Energy 199 (2020) 117495

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Modelling and control of vehicle integrated thermal management

system of PEM fuel cell vehicle
Jiamin Xu a, Caizhi Zhang a, *, Ruijia Fan a, Huanhuan Bao b, Yi Wang b, Shulong Huang c,
Cheng Siong Chin a, d, Congxin Li e
a
School of Automotive Engineering, The State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmissions, Chongqing Automotive Collaborative Innovation Centre,
Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
b
China Automotive Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd, Chongqing, 401122, China
c
Chongqing Changan New Energy Vehicle Technology Co., Ltd, Chongqing, 400000, China
d
Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, Newcastle University Singapore, Singapore 599493
e
Beijing Automotive Research Center Co. Ltd, Beijing, 101300, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An effective vehicle integrated thermal management (VITM) system is critical for the safe and efficient
Received 24 September 2019 operation of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) vehicles. The objectives of this paper are to
Received in revised form model the VITM system and develop control strategies for the VITM system of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). To
11 March 2020
do that, the VITM system model, based on the heating principle of each key component and heat transfer
Accepted 26 March 2020
Available online 2 April 2020
theory, was developed in KULI. The VITM system includes 5 loops for a prototype of range extender sport
utility vehicle (SUV), which is powered by a 36 kW PEMFC stack and an 11 kW h Li-ion battery. Then,
three steady-state and two transient working conditions of FCVs were selected to simulate. The results
Keywords:
FCVs
showed that the temperatures of all components were controlled within the required ranges, indicating
KULI software that the VITM system achieves relatively positive cooling capacity and satisfies the requirements of
VITM thermal management control effect. It showed that the developed VITM system could analyse the impact
PID control on one loop and the integrated impact on the whole vehicle when the thermal state of one or several
Multilevel control components changes, which is useful to guide the VITM system design of the PEMFC vehicles.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
With growing concerns on energy crises and environmental
issues, electric vehicles (EVs) have achieved rapid development
currently with plenty of mass production EVs on the road. However,
the mileage and charging time are the two limitations of the pure
electric vehicles (PEVs) based on battery, prompting various addi-
tional alternative solutions. Many research and auto manufacturers
have invested a lot of effort in Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
(based on internal combustion engine (ICE) and battery) and fuel
cell vehicles (FCVs) (based on fuel cell and battery) [1]. FCVs are
considered a future vehicle and have attracted high attention due to
the advantages of environmentally-friendly, zero pollution and
high efficiency [2e4].
In FCVs, the operating temperature of proton exchange
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: czzhang@cqu.edu.cn (C. Zhang).
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) may affect the gas transport, water
balance, and electrochemical kinetics of the stack. Increasing the
operating temperature of PEMFC may improve mass transport and
increase electrochemical reaction. However, too high operating
temperature may lead to membrane dehydration, causing irre-
versible performance loss [5,6]. Typically, the temperature of air is
highly increased when the air is compressed, which would damage
the membrane [7]. Thus, the PEMFC air inlet temperature should be
controlled to improve the efficiency and stability of PEMFC stack
[7,8]. On the other hand, the efficiency of the motor may be greatly
reduced or even lead to failure when the motor temperature ex-
ceeds the maximum allowable temperature [9]. Similarly, the small
motor inside the air compressor also needs to be cooled. In addi-
tion, DC/DC converter, motor controller and other electronic com-
ponents will burn out if their cooling requirements are not met.
Thus, the PEMFC, motor, motor, charge air and other electronic
components all require suitable loops for cooling and heating.
However, too many independent loops would increase the weight
and volume of the thermal management system, reducing mileage

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117495
0360-5442/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495

Nomenclature TMI inlet temperature of medium (K)

TMO outlet temperature of medium (K)
A heat transfer area (m2) TPM temperature of point mass (K)
Av front area (m2) uv vehicle velocity (m/s)
CD air drag coefficient uM medium velocity (m/s)
CpA specific heat capacity of air (J/(kg*K)) Vact electrochemical polarization voltage (V)
CM specific heat capacity of medium (J/(kg*K)) Vcell voltage of a single cell (V)
CpI specific heat capacity of inner flow (J/(kg*K)) Vcon concentration polarization voltage (V)
CpO specific heat capacity of outer flow (J/(kg*K)) Vohmic ohmic polarization voltage (V)
CPM specific heat capacity of point mass (J/(kg*K)) Vstack PEMFC stack voltage (V)
E0 electromotive forces under standard pressure (V)
Enernst Nernst open circuit voltage (V) Greek symbols
F Faraday constant a climbing angle (o)
Fd driving force (N) g adiabatic index
Ff rolling resistance (N) d correction coefficient of rotating mass
Fi grade resistance (N) εFC PEMFC system efficiency
Fw air friction (N) εfuel fuel efficiency of PEMFC
Fj acceleration resistance (N) εthermal reversible thermodynamic efficiency
f rolling resistance coefficient εvoltage voltage efficiency
G weight of the vehicle (N) εparasitic parasitic efficiency
h heat transfer coefficient (J/(K*m2)) hc isentropic efficiency
i0 transmission ratio hDC DC/DC converter efficiency
Istack current of the PEMFC stack (A) hFCcom FC compressor mechanical efficiency
L material thickness (mm) hFCcomc FC compressor controller efficiency
Lc characteristic length (mm) hm motor efficiency
mv vehicle mass (kg) hmc motor controller efficiency
mPM mass of the point mass (kg) hT vehicle transmission efficiency
m_ A charge air flow rate (kg/s) l stoichiometry
m_ I inner mass flow rate (kg/s) lm thermal conductivity of material (W/(m$K))
m_ O outer mass flow rate (kg/s) wfuel fuel supply rate (mol/s)
m_ M medium mass flow rate (kg/s) y dynamic viscosity (N*s/m2)
N number of the tube rows of the heat exchanger Ф operating characteristic of cross-flow heat exchanger
Ncell number of the cell of PEMFC
n motor speed (rpm) Other symbols
P1, P2 gas pressure (kPa) D bg change in Gibbs free energy of formation (kJ/mol)
PAir air supply pressure (kPa) Dh b enthalpy change (kJ/mol)
PH2 fuel supply pressure (kPa) b
Ds entropy change for per mole of total reaction (J/
PACcom air conditioning (AC) compressor power (W) (mol*K))
PB Li-ion battery power (W) DT temperature difference between the point mass and
PDCh DC/DC converter heat power (W) fluid (K)
Pm motor electrical power (W) DTA temperature rise of the charge air (K)
Pmh motor heat power (W) Dt time step (s)
Pmc motor controller input power (W)
Pmch motor controller heat power (W) Abbreviation
PFC PEMFC power (W) EVs electric vehicles
PFCh PEMFC heat power (W) PEVs pure electric vehicles
PFCcom fuel cell (FC) compressor power (W) HEVs hybrid electric vehicles
PFCcomh fuel cell (FC) compressor heat power (W) ICE internal combustion engine
PFCcomc fuel cell (FC) compressor controller input power (W) FCVs fuel cell vehicles
PFCcomch fuel cell (FC) compressor controller heat power (W) PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Ph heat exchangers heat power (W) VITM vehicle integrated thermal management
Pt heat transfer power (W) PID proportion integration differentiation
Pr Prandtl number FC compressor fuel cell compressor
R ideal gas constant AC compressor air conditioning compressor
Re Reynolds number SOC state of charge
r tire radius (m) HVJB high voltage junction box
b
s absolute entropy (kJ/(mol*K)) ACD auxiliary control driver
Tm motor torque (Nm) R-134a 1, 1, 1, 2-tetrafluoroethane
TFC PEMFC operating temperature (K) PTC positive temperature coefficient
TI(in) inlet temperature of inner flow (K) HWFET highway fuel economy test
TO(in) inlet temperature of outer flow (K) WLTC worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle
TI(mean) mean temperature of inner flow (K) WLTP worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedures
TO(mean) mean temperature of outer flow (K) NEDC new European driving cycle
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
and fuel economy [10]. Therefore, a modern vehicle integrated
thermal management (VITM) system with rational control strate-
gies has a great significance for the stable operation and fuel
economy of the FCVs [11].
There are various studies in the existing literature about VITM of
PEVs and HEVs. According to the literature and patents in recent
years, the cooling technologies of Li-ion battery, PEMFC and other
electron components in vehicles are mainly including: (i) air cool-
ing, (ii) liquid cooling, (iii) heat pipes cooling, and (iv) phase change
material (PCM) cooling [11]. However, while other technologies
have corresponding advantages, liquid cooling is still the most
suitable technology for high power systems and is more valid to
integrate the cooling systems for PEVs, HEVs and FCVs [11,12]. As for
PEVs, Mark D. et al. [13] invented a VITM system comprising a
coolant loop and refrigerant loop, whereas the two loops exchange
heat with each other through a chiller. Daniel [14] combined the
fluid loops of battery, air-conditioning and motor into a single
liquid circuit, which increased 9% range of the vehicle. In terms of
HEVs, a VITM system including high and low-temperature loops
responsible for different systems was proposed by U.S. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) [15]. Researchers from
Wayne State University presented an integrated control strategy for
the VITM system of plug-in HEV, which involves three independent
circuits that each has its radiator [16]. Tao et al. [17] examined the
integration of advanced control algorithms to the cooling system
featuring an electric-mechanical compressor, a coolant pump and
several radiator fans. As a result, it can not only minimize the
temperature fluctuations of the battery and ICE but also reduce the
overall auxiliary power consumption of the cooling system by 45%
compared with a conventional cooling control method. However,
there are few studies on VITM of FCVs and most of them leave out of
consideration about the cooling of charge air. The existing studies
mainly focus on modelling and control strategies of the single loop
of PEMFC for cooling or heating [18e21]. Liso et al. [18] presented a
control-oriented dynamic model of a liquid-cooled PEMFC system
for studying temperature variations over fast load changes. Saygili
et al. [19] developed a semi-empirical model and investigated three
specific strategies to propose the best strategy. Cheng et al. [20]
established a model-based control strategy to control the coolant
outlet temperature of the PEMFC and applied it on a city bus sys-
tem. Zhao et al. [21] proposed a semi-mechanical semi-empirical
thermal management model of a liquid-cooled PEMFC.
As mentioned above, for FCVs, the thermal technologies level of
components and subsystems have reached needed levels of
maturity and the next most important step for vehicle realization is
integrating these into a vehicle system and developing coordinated
control strategies for it [1]. In fact, the VITM system of FCVs is
somewhat similar to that of HEVs to some extent. However, in
contrast to the ICE, where the temperature difference between
radiator surface and ambient air, DT (see equations (32) and (43)), is
about 400
C, the radiator of PEMFC requires about much larger
radiator surface area to remove the comparable amount of waste
heat [22]. Also, much more heat is released to the coolant in PEMFC
because a significant amount of heat could be transported with the
exhaust gas in ICE while the heat transported with gas and water is
negligible in PEMFC [23]. The factors mentioned above present a
challenge for the layout of the VITM system of FCVs. As for the VITM
system layout, Xia et al. [24] proposed a new radiating system in
FCVs and compared it with the traditional structure in vehicles by
radiating experiments, and found the new structure can radiate
more heat. J. Hager et al. [23] highlighted the differences in thermal
behaviour by comparing two vehicles of similar size, one with ICE
the other with a PEMFC. Their simulation results in KULI software
indicated that to reach temperature levels of the FCVs the heat
exchange area had to be increased by 70% compared with the
3
conventional vehicle and the speeds of pump and fan had to be
adapted. Park [25] compared the systematic cooling performances
of three different layouts of cooling systems by using the 1-D and 3-
D CFD codes. The proposed liquid cooling system with dual loops
and specified array improves the heat rejection rate of the radiator.
However, relatively few heat components are considered in their
proposed systems, such as charge air, FC compressor and so on, and
they did not apply control algorithms to the entire system to
analyse the rationality of the VITM system.
Typically, the heat exchangers of cooling loops are generally
arranged in series due to the limited space of the front area of the
vehicle, implying that if any loop’s coolant temperature rises un-
desirably due to some components in the state of thermal runaway,
the air exit temperature of the heat exchanger in that loop would
rise accordingly, leading to the deterioration of heat rejection of the
heat exchanger in the rear cooling loop. Therefore, it is not enough
to simply check the system under several limit steady-state con-
ditions. It is necessary to apply the corresponding control strategies
to the VITM system and analyse the heat generation and heat
dissipation of each component in different transient conditions to
verify the rationality of it [11].
In this paper, the objective is to develop a VITM system,
including rational control strategies and all heat components
except Li-ion battery and air conditioning, of PEMFC vehicles. A
complete VITM system framework that couples the charge air loop
with motor loop and arranges the heat exchangers in series were
systematically proposed. The heating generation of each compo-
nent and the heat transfer theory were researched and then the
VITM system model was developed in KULI software. The propor-
tion integration differentiation (PID) and multilevel control were
utilized to regulate the speeds of pumps and fan separately to meet
the cooling requirements of the system. The results showed that
the cooling capacity of the VITM system is adequate and the control
strategies are reasonable, which provides significant guidance to
determine the layout and control strategies of the VITM system of
PEMFC vehicles at the early stage of conceptual design.
2. VITM system
2.1. System description
Due to the slow dynamic response of PEMFC and energy
recovering during breaking, the vehicle of this study is a range
extender PEMFC sports utility vehicle (SUV), which has the
advantage of refuelling, extended mileage and reducing the cost of
PEMFC stack [26]. The experimental prototype is refitted from an
HEV, which is ongoing development by Chongqing Changan auto-
mobile Co., Ltd, China and the specification is shown in Table 1. The
prototype already has the Li-ion battery and chassis, and the space
of its underhood is larger than PEV when the engine is dismantled,
implying that refitting the HEV could shorten the research time and
more beneficial to the further experiment. The vehicle parameters
are shown in Table 1. The running of the vehicle depends on the
driving force Fd which is provided by the motor torque Tm. The
driving force needs to overcome the driving resistance which
consists of rolling resistance Ff, grade resistance Fi, air friction Fw
and acceleration resistance Fj. The vehicle driving equations are
shown below [27]:
Fd ¼ Fj þ Fi þ Fw þ Fj (1)
Fd ¼ Tm i0 hT =r (2)
4 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
Ff ¼ Gfcosa (3)
Fi ¼ Gsina (4)
CD Av 2
Fw ¼ u (5)
21:15 v
duv
Fj ¼ dmv (6)
dt
where i0 is the vehicle transmission ratio, hT is the transmission
efficiency, r is the tire radius, G is the weight of the vehicle, f is the
rolling resistance coefficient, a is the climbing angle, CD is the air
drag coefficient, Av is the front area, uv is the vehicle velocity, d is the
correction coefficient of rotating mass, mv is the vehicle mass. Then
the motor speed n and electrical power Pm can be calculated as:
60i0 uv
n¼ (7)
2pr
Tm  n
Pm ¼ (8)
9550hm
where hm is the motor efficiency obtained from the bench text of
motor. Finally, the power of PEMFC is computed as:
PFC hDC ¼ Pm þ PACcom þ PB þ PFCcom (9)
where PFC is the PEMFC power, hDC is the DC/DC converter trans-
mission efficiency obtained from the manual, PACcom is the air
conditioning (AC) compressor power, PB is the Li-ion battery power,
PFCcom is the fuel cell (FC) compressor power.
In this study, vehicle energy system and vehicle energy man-
agement strategy based on the dynamic logic rule were built, and
the sketch is shown in Fig. 1. The energy system of the vehicle
mainly includes a PEMFC stack with normal power of 36 kW, a Li-
ion battery with capacity of 11 kW h, a DC/DC converter, a motor
controller, a motor, an FC compressor controller, an FC compressor,
and an AC compressor. The PEMFC stack, connected to the power
bus via a DC/DC converter, supplies power to the load together with
the Li-ion battery as shown in equation (9). The FC compressor
power varies with the airflow that is defined by the power of
PEMFC whereas the power of the AC compressor is assumed to be
constant at 3 kW [28]. The dynamic logic rule determines the po-
wer assignment between battery, motor and the target power of
PEMFC according to the state of charge (SOC) of Li-ion battery
[29e31]. In this control strategy, the PEMFC power is limited be-
tween 13 and 40 kW due to the efficiency is low when the power is
too high or too low (see Fig. 4 and more detail discussion is in
chapter 3.1.1). The lifespan of PEMFC can be significantly cut down if
its working situation is subject to frequent and drastic change.
Thus, to mitigate the degradation of PEMFC, a rate limiter restricts
the change rate of PEMFC power within 0.5 kW/s [32]. The drastic
change of motor power is handled by the Li-ion battery and the Li-
ion battery is charged when the power of loads is low.
2.2. VITM system framework
According to the vehicle energy system shown in Fig. 1, the
charge air, PEMFC, Li-ion battery, DC/DC converter, motor, motor
controller, FC compressor, FC compressor controller all need to be
cooled. To realize a compact system and reduce the air resistance, a
VITM system is proposed in Fig. 2. In the system, two radiators and
one condenser are arranged in series. After the cooling air enters
the intake grille of the vehicle, it passes through radiator 1, radiator
2 and condenser in turn by the fan, since the coolant inlet tem-
perature of these three heat exchangers rises in turn. There are 5
cooling loops described below:
Loop 1: the cooling loop for the motor, motor controller, FC
compressor, FC compressor controller, DC/DC converter, high
voltage junction box (HVJB) and auxiliary control driver (ACD),
indicated by the blue line;
Loop 2: the charge air cooling loop indicated by the red stipple
line;
Loop 3: the PEMFC cooling and heating loop indicated by the
yellow line;
Loop 4: The Li-ion battery cooling loop coupled with the air
conditioning system through a chiller, indicated by the green
line;
Loop 5: the air conditioning system loop indicated by the purple
line.
The refrigerant in loop 5 is 1, 1, 1, 2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a),
generally used in automotive applications. In other loops, the
coolant is water/glycol (50%/50%) mixture, which has a lower vis-
cosity and higher thermal conductivity than most oils, resulting in
higher heat transfer coefficients e more than 3 times higher than
air and widespread use in automobile [33].
In loop 1, the coolant flow order is on the base of the maximum
heat power of each heat source, which is the reason that the motor
is finally cooled by the coolant. The coolant is split into two
branches that one is for charge air cooling and the other one is
cooled by the radiator. Then, the coolant flow meets in the trunk
line and flows to the ACD for the next cycle.
In loop 2, the temperature of the air may rise sharply after it is
compressed by the FC compressor. To prevent the PEMFC mem-
brane from damaging, the charge air needs to be cooled down
before it is sent to the stack [7]. In this study, the temperature of the
charge air is controlled at the optimum operating temperature of
the PEMFC, 75
C [7,8,34]. The charge air is cooled by the coolant
which flows from the motor loop branch through an intercooler.
Then, the charge air is humidified by the humidifier before entering
the PEMFC, to prevent dehydration of the membrane.
In loop 3, a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) electric heater
is employed to preheat the PEMFC by heating the coolant. The
proportional valve controls the opening and closing of the PTC
branch and the radiator branch.
The thermal management systems of air conditioning (loop 4)
and Li-ion battery (loop 5) are relatively mature in the exiting
research of VITM for EVs and HEVs. Therefore, these two loops are
not considered in this work.
2.3. Control strategies
There is a PID controller in loop 1 and loop 3, respectively. The
input of the PID controller 1 in loop 1 is the difference between the
air entry temperature of PEMFC and the ideal temperature. The
input of the PID controller 2 in loop 3 is the difference between the
coolant exit temperature of PEMFC and the ideal temperature. The
output of the PID controller 1 is the revolution of the pump in loop
1 and the output of PID controller 2 is the revolution of the pump in
loop 3.
The fan feeds the wind flow through a multilevel controller. The
inputs of the multilevel controller are the coolant exit temperature
of PEMFC, the coolant outlet temperature of motor and the air entry
temperature of PEMFC. When any one of the above three temper-
atures exceeds its corresponding specified maximum allowable
value, the fan operates at a high revolution. Otherwise, when
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495 5

coolant exit temperature of PEMFC and air entry temperature of      

PEMFC are below their specified minimum values, the fan runs at a εFC ¼ ðεthermo Þ  εvoltage  εfuel  εparasitic (15)
low revolution. In other cases, the fan runs at medium revolution as
shown in Fig. 3.
D bg
εthermo ¼ (16)
Dhb
3. System modelling
Vcell
3.1. Heat generation model εvoltage ¼ (17)
Enernst

3.1.1. PEMFC model

Ncell Istack =2F
The PEMFC stack consists of several cells. The equation of cell εfuel ¼ (18)
voltage of a PEMFC is mainly composed of the concentration po- wfuel
larization voltage Vcon, the electrochemical polarization voltage Vact,
the ohmic polarization voltage Vohmic, and the Nernst open circuit PFCcom
voltage Enernst. The correlation is as follows: εparasitic ¼ 1  (19)
PFC

Vcell ¼ Enernst  Vact  Vohmic  Vcon (10) where εthermal is the reversible thermodynamic efficiency with the
The PEMFC heat power PFCh is calculated as follows [20]: value of 0.83 in regard of PEMFC, D b g is the change in Gibbs free
energy of formation, D h b is the enthalpy change, ε
voltage is the
PFCh ¼ Ncell ðEnernst  Vcell ÞIstack ¼ ðNcell Enernst  Vstack ÞIstack (11) voltage efficiency, εfuel is the fuel efficiency, wfuel is the fuel supply
rate, εparasitic is the parasitic efficiency. When the power of PEMFC is
where the Ncell is the number of the cell of PEMFC, Vcell is the voltage in a low range, hydrogen and air are both over-supplied according
of a single cell, Vstack is the PEMFC stack voltage, Istack is the PEMFC to reference [18]. So PFCcom is much bigger than PFC when the cur-
stack current. Nernst open circuit voltage Enernst is related to the rent and power of PEMFC are quite small, resulting in the negative
operating temperature of PEMFC TFC and the fuel supply pressure efficiency within the corresponding range as shown in Fig. 4. Ac-
PH2 in anode and the air supply pressure PAir in cathode [35]: cording to the efficiency illustrated in Fig. 4, the power of the
PEMFC is limited between 13kW and 40kW within the high-
Dbs RTFC 1 efficiency range, above 41.5%.
Enernst ¼ E0 þ ðTFC  298Þ  ln   
2F 2F 0:21P 0:5
0:9998pH2
AirÞ

(12) 3.1.2. Heat generation models of motor and other electric

where E0 is the electromotive forces under standard pressure, Dbs is
the entropy change for per mole of total reaction, F is the Faraday
constant, R is the ideal gas constant. The total reaction is:
H2 ðgÞ þ 0:5O2 ðgÞ/H2 OðlÞ
and consequently the entropy change:
components
A motor was selected according to the vehicle demand power,
calculated by equations (1)e(8), as shown in Table 3. A motor
controller (V0130-60 kW) was chosen from Shenzhen Foripower
Co., Ltd, according to the power of motor as shown in Table 4. The
(13)
motor heat power Pmh and motor controller heat power Pmch are
expressed as:

Dbs ¼ bs ðH2 OðlÞÞ  bs ðH2 ðgÞÞ  0:5bs ðO2 ðgÞÞ (14) Pmh ¼ Pm ð1  hm Þ (20)

where b s is the absolute entropy, varied with the temperature, and
the value is attained by looking up tables in reference [35].
In this paper, a PEMFC stack with a normal power of 36 kW
(nm5) was customized by ElringKlinger. Basic parameters of PEMFC
stack are shown in Table 2. The characteristic curves of PEMFC are
shown in Fig. 4, which demonstrates not only the polarization
curve, current density curve and power curve, all measured by
experiment, but also the heat power of PEMFC calculated by
equation (11) and the PEMFC system efficiency εFC calculated by
Ref. [35]:
Table 1
Specification of the prototype fuel cell SUV.
Parameter Symbol Unit
Pmc ¼ Pm =hmc (21)
Pmch ¼ Pmc ð1  hmc Þ (22)
where Pm is the motor electrical power, hm is the motor efficiency,
Pmc is the motor controller input power, hmc is the motor controller
efficiency. The data of motor efficiency and motor controller effi-
ciency under different revolutions and torques were obtained
through experimental equipment as shown in Fig. 5. And then the
efficiencies are coupled into two 3D characteristic cloud maps as
shown in Fig. 6, consistent with reference [36].
A DC/DC converter (FRFDC500-100) was chosen from Shenzhen
Foripower Co., Ltd and the basic parameters are shown in Table 5.
The DC/DC converter heat power PDCh is given by:
Value

Weight G N 21200 PDCh ¼ PFC ð1  hDC Þ (23)

Rolling resistance coefficient f e 0.01
Transmission ratio i0 e 9.11
Tire radius r m 0.353 where the DC-DC converter efficiency hDC is assumed, 96%, to be
Air drag coefficient CD N/m2 0.35 equal with the overall efficiency from the manual.
Front area Av m2 2.604 The heat power of HVJB and ACD were integrated into a heat
Correction coefficient of rotating mass d e 1.04 source model with the heat power of 1920W according to reference
Transmission efficiency hT e 95%
[25].
6 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495

Fig. 1. Vehicle energy system and vehicle energy management strategy.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the proposed VITM system.

 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495 7

3.1.3. Heat generation model of charge air, FC compressor, FC

compressor controller
The temperature rise of the charge air DTA is calculated as fol-
lows [34]:

0 1
 g1
T1 B P2 g
C
DTA ¼ T2  T1 ¼ @  1A (24)
hc P1

where the g is the adiabatic index with the value of 1.4, and hc is the
isentropic efficiency with the value obtained from the FC
compressor manual. When the air pressure rises from P1 to P2, the
air temperature also rises from T1 to T2. According to equation (24),
Tables 2 and 6, the temperature of charge air, T2, is calculated to be
160
C with the ambient temperature of 40
C, which aims to test
the cooling capacity in extreme cases in temperate regions. For Fig. 4. Characteristic curves of the PEMFC.
quite a few high-temperature fuel cells, this rise of temperature is
useful as it preheats the reactants [37]. However, for the low-
temperature PEMFC of this study, it means that the charge air Then the FC compressor power PFCcom is given by:
should be cooled [34]. It is assumed that the water injected in the
humidifier is in the form of vapour and the temperature of charge

air doesn’t change as it flows through the humidifier, according to PFCcom ¼ m_ A CpA DT hFCcom (26)
reference [7].
The charge air flow rate m_ A is calculated as follows [34]: where hFCcom is the FC compressor mechanical efficiency obtained
from the manual as shown in Table 6, CpA is the constant pressure

Ncell PFC specific heat capacity of air with the value of 1004 Jkg1K1 [34].
m_ A ¼ 3:57  107 l kg s (25)
Vstack According to the pressure of the charge air as shown in Table 2,
an FC compressor (XT-FCC300) was chosen from Beijing XecaTurbo
where the stoichiometry l should be 2 at least [34]. To maximize Technology and an FC compressor controller (FRFCC-15) was cho-
the efficiency of the PEMFC stack, l is set to 2.2 when the PEMFC sen from Shenzhen Foripower Co., Ltd as shown in Tables 6 and 7.
operates in a high power range according to reference [7]. However, Similar with motor and motor controller, the FC compressor heat
when the PEMFC is in the start-up phase, the air should be supplied power PFCcomh and FC compressor controller heat power PFCcomch are
in excess. expressed as:

Fig. 3. Multilevel control of fan.

8 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495

1
PFCcomh ¼ PFCcom ð1  hFCcom Þ (27) aIM ¼ OIM þ CIM ReIM PrIM
3
(36)

PFCcomc ¼ PFCcom hFCcomc (28) aOM ¼ OOM þ COM ReOM PrOM
3
1
(37)

PFCcomch ¼ PFCcomc ð1  hFCcomc Þ (29) where Re is the Reynolds number, Pr is the Prandtl number which
could be obtained by looking up the table. The coefficients OIM, OIM,
where PFCcomc is the FC compressor controller input power, hFCcomc is COM, CIM are calibrated with the measurement data of the specific
the FC compressor controller efficiency obtained from the manual component. Re is represented as:
as shown in Table 7.
uM Lc
Re ¼ (38)
w

3.2. Heat transfer where uM is the medium velocity, Lc is the characteristic length, y is
the dynamic viscosity.
The two radiators and intercooler in this study are cross-flow For the operating characteristic Ф of a cross-flow heat
heat exchangers, whose heat power Ph can be calculated as follows: exchanger, the following expressions are given:
8
Ph ¼ tPETD þ ð1  tÞPDT (30) >
>
>
<
>
>
PETD ¼ Wk ðTIðinÞ  TOðinÞ Þ∅ (31) >
:
 
WI 1þS
PDT ¼ hAðTIðmeanÞ  TOðmeanÞ Þ (32) ∅¼ 1  eεyo WI > WO
WO N
1þS
WI ¼ m_ I CpI (33) ∅¼1  eεyo WI < WO (39)
N

 h !
WO ¼ m_ O CpO (34) X
N1 Xp im Xm
ðεy0 Þr
p R ðpmÞR
S¼ 1e e (40)
m r!
p¼1 m¼0 r¼0
where Wk is the minimum of WI and WO, Ф is the operating char-
acteristic, TI(in) is the inlet temperature of inner flow, TO(in) is the
WO  
inlet temperature of outer flow, h is the heat transfer coefficient, A is εy0 ¼  N  1  eR (41)
the heat transfer area, TI(mean) is the mean temperature of inner WI
flow, TO(mean) is the mean temperature of outer flow, m_ I is the inner
mass flow, m_ O is the outer mass flow, CpI is the specific heat capacity hA
of the inner flow, CpO is the specific heat capacity of the outer flow. R¼  (42)
N  WO
The parameter t depends on the mass flow, t ¼ 1 for the measured
range of the radiator and some extrapolated range, t ¼ 0 for very where N is the number of the tube rows of the heat exchanger.
small flow rate and 0 < t < 1 (with a smooth transition) in between. The PEMFC model was built as a point mass defined by the
In equation (32), the overall heat transfer coefficient h can be external heat supply. The heat exchange between a point mass and
considered as a combination of several heat transfer coefficients, fluid always depends on the heat transfer area A, the heat exchange
which are heat convection from the outer medium to the structure coefficient h, and the temperature difference DT between the point
(aOM), heat conduction through the structure (L/lm) and heat con- mass and fluid. The heat transfer power Pt is calculated as:
vection from the structure to the inner medium (aIM). The equation
is: Pt ¼ h  A  DT (43)

1 where the temperature difference DT is calculated based on the

h¼ 1 L 1
(35) logarithmic average temperature difference between a point mass
aOM þ lm þ aIM
and fluid:
where L is the material thickness and lm is the thermal conductivity
of the material. For the aIM and aOM, they can be calculated as: Table 3
Basic parameters of the motor.

Table 2 Parameters Unit Value

Basic parameters of PEMFC stack. Motor weight kg 54
rated power kW 60
Parameters Symbol Unit Value
Maximum power kW 125
Number of cells Ncell e 240 Rated torque Nm 120
Nominal power Pnorm kW 36 Peak torque Nm 280
Maximum power Pmax kW 40 Peak speed rpm 12000
Operating temperature TFC K 348 Peak power duration s 30
Fuel composition - e 99.98% Peak torque duration s 30
Oxidant composition - e 21% Maximum current A 468.2


Fuel supply pressure PH2 bar 2.4 Coolant temperature C 40e65
Air supply pressure PAir bar 2.5 Operating voltage range V 240e450
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495 9

Table 4 Table 5
Basic parameters of the motor controller. Basic parameters of the DC/DC converter.

Parameters Unit Value Parameters Unit Value

Motor controller weight kg 9.5 Rated input power kW 40

rated power kW 60 Input voltage range V 80e240
Input voltage range V 400e750 Output voltage range V 400e720
Speed control range Hz 0e600 Rated input current A 500
Speed control accuracy % ±0.02 Overall efficiency % 96


Torque control accuracy % ±5 Coolant temperature C 40e85
o
Coolant temperature C 40e75 Size mm 450*450*150
Communication e CAN 2.0B Weight kg 50
Communication e CAN 2.0B

Table 6
Basic parameters of the FC compressor.

Parameters Unit Value

Design e Two stages

Bearing e Air foil bearing
Start-stop cycle e 100000
Pressure ratio e 2.5
Isentropic efficiency % 78
Mechanical efficiency % 90
Size mm 380*218*84
Weight kg 11.3
Communication e CAN 2.0B
o
Air inlet temperature C 45e45

determined by:

Pt  Dt
Fig. 5. Motor bench test. TMO ¼ TMI  (45)
m_ M  CM

where m_ M is the mass flow rate of the medium, CM is the specific

TMI  TMO heat capacity of the medium, Dt is the time step. In the transient
DT ¼   (44)
MI TPM
simulation, the point mass temperature for the time step n is
ln TTMO TPM determined by:

where the TMO is the medium outlet temperature, TMI is the me- m hA
Dt
TPMðnÞ ¼ TMI  ðTMI  TPMðn1Þ Þe PM CPM (46)
dium inlet temperature, TPM is the point mass temperature. The
fluid temperature changes from inlet to outlet and is therefore not
constant. TPMð0Þ ¼ Initial temperature (47)
The transferred heat influences the temperature of the point
mass. Moreover, it influences the temperature of the surrounding where mPM is the mass of the point mass, CPM is the specific heat
medium as well. The medium outlet temperature TMO is capacity of the point mass. A point mass was added after every

Fig. 6. (a) 3D cloud maps of motor efficiency, (b) 3D cloud maps of motor controller efficiency.
10 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
Table 7
Basic parameters of the FC compressor controller.
Parameters Unit Value
Voltage range e 350e800
Efficiency % 98
Response time ms <100
Shut down time s <2
Load step response s <2
Size mm 270*210*80
Weight kg 5.5
Communication e CAN 2.0B
o
Coolant temperature C 40e90
component due to the transient calculation. The heat transfer
calculation of the fluid flowing through the other heat sources is
similar to that of point mass described above.
Notably, the heat transfer coefficient h of point mass is influ-
enced by the flow rate of coolant, the shape of the solid surface and
the thermal conductivity of the material and so on. However, when
the heat source is determined, it is only the flow rate of coolant that
affects h. Meanwhile, since the heat transfer area A is usually not
given in the manual and its measurement is difficult, the value of
h  A was obtained by experimental calibration. The steps are:
① The coolant transient inlet and outlet temperatures of one
heat source are measured through experiments under a
certain flow rate and a certain heat power in a period;
② The mass and the specific heat capacity of the heat source,
the transient coolant inlet temperature, the heat power, the
flow rate and the corresponding time, which are all
measured by experiment or obtained from the manual, are
inputted into KULI as the constraint condition.
③ Input the assumed value of h  A to the heat source, that is
the point mass in KULI, and continuously reduce the range of
the value of h  A according to the error between the
calculated coolant outlet temperature and the experimen-
tally measured coolant outlet temperature until the value of
h  A could make the calculated results fit the experimental
results.
Finally, the value of h  A of each component under different
coolant flow rate could be obtained by this method as shown in
Fig. 7.
It can be known that the heat exchange power is affected by the
flow rate, and the flow rate is affected by the flow resistance when
the pump speed is constant. Therefore, it is necessary to match the
water pump and the radiator with sufficient capacity for each loop
according to the heat power of the heat sources.
The radiators (330271-02wcac) of the motor loop and PEMFC
Fig. 7. Calibration of h  A in KULI.
loop were obtained from Zhejiang yinlun Machinery Co., Ltd. The
pumps (cwa400) were chosen from BorgWarner. The intercooler
was bought from South Air International Co., Ltd. The fan was
chosen from Chongqing construction hanang automotive thermal
management system Co., Ltd. All components in the loops of the
system were experimentally tested for their respective flow resis-
tance curves and performance curves. For example, Fig. 8 shows the
flow resistance curves of the motor and motor controller. However,
the above components are all customized. The detailed parameter
information and the experimental data involve the confidentiality
of the enterprise, therefore, unfortunately these cannot be dis-
closed in this study.
This study used KULI software to solve the complex heat dissi-
pation calculation of the system. The models of the components
were built by inputting the experimental data into KULI and then
the components were connected to form the system model as
shown in Fig. 9.
4. Simulation and discussion
There are some assumptions during the simulation:
(1) Since the heat exchange between the PEMFC and the outside
is low, it is assumed that the PEMFC is insulated from the
outside in this study according to reference [38].
(2) The pumps speeds are set a minimum revolution, 500 rpm,
not zero when they are running, which is inspired by the
resulting figure in literature [39].
4.1. Steady-state simulation
In this research, the steady-state simulation was carried out for
the coolant temperature of each component under three extreme
conditions: (highest speed, high-speed climbing and low-speed
climbing) to investigate whether the cooling system meets the
cooling demand under stable and long-term limit condition. In
detail, the motor power required for low-speed climbing is the
smallest compared with the other two conditions, resulting in less
heat generation. However, the air volume for cooling decreases due
to the low speed of the vehicle, resulting in the reduction of the
heat dissipation power of the radiators. On the opposite condition,
the motor power is the highest under the highest speed conditions,
so that the system generates the most heat, but the air volume is
also high due to the high speed of the vehicle. High-speed climbing
is a compromise between the above two conditions. Thus, the
cooling capacity of the system must be checked. The parameters of
the selected three conditions in this study are shown in Table 8.
Besides, the speeds of pumps are set to 7000 rpm and the fan is
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495 11

Fig. 8. The flow resistance curves: (a) motor, (b) motor controller.

Fig. 9. The VITM system model in KULI.

turned to the maximum level for steady-state simulation. The re-
sults of the simulation are shown in Table 9.
According to Table 9, it can be seen from the results that under
these three working conditions, the power of PEMFC reaches the
maximum of 40 kW, which means the heat power of PEMFC under
these three conditions equals to each other. Thus, the coolant exit
temperature of PEMFC depends on the heat power of radiator
which increases as the air mass flow increases according to equa-
tions (30)e(42). Therefore, the coolant exit temperature of PEMFC
decreases as the vehicle speed increases. Since the PEMFC oper-
ating temperature is difficult to measure in practical engineering, it
is assumed that the coolant exit temperature of PEMFC is equal to
the operating temperature of PEMFC in this study according to
reference [40,41].
The maximum permissible coolant outlet temperature of each
heat source could be seen from Tables 2eTable 7. The coolant outlet
maximum permissible temperature of ACD and HVJB is set to 65
C
according to reference [25]. In the motor loop, the coolant highest
temperature point is located at the motor outlet since the coolant
flows through the motor at last. Meanwhile, the maximum
permissible coolant outlet temperature of the motor is lower than
that of others. Thus, the cooling of other components can be known
by referring to the coolant exit temperature of the motor as shown
in Table 9, indicating that the cooling requirements of other com-
ponents are met.
As shown in Fig. 2, the air outlet temperature of the intercooler

Table 8
Working conditions parameters.

Working conditions Speed (km/h) Slope Ambient pressure (kPa) Ambient Temperature (oC) Air humidity (%)

highest speed 120 0 101.3 40 50

high-speed climbing 90 0.03 101.3 40 50
low-speed climbing 50 0.08 101.3 40 50
Table 9
The results of the steady-state simulation.

Working Power of Electrical power of Coolant exit temperature of Air entry Temperature of Air entry temperature of Coolant exit temperature of
conditions PEMFC (kW) Motor (kW) motor (
C) Intercooler (
C) PEMFC (
C) PEMFC (
C)

highest speed 40 34.8 64.6 160 72.9 69.1

high-speed 40 33.7 63.3 160 71.9 70.0
climbing
low-speed 40 31.4 62.0 160 70.9 72.5
climbing

Fig. 10. Speed curves of the HWFET cycle and WLTC.

Fig. 11. Energy management curves: (a) HWFET cycle, (b) WLTC.
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495 13

Fig. 12. PEMFC loop: (a) HWFET cycle, (b) Enlarged figure of shade section in (a), (c) WLTC. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the Web version of this article.)

is equal to the air inlet temperature of PEMFC since the intercooler
and PEMFC are connected and the temperature of charge air does
not change when it flows through the humidifier. Similarly, the
coolant exit temperature of the motor is equal to the coolant entry
temperature of the intercooler, which decides the heat dissipation
power of intercooler according to equation (30) - (42). The air entry
temperature of PEMFC is constant at 160
C according to equation
(24). Thus, the air entry temperature of PEMFC decreases as the
coolant exit temperature of motor decreases.
It can be seen that the temperature of each component in loop
1e3, has not exceeded its corresponding maximum allowable
temperature, which means that the maximum cooling capacity of
the VITM system established in this paper meets the cooling
demand.
4.2. Transient simulation
Transient simulations were performed under five highway fuel
economy test (HWFET) cycles, representing the highway driving
conditions, and two worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle
(WLTC) conditions to investigate the control performance of the
cooling system [42]. The WLTC is a part of the worldwide harmo-
nized light vehicles test procedures (WLTP) that replaced the new
European driving cycle (NEDC) based procedure for type approval
14 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
Fig. 13. Motor loop and charge air loop: (a) HWFET cycle, (b) WLTC.
testing of passenger cars, which consists of four-speed ranges [43].
This work chose Class 3a cycle of WLTC because of the maximum
speed of the vehicle is less than 120 km/h. A plot of vehicle speed
versus time for the two drive cycles is shown in Fig. 10, where the
blue lines and red lines represent HWFET cycle and WLTC respec-
tively. Then the transient results are illustrated in Figs. 11e14,
where the pink dotted lines represent one HWFET cycle or one
WLTC.
As mentioned before, in order to increase the fuel economy and
prolong the working life of the PEMFC, the operating power of the
PEMFC is limited between 13 kW and 40 kW and the change rate of
PEMFC power is limited within 0.5 kW/s. Thus, as portrayed in
Fig. 11, the drastic change of load power is handled by the Li-ion
battery and the battery power is always negative, indicating that
the Li-ion battery is being charged. There are three reasons for this
phenomenon. Firstly, the lowest power of PEMFC, 13 kW, is higher
than the demand power during the low-speed range of the vehicle,
resulting in the excessive power of PEMFC being absorbed by the Li-
ion battery; secondly, when the load power decreases, the battery
absorbs the excessive power of the PEMFC since the PEMFC can not
instantaneously reduce its power; finally, there are a lot of accel-
erating and braking in these two cycles so the battery absorbs the
kinetic energy from motor regenerative braking. It can be seen in
Fig. 11(a) that the SOC of Li-ion battery is maintained relatively
stable within an ideal range in HWFET cycle whereas that in WLTC
has some fluctuations as shown in Fig. 11(b). This is because the
speed of the vehicle in HWFET cycle is mainly in the range of 45km/
h-100 km/h while that in WLTC fluctuates from 0km/h-135 km/h,
indicating that WLTC is more variable than HWFET cycle. However,
as shown in Fig. 11(b), the fluctuation of the SOC of Li-ion battery is
controlled around the optimal SOC, 65%, thanks to the adjusting of
the PEMFC power through the energy management. Moreover, in
Fig. 11(a), although the SOC of Li-ion battery shows a downward
trend overall, it is notable that the power of PEMFC has never
reached 40 kW, indicating that the SOC of Li-ion battery has not
dropped to the point where the PEMFC needs to sacrifice its effi-
ciency to increase power to charge the Li-ion battery. Overall, These
results mentioned above are similar to the literature that focuses on
the energy management of fuel cell/battery/supercapacitor hybrid
power sources for vehicle applications [44].
The simulation results for the PEMFC loops of cooling are
depicted in Fig. 12. It can be seen that in both cycles, the pump
speed fluctuates between 500 and 4000 rpm and the coolant exit
temperature of PEMFC is controlled at 75 ± 0.5
C by the PID
controller 2. As can be seen from the local detail picture in Fig. 12,
when the heat power of PEMFC changes drastically, the coolant
temperature is influenced but the PID controller 2 could adjust the
pump speed instantly to prevent the coolant temperature from
extreme fluctuating. Meanwhile, based on the local fluctuation of
the pump speed to maintain the coolant temperature, the trend of
the pump speed is consistent with that of the PEMFC heat power
overall, indicating the rationality of the control strategies.
Fig. 13 illustrates the operation of the motor loop and charge air
loop. Compared with the pump speed in PEMFC loop as shown in
Fig. 12, the local fluctuation of the pump speed in motor loop is
more severe, since the temperature of the charge air is easier to
 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
Fig. 14. Airside and fan speed: (a) HWFET cycle, (b) WLTC.
change than that of the coolant. According to equation (45), when
other parameters are the same, the larger the specific heat capacity
Cp, the smaller the temperature change DT, where the specific heat
capacity of the coolant is 3493 Jkg1K1, greater than that of the air
under pressure of 2.5 bar, 1047 Jkg1K1. Similar to the PEMFC loop,
the air inlet temperature of PEMFC is controlled at 75 ± 0.5
C by
the PID controller 1. Meanwhile, the coolant outlet temperature of
motor is also controlled below 65
C, indicating that the cooling
requirements of all the other components in the motor loop are also
met and the system layout is rational. In addition, as shown in
Fig. 13, reducing the temperature of charge air from 160
C to 75
C
requires about 2e4 kW of thermal dissipation power, which means
that cooling of the charge air is very necessary, consistent with the
theory in Ref. [7,34].
Fig. 14 demonstrate the simulation results of the inlet and outlet
temperatures on the airside of each radiator, air volume flow and
fan speed. It can be seen that the air entry temperature of the
radiator in the PEMFC loop is equal to the air exit temperature of
the radiator in the motor loop. The air outlet temperature of the
radiator in PEMFC loop is not very high, guarantying the perfor-
mance of condenser, derived from equations (30)e(42). It is not
difficult to see that the vehicle speed is a big factor in the change of
air volume flow so it is not very meaningful to apply a precise al-
gorithm to control the speed of fan because there will be a great
external interference. The fan speed status has never been low
because the ambient temperature is relatively high, which means
the difference between the outer air temperature and inner coolant
temperature is small, resulting in the need to increase m_ to increase
15
WO, thereby increasing Wk (when WO < WI) or F (when WO > WI),
and finally supplementing the heat dissipation power of radiators,
calculated by equations (30)e(42). It is obvious that when the
ambient temperature is not so high or the vehicle is in the cold
zone, the fan speed would turn to the low revolution.
5. Conclusion
A VITM system of a PEMFC vehicle was established in this paper,
which focused on the analysis of heat generation and transfer
theory of motor, PEMFC, charge air and other components. In order
to make the structure more compact, two radiators and a
condenser were arranged in series in the front of the underhood
and the cooling loop of the charge air was integrated into the motor
loop. The PID algorithm was used to control the revolutions of
pumps and the multilevel control was used to control the speed of
fan. The steady-state simulation results showed that the coolant
maximum outlet temperatures of PEMFC and motor, and the air
maximum inlet temperature of PEMFC were 72.5
C, 64.6
C and
72.9
C separately, none of which exceeded their maximum
allowable temperatures, signifying the sufficient cooling capacity of
the VITM system. The transient simulation results showed that the
coolant outlet and the air inlet temperatures of PEMFC were both
controlled at 75 ± 0.5
C and the coolant outlet temperature of
motor was controlled below 65
C under HWFET cycle and WLTC,
indicating that the VITM system proposed in this paper is rational.
16 J. Xu et al. / Energy 199 (2020) 117495
Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative
interest that represents a conflict of interest in connection with the
work submitted.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jiamin Xu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Valida-
tion, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Visualization. Caizhi
Zhang: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing, Project
administration, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Ruijia Fan:
Methodology, Software, Validation. Huanhuan Bao: Resources,
Methodology. Yi Wang: Investigation, Validation. Shulong Huang:
Data curation, Formal analysis. Cheng Siong Chin: Formal analysis,
Writing - review & editing. Congxin Li: Visualization, Writing -
review & editing.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported in part by the national key research and
development program (No.: 2018YFB0105402), the national nature
science foundation of China (51806024), the Technological Inno-
vation and Application Demonstration in Chongqing (Major
Themes of Industry: cstc2018jszx-cyztzxX0005), the Venture &
Innovation Support Program for Chongqing Overseas Returnees
(cx2018051), the Chongqing Research Program of Foundation and
Advanced Technology (No.: cstc2017jcyjAX0276), and the Funda-
mental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No.: No.:
2019CDXYQC0003, 244005202014, and No.: 2018CDXYTW0031).
This work is also supported by Beijing Computing Centre for
providing the cloud computing services and by Magna PT Power-
train (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., for providing KULI technical service.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117495.
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