Hybrid Ceramic Bearing Fatigue Testing for the Future Advanced Rotorcraft Drive

System Program
Cody Anderson Roozbeh Kiamanesh Lars Ponten
Engineer II Engineer III Aerospace Project
Bell Helicopter Textron Bell Helicopter Textron Engineering Manager
Fort Worth, TX, USA Fort Worth, TX, USA CEROBEAR GmbH
Herzogenrath, Germany

Jason Fetty Treven Baker

Aerospace Engineer Aerospace Engineer
Aviation Development Directorate Aviation Development Directorate
Ft. Eustis, VA, USA Ft. Eustis, VA, USA

ABSTRACT
Today’s rotorcraft transmissions predominately utilize fully metallic bearings where both the raceways and rolling
elements are metal. Ceramic bearing materials offer the potential for meeting the demand for weight reduction and
increased power-to-weight ratios. Hybrid ceramic bearings incorporate both ceramic and metallic components
forming an assembly that lends itself to improvements in weight, corrosion resistance, reduced friction, and
improved surface characteristics. Typically, hybrid ceramic bearings consist of ceramic rolling elements and
metallic raceways. Hybrid ceramic bearings have demonstrated feasibility for both remotely and non-remotely
monitored applications in rotorcraft drive systems. Characterization of potential material combinations of hybrid
ceramic bearings is needed to guide the design of hybrid ceramic bearings for use in future and modified rotorcraft
transmissions. This research, conducted under the Future Advanced Rotorcraft Drive System (FARDS) program,
examined multiple bearing material combinations and characterized them in fatigue testing. Hybrid ceramic bearing
material combinations showed increased performance when compared to fully metallic bearing material
combinations. Favorable results indicate that hybrid ceramic bearings can have immediate impact on rotorcraft
transmission designs.

This paper presents the results of the rolling contact fatigue

INTRODUCTION 
Hybrid ceramic bearing technology is being pursued for use
in rotorcraft transmissions. These bearings typically consist
of ceramic rolling elements and metallic raceways. The
lower density of ceramic material provides a significant
weight reduction when compared to fully metallic bearings.
As part of the Future Advanced Rotorcraft Drive System
(FARDS) program between Bell Helicopter Textron and the
Aviation Development Directorate (ADD), multiple bearing
material combinations were tested by CEROBEAR GmbH
to demonstrate performance improvements over fully
metallic bearings. The FARDS program is focused on
developing critical rotorcraft drive system technologies. The
FARDS program goals are: 55% power-to-weight
improvement, 35% reduction in production and operating
costs, 18 dB noise reduction, and 90% automatic detection
of critical faults. Hybrid ceramic bearing technology largely
supports the improvement in power-to-weight.
Presented at the AHS International 73rd Annual Forum &
Technology Display, Fort Worth, Texas, USA, May 9-11, 2017.
Copyright © 2017 by AHS International, Inc. All rights reserved.
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testing performed under the FARDS program in support of
the development of hybrid ceramic bearings. Nine different
material combinations were tested under full EHD
(elastohydrodynamic) lubrication to investigate their fatigue
life behavior. The raceway materials that were tested
included: Silicon Nitride (Si3N4), Zirconia (ZrO2),
Lescalloy® M50 VIM-VAR (M50), Cronidur® 30 (Cronidur
30), Pyrowear® Alloy 53 (X53), and Ferrium® C64® (C64).
The rolling element materials that were tested included: M50
and Si3N4.
Relative to fully metallic bearings, hybrid ceramic bearings
offer weight reduction, corrosion resistance, a lower
coefficient of rolling friction, and smoother/harder rolling
element surfaces. These attributes result in less heat
generation and asperity wear/contact, which can lead to an
extended bearing life (Reference 1).
One of the primary concerns regarding the application of
hybrid ceramic bearings is the ability to reliably and
effectively detect bearing damage, compared to fully
metallic designs. This has limited the use of ceramic
bearings to applications where direct bearing damage
monitoring is unnecessary and periodic local inspection is
adequate (such as helicopter tail rotor driveshaft hanger
bearings, Reference 1). Technology developments, such as
the non-metallic debris monitoring system developed and
demonstrated during the FARDS program (Reference 2)
have encouraged the application of ceramic materials within
rotorcraft transmissions. Further development of this type of
technology is required though before being applied to
rotorcraft transmissions.

Current bearing failure detection systems in rotorcraft

transmissions are designed to sense damage on the basis of
shed metallic particles that are attracted to the magnetic field
of a detector probe. The metallic debris is interpreted as an
impending failure of the bearing. In the case of hybrid Figure 1: Illustration of the modified thrust ball bearings
ceramic bearings, magnetic detection of an impending used for testing.
failure is still possible. In component level testing of hybrid
Two test specimens are shown in Figure 2. The counter
ceramic bearings within the FARDS program, artificially
plates are on the left and the “flat” test plates are on the
induced damage on a ceramic rolling element generated
right. The bearing cages, in the center, are shown with two
traditional damage on the contacting metallic raceway before
different rolling element (ball) materials. The balls in the top
the damage on the rolling element propagated. The testing
of the photo are M50, a widely used metallic material in
indicates that detection of metallic debris would remain
aerospace bearings. The balls in the bottom of the photo are
effective for assessing impending bearing failure. In general,
Si3N4, a ceramic material commonly accepted for hybrid
the hardness of the bearing’s ceramic material exceeds that
ceramic bearing applications.
of the metallic raceway. Consequently, the metallic
raceways of a hybrid ceramic bearing are likely to fatigue
first. This feature allows for the current debris detection
systems to identify damage even with the presence of
ceramic materials. Not only was this verified at a component
level, but also at a system level with CH-47 Chinook
gearboxes (Reference 3).

Another concern regarding the application of hybrid ceramic

bearings is whether they can provide adequate fatigue life
compared to fully metallic bearings. With the successful
demonstration of hybrid ceramic bearing technology, a
series of fatigue tests were performed to characterize
different types of hybrid ceramic bearing designs, so that
rotorcraft transmission designs can begin to incorporate
hybrid ceramic bearing technology.

TEST APPROACH
As stated earlier, nine different bearing material
combinations were tested to investigate fatigue life
characteristics of these bearings. Modified hybrid and steel
thrust ball bearings were utilized as test specimens. The
cross-section of a modified thrust ball bearing is shown in
Figure 1. The bearing contains two races (counter plate and
test plate), a set of rolling elements, and a cage that supports
the rolling elements. The test plate is a flat housing race with
a small contact area while the counter plate is a shaft race
that includes curvature (broad contact area) to ensure that
failure would occur on the test plate rather than the counter
plate.
Figure 2: Test bearings with M50 balls shown at top and
Si3N4 balls shown at bottom.
The test plates were manufactured from Si3N4, ZrO2, M50,
Cronidur 30, X53, and C64. All of the test plates were
machined by hard turning, except for Si3N4 and ZrO2 which
were ground. The exception was the X53 test plates, which
were machined by both hard turning and grinding. The test
balls were manufactured from M50 and Si3N4. The counter
plates were manufactured from Cronidur 30 and the cages
were manufactured from Polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
which is a high-performance thermoplastic with great
mechanical, thermal, and chemical resistance properties. All
components were processed in accordance with industry
standards.

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Test Setup
To conduct the bearing evaluations, ten test fixtures (shown
in Figure 3) were built and used by CEROBEAR at their
research facility in Herzogenrath, Germany. A test fixture
consists of a test spindle, a drive, sensors, a data acquisition
system, and associated software. The test spindle, drive, and
sensors are located within the translucent enclosure seen to
the left of the computer monitors in Figure 3. Measurement
hardware, a frequency converter, and a switch unit were
contained below the working area of the spindle. Tests were
monitored with a LabView-based software program.
Figure 3: Bearing component test fixtures at
CEROBEAR.
Each test spindle was capable of testing two specimens
simultaneously. Figure 4 illustrates the test spindle and
identifies the key features. The test plates and counter plates
were housed with special adapters. The adapters were guided
by the center shaft and two radial support roller bearings. In
the force flow, a preload unit was positioned to preload the
test bearings. Preloading was accomplished using specially
designed and calibrated springs that achieve a defined
compression load for each material combination. The top of
the test spindle is coupled with the drive motor and the
bottom of the test spindle is fastened by clamping nuts.
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Figure 4: Test spindle used for testing the modified
thrust ball bearings.
The full EHD lubrication condition was most suitable for
investigating and comparing the performance of the various
bearing material combinations. To achieve full EHD
lubrication, the test bearings were grease lubricated. During
assembly of the test spindle, Klüber Isoflex Topas NB 152
grease was applied to each test bearing. The amount of
grease applied during assembly was sufficient for the
duration of testing.
Test Procedure
Prior to assembly of the test spindles, all associated
components were visually inspected for damage or surface
imperfections. After assembly and installation of the test
spindles into the test fixture, the software settings were
adjusted and the test began in accordance with the test
parameters shown in Table 1. The test parameters were kept
consistent for all tests, allowing for direct comparison
between the various bearing material combinations. The
rotational acceleration up to the test RPM used a defined
ramp up procedure. After reaching test speed, the defined
stop criteria for temperature, ball pass frequency, ball spin
frequency, and frequency bands was set and data collection
started. Testing was scheduled to stop either at reaching the
test duration or a stop criterion. If a stop criterion was
reached, the spindle was dismounted from the test fixture for
inspection. The inspection was performed with the test plates
remaining in the adapters. If evidence of spalling was found,
the plates were disassembled from the adapters for further
inspection. If only one of the test plates in the spindle
showed spalling, the damaged test plate was replaced, and
testing continued.
 Table 1: Defined test parameters.
Description Definition
Speed 2575 rpm
Acceleration
500 rpm/s
Ramp
λ-ratio >2.5
Contact Stress 600 ksi
Sampling Rate 6400 Hz
Failure or Suspension
Test Duration
Point
Test Analysis
At the completion of testing for each bearing material
combination, life data analysis was performed using a 2-
parameter Weibull distribution. This type of analysis is used
for predicting part life characteristics such as reliability,
mean life, and the failure rate. The two different types of life
data generated during testing were “complete data” and
“suspended data”. Complete data consists of tests where the
exact time-to-failure for a particular bearing component was
determined in the test. Suspended data consists of tests
where bearing components operated without failure for a
known time. Each type of data influences the analysis
differently.
With a 2-parameter Weibull distribution, the scale parameter
(η), also known as the characteristic life, defines the time
where 63.2% of the samples will have failed. The shape
parameter (β), also known as the slope, defines the shape of
the distribution. The rate of failure for parts can be
characterized by use of the shape parameter. Failure rates
that decrease with time will be less than one, while constant
failure rates will be at or near one and failure rates that
increase with time will be greater than one. In addition to the
scale parameter and shape parameter, the basic rating life at
10% was calculated. The “basic rating life at 10%” refers to
the calculated time where 90% of an identical group of parts,
operating under consistent conditions, should reach or
surpass before fatigue damage occurs. The basic rating life
at 10% is typically used for the design of rolling element
bearings.
generate a meaningful life characteristic for each material
combination. However, due to longer than anticipated run
times for some of the specimens, suspension limits and
reduced sample sizes were required to complete the testing
within the project’s available time.
The baseline configuration consisted of M50 test plates with
M50 test balls, a common material combination used in
rotorcraft transmissions. In addition to the hybrid ceramic
and fully metallic material combinations, fully ceramic
material combinations were also tested for further
understanding and comparison.
For all of the test plates that spalled, the spall was located in
the middle of the rolling path unless mentioned otherwise.
The form of the spalls on the metallic test plates was typical
for metallic components. Indentations were also observed in
a majority of the rolling paths. The occurrence of
indentations appeared to depend on the material fragments
that broke away from the test plate (after the initiation of
spalling) and the time required for shutting the test fixture
down. Only one test plate that failed (due to spalling) is
discussed for each of the material combinations tested.
M50 Test Plate and M50 Test Balls
Twenty specimens of this material combination were tested,
with 20 failures occurring. The time till failure ranged from
37 hours to 2,164 hours. In Figure 5, an image of the rolling
path of test plate AB057483 before testing is shown. At 56.3
hours, the same test plate (AB057483) failed due to spalling
and the rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 6. The
spall is the large, dark indication and to either side of the
spall are indentations due to fragments of material from the
spall that were over rolled by the rolling elements.

Due to the limited sample sizes from testing, uncertainty in

the results were quantified using two-sided confidence
bounds. Two-sided confidence bounds indicate that a
quantity of samples is contained in the bounds with a
specific confidence. For this testing, a 90% confidence limit Figure 5: M50 test plate AB057483 before testing with
was used. M50 test balls (100x magnification).

RESULTS
Since statistical significance increases with sample size, 20
failures for each of the nine material combinations were
originally desired. This would provide enough samples to
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 Spall

Discoloration
Indentations

Figure 6: Spalling on M50 test plate AB057483 after
testing with M50 test balls (100x magnification).
All of the life data points were within the confidence
bounds. The primary failure mode was assumed to be fatigue
wear, based on its shape parameter of 1.13. With the
exception of the C64 test plate and Si3N4 test balls material
combination, the lowest basic life rating at 10% was with the
M50 test plate and M50 test balls material combination at
90.5 hours.
Cronidur 30 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Twenty specimens for this material combination were tested,
with 19 failures and one suspension (occurring at 5,276
hours). Due to the high test time and limited test capacity,
one test was suspended. The time till failure ranged from
168.6 hours to 3,343.6 hours. In Figure 7, an image of the
rolling path of test plate AB056094 before testing is shown.
At 1,908.7 hours, the test plate failed due to spalling and the
rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 8.
Discoloration in the rolling path can be seen, which is
attributed to the interaction between the contacting materials
and the lubricant.
Figure 8: Spalling on Cronidur 30 test plate AB056094
after testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
All of the life data points were within the confidence
bounds. In comparing to the baseline configuration basic
rating life at 10%, an improvement of at least a factor of two
was observed. The primary failure mode was assumed to be
fatigue wear as the shape parameter was greater than 1.
M50 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Twenty specimens for this material combination were tested,
with 20 failures occurring. The time till failure ranged from
155.7 hours to 3,391.8 hours. In Figure 9, an image of the
rolling path of test plate AB057505 before testing is shown.
At 592.4 hours, the test plate failed due to spalling and the
rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 9: M50 test plate AB057505 before testing with

Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).

Figure 7: Cronidur 30 test plate AB056094 before testing

with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).

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Figure 10: Spalling on M50 test plate AB057505 after
testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
All of the life data points were within the confidence
bounds, except for two on the upper bound. In comparing to
the baseline configuration basic rating life at 10%, an
improvement of about a factor of two was observed due only
to changing the material of the test balls from M50 to Si3N4.
With a shape parameter greater than one, the primary failure
mode was assumed to be fatigue wear.
ZrO2 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Twenty specimens for this material combination were tested,
with 20 failures occurring. The time till failure ranged from
149 hours to 1,008.7 hours. In Figure 11, an image of the
rolling path of test plate AB002273 before testing is shown.
At 434.4 hours, the test plate failed due to spalling and the
rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 12. The
extension of damage from the initial spall in the rolling path
extended significantly in the circumferential direction. The
extension was dependent upon the time between
identification of the spall and shut down of the test fixture.
The pattern of wear in the roller path was highly visible.
Figure 11: ZrO2 test plate AB002273 before testing with
Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
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Initial Spall
Figure 12: Spalling on ZrO2 test plate AB002273 after
testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
All of the life data points were within the confidence bounds
except for one that was outside of the upper bound. With a
high shape parameter (2.75), it is probable that the ZrO2
material is near its wear out life at the given test conditions.
Si3N4 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Thirteen specimens for this material combination were
tested, with three failures and ten suspensions occurring.
Due to high test times and limited test capacity, a 3,000-hour
suspension point was implemented. When the suspension
point was implemented, two tests had exceeded 6,000 hours
without failure. The time till failure ranged from 1,116.5
hours to 2,500.7 hours. In Figure 13, an image of the rolling
path of test plate AB0042782 before testing is shown. At
1,116.5 hours, the test plate failed due to spalling and the
rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 14. The spall
was similar in shape to that observed on the metallic test
plates. Unlike the metallic test plates, no indentations in the
roller path were observed which is likely due to the higher
hardness of Si3N4
Figure 13: Si3N4 test plate AB0042782 before testing with
Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
 Figure 14: Spalling on Si3N4 test plate AB0042782 after
testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
With only three failures, direct comparison with the other
material combinations was difficult, but the suspended data
supports significant performance improvement over the
other material combinations tested.
X53 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Thirteen specimens of this material combination were tested,
with eleven failures and two suspensions at 6,524.2 hours
and 4,564.9 hours occurring. Due to limited test time, the
final two tests were required to be suspended prior to failure.
The time till failure ranged from 322.2 hours to 7,538.2
hours. Figure 15 shows, the rolling path of test plate
AE003731 before testing. At 914.3 hours, the test plate
failed due to spalling. The rolling path (after failure) is
shown in Figure 16. Plate indentations (from spall debris
being over rolled by the rolling elements) were barely
identifiable.
Figure 15: X53 test plate AE003731 before testing with
Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
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Figure 16: Spalling on X53 test plate AE003731 after
testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
The shape parameter (1.08) indicates that the rate of failure
was nearly constant as it was very close to one. All of the
complete life data points were within the confidence bounds.
X53 Ground Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Eleven specimens of this material combination were tested,
with five failures and six suspensions occurring. For the six
suspended tests, excessive test run times (without failure),
resulted in ending the tests with maximum test run time at
9,483.3 hours. For the five failures, the time till failure
ranged from 72.1 hours to 7,367.4 hours. Figure 17 shows
the rolling path of test plate AE021739 before testing. At
7,367.4 hours, the test plate failed due to spalling and the
rolling path (after failure) is shown in Figure 18.
Discoloration in the rolling path can be seen.
Figure 17: X53 ground test plate AE021739 before
testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
 Figure 18: Spalling on X53 ground test plate AE021739
after testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
The shape parameter (0.83) was largely influenced by one
very early failure. All of the complete life data points were
within the confidence bounds. In comparison to test plates of
similar material combination that were hard turned, the
ground test plates were found to be more reliable over time.
This observation is contrary to other research findings and
field experience (Reference 4). Further testing is required to
understand why this was so.
X53 Test Plate and M50 Test Balls
Eight specimens of this material combination were tested,
with two failures at 512.2 hours and 596.8 hours and six
suspensions. Due to the limited test time available, the final
six tests were suspended prior to failure with the maximum
time at suspension being 4,511.7 hours. In Figure 19, an
image of the rolling path of test plate AE003713 before
testing is shown. At 512.2 hours, the test plate failed due to
spalling and the rolling path (after failure) is shown in
Figure 20. Based on the appearance of the spall, the rate of
spall growth was greater than the other metallic test plates.
Figure 19: X53 test plate AE003713 before testing with
M50 test balls (100x magnification).
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Figure 20: Spalling on X53 test plate AE003713 after
testing with M50 test balls (100x magnification).
With only two failures, direct comparison with the other
material combinations was not possible.
C64 Test Plate and Si3N4 Test Balls
Twelve specimens of this material combination were tested,
with 12 failures occurring. The time till failure ranged from
28.9 hours to 891.8 hours. Figure 21 shows the rolling path
of test plate AE051987 before testing. At 475.6 hours, the
test plate failed due to spalling and the rolling path (after
failure) is shown in Figure 22. Overall, the C64 test plates
with Si3N4 test balls performed below expectations. In trying
to identify any indicators of the low test plate performance,
evaluations of the microstructure, hardness profile, and
residual stress profile were performed by CEROBEAR. No
clear conclusions were able to be drawn from the
evaluations. Further, no anomalies with the test fixtures or
test procedure were identified. Therefore, additional
evaluations and testing are required to better understand the
performance of C64 test plates with Si3N4 test balls.
Figure 21: C64 test plate AE051987 before testing with
Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).
 In comparison to the other material combinations, C64 test
plates with Si3N4 test balls were at the low end for scale
parameter and basic life rating at 10%. All of the life data
points were within the confidence bounds.

Summary of Test Results

A summary of the life data analysis performed for all of the
material combinations is shown in Table 2. Direct
comparison between the various bearing material
combinations can be made unless noted otherwise above.

Figure 22: Spalling on C64 test plate AE051987 after

testing with Si3N4 test balls (100x magnification).

Table 2: Summary of life data analysis for all tested bearing material combinations.

Basic Rating
Material Combination Scale Parameter, η
Failures Suspensions Shape Parameter, β Life at 10%
(Test Plate / Test Balls) (hours)
(hours)

M50 / M50 20 0 1.13 658 90.5

Cronidur 30 / Si3N4 19 1 1.25 1223 203
M50 / Si3N4 20 0 1.07 1462 179
ZrO2 / Si3N4 20 0 2.75 472 195.5
Si3N4 / Si3N4 3 10 1.72 6589 1782
X53 / Si3N4 11 2 1.08 3743.3 464.4
X53 Ground / Si3N4 5 6 0.83 9735.45 645.3
X53 / M50 2 6 6.2 758.5 528.5
C64 / Si3N4 12 0 0.97 454 44.8

CONCLUSIONS 3) The fully ceramic material combination of Si3N4

Hybrid ceramic bearings have been shown to provide
advantages over fully metallic bearings. Based on the results
obtained during this testing under the FARDS program, the
following conclusions can be made:
1) Performance differences between fully metallic,
hybrid ceramic, and fully ceramic material
combinations for rolling bearing applications are
identifiable, with hybrid ceramic material
combinations providing the most immediate and
positive impact with rotorcraft transmissions.
2) The basic rating life at 10% for the hybrid material
combinations of Cronidur 30 and M50 test plates
with Si3N4 test balls was at least double the baseline
configuration of M50 test plates with M50 test
balls.
test plates with Si3N4 test balls proved the greatest
performance.
4) The reduced density of the ceramic materials
provides opportunity for measurable improvements
with the power-to-weight for rotorcraft
transmissions.
5) Additional evaluations of the test data and test
components for the C64 test plates with Si 3N4 test
balls is required before final conclusions can be
drawn regarding fatigue performance.
It is recommended that additional life data, specifically
failures, be generated for the material combinations that
were unable to achieve 20 samples for further comparison
and greater reliability of the data generated.

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Author contact:
Cody Anderson canderson01@bh.com
Roozbeh Kiamanesh rkiamanesh@bh.com
Lars Ponten Lars.Ponten@cerobear.de
Jason Fetty ADD_TA_Drives@amrdec.army.mil
Treven Baker ADD_TA_Drives@amrdec.army.mil

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work discussed in this paper was performed under the
Future Advanced Rotorcraft Drive System (FARDS)
program. The FARDS program is a cooperative agreement
between the Aviation Development Directorate (ADD) and
Bell Helicopter Textron. Project support for the hybrid
ceramic bearing task was provided by CEROBEAR GmbH.
The views and conclusions contained in this document are
those of the authors and should not be interpreted as
representing the official policies, either expressed or implied
of the Aviation Development Directorate or the U.S.
Government.
REFERENCES
1
Jackson, M.K., “Evaluation Testing of Ceramic Hybrid
Bearings For Helicopter Hanger Bearing Applications,”
Proceedings of the American Helicopter Society 62 nd Annual
Forum, Pheonix, AZ, May 2006
2
Chavez, A., Fetty, J., and Gerardi, J., “Non-Metallic
Debris Monitor For a Helicopter Transmission,”
Proceedings of the American Helicopter Society 70 th Annual
Forum, Montréal, Québec, Canada, May 2014.
3
Kozachyn, M., Bednar, J., Naffin, R., and Robuck, M.,
“Seeded Fault Testing of Hybrid Bearings in a Rotorcraft
Transmission,” Proceedings of the American Helicopter
Society 71st Annual Forum, West Palm Beach, FL, May
2016.
4
Jacobson, M., Gunnberg, F., “Effects of hard turning on
the fatigue life of ball bearings,” Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of
Engineering Manufacture, Vol. 218, (12), December 2004.

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