dh, Dv, Th, H )
Wh (mm) 5.66 5.43 5.45
Pmax = fP max (Wh, Wv , Dc, Dh, Dv, Th, H ) (15)
Dh (mm) 4.41 6.10 7.25
Dv (mm) 3.44 7.44 2.42
Dc (mm) 7.81 13.67 5.48
Optimization of the battery heat management system might consist
Th (mm) 0.64 0.60 0.71 of three objectives: (1) The maximum temperature of the system should
H (mm) 7.98 8.06 5.27 be minimized, (2) the temperature difference of the system should be
Output parameters Tmax (K) 305.47 305.45 305.43 minimized, and (3) the maximum pressure (input power) of the system
TD (K) 0.38 0.34 0.35 should be minimized. The ranges of the independent variables and the
Pmax (Pa) 899.79 986.12 222.91 parameters of the original design are listed in Table 4, and consider the
ΔT (K) 1.83 1.85 1.87
size of the battery cell. Simulation work has validated the cooling
Pinput (W) 0.81 0.89 0.20
performance and efficiency of the design plan. The detailed optimiza-
tion objectives and constraints are described in Section 3.3.
Table 9
Comparison between Candidate design9 and its validated designs. 3.2. Sensitivity analysis
Design Candidate Validate Validate
variables design 9 design 1 design 2
Sensitivity analysis changes the model’s independent variables
within a certain range and observes the behavior or change in the
0Input parameters Wv (mm) 3.28 3.25 3.30 model. Sensitivity analysis of the four output variables (combined with
Wh (mm) 5.45 5.40 5.50 the four underpinning objectives of the optimization process) to input
Dh (mm) 7.25 7.20 7.30
Dv (mm) 2.42 2.40 2.45
variables fully describing the cooling plate (see Table 3) has been
Dc (mm) 5.48 5.45 5.50 performed using Eq. (16):
Th (mm) 0.71 0.70 0.72
(fmax (x i) fmin (x i))
H (mm) 5.27 5.25 5.30 SAi = × 100
n
(f (x ) fmin (xj ))
j = 1 max j (16)
Output parameters Tmax (K) 305.43 305.31 305.36
TD (K) 0.35 0.35 0.36
Pmax (Pa) 222.91 274.26 243.30
where fmax(xi) and fmin(xi) are the maximum and minimum values of the
ΔT (K) 1.87 1.99 1.94 dependents among all domains of independents. The results of the sensi-
Pinput (W) 0.20 0.25 0.22 tivity analysis of this model are shown in Fig. 12. At maximum temperature,
the influence of mini-channel depth is greater (91.8%), which directly

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(c) Pressure distribution for the symmetric face of the cooling plate.
Fig. 16. Temperature and pressure contours of the optimized design considering the minimization of both maximum temperature and maximum pressure at 720 s
under 1C discharge.

3-D Response Surface Methodology is also applied to analyze sensitivity.

By choosing two different variables from seven input variables and keeping
the other input variables unchanged, the results of three output parameters
are calculated respectively; the results are shown in Fig. 13.

3.3. Design and analysis based on a multi-objective genetic algorithm

The multi-objective genetic algorithm NSGA II [22] is the multi-objec-

tive optimization algorithm used in this work. Table 5 shows the initial
settings of the multi-objective genetic algorithm NSGA II. The temperature
and pressure contours of the initial design are shown in Fig. 14.

3.3.1. Optimal design based on the minimization of maximum temperature

In terms of the objective of optimization–ensuring that the max-
imum temperature is lower than 303 K, the MMDO formulation of the
BTMS is expressed in Eq. (17):

Fig. 17. Schematic of the experimental set-up. findx = [Wh, Wv , Dc , Dh , Dv , Th, H ]

Tmax 303
decides the cross-section area of the inlet surface, its impact on maximum 1 Wh 6
pressure is significant when the mass flow rate is constant, followed by the 1 Wv 6
width of the horizontal channel (4.2%), the distance between the mini- 5 Dc 15
channel and the bottom (2.1%) and the central distance of the mini-channel 2 Dh 8
(2.0%). For the temperature standard deviation, the depth of the mini- 2 Dv 8
channel is still the most important factor (43.2%), and greatly affects the 0.1 Th 1.5
velocity of the coolant. Therefore, the depth of the mini-channel has tre- 5 H 10 (17)
mendous influence on the cooling performance and cooling efficiency of the
Table. 6 shows three of the optimization design candidates in which
system, followed by the distance between the center of the mini-channel
the maximum temperature can be remain below 303 K after optimiza-
(28.9%), the horizontal distance between the channels (14.4%), the width
tion work. However, the pressure of this design is too high for a battery
of the horizontal channel (14.3%), the distance between the mini-channel
thermal management system to apply in a real application.
and the bottom (7.5%) and the width of the vertical channel (1.9%). At the
Considering the feasibility and the cooling effect requirement, lim-
maximum pressure, the influence of mini-channel depth is as high as 99.5%.
iting the maximum temperature within 304.5 K is more appropriate.

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Fig. 18. Rising temperature curves of the original design.

Fig. 19. Rising temperature curves of optimized design 4.

The results of this optimization are shown in Table 7. The pressure drop findx = [Wh, Wv , Dc , Dh , Dv , Th, H ]
in the thermal management system has been significantly reduced, Tmax 30.5
which means the power supply requirement of was also reduced. Pmax 1000
Candidate design4 was adopted as a useful plan, and the temperature 1 Wh 6
and pressure distributions of this design plan are shown in Fig. 15. 1 Wv 6
5 Dc 15
2 Dh 8
3.3.2. Optimal design based on minimization of maximum temperature and 2 Dv 8
maximum pressure 0.1 Th 1.5
Based on the above analysis, reductions in pressure drop and max- 5 H 10 (18)
imum temperature should be considered in a real application. The
Tmax 305.5K
constraints of these requirements are listed as . Table 8 shows the final three candidate solutions of the NSGA Ⅱ.
Pmax 1000Pa
Then, the MMDO formulation of the BTMS is expressed in Eq. (18): Design9 is acceptable because the temperature distribution has been
significantly improved and the required power supply is not as high. To
validate Candidate design9 as the optimal design among these con-
strains, a set of designs are compared with the results, as shown in

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S. Chen, et al.
Fig. 20. Rising temperature curves of optimized design 9.
Table 10
Comparison between simulation and experiment results.
Original design (simulation)
Original design (experiment)
Optimized design 4 (simulation)
Optimized design 4 (experiment)
Optimized design 9 (simulation)
Optimized design 9 (experiment)
Table 9. This comparison demonstrated that this design has a relatively
better tradeoff among maximum temperature, temperature standard
deviation and maximum pressure. Temperature distribution and pres-
sure distribution of design plan9 are shown in Fig. 16.
4. Experimental validations
Fig. 17 shows the experimental setup for validating the thermal
performance and fluid pressure of the thermal management system.
Each cell is placed in the cell test machine (Neware BTS-4000, China).
There are four K-type thermocouples attached to the surface of each cell
to measure the temperature of the system during the process, and there
is a pressure sensor set at the inlet of the mini-channel to detect the
liquid pressure. The temperature and pressure data of the thermal
management system are recorded in the datalogger (THM001, China).
A motor peristaltic tubing pump (Kamoer Lab UIP, China) is used to set
the water flow. Experiments are conducted to measure the cooling ef-
fects of the original design, design plan4 and design plan9. Cells are
discharged at the 1C current rate, and the temperature of the positive
electrode, the negative electrode, the middle part and the bottom of
each cell are measured during the discharging process (720 s). The
temperatures of these designs are shown in Figs. 18, 19, and Fig. 20,
and the maximum pressures are shown in Table 10.
Table 10 shows a comparison between the simulation and experi-
ment for maximum temperature and maximum pressure. Compared
with the experiment results, a similar temperature was achieved in the
numerical model. However, there is still some deviation in the mod-
eling results and experimental measurement. Regarding the maximum
temperature, there is only a slight difference compared with the result
of the simulation. Although, the assumption is that the surface of the
Applied Thermal Engineering 156 (2019) 324–339
Maximum temperature ( °C) Maximum pressure (Pa)
34.45 279
34.6 1168
31.35 710.007
31.8 1952
32.28 222.912
32.9 2056
mini-channel is smooth and the outlet boundary setting is a pressure-
outlet, due to the roughness inside the cooling plate by created 3D
printing and the fact that the real laboratory and cooling system con-
ditions cannot reach the requirements of simulation, the value of the
maximum pressure was much higher than the simulation.
5. Conclusion
In this work, a liquid-cooled battery thermal management system is
proposed, and the thermal and fluid dynamics performance is studied
by simulation and experiments. Some conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Using a multi-objective algorithm processed with NSGA sofware, it
was shown that only three testing iterations of three sets of alter-
native design datasets were needed to obtain satisfactory design
sets of parameters to obtain a BTMS based on a liquid cooling plate
meeting desirable technical performances in terms of cooling effi-
ciency and energy performance.
(2) In support of effective CFD simulation of the coupled thermal model
of the cooling plate in interaction with the lithium-ion cell, a
practical method has been developed to obtain input parameters
needed in the basic thermal model used in the simulation and
computational complexity has been reduced by applying surrogate
modeling entailing LHS DoE and agent-based model formulation.
(3) For further exploitation of this method, current limitations involves
the specific operating conditions of the battery under the cooling
process in terms of discharge rate (1C), coolant used (water), and
coolant flow rate: these limitations will be considered in planned
future work by our research team.
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Acknowledgment Foundation of Guangdong Province (2018A030310150), the

Guangdong science and technology innovation project (Grant No.
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of 2017KQNCX080), and the Shantou University National fundcultivation
Hunan Province of China (2017JJ3057), the Natural Science project (Grant No. NFC17002).

Appendix

Table A1

Table A1
CCD method for generating 100 data samples within ANSYS.
Input parameters Output parameters

Wv (mm) Wh (mm) Dh (mm) Dv (mm) Dc (mm) Th (mm) H (mm) Pmax (Pa) TD (K) Tmax (K)

3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2800.50 0.37 304.72
1.00 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 3334.30 0.36 304.76
6.00 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2677.40 0.39 304.67
3.50 1.00 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 5080.20 0.41 305.23
3.50 6.00 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2793.70 0.35 304.34
3.50 3.50 2.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2810.30 0.41 304.82
3.50 3.50 8.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2799.90 0.35 304.69
3.50 3.50 5.00 2.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2813.20 0.37 304.69
3.50 3.50 5.00 8.00 10.00 0.80 7.50 2792.80 0.37 304.74
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 0.80 7.50 2963.40 0.45 305.01
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 15.00 0.80 7.50 2836.00 0.36 304.67
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.10 7.50 563570.00 0.46 301.30
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 1.50 7.50 717.92 0.31 305.30
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 5.00 2902.70 0.34 304.44
3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 0.80 10.00 2759.60 0.41 304.98
2.18 2.18 3.41 3.41 7.35 0.43 8.82 12436.00 0.51 304.08
4.82 2.18 3.41 3.41 7.35 0.43 6.18 12018.00 0.50 303.78
2.18 4.82 3.41 3.41 7.35 0.43 6.18 12570.00 0.41 303.15
4.82 4.82 3.41 3.41 7.35 0.43 8.82 11710.00 0.47 303.37
2.18 2.18 6.59 3.41 7.35 0.43 6.18 12564.00 0.43 303.55
4.82 2.18 6.59 3.41 7.35 0.43 8.82 11598.00 0.50 303.77
2.18 4.82 6.59 3.41 7.35 0.43 8.82 12389.00 0.42 303.32
4.82 4.82 6.59 3.41 7.35 0.43 6.18 11766.00 0.40 303.03
2.18 2.18 3.41 6.59 7.35 0.43 6.18 12602.00 0.46 303.84
4.82 2.18 3.41 6.59 7.35 0.43 8.82 11747.00 0.54 304.05
2.18 4.82 3.41 6.59 7.35 0.43 8.82 12386.00 0.45 303.42
4.82 4.82 3.41 6.59 7.35 0.43 6.18 11815.00 0.43 303.13
2.18 2.18 6.59 6.59 7.35 0.43 8.82 12345.00 0.46 303.83
4.82 2.18 6.59 6.59 7.35 0.43 6.18 11783.00 0.45 303.52
2.18 4.82 6.59 6.59 7.35 0.43 6.18 12588.00 0.40 303.08
4.82 4.82 6.59 6.59 7.35 0.43 8.82 11601.00 0.44 303.30
2.18 2.18 3.41 3.41 12.65 0.43 6.18 12361.00 0.40 303.45
4.82 2.18 3.41 3.41 12.65 0.43 8.82 11689.00 0.45 303.67
2.18 4.82 3.41 3.41 12.65 0.43 8.82 12186.00 0.41 303.31
4.82 4.82 3.41 3.41 12.65 0.43 6.18 11718.00 0.39 303.03
2.18 2.18 6.59 3.41 12.65 0.43 8.82 12199.00 0.40 303.67
4.82 2.18 6.59 3.41 12.65 0.43 6.18 11796.00 0.39 303.37
2.18 4.82 6.59 3.41 12.65 0.43 6.18 12349.00 0.39 303.07
4.82 4.82 6.59 3.41 12.65 0.43 8.82 11517.00 0.41 303.27
2.18 2.18 3.41 6.59 12.65 0.43 8.82 12198.00 0.43 303.73
4.82 2.18 3.41 6.59 12.65 0.43 6.18 11908.00 0.42 303.41
2.18 4.82 3.41 6.59 12.65 0.43 6.18 12343.00 0.40 303.08
4.82 4.82 3.41 6.59 12.65 0.43 8.82 11595.00 0.42 303.29
2.18 2.18 6.59 6.59 12.65 0.43 6.18 12361.00 0.39 303.49
4.82 2.18 6.59 6.59 12.65 0.43 8.82 11553.00 0.43 303.65
2.18 4.82 6.59 6.59 12.65 0.43 8.82 12128.00 0.41 303.33
4.82 4.82 6.59 6.59 12.65 0.43 6.18 11722.00 0.39 303.04
2.18 2.18 3.41 3.41 7.35 1.17 6.18 1272.80 0.40 305.79
4.82 2.18 3.41 3.41 7.35 1.17 8.82 1210.20 0.48 306.05
2.18 4.82 3.41 3.41 7.35 1.17 8.82 1261.30 0.39 305.42
4.82 4.82 3.41 3.41 7.35 1.17 6.18 1170.00 0.35 305.06
2.18 2.18 6.59 3.41 7.35 1.17 8.82 1270.20 0.39 305.62
4.82 2.18 6.59 3.41 7.35 1.17 6.18 1187.50 0.36 305.26
2.18 4.82 6.59 3.41 7.35 1.17 6.18 1271.30 0.31 304.92
4.82 4.82 6.59 3.41 7.35 1.17 8.82 1148.30 0.36 305.18
2.18 2.18 3.41 6.59 7.35 1.17 6.18 1261.40 0.44 306.13
4.82 2.18 3.41 6.59 7.35 1.17 8.82 1246.10 0.41 305.76
2.18 4.82 3.41 6.59 7.35 1.17 8.82 1261.70 0.34 305.13
4.82 4.82 3.41 6.59 7.35 1.17 6.18 1174.10 0.40 305.40
2.18 2.18 6.59 6.59 7.35 1.17 8.82 1272.50 0.34 305.33
4.82 2.18 6.59 6.59 7.35 1.17 6.18 1168.00 0.40 305.59
(continued on next page)

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Table A1 (continued)

Input parameters Output parameters

Wv (mm) Wh (mm) Dh (mm) Dv (mm) Dc (mm) Th (mm) H (mm) Pmax (Pa) TD (K) Tmax (K)

2.18 4.82 6.59 6.59 7.35 1.17 6.18 1264.80 0.34 305.25
4.82 4.82 6.59 6.59 7.35 1.17 8.82 1171.70 0.31 304.90
2.18 2.18 3.41 3.41 12.65 1.17 8.82 1248.60 0.35 305.72
4.82 2.18 3.41 3.41 12.65 1.17 6.18 1213.40 0.32 305.35
2.18 4.82 3.41 3.41 12.65 1.17 6.18 1238.40 0.32 304.90
4.82 4.82 3.41 3.41 12.65 1.17 8.82 1146.20 0.34 305.15
2.18 2.18 6.59 3.41 12.65 1.17 6.18 1242.90 0.30 305.36
4.82 2.18 6.59 3.41 12.65 1.17 8.82 1187.00 0.33 305.62
2.18 4.82 6.59 3.41 12.65 1.17 8.82 1237.50 0.32 305.25
4.82 4.82 6.59 3.41 12.65 1.17 6.18 1152.10 0.30 304.91
2.18 2.18 3.41 6.59 12.65 1.17 6.18 1251.90 0.32 305.42
4.82 2.18 3.41 6.59 12.65 1.17 8.82 1213.80 0.36 305.69
2.18 4.82 3.41 6.59 12.65 1.17 8.82 1241.80 0.34 305.23
4.82 4.82 3.41 6.59 12.65 1.17 6.18 1147.90 0.31 304.88
2.18 2.18 6.59 6.59 12.65 1.17 8.82 1233.40 0.32 305.70
4.82 2.18 6.59 6.59 12.65 1.17 6.18 1235.20 0.30 305.33
2.18 4.82 6.59 6.59 12.65 1.17 6.18 1238.70 0.33 305.07
4.82 4.82 6.59 6.59 12.65 1.17 8.82 1151.50 0.32 305.23

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