Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

Investigation on the optimization strategy of phase change material thermal

management system for lithium-ion battery
Jie Mei a, b, Guoqing Shi a, b, *, He Liu a, b, Zhi Wang a, Mingyi Chen c
a
College of Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, 221116, Jiangsu, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, 221116, Jiangsu, China
c
School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Jiangsu, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Due to the lack of detailed comparison and reliability validation of paraffin (PA)-based optimization methods for
Lithium-ion battery lithium-ion thermal management systems, in this work, PA was selected as a phase change material (PCM). Both
Thermal management system expanded graphite (EG) and the fin were used to optimize the thermal management performance of the PA.
Phase change material
Charging and discharging experiments under different optimization methods were conducted, and the thermal
Paraffin
properties of both PCMs before and after cycling were recorded to assess reliability. The experimental results
Expanded graphite
Fin indicated that both PCMs had similar thermal properties and maintained good thermal management performance
after cycling. PA/EG exhibited better thermal management performance than the PA/Fin due to its excellent
thermal conductivity network. Higher ambient temperatures also reduced the thermal management performance
of PCM and affected the optimization of EG and Fin in the meantime. PA/EG/Fin offered the best thermal
management performance, achieving a maximum 35.5 % reduction in battery temperature and controlling the
temperature increase of the battery even at extremely high temperatures. This work may serve as a reference for
the design of thermal management systems for lithium-ion battery, providing a basis for the application of
intelligent algorithms in the optimization of thermal management of PCMs.

Currently, battery thermal management systems (BTMS) mainly

1. Introduction
A warming climate and environmental pollution have made the
pursuit of clean energy increasingly urgent [1]. Lithium ion batteries are
widely used in portable equipment due to their environmental friend­
liness, long service life, and high energy density [2]. In recent years,
lithium ion batteries have been used in electric vehicles and energy
storage for the grid [3]. However, possible threats may occur during the
production and operation of lithium-ion batteries, especially under
abusive circumstances [4–7], and many accidents induced by lithium-
ion batteries have raised concerns about safety issues [8–11]. Lithium-
ion batteries generate heat during operation, especially under high-
rate discharge conditions [12–15], and the accumulation of heat can
easily lead to thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries, which can
further develop into serious accidents such as fires and explosions
[10,15]. Therefore, designing a reasonable thermal management system
to reduce heat accumulation during lithium-ion battery use can not only
improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries but also extend their service
life.
include air-cooled, liquid-cooled and PCM thermal management sys­
tems. Air-cooled structures are relatively simple and do not need to
consume additional energy, offering an economical and feasible solu­
tion. A better cooling effect can be achieved by designing the internal
structure of battery and adding heat dissipation fins to enhance heat
dissipation [16]. However, most of these air-cooled systems can achieve
ideal results under forced convection, making it difficult to maintain
good performance under natural convection conditions. This undoubt­
edly increases the complexity of BTMS, leading to rising costs. In addi­
tion, there may be a large temperature difference inside the battery pack
at higher discharge rates. Liquid cooling generally uses liquid as the
cooling medium, where the liquid is placed in a heat pipe. The liquid has
higher thermal conductivity, and its vaporization can absorb more heat,
making it more effective than air cooling [17,18]. Xu et al. designed
different types of liquid-cooled plates and improved the performance of
a liquid-cooled system by optimizing parameters such as the inlet tem­
perature and flow rate [19]. Liquid cooling also has high requirements
regarding the tightness of the device and increases in weight, which
limits its application range.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sgq@cumt.edu.cn (G. Shi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105365
Received 15 March 2022; Received in revised form 17 June 2022; Accepted 19 July 2022
Available online 5 August 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Mei et al.
Nomenclature
Qtol Total heat (J)
Qr Reaction heat (J)
QΩ Joule heat (J)
QJ Polarization heat (J)
n Number of single batteries
m Mass of electrodes (g)
Q Heat of electrodes (J)
I Current (A)
X Mean temperature
M Molar mass (g mol− 1)
F Faraday constant (96,484.5C mol− 1)
R Ohm resistance (Ω)
Rj Internal polarization resistance (Ω)
Tt Phase transition temperature (◦ C)
To Onset temperature (◦ C)
Te End temperature (◦ C)
Compared to the other two thermal management methods, PCM-
BTMS is simpler, with a more uniform temperature distribution of the
battery pack. Paraffin is an ideal PCM due to its corrosion resistance,
safety, non-toxicity, and good chemical durability. In addition, it has
almost no need for overcooling. However, the thermal conductivity of
paraffin wax is lowat only about 0.2 W/m⋅K, resulting in a slow thermal
response [20,21]. Chen et al. studied the effect of paraffin and expanded
graphite composites for battery thermal management at room temper­
ature. and found that PCM could achieve lower temperatures and better
capacity retention than natural convection [22]. Huang et al. studied the
thermal management effect of paraffin and expanded graphite com­
posites for 18,650 battery packs and found that at high discharge rates, a
liquid cooling tube was required to control the battery temperature
within a reasonable range [23]. Huang et al. also blended paraffin wax
with expanded graphite to obtain better thermal conductivity, as well as
used SBS as a support material to enhance the mechanical properties
[24]. Mixing paraffin with foam metal or graphite has been shown to
improve thermal conductivity, enhancing its thermal management
performance [25–28]. Diani et al. incorporated paraffin wax into metal
foam and showed that the melting rate of paraffin wax was accelerated
[29,30]. Heyhat et al. investigated the effect of nanoparticles, fins, and
metal foams on PCM performance using numerical simulation, and the
results showed that the porous metal foams had the best results [31].
Yuan et al. coupled paraffin with a heat pipe and transferred heat to the
paraffin through the heat pipe, which was close to the battery. However,
there was a large temperature difference, and it had to be equipped with
a liquid cooling plate, with other devices to achieve the desired effect
[32]. Wang et al. coupled a heat pipe with paraffin and filled the heat
pipe with acetone. The results showed that the heat pipe helped to
reduce the battery temperature while the paraffin helped to reduce the
temperature difference [33]. Mousavi et al. designed a novel hybrid
mini-channel cold plate combined with PCM for a thermal management
system, and obtained better performance than the mini-channel cold
plate [34]. Heat pipes have high heat transfer efficiency, which in theory
allows for better thermal management. However, the coupling of
paraffin with heat pipes usually increases the size of the thermal man­
agement system. Although the heat transfer efficiency of expanded
graphite and metal foam will be lower than heat pipes, their homoge­
neous mixing with paraffin wax will result in more stable performance
and reduced volume. In addition, fins used to enhance heat dissipation
can also achieve the desired effect. Fins are usually made of metals such
as aluminum and copper, endowing them with high thermal conduc­
tivity, and allowing them to support and fix the battery [35,36]. Intel­
ligent algorithms have been used in the field of lithium-ion batteries. For
2
Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365
ΔH Phase change enthalpy (J)
Tmax Maximum temperature (◦ C)
QP Heat absorbed by PCM (J)
mp Mass of PCM (g)
Cp Capacity of PCM (J K− 1)
Tp Temperature of PCM (◦ C)
γ Phase change fraction of PCM (%)
Trise Temperature rise (◦ C)
Tmin Minimum temperature (◦ C)
S Standard deviation
Acronyms
PCM Phase change material
PA Paraffin
EG Expanded graphite
BTMS Battery thermal management system
SOC State of charge
example, Hannan et al. studied the optimization of battery state of
charge (SOC) estimation using machine learning algorithms [37,38].
Hossain et al. investigated the application of intelligent algorithms in
lithium-ion battery performance optimization, including the optimiza­
tion algorithm based on fuzzy logic controller for the thermal manage­
ment system of lithium-ion batteries [39]. Hannan et al. and Wali et al.
summarized the literature on lithium-ion battery energy storage sys­
tems, especially the application of intelligent algorithms to lithium-ion
batteries, including the optimization of battery cost, cycle life by prob­
abilistic approaches, and the optimization algorithm based on a fuzzy
logic controller for thermal management systems of lithium-ion batte­
ries [40–42]. However, most optimization algorithms used to improve
the thermal management performance of lithium-ion batteries have
focused on air cooling and liquid cooling, and relatively little research
has been conducted on the optimization of thermal management of
phase change materials [43,44]. In this work, an experimental approach
was used to optimize the performance of a PCM-based thermal man­
agement system, which could provide the basic parameters for the
application of functional algorithms in the system.
As indicated in the above review, experimental studies have been
conducted on the optimization of PA-based thermal management per­
formance. However, a detailed comparison and reliability verification of
the optimization methods of PA-based thermal management systems has
not been conducted. Intelligent algorithms are being used for the opti­
mization of PCM-based thermal management systems for lithium-ion
batteries. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of the effects of
different optimization methods for the thermal management perfor­
mance of lithium-ion batteries is necessary, as it can provide a basis for
the application of intelligent algorithms in PCM-based thermal man­
agement systems. The following major contributions were made in this
paper:
(1) Two optimization strategies, expanded graphite and fins, were
used to improve the thermal management performance of
paraffin. The performance of different optimization approaches
for thermal management at different ambient temperatures was
investigated.
(2) The thermal properties of the used paraffin were recorded to
assess the reliability of the paraffin as a thermal management
material.
(3) The mechanisms of different optimization approaches and the
influence of environmental temperature variations on their
effectiveness were studied.
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

2. Experimental
Qtol = Qr + QΩ + QJ (1)
2.1. Materials
where Qtol is the total heat, Qr, QΩ and QJ denote the reaction heat, Joule
heat, and polarization heat, respectively.
The battery used in this work was a Sony US18650VTC5, with a rated
Qr will be produced by the internal chemical reaction of the battery,
normal capacity of 2600 mAh, where the cutoff voltages for discharge
and is negative when charging and positive when discharging. Its
and charge were 2.0 V and 4.2 V, respectively. Before testing, all of the
calculation formula follows:
batteries were cycled three times and then fully charged to an SOC of
100 %. nmQI
Qr = (2)
In this study, the raw PCM consisted of paraffin with a melting point MF
of 45–48 ◦ C, which was denoted as PA. Metal fins have shown to be an
where n is the number of a single battery, m is the mass of the positive
effective way to improve heat transfer, and embedding them in the PCM
and negative electrodes, Q is the sum of heat generated by the electro­
can enhance thermal management performance. A magnesium
chemical reaction of the positive and negative electrodes, I is the charge
aluminum (Mg–Al) alloy (5052 model) with a thermal conductivity of
and discharge current, M is the molar mass, and F is the Faraday con­
138 W/m⋅◦ C was employed as the metal fin in this work, where the size
stant, which is 96,484.5 C/mol.
of the metal fin was 67 mm(height) × 9 mm(width) × 2 mm (thickness).
QΩ is the heat generated by the internal resistance under the
The coupling of the PA and fin was denoted as PA/Fin. We used another
continuous action of current during charging and discharging, and can
method to add the expanded graphite (EG) into paraffin to improve the
be expressedby:
thermal conductivity of the entire PCM system. The EG was produced by
expandable graphite, with a mesh size of 50, a purity of 99 %, and an QΩ = I 2 R (3)
expansion rate of 300–350. The EG–enhanced paraffin was denoted as
PA/EG. where I is charge and discharge current, and R is the Ohm resistance.
Fig. 1 shows the synthesis process of the two PCMs. The paraffin was QJ will be generated by the voltage difference between the average
melted in a constant temperature water bath (HCJ-E, Changzhou Enpei terminal voltage of the battery and the open circuit voltage, including
Instrument Manufacturing Co., Ltd., China) at 65 ◦ C, and the PA con­ the concentration of polarization heat and internal resistance polariza­
sisted of pure paraffin without any additives. The graphite was first tion heat. It can be expressed as follows:
dried in a constant temperature (65 ◦ C) blast drying oven for 16 h, and
then heated in a muffle furnace (HN⋅25S, Beijing Henuo Lixing Tech­ Q j = I 2 Rj (4)
nology Co., Ltd., China) at 800 ◦ C for 1 min. Then, it was removed to
where I is charge and discharge current, and Rj is the internal polari­
obtain the expanded graphite. Next, the prepared expanded graphite
zation resistance. A schematic of the thermal management of PA/PA/EG
was added to the liquid PA in small amounts several times while it was
is shown in Fig. 2, which is presented as a cross-sectional view. The
stirred with a glass rod. The mass ratio of paraffin to the expanded
battery will generate heat during charging and discharging, causing the
graphite was 1:99. Finally, the PA/EG (containing 1 wt% EG) was
temperature to increase. The heat generated by the battery will mainly
obtained.
dissipate in two ways: heat transfer with the PCM, and convection heat
exchange with the air. PA/PA/EG mainly absorbed heat through phase
2.2. Theory and methods
change, along with convection heat exchange with the environment and
heat conduction with the aluminum tube. The heat absorbed by the PCM
The heat generated by the lithium-ion batteries, mainly due to the
(QP) mainly consisted of two aspects, one of which was the heat capacity
internal chemical reactions of the battery, will include the reaction heat,
of PCM, while the other was latent heat, which could be expressed as
Joule heat, polarization heat, and side reaction heat. Almost no side
follows [47]:
reactions will occur under normal operation of the battery thus, the side
reactions inside the battery will be almost negligible. Therefore, the total dTp dγ
Q P = m p Cp + mp ΔH (5)
heat output of a lithium-ion battery during operation can be expressed as dt dt
[45,46]:
where mp is the mass of PCM, Cp is the capacity of PCM, Tp is the

Fig. 1. Synthesis process of phase change materials.

3
J. Mei et al.
Fig. 2. Thermal management schematic of PA/EG.
temperature of PCM, γ is the phase change fraction of PCM, and ΔH is
the phase change enthalpy of PCM. The ΔH (phase change enthalpy) was
the main part of PCM to absorb heat, which was also an important
reason why it could be used for battery thermal management. The
aluminum shell absorbed the heat of the PCM and then dissipated the
heat to the external environment through convection heat exchange.
Fig. 3 shows the heat transfer schematic of PA/EG/Fin. In addition to
direct contact with the PCM for heat conduction, the battery also con­
ducted heat transfer through the fin, and then the heat was transferred to
the PCM by the fin. Due to the higher thermal conductivity of the fin,
theoretically, better heat transfer performance could be obtained. There
was also natural convection between the fin and the environment to
dissipate heat. Meanwhile, the fin absorbed the heat of the battery and
the PCM, dissipating it through natural convection. However, this was
effective only when the ambient temperature was low. Due to heat ab­
sorption from ambient air in a high-temperature environment, the heat
dissipation effect of the fin would be limited.
2.3. Characterization
The surface morphologies of the EG, paraffin, and PA/EG are shown
in Fig. 4, where typical curving worm-like structures and hundreds of
internal voids of EG were obtained after high temperature heating
(Fig. 4a). The surface of the paraffin (as shown in Fig. 4b) was uniform
Fig. 3. Thermal management schematic of PA/EG/Fin.
4
Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365
and smooth, with a slippery feel. Fig. 4c shows that EG still maintained
an original loose and porous worm-like form after adsorbing paraffin,
and the paraffin was uniformly adsorbed in the EG pores. Therefore, the
composite phase change material (PA/EG) had both the high thermal
conductivity of graphite and high latent heat of paraffin.
The Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) curves of two PCMs are
presented in Fig. 5 (a). The phase change properties were measured
using a DSC (SDT-Q600, TA Instruments Inc) at a constant rate of 2 ◦ C/
min with a nitrogen atmosphere (flow rate of 100 mL/min). As shown in
Fig. 5a, the phase transition temperatures (Tt) of PA and PA/EG were
46.4 ◦ C and 44.2 ◦ C while the phase change enthalpy (ΔH) values were
136.1 and 135.7 J/g, respectively. The detailed DSC results of the
different PCMs are shown in Table 1. The onset temperatures (To) of PA
and PA/EG were 39.2 ◦ C and 36.4 ◦ C, while the end temperature (Te)
were 57.4 ◦ C and 54.6 ◦ C, respectively. Due to the addition of expanded
graphite, the To, Tt, Te, and ΔH of the PCM were slightly reduced,
however, the impact on thermal management performance was not
obvious. As the temperature increased, the endothermic rate gradually
increased, and reached its peak when the phase transition temperature
was reached. When the temperature was Te, the phase transition process
concluded and the endothermic process stopped. The main reason for
the difference between the two PCMs was that the added EG reduced the
mass ratio of PA in the composite phase change material. The reduction
in PA reduces the ΔH, and the high thermal conductivity of EG resulted
in a lower phase transition onset temperature of PA/EG.
Fig. 5 (b) shows the DSC curves of the 2 PCMs after repeated cycling
(60 times, more than 120 h). The Tt values of PA and PA/EG were
44.0 ◦ C and 42.0 ◦ C, while the ΔH values were 129.1 and 121.5 J/g,
respectively. The To values of PA and PA/EG were 36.0 ◦ C and 33.1 ◦ C,
while the Te is 50.7 ◦ C and 49.5 ◦ C, respectively. We found that the To, Tt,
Te, and ΔH of the 2 PCMs decreased after multiple cycles (60 times, more
than 120 h). Therefore, after many cycles (60 times, more than 120 h),
the two PCMs started to absorb heat earlier, and the upper temperature
limit decreased. Compared with the PCMs before cycling, the ΔH of PA
and PA/EG decreased by 5.1 % and 10.5 %, respectively. The ΔH of PA/
EG decreased more obviously, which was possibly caused by the uneven
distribution of expanded graphite after multiple cycles.
Due to the high phase change enthalpy and suitable phase change
temperature, paraffin could be used as a phase change material for
battery thermal management. The addition of expanded graphite had
little effect on the thermal properties of paraffin. After many cycles, the
phase transition temperature range and ΔH of the PCM decreased, and
the phase change material containing expanded graphite is more
obvious, however, the PCMs after cycling still had a high latent heat,
which could be used as a qualified phase change material.
2.4. Experimental setup
Fig. 6 shows the schematic diagram the of experimental platform,
where a battery testing system (BTS-10V20A-NTFA, Shenzhen Neware
Electronics Co., Ltd., China) was used to test the charging and dis­
charging performance of batteries. A T-type thermocouple was attached
to the middle surface of the battery for temperature measurements, and
the battery testing system was integrated with the temperature data
collection module. In addition, a computer was connected to the battery
testing system for data storage. The battery was placed in a cylindrical
aluminum tube (height of 65 mm, diameter of 36 mm and thickness of 6
mm), and then subjected to a thermostat (SPX–50B, Tianjin Hongnuo
Instrument Co., Ltd.), where the temperature range of the thermostat
was 0–60 ◦ C with an accuracy of 1 ◦ C.
As shown in Fig. 7, the experiment was divided into three groups.
Group I consisted of the reference group with only a single battery
without any thermal management system. Group II was designed to
analyze the thermal management performance of paraffin without (PA)
or with the metal fin (PA/Fin), where the mass of the paraffin and PA
was 50 g. Group III mainly explored the influence of EG addition on the
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

Fig. 4. SEM pictures of .EG (a); paraffin (b); paraffin with 1 wt% EG (c).

5
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

(a) (b)
PA PA(after cycles)
4 PA/EG 4 PA/EG(after cycles)

2 2
Heat Flow (mW)
0 0

Heat Flow (mW)

-2 -2

-4 △H PA=136.1 J g-1 -4 △H PA=129.1 J g-1

PA/EG=135.7 J g-1 PA/EG=121.5 J g-1
-6 -6

-8 -8

-10 -10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (℃) Temperature (℃)

Fig. 5. DSC curves of two PCMs.

angle between the fins was 90 degrees. The fins were possibly not
Table 1
perfectly perpendicular to the lithium-ion cell due to cell size errors,
DSC results of different PCMs.
resulting in a deviation of 1–2 degrees, however, the cell was still
PCM To (◦ C) Tt (◦ C) Te (◦ C) ΔH (J/g) securely attached to the fins. The height of the fins was slightly higher
PA 39.2 46.4 57.4 136.1 than the cylindrical aluminum tube for better heat dissipation. Three
PA/EG 36.4 44.2 54.6 135.7 groups were conducted at 25 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C to study the thermal man­
PA after cycles 36.0 44.0 50.7 129.1
agement performance at different ambient temperatures. In addition,
PA/EG after cycles 33.1 42.0 49.5 121.5
Group III was placed in an environment of 60 ◦ C to study the thermal
management performance in an extreme environment.
thermal management performance of PA and PA/Fin in Group II. In The charge and discharge procedures are shown in Table 2. The
Group III, the mass of paraffin and PA was 45 g, due to the addition of charging and discharging process could be divided into three categories
the fins. The four fins were in close contact with the battery, where the according to the different discharge rates, and all tests were cycled seven

Fig. 6. (a) Physical view of the device; (b) sketch of the experimental platform.

6
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

Fig. 7. (a) Sketch of the experimental group; (b) physical view of the group.

battery exceeded 50 ◦ C.
Table 2
As shown in Fig. 8 (b), the battery temperature at an ambient tem­
Charge and discharge procedures.
perature of 45 ◦ C was significantly higher than at 25 ◦ C. The battery
Process Condition Current Voltage temperature exceeded 50 ◦ C at 1C, and the Tmax of the battery reached
Discharge Constant current 2.6 A (1C), 5.2 A (2C), Cut-voltage of 67.7 ◦ C at 3C. The reason for this was possibly because the high ambient
7.8 A (3C) 2.0 V temperature caused the internal reaction of the battery to become more
Rest 5 min / /
violent, leading to an increase in Qr. In addition, the internal resistance
Charge Constant voltage and 2.6 A (1C) Cut-voltage of
current 4.2 V and polarization internal resistance of the battery possibly changed at
Rest 5 min / / high ambient temperature, resulting in an increase in QΩ and QJ.
Therefore, batteries usually produce more harm at high temperatures.

times under these procedures. All tests were performed three times to
ensure the repeatability of the experimental results. If the results
differed significantly between the three times, the experimental setup
was checked and re-tested.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Cycle rate and ambient temperature effect
The temperature variations of the reference group at a constant
temperature (CT) of 25 ◦ C are shown in Fig. 8 (a). Because Qr was a
positive value when charging and a negative value when discharging,
the total heat produced by the battery was positively correlated with the
current. The peak temperature of the battery appeared during discharge
and increased with an increase in the discharge rate. During the rest
period there was no significant change in the battery temperature, while
a significant drop in battery temperature occurred after charging star­
ted. In the later stage of charging, the battery temperature briefly
increased due to an increase in the internal impedance of the battery.
However, at a high discharge rate, the temperature difference during
charge and discharge was so large that this short-term rise was no longer
obvious. Generally, the operating temperature of lithium-ion batteries
should be lower than 50 ◦ C. Under discharge rates of 1C and 2C, the
maximum temperature (Tmax) of the battery was lower than 50 ◦ C to
ensure safe use. When the discharge rate was 3C, the temperature of the
3.2. The effect of EG addition
The thermal management performances of the 2 PCMs at 25 ◦ C are
shown in Fig. 9 (a). Due to the phase change heat absorption and
appropriate phase transition temperature range of paraffin (as described
in Section 2.3), the temperature of the battery was significantly reduced,
which also indicated the excellent thermal management performance of
the PCM. Under a discharge rate of 3C, the maximum battery temper­
ature of PA and PA/EG dropped by 27.3 % and 33.8 %, respectively,
compared to the battery. Meanwhile, the Tmax of the lithium-ion battery
was lower than 50 ◦ C during multiple cycles, which ensured the normal
operation of the lithium-ion battery. During the phase change of the
paraffin, the paraffin close to the battery would preferentially melt due
to heat absorption. The thermal conductivity of the liquid paraffin was
significantly lower than the solid, resulting in the formation of greater
thermal resistance between the solid and liquid paraffin. The PA/EG
obtained by mixing EG with paraffin improved the thermal conductivity,
and could effectively avoid the existence of solid-liquid layers. As shown
in Table 3 (a), the Tmax and temperature rise (Trise) of PA/EG are both
smaller than PA, and increased with an increase in the discharge rate,
indicating better thermal management performance.
Fig. 9 (b) shows the battery temperature curves of the different PCMs
in the cycle test. Despite the benefits of the PCM, the temperature of the
battery at 45 ◦ C was still much higher than at 25 ◦ C, indicating that the
ambient temperature had a great impact on the temperature change

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J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

(a) CT= 25 ℃ (a) CT= 25 ℃

60 55 54.3℃ Battery
54.3℃ 50 50.0℃ PA
50 50.0℃ 39.3℃
PA/EG

35 35.8 ℃
40 30
30 25 3C

Temperature (℃)
3C
Temperature (℃)

43.9℃
50 50.0℃ 42 34.0℃
43.9℃ 31.9℃
40 30
30 24 2C
2C 36 35.3℃
35 35.3℃ 34 29.5℃
28 28.3℃
30 26
1C
D C 24
25 1C 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
0 R 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 (b) CT= 45℃ Time (s)
Time (s)
69 68.7℃ Battery
66 PA
(b) CT= 45 ℃ 52.9℃
51.0℃
PA/EG

70 50 50.0℃
68.7℃
60 3C
60

Temperature (℃)
59.1℃
50 50.0℃
50.0℃
50 49.3℃
3C 48.3℃
Temperature (℃)

59.1℃ 45
56
2C
50.0℃ 50 50.0℃
48
46.5℃
2C
46 46.4℃

50.0℃ 44
D C 1C
48
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
44 Time (s)
1C
Fig. 9. (a) Effect of the different PCMs during the cycle test at 25 ◦ C. (b) Effect
of different PCMs during the cycle test at 45 ◦ C.
Time (s)

Fig. 8. Temperature changes in the reference group during the cycle test.
Table 3
Detailed temperature data of the battery containing PCMs.
during the battery cycles. The main reason was that part of the latent
(a) Constant temperature: 25 ◦ C
heat of the PCM was consumed at high temperatures. In the case of a
Discharge rate Group Tmin (◦ C) Tmax (◦ C) Trise (◦ C)
discharge rate of 1C, the maximum battery temperature containing two
PCMs appeared in the charging stage, while for 2C and 3C, the maximum 1C Battery 25.2 35.3 10.1
battery temperature appeared in the discharging stage. There were two PA 25.0 29.5 4.5
PA/EG 25.3 28.3 3.0
reasons, one was that the Trise of the battery at the discharge rate of 1C 2C Battery 25.4 43.9 18.5
was relatively small during the discharging stage, while the heat ab­ PA 25.1 34.0 8.9
sorption effect of the PCM could greatly reduce the battery temperature, PA/EG 25.2 31.9 6.7
resulting in a smaller temperature difference between these two stages. 3C Battery 25.1 54.3 29.2
PA 25.0 39.3 14.3
Another reason was that due to the hysteresis heat dissipation effect of
PA/EG 25.0 35.8 10.8
the phase change material, the battery ws heated by the PCM during
charging, thus, the battery temperature reached its peak at this stage. In
(b) Constant temperature: 45 ◦ C
addition, the temperature of the battery containing PCM during the first
1C Battery 43.6 50.0 6.4
cycle was generally lower. This reason was also the inability of the PCM PA 44.9 46.5 1.6
to dissipate heat in time after the first cycle, resulting in a decrease in PA/EG 45.0 46.4 1.4
thermal management performance. As shown in Table 3 (b), there was a 2C Battery 44.0 59.1 15.1
PA 45.5 49.3 3.8
smaller gap between PA/EG and PA in Tmax and Trise, indicating that the
PA/EG 44.8 48.3 3.5
improvement in thermal management performance of the paraffin by EG 3C Battery 43.7 68.7 25.0
at a high temperature was reduced. The Tmax values of the battery PA 44.9 52.9 8.0
containing PA and PA/EG were 21.9 % and 24.7 % lower than the PA/EG 45.0 51.0 6.0
battery, respectively. However, the Tmax of the battery slightly exceeded
50 ◦ C in both cases at 3C, which was not conducive to the normal
operation of the lithium-ion battery.

8
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

(a) CT= 25℃ The effect of the fin on the Trise of the battery is shown in Fig. 10 (c).
54 54.3℃ Battery The Trise of the battery at an ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C was greater
50.0℃ Battery/Fin
45 45.1℃ than that at 45 ◦ C. This indicated that the battery was in a relatively
36 inactive state at 25 ◦ C, and in a more active state at 45 ◦ C. Therefore,
making the battery more active would cause a greater temperature in­
27 3C
crease after charging and discharging at 25 ◦ C. The fin could reduce the
Temperature (℃)

43.9℃
42 Trise of the battery, and with an increase in the discharge rate, a more
37.5℃
35 obvious temperature drop would be obtained (6.4 ◦ C at 3C). However,
28 the temperature drop of the battery at 45 ◦ C decreased (4.6 ◦ C at 3C),
2C indicating that the heat dissipation effect of the fin was weakened at a
35 35.3℃ high temperature.
31.3℃ The effect of the fin on the thermal management performance of PA
30

25 1C
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 (a) CT= 25℃
40 39.3℃ PA
Time (s) PA/Fin
35 36.3℃
(b) CT= 45℃
30
70 68.7℃ Battery
66.0℃
63 Battery/Fin 25 3C

Temperature (℃)
56 34.0℃
33
50.0℃
32.0℃
49 30
42 3C
Temperature (℃)

59.1℃ 27
56 57.0℃ 2C
52 29.5℃
50.0℃
48 28 28.2℃
44 2C
50 50.0℃ 26
49.7℃ 1C
48
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
46
44 Time (s)
1C
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 (b) CT= 45℃
54 52.9℃ PA
Time (s) PA/Fin
51 50.9℃
50.0℃
(c)
48
Battery
30 Battery/fin 29.2 30 45 3C
Temperature (℃)

25 50 49.3℃
25 25
Temperature Rise (℃)

Temperature Rise (℃)

22.8 48 48.2℃
20.4
20 18.5 20 46
2C
15.1 47 Discharging stage Charging stage
15 13.6 15
46.5℃
12.4
10.1 46 46.1℃
10 10
6.6 6.4 45
6.1 1C
5 5
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

0 0 Time (s)
1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C 1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C (c) 16
16
PA
14.3
CT= 25 ℃ CT= 45 ℃ 14
PA/Fin
14

Fig. 10. Effect of the fin on the temperature of the battery. 12 11.5 12
Temperature Rise (℃)

Temperature Rise (℃)

10 10
3.3. The effect of the metal fin 8.9
8
8 7.1 8
As shown in Fig. 10 (a), the fin could reduce the peak temperature of 6.6
the lithium-ion battery during charging and discharging at 25 ◦ C. In 6 6
4.5
addition, as the discharge rate increased, the effect became more 4 3.5 3.8 4
3.5
obvious. When the discharge rate was 3C, the Tmax of the battery
dropped by 16.9 % after the addition of the fin. As shown in Fig. 10 (b), 2 1.6 1.4 2
the effect of the fin was significantly reduced, and the Tmax of the battery
0 0
was only reduced by 4.0 % at a discharge rate of 3C. At a high tem­ 1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C 1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C
perature, the temperature difference between the battery temperature
and the ambient temperature decreased, while the heat exchange power CT= 25 ℃ CT= 45 ℃
decreased. Therefore, the effect of the fin was weakened.
Fig. 11. Effect of fin on the PA.

9
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

is shown in Fig. 11(a), (b). After adding the fin, the temperature drop of (a) CT= 25℃
the battery containing PA was lower than a single battery. Under a 36 35.8℃ PA/EG
35.0℃
discharge rate of 3C, the Tmax values of the battery at 25 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C
PA/EG/Fin
33
decreased by 7.6 % and 3.8 %, respectively. Therefore, due to the large- 30
area contact between the PA and the fin, the heat of the battery was 27
3C
transferred to the PA more quickly. At 45 ◦ C, the Tmax of the battery

Temperature (℃)
32 31.9℃
containing PA appeared in the charging stage, and appeared in the 30
31.1℃
discharging stage after the addition of the fin. The main reason was that 28
the fin enhanced heat conduction and reduced the heat accumulation in 26
the charging stage. 2C
28.3℃
Fig. 11 (c) shows the effect of the fin on the Trise of the battery 28 27.9℃
containing PA. Compared to the battery, the Trise of the battery con­ 27
taining PA was reduced regardless of whether the ambient temperature 26
was 25 ◦ C or 45 ◦ C. Although PA was composed of pure paraffin with 25 1C
relatively low thermal conductivity, it could effectively control the Trise 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
of the battery by the phase change heat absorption, and the control Time (s)
range was better than using the fin alone. The coupling of the PA and fin
could achieve a more obvious temperature drop, which was mainly due (b) CT= 45℃
to the fin enhancing the thermal conductivity of the composite system. 52 PA/EG
51.0℃
Fig. 12 (a), (b) shows the effect of the fin on the thermal management 50 49.8℃
50.0℃ PA/EG/Fin

performance of PA/EG. The almost overlapping temperature curves re­ 48

flected that the fin had no significant effect on the battery temperature of 46
PA/EG. The main reason was that EGPCM had good thermal conduc­ 44 3C

Temperature (℃)
tivity and could make full use of the latent heat of the paraffin to absorb 48 48.0℃
48.3℃

the heat produced by the battery. The addition of the fin would not have
a greater improvement effect for further enhancement of thermal con­ 46
ductivity. Under a discharge rate of 3C, the Tmax of the battery only 44 2C
dropped 2.2 % and 2.3 % at 25 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C, respectively. It is worth 46.4℃
46 46.1℃
noting that at 45 ◦ C, the battery temperature of the PA/EG/Fin was
lower than 50 ◦ C, which was beneficial to the long-term operation of the 45
battery.
44 1C
The Trise of PA/EG coupled with the fin is shown in Fig. 12 (c). The
Trise of PA/EG was lower than PA/Fin regardless of whether the ambient 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
temperature was 25 ◦ C or 45 ◦ C. Therefore, the blending of EG and Time (s)
paraffin obtained better thermal management performance. The
(c)
12 12
coupling of the PA/EG and fin showed a relatively limited increase in PA/EG
10.8
temperature drop, all within 1 ◦ C, indicating that further improvement PA/EG/Fin 10.2
in heat conduction had less impact on thermal management 10 10
performance.
Temperature Rise (℃)

Temperature Rise (℃)

Table 4 gives the reduction in battery temperature for the different 8 8
optimization methods compared to the individual battery at 2C 6.7
6.2 6
discharge rate. For comparison with previous studies, some of the data 6 5.6 6
from Chen et al. [48] were added. The battery used in Chen et al. was a
18,650-type battery and had a capacity of 2600 mAh, the same as in this 4 3.5 4
work. In addition, the same cathode material reduced the error of 3 2.8 3.1
comparison. The PCM used by Chen et al. consisted of a mixture of 2 2
1.4
paraffin and expanded graphite with a phase change temperature of 1.1
about 52 ◦ C, with solid-solid phase change and the fins were ring-
0 0
shaped. The results showed that the lower phase change temperature 1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C 1C 1C 2C 2C 3C 3C
paraffin used in this study had better thermal management performance
and the rectangular lamellar fins showed superior thermal conductivity CT= 25 ℃ CT= 45 ℃
to the annular fins.
Fig. 12. Effect of the fin on the PA/EG.
3.4. Effectiveness of thermal management at extreme temperature

Table 4
According to the above description, PA/EG had better thermal
Temperature drops of the different optimization methods under 2C.
management performance. To understand the thermal management
performance of PA/EG under high ambient temperature, a char­ Test PCM PCM/Fin PCM/EG PCM/EG/Fin
ge–discharge cycle at 60 ◦ C was performed. Fig. 13 shows the effect of Chen / / 18.4 % 18.4 %
PA/EG and its coupling with the fin on the battery temperature in This paper 22.6 % 27.1 % 27.3 % 29.2 %
extreme environments (60 ◦ C). At 60 ◦ C, the ambient temperature
exceeded the phase change temperature range of PA/EG and no longer
was very limited. As described in 3.1, the battery has exceeded 67 ◦ C at
had the effect of phase change heat absorption. Therefore, PA/EG was
45 ◦ C. Therefore, the Tmax of the battery would further rise at 60 ◦ C,
unable to absorb the heat generated by the battery through phase
increasing the risk to the battery. However, the Tmax of PA/EG/Fin was
change. The addition of the fin had little effect on the Tmax of the battery.
lower than 67 ◦ C. Although the higher ambient temperature could not
This further demonstrated that the effect of the fin at high temperatures

10
J. Mei et al. Journal of Energy Storage 55 (2022) 105365

CT= 60℃ performance studies in extreme environments. Huang and Yang et al.
66.5℃ PA/EG investigated the performance of a PCM-based thermal management
65 PA/EG/Fin
system with a simulation approach, which was optimized through al­
gorithms [49,50]. Cheng et al. optimized an air-cooled thermal man­
60 agement system through simulations [51]. An in-depth study of PA-
3C based thermal management performance and reliability, as well as
Temperature (℃)

65 influencing factors, will be carried out in future work through

63.6℃
63.4℃ simulations.

60
3.5. Uncertainty analysis
2C
62
61.2℃ To verify the accuracy of the experimental data, Table 3 gives the
60
60.7℃ maximum temperature data for all the groups of repeated experiments
where the mean of the maximum temperature X and standard deviation
58 1C S were calculated. The formula for calculating the standard deviation S
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 is shown below:
Time (s) ∑
n
Xi
Fig. 13. Effect of PA/EG during the cycle test under extreme temperature. X = i=1 (6)
n
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
guarantee that the battery temperature would be lower than 50 ◦ C, PA/ √∑
√n
√ (Xi − X)2
EG could still suppress the increase in battery temperature and reduce √
the Tmax, which had a positive effect on the safety of the battery. The S = i=1 (7)
n− 1
sensible heat of the liquid PCM and high thermal conductivity of EG
played a major role. Therefore, PCMs adapted to both high and normal where Xi is the maximum temperature of the different groups, X is the
temperatures should be studied. mean of the maximum temperature, and n is the number of experiments.
Simulations offer a promising approach for thermal management In the results and discussion section, the experimental data selected

Table 5
Maximum temperature for the different groups of repeated experiments.
(a) CT = 25 ◦ C

Group Discharge rate Test 1 (◦ C) Test 2 (◦ C) Test 3 (◦ C) X S

Battery 1C 34.9 35.3 35.6 35.26666667 0.360555128

2C 43.9 43.7 44.0 43.86666667 0.152752523
3C 54.3 54.5 54.2 54.33333333 0.152752523
Battery/Fin 1C 31.3 31.1 31.4 31.26666667 0.152752523
2C 37.5 37.7 37.5 37.56666667 0.115470054
3C 45.1 45.0 45.3 45.13333333 0.152752523
PA 1C 29.5 29.5 29.4 29.46666667 0.057735027
2C 34.1 33.9 34.0 34 0.1
3C 39.2 39.4 39.3 39.3 0.1
PA/Fin 1C 28.0 28.2 28.3 28.16666667 0.152752523
2C 31.7 32.0 32.1 31.93333333 0.2081666
3C 36.3 36.2 36.3 36.26666667 0.057735027
PA/EG 1C 28.3 28.4 28.3 28.33333333 0.057735027
2C 31.9 31.9 31.7 31.83333333 0.115470054
3C 35.8 35.8 35.7 35.76666667 0.057735027
PA/EG/Fin 1C 27.7 27.9 27.8 27.8 0.1
2C 31.1 31.2 31.1 31.13333333 0.057735027
3C 35.0 35.0 35.2 35.06666667 0.115470054

(b) CT = 45 ◦ C
Battery 1C 50.0 50.0 49.9 49.96666667 0.057735027
2C 59.1 59.0 59.1 59.06666667 0.057735027
3C 68.6 68.9 68.7 68.73333333 0.152752523
Battery/Fin 1C 49.8 49.7 49.6 49.7 0.1
2C 57.2 57.0 57.0 57.06666667 0.115470054
3C 66.0 66.2 66.0 66.06666667 0.115470054
PA 1C 46.5 46.4 46.5 46.46666667 0.057735027
2C 49.3 49.3 49.4 49.33333333 0.057735027
3C 52.9 52.9 52.6 52.8 0.173205081
PA/Fin 1C 46.1 46.2 46.0 46.1 0.1
2C 48.2 48.3 48.2 48.23333333 0.057735027
3C 50.9 51.0 50.8 50.9 0.1
PA/EG 1C 46.4 46.3 46.4 46.36666667 0.057735027
2C 48.3 48.3 48.5 48.36666667 0.115470054
3C 51.0 51.1 51.0 51.03333333 0.057735027
PA/EG/Fin 1C 46.1 46.1 46.0 46.06666667 0.057735027
2C 48.0 48.0 47.9 47.96666667 0.057735027
3C 49.8 49.8 49.6 49.73333333 0.115470054

11
J. Mei et al.
were the group with the closest mean. The S for all groups was less than
0.05, indicating good reliability of the data obtained during the exper­
iment, and could be used as reliable data for analysis (Table 5).
4. Conclusions
In this work, we investigated the performance and reliability of a PA-
based thermal management system for lithium-ion batteries under
different optimization methods. Two optimization methods, EG and fin,
were selected. Subsequently, charge and discharge experiments at
different ambient temperatures were performed. The surface
morphology and DSC of the different PCMs before and after cycling were
recorded separately, and the main conclusions were as follows:
(1) The Tt and ΔH of PA/EG were slightly lower than PA due to the
thermal conductivity network of EG and the slight reduction in
PA mass fraction. Multiple cycles resulted in a slight loss of
thermal performance for both the PCMs, but it still qualified as a
thermal management material.
(2) EG formed an excellent thermal conductivity network in PA, and
PA/EG had better thermal management performance than PA/
Fin. The combination of EG and Fin maximized the thermal
management performance of the PA, achieving up to a 35.5 %
reduction in battery temperature.
(3) The ambient temperature had an obvious impact on the thermal
management capability of the PCM, and an increase in temper­
ature reduced the thermal management performance. The opti­
mization effect of EG and Fin was also reduced by the increase in
temperature.
(4) An extremely high temperature of 60 ◦ C caused failure of the
PCM, however, the efficient thermal conductivity of PA/EG/Fin
could control further increases in battery temperature. Our next
work will focus on thermal management methods for lithium-ion
batteries suitable for higher ambient temperatures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mei Jie: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing
– original draft. Guoqing Shi: Visualization, Writing – review & editing.
He Liu: Software, Data curation. Zhi Wang: Writing – review & editing.
Mingyi Chen: Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declared that there have no conflicts of interest or
financial involvement with this manuscript.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the. Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities (2017XKQY026).
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