Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ces

Experimental investigation on immersion liquid cooled battery thermal

management system with phase change epoxy sealant
Xinxi Li a,⇑, Jian Deng a, Qiqiu Huang a,⇑, Guoqing Zhang a, Kai Chen b, Yongzhen Wang c
a
School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 51006, China
b
Key Laboratory of Enhanced Heat Transfer and Energy Conservation of the Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University
of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

Epoxy sealant/Paraffin/ expanded The epoxy sealant can provide good waterproof performance and compact structure to effectively pre-
graphite (ESPE) for battery module vent the leakage of paraffin, and the expanded graphite exhibit excellent thermal conductivity of the
has proposed. epoxy sealant based composite phase change material. The structures of the battery module based on

The thermal and waterproof epoxy sealant/paraffin/expanded graphite composite phase change material (ESPE) are optimized, among
properties of ESPE based composite which are ESPE-Block Module, ESPE module and ESPE-Immersed module. Especially in the immersion liq-
sealant are analyzed. uid cooling system, the battery module maintains the perfect operating temperature.

ESPE based composite materials
apply in immersion liquid cooling for
battery module.

Composite ESPE immersion cooling
exhibit prominent balance
temperature performance.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: To improve the working performance of the lithium-ion battery in continuous operation under
Received 9 May 2022 water conditions, a novel immersion liquid cooled battery thermal management system (BTMS) with
Received in revised form 11 August 2022 epoxy sealant based composite phase change (ESPE) is designed for lithium-ion batteries. Considering
Accepted 8 September 2022
the traditional liquid cooling systems with complex auxiliary equipment, the battery module with
Available online 15 September 2022
ESPE exhibits an excellent cooling effectiveness and displays long-term corrosion resistance performance.
The thermal performances of epoxy sealant with or without the addition of paraffin, expanded graphite
Keywords:
are compared, respectively. The experimental results indicate that ESPE exhibits excellent waterproof
Battery thermal management system
Epoxy sealant
and thermal management performance. Even during 3C charge and discharge cycle, the maximum

⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: pkdlxx@gdut.edu.cn (X. Li), hqqgary@163.com (Q. Huang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2022.118089
0009-2509/Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Phase change material temperature and the maximum temperature difference can be maintained at 42 °C and 2 °C, respectively.
Thermal performance With these prominent performances, the designed BTMS with respect to excellent waterproof and promi-
Immersion cooling system nent thermal management performances can significantly reduce the unnecessary power consumption of
liquid cooling and provide insights into the passive BTMS.
1. Introduction
As sustainable development attracts more and more global
attention, carbon peak and carbon neutrality have become one of
the important strategic goals of each country’s development
(Sepehri and Sarrafzadeh, 2019). To achieve this goal, many coun-
tries can be switched from traditional primary energy sources to
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar (Tousi et al.,
2021). Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
also use electric energy as an energy source to replace traditional
fuel vehicles, thus reducing carbon emissions (Wu et al., 2021).
In recent years, the safety of EVs and HEVs have become one of
the hotspots in research fields, which should devote much atten-
tion to improve the thermal safety performance (Zhao et al., 2021).
As the core component of electric vehicle, battery module is also
the most vulnerable component (Patel and Rathod, 2020). Lithium-
ion batteries with high energy density, long life and low self-
discharge performance have become the common object of battery
system of electric vehicles (Pan and Lai, 2017). However, lithium-
ion battery is a temperature-sensitive chemical product. The
chemical reaction of lithium-ion battery during the process of
charge and discharge is very easily affected by temperature (Zeng
et al., 2021). When the lithium-ion battery has short circuit or heat
abuse, it will produce a lot of heat and destroy the internal struc-
ture of the battery even for explosion, seriously endangering the
life safety of driver (Chen et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2021). Besides,
the energy density of lithium-ion batteries has been increased with
the requirements of the EVs development, which also indicates
greater power and greater potential hazards. Therefore, it is very
essential to design an effective battery thermal management sys-
tem (BTMS) to prevent the thermal runaway of battery packs in
application (Ping et al., 2018).
The thermal management system for battery module need to
control the maximum temperature and maintain the temperature
difference within normal operating range (Kim et al., 2019). For the
practical application of the EVs and HEVs, the BTMS should satisfy
the requirements of simple structure and easy installation (Weng
et al., 2019; Gao et al., 2022; Ouyang et al., 2019). At present, the
BTMS are mainly divided into air cooling (Ren et al., 2021; Wang
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021), liquid cooling (Liu et al., 2021;
Rao et al., 2017; Kong et al., 2020) and phase change material
(PCM) cooling (Weng et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021; Zhang et al.,
2020). Although air cooling display simple structure, its cooling
efficiency is low. Especially for long and large battery systems,
the phenomenon of high inlet cooling and low outlet cooling often
appears, which seriously threatens the temperature consistency of
the battery system (Chen et al., 2020). Therefore, liquid cooling and
phase change material cooling are the mainly cooling methods
with respect to excellent thermal management effect.
As for liquid cooling based BTMS, the heat generated by batter-
ies is transferred through cooling media such as water, ethanol,
and nanofluids to control the rising temperature and balance the
temperature difference in the module. The thermal management
efficiency of liquid cooling system is relatively high and stable
(Wang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Therefore, many studies
are carried out to optimize the thermal performance and analyze
the piping or structure of the liquid cooling system. Tang et al.
2
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
designed the coupling BTMS of liquid-cooling and heat pump air
conditioning system for EVs, and its cooling performance of the
BTMS was predicted by support vector regression (SVR). The result
showed that the correlation coefficient (R) of cooling capacity and
cooling performance for the optimized system model is improved
2.1 % and 2.8 %, respectively (Tang et al., 2021). Sheng et al. devel-
oped a liquid cooling method to cool a battery from its special lat-
eral surfaces and the thermal distribution of cooling mediums
were analyzed. The simulation results showed that the optimized
system could decrease the weight by 57 % compared with the orig-
inal cooling system, and the performances of cooling plate could be
greatly improved through increasing fluid flowing rate and channel
width (Sheng et al., 2021). Lai et al. studied a liquid-cooling BTMS
by analyzing the maximum temperature (T max ) and the tempera-
ture difference (DT) of battery pack, the thermal conductive struc-
ture with three curved contact surfaces had prepared for cooling
the battery pack, the results indicated that T max was controlled
below 313 K and the DT was maintained 4.137 K, respectively.
(Lai et al., 2019). However, the complex structure of the liquid
cooling system and the need for additional equipment, such as
pipes, pumps, water tanks and other accessories, make the whole
system needs to occupy a large amount of space. Thus, simultane-
ous lightening of cooling efficiency of liquid cooling system is very
important.
In addition, the PCM based BTMS utilizes the latent heat of PCM
to absorb heat and the integrity temperature of battery module
remains unchanged during the phase change, which can efficiently
balance the temperature in the module (Jiang and Qu, 2019). Paraf-
fin (PA) is a common phase change component in battery thermal
management system because of its cheap price, easy to obtain and
high latent heat value. However, PA will easily occur leakage dur-
ing the phase change process, so it cannot be applied for a long
time in practice (Sun et al., 2019). Therefore, for avoiding the leak-
age of PA during the process of phase change, composite phase
change materials (CPCM) are often prepared by adding polymer
materials with high melting point. As the supporting framework,
polymer materials can sufficiently coat the surface of PA to
improve the shape stability of CPCM (Mao et al., 2019; Chriaa
et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021). Mu et al. reported the PA with HDPE
could benefit for improving the shape stability of CPCM, which
had latent heat up to 89 J/g and the enthalpy values for HDPE in
the respective blends decreased with increasing HDPE loading
(Mu et al., 2016). Trigui et al. had been proposed LDPE acted as
the supporting matrix to improve the shape stability in the process
of phase change, leading PA could be used in a latent heat storage
system without encapsulation. This preparation method did not
form stably shaped cells, but it used a highly absorbent material
to capture PCM, thus ensuring the stability and uniform distribu-
tion of PCM (Trigui et al., 2014). Besides, in some experiments, flex-
ible PCM was prepared by using elastic polymer as the supporting
framework. Wu et al. designed a flexible CPCM with well flexibility
in a wide temperature range by a copolyester thermoplastic elas-
tomer (TPC-et). The T max of the different battery module, such as
cylindrical, prismatic and pouch battery modules with TPC-et
based BTMS was 51.5, 42.1 and 50.0 °C, respectively, which was
4.0, 3.9 and 5.4 °C lower than that with rigid CPCM, respectively
(Wu et al., 2022). Wu et al. had proposed a thermally induced
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
flexible CPCM by PA and OBC, the results showed that PA could lit-
tle leakage when the mass fraction of OBC reached 20 wt% and EG
also inhibited PA leakage (Wu and W W, Wang S. , 2019).
Nevertheless, when the PCM absorbs the heat generated by the
battery, it is necessary to transfer the heat in time to achieve the
purpose of temperature control. The thermal conductivity of pure
PA and polymer materials is low (Yu et al., 2021). Therefore, in
order to improve the rate of heat exchange of CPCM, high thermal
conductivity fillers will be added, such as graphene (Yao et al.,
2020), carbon fiber (Dong et al., 2020), and expanded graphite
(EG) (Zhou et al., 2021). Wang et al. improved the thermal conduc-
tivity of CPCM by EG and coated the CPCM block with silicone to
prevent leakage, the results revealed that the CPCM based BTMS
with 14 mm thick PCM and 3 mm silicone could exhibit a stable
and effective temperature control performance (Wang et al.,
2021). Yang et al. prepared EG/PA CPCM units that the system with
optimized design exhibited great thermal performance, and its T max
and DT max decreased by 11.94 % and 10.27 %, respectively (Yang
et al., 2019). For improving the dissipating heat efficiency, the opti-
mizations of heat transfer efficiency with PCM based BTM system
were also discussed. Chen et al. studied the performance of BTMS
with PCM and heat pipe, which showed that the thickness distribu-
tion of CPCM effectively affected the system thermal performance
when the thermal conductivity of the heat pipe was small and
environmental convective heat transfer coefficient was constant.
The DT max in battery pack was reduced by 30 % after the optimiza-
tion (Chen et al., 2021). Lv et al. developed a CPCM cooling struc-
ture, which substituted the common block-shaped CPCM (B-
CPCM) module with serpentine CPCM (S-CPCM) plates. The results
indicated that the S-CPCM module (51.9 °C) delivered a much
lower T max than the B-CPCM module (54.2 °C) during the charge
and discharge process, the S-CPCM cooling structure also saved
about 70 % of the CPCM amount (Lv et al., 2020).
Herein, a novel BTMS with CPCM coupled with immersion liq-
uid cooling was successfully designed for 18,650 lithium-ion bat-
teries. The epoxy sealant coupled composite phase change
materials (ESPE) exhibit excellent waterproof performance and rel-
atively high thermal conductivity. Besides, the differences of tem-
perature control performance and temperature homogenization
effect of the battery modules with block structure, sleeve structure
and immersion liquid cooling structure were analyzed at different
discharge rates (1C, 2C and 3C). The results indicated that battery
module coated with ESPE can provide excellent cooling perfor-
mance and adjust with various working environments, especially
in aqueous or moisture condition. Compared with the traditional
block structure, the sheeve structure ESPE battery module exhibits
a better lightweight and heat dissipation effect. Besides, ESPE with
good water resistance for battery module could be coupled with
immersion cooling, which can not only achieve excellent cooling
effect but also exhibit simple structure. It should be noted that this
designation cooling system has great prospect in energy storage
safety and other fields.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
The epoxy sealant (EPS, SIRNICE Science and Technology Co.,
Ltd, Guangdong, China) with the density and dielectric constant
are 1.5 gcm1 and 3.1 MHz, respectively, needs two components
to be cured, which were the epoxy sealant and curing agent. Indus-
trial joule PA with phase transition temperature of 45 °C, which
was purchased from Shanghai Joule Wax Co., Ltd, China, providing
the main source of the phase change latent heat. Worm-like EG
was obtained by expanding flake graphite (Inflation rate:500) at
3
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
800 °C for 10 min, and it was the main additive for improving ther-
mal conductivity of CPCM.
2.2. Preparation of ESPE
The SS-CPCM were prepared through generally mixing
approach physically, which was mainly divided into two steps, as
shown in Fig. 1. Firstly, the PA was posited in oil bath for melting
at 70 °C, and then EG was added into the oil bath and stirred for
30 min (800 rad/min), in which the mass fraction of EG was 5 wt
%. After mixing evenly, PA/EG CPCM was poured into the grinding
tool and solidified at room temperature (25 °C). CPCM was pre-
pared into powder in an electric mill. Secondly, CPCM powders
were added into the epoxy sealant, and then the curing agent
was dropped into the mixture and stirred uniformly. The mass
ratio of the epoxy potting adhesive to the curing agent was 5:1.
And then, the prepared CPCM was poured into the mold to solidify.
In subsequent experiments, the effects of the mesh number of dif-
ferent PA powders and the quality of epoxy sealant on the perfor-
mance of CPCM were compared in detail. The components of
different CPCM were listed in detail in Table 1.
2.3. Characterization
The chemical structures of CPCMs before and after combustion
were analyzed by X-ray and Fourier transformation infrared spec-
troscopy. The crystalloid phase of CPCM was determined by an X-
ray diffractometer (XRD, D/MAX-Ultima III), which was ranged
from 10° to 80° at scanning rate of 8°min1 (2 theta). Meanwhile,
the chemical structure of sample was characteristic by the Fourier
transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Bruker Tensor-27),
which was ranged from 400 to 4000 cm1 with 2 cm1 resolutions
with selecting the KBr disk.
The melting temperature and the latent heat of sample were
measured by a Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC, HS–DSC–
101B, HESON Instrument Inc., Shanghai, China). The experiments
were carried out from 10 °C to 80 °C at a heating rate of 5 °Cmin1
in the nitrogen (N2) atmosphere with a flow velocity of
10 mLmin1. Besides, A thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA, SDT
2960, America TA Instrument Co., Ltd., New Castle, DE, USA) was
used for the thermal stability analysis. The CPCM sample was
heated from 30 °C to 800 °C at a temperature rising rate of 10 °-
Cmin1 under nitrogen (N2) atmosphere protection with a velocity
of 10 mLmin1.
An LFA447 NanoFlashTM system (range: 0.1–2000 W/mK, accu-
racy: ± 5 %, repeatability: ± 3 %) was used to measure the thermal
diffusion coefficient of the CPCM with a standard rectangular sam-
ple size of 10  10  1 mm3. Furthermore, the thermal conductiv-
ity could be calculated by Eq. (1).
k ¼ a  Cp  q ð1Þ
1
Where k, a, C p , and q is thermal conductivity coefficient (Wm -
K1), thermal diffusion coefficient (m2s1), specific heat capacity
(Jkg1K1) and density (kgm3).
Besides, the waterproof performance of the CPCM was analyzed
by calculating the softening coefficient. An adjustable multi-
functional tension machine (AI-7000 M, Gootech Testing Machines
Co. Ltd., China) was applied for testing the strength of CPCM sam-
ples with the size of 10  10  30 mm3 compressively. A group of
the CPCM samples named wet condition was dipped in the water
of 20 °C for 24 h before measurement, while the other group with-
out any pre-treated was named dry condition. The softening coef-
ficients of the CPCM could be calculated by Eq. (2).
F
k¼ ð2Þ
f
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al. Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089

Fig. 1. The preparation process ESPE.

2.4. Battery management system

Table 1
The component proportion of different CPCMs.
In order to reduce the weight of the entire system, each cell was
Sample Epoxy sealant (wt %) PA (wt %) EG (wt %)
individually coated with a CPCM layer and then welded together,
ES 100 – – and the thickness of the CPCM layer was set 3 mm, which was dis-
ESP 50 50
played in Fig. 2b. The charge and discharge testing of battery mod-
ES5PE5 50 45 5
ES4PE6 40 55 5
ule was measured with battery testing system (BTS-60V100A-NTF;
ES3PE7 30 65 5 Shenzhen Netware Electronics Co. Ltd., China). The battery module
was welded in a way of 7 (Parallel)  3 (Series), and the corre-
sponding parameters of battery module are listed in Table 2,
where k, F and f is softening coefficient, the compressive strength in among them, 6 batteries were selected as temperature collection
dry condition and the compressive strength in wet condition, objects. Temperature collector (34970A-type Agilent) detects tem-
respectively. perature changes in battery module by collecting a thermocouple
Meanwhile, the water absorption of the CPCM were also ana- (Omega type TT-T-30-SLE-1M, accuracy of ± 0.1 °C) connected to
lyzed according to ISO 15148, and the samples were prepared in the center of the battery selected. Furtherly, for decreasing the
a size of 100  50  50 mm3. The CPCM was immersed in water error caused by the external environment, the designed modules
with 3–4 mm, and the surface above water is sealed to prevent were posited in a thermostat during the test.
air moisture from entering the sample, as shown in Fig. 2a. The
absorption coefficient was measured should require at least a week 3. Results and discussion
under immersion environment. Thus, the weight of the CPCM sam-
ples would be recorded per 24 h until a week. According to Eqs. (3) 3.1. Chemical characterization
and (4), the variation mass DM t of the CPCM and the water absorp-
tion coefficient W w could be analyzed. The chemical characterization of PA, EG, ES and ESPE were mea-
ðmt  mt1 Þ sured by XRD as shown in Fig. 3a, respectively. In the pattern of PA,
DM t ¼ ð3Þ the diffraction peaks at 23.57° and 25.08° were attributed to the
A
diffractions of (1 1 0), (2 0 0), which indicated the crystallization of
DM t pure PA. It can be seen from the XRD curve of EG, it showed a typ-
W w ¼ pffiffi ð4Þ ical peak of graphite (0 0 2) at 26.3°. The characteristic peaks corre-
t
sponding to the components can indicate that the components in
where mt  mt1 is the quality different of the CPCM, A is the CPCM CPCM could be evenly mixed in the form of physical mixing.
section area, and t is testing time. W w represent the water absorp- As displayed in the IR spectrums of PA, the peaks at 2920 cm1
tion coefficient. reflects the –CH2 asymmetrical stretching vibration and 2850 cm1
In addition, the leakage performance of CPCM is also an impor- is –CH2 symmetrical stretching vibration (Fig. 3b). The peak at
tant parameter. Thus, CPCM was placed on a constant temperature 1377 cm1 and 1470 cm1 is the deformation vibration of –CH3
(60 °C) heating table for 10 h to determine the thermal stability and the rocking vibration of –CH2 group, respectively. The peaks
and the mass retention rate (M R ) of F-PCM. The M R was calculated at 717 cm1 also on behalf of the rocking vibration of –CH2 group.
according to Eq.5, where M 0 was original mass of sample and M n Besides, a peak at 3431 cm1 in EG is the stretching vibration of –
represent the mass after heating for different times. OH. It could be seen that ESPE presents all the characteristic peaks
M R ¼ ðMn =M 0 Þ  100% ð5Þ of PA, EG and ES, which indicated that there was not any chemical
interaction happened during the preparing process.
4
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al. Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic diagram of water absorption performance test; (b) Battery module preparation and battery thermal management system test platform.

Table 2 ES decreased, and the quality retention rates of ES4PE6 and ES3PE7
The parameters of battery module and batteries. decreased to 98.3 % and 97.7 %, respectively. As shown in Fig. 3d,
Batteries Battery module ES5PE5 did not exhibit obvious leakage of PA, while both ES4PE6
Property Parameter Property Parameter
and ES3PE7 appeared the PA leakage at a certain degree during
the heating process, it should be contributed that ES did not com-
Nominal capacity (Ah) 2.2 Nominal capacity (Ah) 15.4
Nominal voltage (V) 3.6 Nominal voltage (V) 12.6
pletely coat PA/EG when the PA/EG surpassed more than half of the
Maximum charge 4.4 Maximum charge 30.8 contents.
current (A) current (A) In addition, the microstructures of the materials were observed
Maximum discharge 11 Maximum discharge 77 by SEM for analyzing the influence of the inner structure on water-
current (A) current (A)
proof performance. As shown in Fig. 3e, PA displays a continuous
Weight (g) 40 Total Weight (g) 840
sheet structure, while EG is a typical wormlike porous structure,
which enables EG to adsorb liquid PA effectively. Besides, it can
be observed that ES has a dense structure, which benefits to pre-
3.2. Structural stability and thermal properties
vent the water infiltration. When ES added with PA, the integrity
density of composite material decreases and some voids are
The structural stability and leakage characteristics of the com-
formed. The PA powder could be coated with ES tightly, which
posite material are also important characteristics to measure its
can effectively prevent the leakage of PA during the phase transfor-
service life. By recording the mass change and leakage of the com-
mation process. Moreover, when the ES added with PA/EG powder,
posite material on the 60 °C continuous heating platform, the mass
the structures of the ESPE composite could be formed a much more
of pure PA decreases rapidly during heating and melts completely
compacting layer than other samples, and the porosity could be
within 3 h, which is displayed in Fig. 3c. It can be much clearly seen
obviously reduced. It should be contributed that EG has continuous
from Fig. 3d that the PA block rapidly liquefied and collapsed dur-
wormlike skeleton and ES forms a protective layer compactly on
ing heating. On the contrary, during 3 h of continuous heating, the
the surface of ESPE composite material, which could significantly
weight of ES remains unchanged, which indicated that the degra-
improve waterproof performance with synergistic effect.
dation temperature of ES is higher than 60 °C. Thus, the anti-
leakage performance of composite material has been significantly
improved. Even after heating three hours, the quality retention rate 3.3. Thermal properties and waterproof absorption characteristics
of ES5PE5 could reach 99.7 %, which was close to that of ESP
(99.3 %) and they were detailed in Table 3. However, as the The latent heat value of phase change materials is an important
increase of PA/EG mass, the coating degree of PA/EG powder by scale to evaluate the heat storage capacity. As shown in Fig. 4a,
5
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al. Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089

Fig. 3. (a) XRD pattern and (b) FT-IR spectrum of PA, EG, ES and ESPE composite;(c) Quality change curve of different samples; (d) Photos of CPCM leaked process; (e) SEM of
PA, EG, ES, ESP and ESPE.

pure PA exhibits an obvious absorption peak at 53 °C. However, the

Table 3 latent heat values of ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 are 80, 85, and
Latent heat value and mass retention rate of CPCM. 100 Jg1, respectively, as displayed in Table 3. It can be observed
Sample Latent heat Phase transition Mass retention
that the latent heat value of ESPE composite decreases signifi-
(DH, Jg1) temperature (T p , °C) rate (M R , 3 h, %) cantly, and the main reason is that the PA is contributed to the
Pure PA 143 53 0
latent heat of phase change. Thus, as for different percentages of
ES – – 100 PA in ESPE composite, the latent heat value decreases accompany
ESP 73 49 99.3 with the decrease of the mass fraction of PA. At the same time,
ES5PE5 80 47 99.7 Paraffin (PA) is the only supplier of latent heat in CPCM, but its
ES4PE6 85 47 98.3
thermal conductivity is much lower than epoxy sealant (ES) and
ES3PE7 100 47 97.7
expanded graphite (EG). Therefore, as depicted in Fig. 4 (c), when
6
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Fig. 4. (a) DSC curves and (b) TGA curves of PA, ESP, ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7; (c) Thermal conductivity, (d) Softening coefficient, (e) Water contact angles and (f) water
absorption rate of PA, ES, ESP, ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7; (g) Schematic diagram of ESPE structure.
the content of ES increases, the thermal conductivity of CPCM will
increase correspondingly, which indicates that the speed of heat
transfer into the CPCM would be accelerated. The thermal stability
analysis of PA, ESP, ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 are shown in Fig. 4b.
Compared with the TGA curve of pure PA, which vaporize and
decompose over 200 °C, ESP and ESPE composite exhibit better
thermal stability and starts to decompose at 300 °C. The weight
of ESP and ESPE composite are significantly reduced by two seg-
ments. The one component is the gasification and decomposition
of PA, and the other component the decomposition of EPS. The
remain weights percentages of ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 are
25 %, 21 % and 18 %, respectively. Besides, ESPE composite exhibits
a slower decomposition rate throughout the heating process. It
reflected that EPS can obviously enhance the thermal stability of
ESPE composite, which plays an important role in improving the
thermal physical property of ESPE composite.
The thermal conductivity of composite material significantly
affects the transferring heat speed during absorption and release
process. The different proportion and composite materials thermal
conductivity are shown in Fig. 4c. It can be observed that PA exhi-
bits a great value of heat value, but its thermal conductivity is only
0.23 Wm1K1, which severely limits the transferring rates. The
ES adopted in the research has a high thermal conductivity, which
reaches 1.1 Wm1K1. Compared with that, the thermal conduc-
tivity is improved to 0.58 Wm1K1 when pure ES is adding with
PA. The main reason is that PA powders interrupt the continuous
heat conduction path inside ES, which greatly decrease the thermal
7
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
conductivity. When the EG added with 5 wt%, the corresponding
thermal conductivity of ESP can be effectively improved, and the
thermal conductivity of ES5PE5 reach to 1 Wm1K1. Correspond-
ingly, when the mass proportions of ES decreases, the thermal con-
ductivity of these samples display a decreasing trend, where the
thermal conductivity of ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 are 0.8 Wm1K1
and 0.78 Wm1K1, respectively. This result indicates that EG
and ES both play an important role in improving the thermal con-
ductivity of composite material.
The main functions of ES are that the waterproof and anti-
corrosion properties are benefitted for the battery module working
under the water or moisture environment. In Fig. 4d, these com-
pressive strengths of different CPCMs at dry condition (before
immersion) and after immersion (wet condition) were analyzed.
Although PA has hydrophobic property, its compressive strength
still decreases from 0.5 to 0.4 MPa after soaking for 24 h. However,
ES can form a dense surface itself after curing, which effectively
prevent the water from penetrating into inner material. Thus, the
compressive strength under dry and wet conditions are basically
suppressed and maintained at 5 MPa, and the softening coefficient
is controlled below 1, it could satisfy the requirements of water-
proof performance.
When the PA is mixed into ES, the compressive strength of ESP
significantly reduces to 4 MPa, and under wet conditions, the com-
pressive strength further reduces to 3.4 MPa. However, when PA/
EG powder is doped in EPS, the compressive strength of ESPE com-
posite material is improved, it indicates that EG with wormlike
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
network structure plays a certain role in improving the internal
stability of composite material. And the compressive strength of
ES5PE5 under dry and wet conditions are 4.6 and 4.3 MPa, respec-
tively, the corresponding softening coefficient is 0.93, which is
greater than the waterproofing standard (0.8). Nevertheless, as
the mass proportion of PA/EG powder increases, the compressive
strength of ESPE composite could gradually decrease, but the soft-
ening coefficients of ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 can be maintained at 0.92
and 0.88, respectively. This indicates that ES is the main water-
proof material, and the additions seriously affect the density of
ES, resulting in the reducing of mechanical properties.
As shown in Fig. 4e, it displays the static water contact angles
(WCA) of different samples, which can be noticed that the pure
PA has an initial WCA of 119.6°. It can be ascribed that PA with
straight chain of high hydrocarbon was wrapped with oleic acid
or stearic acid forming a series of natural hydrophobic layer. The
WCA of the selected ES could reach 148.3°, which indicated that
the surface of the product material could display good hydropho-
bicity. Besides, the WCA of ESPE decreased slightly when doped
with PA powder in ES, while that of ESPE increased when doped
with PA/EG powder, and the contact angles of A, B and C are
144.3°,143.6° and 142.1°, respectively. The main reason was that
EG with hydrophobic property could benefit PA build the struc-
tures of prominent hydrophobic layer.
Furtherly, the water absorption among various samples were
analyzed. As shown in Fig. 4f, the water absorption rate of ES
was the lowest, while that of PA was the highest, which were 1.1
 106 and 1.8  106 kgm2s0.5, respectively. With the exten-
sion of soaking time, the water absorption weight of the sample
will gradually increase, and reach a relatively stable state after
three days. Although PA is hydrophobic, when the soaking time
increases to the 7th days, the water absorption rate of PA can still
reach 3.2  106 kgm2s0.5, while that of ES is only 1.48  106
kgm2s0.5. After added ES in the composite materials, the water
absorption rates of ES5PE5, ES4PE6 and ES3PE7 are 2.15  106, 2.32
 106, 2.34  106 kgm2s0.5, respectively. Thus, it should be
concluded that ESPE composite has outstanding waterproof perfor-
mance owing to the ES could completely coat the PA/EG, which
effectively prevent water from penetrating into the ESPE compos-
ite. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 4g, the surface of ESPE would
become rougher after the doping of PA/EG powder in ES, appearing
in the Cassie-Baxter state. In this case, droplets could not fill
grooves on the rough surface of ESPE, filling between the liquid
and solid interface. And in the interior of the ESPE, epoxy polymer
chains were arranged between the PA/EG powder, forming a stable
and dense support structure frame, which effectively prevent the
infiltration of water. Besides, the PA/EG powder with hydrophobic
property could benefit the epoxy polymer chains to forming a layer
as water-resisting layer, which can also effectively prevent the
infiltration of water. Thus, the ESPE could form a dense structure
on the surface preventing water from penetrating into the inner
of the composite.
3.4. Testing of thermal management performance
3.4.1. Effect of PA powder on ES based thermal management
Firstly, the application performance of ESPE was evaluated by
comparing the differences between pure ES Module and ESPE Mod-
ule modified by PA powder in the battery thermal management
system. ES Module and ESPE Module were tested for 10 charge
and discharge cycles at different discharge rates (1C, 2C and 3C),
and their maximum temperature rise and maximum temperature
difference were compared. In order to ensure its thermal conduc-
tivity and water resistance, ES5PE5 was used as the heat dissipation
material to build the thermal management system in the subse-
quent experiments. As shown in Fig. 5a, the temperature of ESPE
8
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
Module was higher than that of ES Module in 10 charge and dis-
charge cycles, and its maximum temperature was basically main-
tained at 41.5 °C. However, the ESPE Module shows better
temperature control ability when the discharge rate is increased
to 2C. The maximum temperature of the ES Module will remain
stable at 53.4 °C, while the ESPE Module will rise slowly from
45 °C in the first cycle to 48 °C in the tenth cycle. In the 2C dis-
charge rate, the temperature of the battery surface exceeds the
phase change temperature point of PA, the PA powder in ESPE
can absorb the heat released by the battery, so as to achieve more
excellent temperature control ability than the ES Module. How-
ever, it is worth noting that there is heat accumulation in the ESPE
Module during the charge and discharge cycle, which leads to the
gradual rise of the maximum temperature of the battery with the
increase. This is because the heat absorption of ESPE sleeve is lim-
ited, and when the heat generated by battery is too much, the ESPE
sleeve cannot immediately transfer the heat to the environment. In
Fig. 5c, the steeper temperature rise peak will appear in the process
of 3C discharge. The ES Module can reach a maximum temperature
of 58 °C, exceeding the normal operating temperature of the bat-
tery (55 °C), while the ESPE Module can maintain a maximum
temperature of 52 °C.
In addition, the maximum temperature difference between the
two battery modules are compared, which is the maximum and
minimum temperature difference in the battery module. As
described in Fig. 5d, similarly, since the temperature of the battery
module has not reached the phase transition temperature of PA,
the heat dissipation of the battery is mainly affected by the thermal
conductivity of CPCM, while the thermal conductivity of ES is
higher than that of ESPE. Therefore, in the process of 1C discharge,
ES Module has a smaller temperature difference, which is basically
maintained at about 1 °C. In the eighth cycle of ESPE Module, the
maximum temperature difference was 1.1 °C. When discharge rate
increases to 2C, the temperature of the battery module over the
phase transition temperature of PA and the endothermic effect of
PA is exerted, improving the temperature control of ESPE obvi-
ously. The maximum temperature difference of ESPE Module in
the second cycle is just 1.3 °C, and the temperature difference of
it can position at about 1.2 °C in the subsequent charge and dis-
charge test. With the increase of the discharge rate, that is, the heat
generation rate of the battery increases, the temperature difference
of the battery module will further increase. The maximum temper-
ature difference of ES Module increases from 2.8 °C in the first
cycle to 3.1 °C in the 10th cycle, which is showed in Fig. 8f. This
reflects that with the increase of battery heat production, the accu-
mulate heat phenomenon of battery inside the battery module will
occurs, increasing the temperature difference of the battery mod-
ule. It can conclude that when the temperature of the battery mod-
ule reaches the phase transition temperature of the PA and starts
the PA process of decalescence, ESPE can effectively absorb heat
generated by batteries, so as to maintain the temperature of bat-
tery module and avoid the battery module internal heat
accumulation.
3.4.2. Influence of system structure on thermal management effect
To simplify the battery thermal management system and
ensure the temperature control requirements of the battery, three
kinds of battery thermal management modules were designed. As
shown in Fig. 6a, the first is the traditional block-like ESPE block
structure (ESPE-Block Module); the second is the ESPE sleeve struc-
ture with better lightweight characteristics (ESPE Module); the
third battery module is directly immersed in the water tank cool-
ing method, taking advantage of the water resistance of ESPE
(ESPE-Immersed Module). Three battery modules were totally
measured for 10 charge and discharge cycles at three different
rates (1C, 2C and 3C). In Fig. 6b, the temperature rises of ESPE-
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Fig. 5. The temperature variations during cycling process (a) At 1C discharge rate; (b) At 2C discharge rate; (c) At 3C discharge rate; The temperature differences of ES and
ESPE Module during cycling process: (d) At 1C discharge rate; (e) At 2C discharge rate; (f) At 3C discharge rate.
Block Module and ESPE Module are close to each other at 1C dis-
charge rate, and the highest temperature reaches 42 °C. This indi-
cates that the thermal management effect of ESPE-block and ESPE-
sheeve on the battery is similar under the low-rate working condi-
tion, and the heat transfer of the battery is mainly carried out by
the thermal conductivity of ESPE-sheeve. However, the ESPE-
Immersed Module only has a maximum temperature of 37 °C,
and the battery temperature is quickly cooled down to 30 °C after
discharging. This is due to the fact that water has a higher specific
heat capacity (4.2  103 Jkg1K1), which allows it to quickly
absorb large amounts of heat transferred by ESPE. When the dis-
charge rate increases to 2C, as depicted in Fig. 6 c, the maximum
temperatures of the three battery modules are still increase contin-
ually, and the ESPE-Module presents the highest temperature ris-
ing rate, and its maximum temperature reaches to 48 °C in the
first cycle and 50 °C at the end of 10 cycle, respectively. This is
because the ESPE block absorb the battery heat and fail to transfer
it from the battery module to the environment in time, resulting in
a slight heat accumulation at the center of the battery module.
Compared with ESPE-Block Module, ESPE Module with sheeve
structure presented a better thermal management, especially at
the high discharge rate, the maximum temperature of ESPE Module
9
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
is lower than that of ESPE-Block Module after ten cycling process,
which indicates that ESPE with sheeve structure has a better cool-
ing performance than ESPE-Block Module. Besides, the sheeve
structure can effectively reduce the amount of composite material
in the battery module, which presents a much more suitable
approach for ESPE-Immersed thermal management system. The
ESPE battery module adopts a sheeve structure to ensure a certain
space for heat dissipation between batteries, which benefits the
heat generated by batteries to dissipate to the air and water timely
and quickly, improving the controlling temperature and tempera-
ture uniformity capabilities of the thermal management system.
Whereas, the maximum temperature of ESPE Module can be
maintained below 46 °C after 10 charge and discharge cycles,
and its single maximum temperature rise is only 10 °C. For the
ESPE-Immersed Module, the maximum temperature of the battery
is maintained below 40 °C during cyclic charge and discharge tests.
It can be concluded that when ESPE is designed in the form of
sleeve, the ESPE-sheeve can quickly transfer the heat from the bat-
tery to the environment after absorbing it. What’s more, when the
heat transfer medium between the cells is water, the water can
absorb more heat, and the temperature of the battery module
can improve and decrease. As displayed in Fig. 6d, the temperature
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram of ESPE-Block Module, ESPE Module and ESPE-Immersed Module; The temperature variations among three battery modules during ten cycling
process: (b) At 1C discharge rate; (c) At 2C discharge rate; (d) At 3C discharge rate.
control performance of ESPE-Immersed Module is much different
from that of ESPE-Block Module and ESPE Module at 3C discharge
process, and the maximum temperature of the ESPE-Immersed
Module is maintained below 42 °C for 10 charge and discharge
cycles even at the 3C discharge rate. However, the ESPE-Block
Module and ESPE Module both reached 50 °C in the first cycle.
With the increase of the number of cycles, the maximum temper-
ature of ESPE Module would reach 51 °C, while the thermal accu-
mulation of ESPE-Block Module would appear, and its maximum
temperature would gradually rise to 55 °C at the tenth cycle. In
general, due to the lack of rapid heat transfer process of ESPE-
Block Module, the heat accumulation phenomenon occurs during
long working time. With the use of ESPE CPCM of ESPE Module
decreased, the heat absorption of the battery Module decreases,
but the heat exchange process is higher than that of the ESPE block.
Finally, the ESPE-Immersed Module provides the best thermal
management through a simple liquid cooling coupled with CPCM
method that uses the waterproof properties of ESPE to immerse
the battery modules in water.
Further, the average temperature characteristics of the three
thermal management structures were analyzed by comparing the
maximum temperature difference of the battery modules. As pre-
sented in Fig. 7a, even just at the 1C charge and discharge cycle,
the temperature average performance of ESPE-Block Module and
EPEP Module are unstable, among which, the maximum tempera-
ture difference of ESPE-Block Module and EPEP Module can reach
3.4 °C and 2.9 °C, respectively. Besides, the temperature difference
between ESPE-Immersed Modules is maintained below 2 °C during
10
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
10 charge and discharge cycle test. During the 2C discharge cycle,
the temperature difference of the ESPE-Block Module will be fur-
ther aggravated and rise to 4.5 °C (Fig. 7b). The maximum temper-
ature difference of ESPE Module rises to 3 °C, and the temperature
difference fluctuation between cycles is reduced at the same time.
This is because PA in ESPE can play the role of phase change heat
storage, which effectively reduces the temperature difference
between each battery. Similarly, the ESPE-Immersed Module has
the best temperature homogenizing characteristic, and the maxi-
mum temperature difference maintained below 2 °C during the
2C discharge process. As shown in Fig. 7c, when the discharge rate
is increased to 3C, the maximum temperature difference of the
ESPE-Block Module reaches 4.2 °C, and the temperature difference
is basically maintained at 4.1 °C during the 10 charge and dis-
charge cycles. However, the temperature difference of the ESPE
module increases from 2.1 °C in the first cycle to 3.5 °C in the
10th cycle, which indicates that the heat generation rate of the bat-
tery is greater than the heat absorption rate of the ESPE-sleeve.
Thus, the temperature difference of the battery module will further
increase with the addition of cycle tests. On the contrary, ESPE-
Immersed Module still maintain the best temperature uniformity.
The maximum temperature difference of the battery modules kept
below 2 °C over the course of 10 charge and discharge cycles. The
main reason is that the immersed cooling method can effectively
transfer heat absorbed by ESPE sheeve to water, the structure of
ESPE with sleeve shape could be benefited to provide a certain
channel between the batteries, so the heat generated by batteries
can be timely and quickly dissipated to surrounding environment,
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Fig. 7. The maximum temperature difference of ESPE-Block Module, ESPE Module and ESPE-Immersed Module: (a) At 1C discharge rate; (b) At 2C discharge rate; (c) At 3C
discharge rate.; (d) Schematic diagram of battery module temperature.
which would accelerate the heat transfer process and effectively
alleviate the heat accumulation during the cycling process in bat-
tery module. Considering the aforementioned research, in order
to intuitively describe further, the influences of heat dissipation
media among different BTMS in battery module are compared. In
ESPE-Block Module and ESPE Module, the ESPE could absorb the
heat of the battery timely, but it could dissipate the heat quickly,
thus decreasing the temperature control performance under
long-term working conditions. In contrast, the water flowing
through the ESPE-immersed module can transfer the heat
absorbed by ESPE-sheeve quickly and timely, which could improve
the entire heat absorption and release effectiveness during the pro-
cess, so as to obtain an optimum temperature control in battery
module. Besides, the maximum and temperature differences of
typical battery thermal management systems have been compared,
which are listed in Table 4. Therefore, it can be concluded that
ESPE-Immersed Module exhibit a better temperature control and
uniformity capacity than ESPE-Block Module and ESPE Module,
which could satisfy the suitable requirement in actual application
of battery module, especially under moisture or water
environment.
3.5. Thermal resistance and energy density analysis
The transferring heat resistances of battery modules were
designed and modeled. The thermal resistance of ESPE block and
ESPE sleeve are calculated as flat wall thermal conductivity (Eq.6)
and cylindrical wall thermal conductivity (Eq.7), respectively. In
ESPE Module and ESPE-Immersed Module, the heat transfer
between air and liquid water is carried out on the surface of ESPE,
as showed in Fig. 8a. Thus, the calculation formula of thermal resis-
tance between batteries of the three battery modules can be
obtained by Eq. (8).
d Eq. (9).
RESPE ¼
k
1 d2
RESPEsleev e ¼ ln
2pkl d1
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
8
>
>
d
ðESPE  BlockMoudleÞ
< k
Rtotal ¼
1
hair pdl
þ 2p1kl ln dd21 ðESPEModuleÞ ð8Þ
>
>
: 1
þ 2p1kl ln dd21 ðESPE  ImmersedModuleÞ
hwater pdl
where hair and hwater is the coefficient of natural convection heat
transfer in air and water, respectively, k is the thermal conductivity
of the ESPE, d1 is the ESPE sleeve inner diameter, and d2 is the outer
diameter of the ESPE sleeve.
The ambient temperature and water temperature of the exper-
iment are both set at 30 °C. Therefore, the natural convection heat
transfer coefficient of air and water are set 10 and 200 Wm2K1,
respectively. The ESPE block is constructed as a wall between the
batteries, and its thermal resistance is 11 KW1. Due to the smaller
thickness of the ESPE sleeve, the thermal resistance is only
0.71 KW1. However, the thermal resistance of air convective heat
transfer can be as high as 54.4 KW1, so the ESPE module often
appears obvious heat accumulation during the charge and dis-
charge cycle. On the contrary, the thermal resistance of water con-
vection heat transfer is only 1.3 KW1, and the total thermal
resistance is only 2.01 KW1, which is less than that of ESPE-
Block Module (11 KW1) and ESPE module (55.11 KW1). It can
be concluded that the sleeve structure has higher thermal resis-
tance than the block structure, which is prone to thermal accumu-
lation. However, by coupling liquid cooling to change the heat
transfer medium and improving convection heat transfer resis-
tance between the batteries, the thermal resistance between the
batteries is significantly reduced.
In addition, the energy density of the battery system is also one
of the important parameters to evaluate the applicability of the
battery system. By comparing the energy density of the three bat-
tery modules, the battery system is further evaluated. The energy
density (qE ) of the battery system can be calculated according to
ð6Þ
C battery  V Discharge
qE ¼ ð9Þ
Q battery
ð7Þ
11
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al. Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089

Fig. 8. (a) Thermal resistance of ESPE-Block Module, ESPE Module and ESPE-Immersed Module; (b) Energy density of Blank control Module, ESPE-Block Module, ESPE Module
and ESPE-Immersed Module.

Table 4
The comparisons of different performances among various thermal management systems for battery module.

Cooling method Battery type Current (A) Voltage (V) Tm (℃) DT (℃) Reference
PCM NCM 35 10.8 55.2 8.3 Pan et al. (Pan and Lai, 2017)
PCM LFP 30 16 62.8 6.5 Ping et al. (Ping et al., 2018)
PCM NCM 150 3.6 63.1 2.0 Guo et al. (Gao et al., 2022)
Forced Air LFP 360 19.2 57.8 6.1 Ren et al. (Ren et al., 2021)
PCM@ Liquid Cooling NCM 195 11.1 59.5 6.1 Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2021)
ESPE-Immersed NCM 30.8 12.6 42 2 This study

where C battery , V Discharge and Q battery is battery capacity, discharge plat-
form voltage and quality of the battery, respectively. The capacity of
the battery is 2200mAh and the voltage of the discharge platform is
3700 mV. The quality of single 18,650 NCM battery is 40 g ± 0.05 g,
and that of ESPE block and ESPE sheeve is 280 g ± 3 g and 40 g ± 1 g.
As shown in Fig. 8b, the energy densities of the three battery
systems were compared. The theoretical energy density of the
blank control group can reach 203.5 Whkg1. However, the energy
density of ESPE-Block Module with traditional block structure will
drop to 152.6 Whkg1, which is about 25 % lower than that of
Blank control Module. When the sleeve structure is used, the
energy density of the ESPE Module only drops to 194.35 Whkg1,
about 4.5 %. In combination with the thermal management behav-
ior, it can be concluded that the ESPE Module with the sleeve struc-
12
ture is not only superior to the ESPE-block Module in energy
density, but also due to the ESPE-Block Module in temperature
control ability. Besides, ESPE-Immersed Modules have a smaller
energy density than the ESPE Module, but larger than the ESPE-
Block Module, which is 162.3 Whkg1. Although ESPE-Immersed
Module does not have the highest energy density, it has superior
thermal management and is more suitable for practical application
of battery systems.
4. Conclusion
Traditional battery thermal management system (BTMS) with
phase change material (PCM) is constrained by the problems such
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
as easily leakage, low thermal conductivity and low corrosion
resistance. In this study, a novel composite PCM with Epoxy sea-
lant/Paraffin/ expanded graphite (ESPE) for BTMS had been
designed and prepared, which exhibited optimum cooling effec-
tiveness and long-term corrosion resistance performance. By dop-
ing PA/EG powder in EPS, it has demonstrated that EPS had
stronger heat storage capacity. Meanwhile, the thermal manage-
ment behavior of EPS with or without PA/EG powder was com-
pared. At the same time, three kinds of battery thermal
management systems with different structures: ESPE-Block Mod-
ule, ESPE Module and ESPE-Immersed Module were compared for
their temperature control capabilities. The main conclusions can
be summarized as follows:
(1) EPS can provide good waterproof performance and compact
structure to effectively prevent the leakage of PA. The latent
heat value of EP5EPS5 can reach 80, and its mass retention
rate is greater than 99.7 %.
(2) After PA/EG powder was added into EPS, the thermal man-
agement effect of ESPE was better than that of EPS module.
Even at 3C charge and discharge cycle, the maximum tem-
perature of ESPE Module was only 52 °C, and its temperature
difference was controlled at 2.5 °C.
(3) ESPE-Immersed Module with sleeve structure coupled with
liquid cooling presents the optimal temperature control
and uniform characteristic. During the 3C discharge cycle,
the maximum temperature rise is only 42 °C, and the maxi-
mum temperature difference can be effectively maintained
within 2 °C. In terms of energy density, it is also superior
to the traditional block structure.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the Natural Science
Foundation of Guangdong province (2022A1515010161).
References
Chen, K., Chen, Y., She, Y., Song, M., Wang, S., Chen, L., 2020. Construction of effective
symmetrical air-cooled system for battery thermal management. Appl. Therm.
Eng. 166, 114679.
Chen, K., Hou, J., Song, M., Wang, S., Wu, W., Zhang, Y., 2021. Design of battery
thermal management system based on phase change material and heat pipe.
Appl. Therm. Eng. 188, 116665.
Chen, J., Ren, D., Hsu, H., Wang, L., He, X., Zhang, C., et al., 2021. Investigating the
thermal runaway features of lithium-ion batteries using a thermal resistance
network model. Appl. Energy 295, 117038.
Chriaa, I., Trigui, A., Karikri, M., Jedidi, I., Abdelmouleh, M., Boudaya, C., 2020.
Thermal properties of shape-stabilized phase change materials based on Low
Density Polyethylene, Hexadecane and SEBS for thermal energy storage. Appl.
Therm. Eng. 171, 115072.
Dong, K., Sheng, N., Zou, D., Wang, C., Nomura, 2020. A high-thermal-conductivity,
high-durability phase-change composite using a carbon fiber sheet as a
supporting matrix. Appl. Energ. 264: 114685.
Gao, Z., Deng, F., Yan, D., Zhu, H., An, Z., Sun, P., 2022. Thermal performance of
thermal management system coupling composite phase change material to
water cooling with double s-shaped micro-channels for prismatic lithium-ion
battery. J. Energy Storages 45, 103490.
Jiang, Z., Qu, Z., 2019. Lithium–ion battery thermal management using heat pipe
and phase change material during discharge–charge cycle: A comprehensive
numerical study. Appl. Energy 242, 378–392.
13
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
Jiang, W., Zhao, J., Rao, Z., 2021. Heat transfer performance enhancement of liquid
cold plate based on mini V-shaped rib for battery thermal management. Appl.
Therm. Eng. 189, 116729.
Kim, J., Oh, J., Lee, H., 2019. Review on battery thermal management system for
electric vehicles. Appl. Therm. Eng. 149, 192–212.
Kong, D., Peng, R., Ping, P., Du, J., Chen, G., Wen, J., 2020. A novel battery thermal
management system coupling with PCM and optimized controllable liquid
cooling for different ambient temperatures. Energy Convers. Manage. 204,
112280.
Lai, Y., Wu, W., Chen, K., Wang, S., Xin, C., 2019. A compact and lightweight liquid-
cooled thermal management solution for cylindrical lithium-ion power battery
pack. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 144, 118581.
Li, X., Sheng, X., Guo, Y., Lu, X., Wu, H., Chen, Y., et al., 2021. Multifunctional HDPE/
CNTs/PW composite phase change materials with excellent thermal and
electrical conductivities. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 86, 171–179.
Liu, Z., Huang, J., Cao, M., Jiang, G., Yan, Q., Hu, J., 2021. Experimental study on the
thermal management of batteries based on the coupling of composite phase
change materials and liquid cooling. Appl. Therm. Eng. 185, 116415.
Liu, F., Wang, J., Liu, Y., Wang, F., Yang, N., Liu, X., et al., 2021. Performance analysis
of phase change material in battery thermal management with biomimetic
honeycomb fin. Appl. Therm. Eng. 196, 117296.
Lv, Y., Liu, G., Zhang, G., Yang, X., 2020. A novel thermal management structure
using serpentine phase change material coupled with forced air convection for
cylindrical battery modules. J. Power Sources 468, 228398.
Mao, D., Chen, J., Ren, L., Zhang, K., Wong, C., 2019. Spherical core-shell Al@Al2O3
filled epoxy resin composites as highperformance thermal interface materials.
Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 123, 260–269.
Mu, M., Basheer, P., Sha, W., Bai, Y., McNally, T., 2016. Shape stabilised phase change
materials based on a high melt viscosity HDPE and paraffin waxes. Appl. Energ.
162, 68–82.
Ouyang, D., Weng, J., Hu, J., Chen, M., Huang, Q., Wang, J., 2019. Experimental
investigation of thermal failure propagation in typical lithium-ion battery
modules. Thermochim. Acta 676, 205–213.
Pan, M., Lai, W., 2017. Cutting copper fiber/paraffin composite phase change
material discharging experimental study based on heat dissipation capability of
Li-ion battery. Renewable Energy 114, 408–422.
Patel, J., Rathod, M., 2020. Recent developments in the passive and hybrid thermal
management techniques of lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 480, 228820.
Ping, P., Peng, R., Kong, D., Chen, G., Wen, J., 2018. Investigation on thermal
management performance of PCM-fin structure for Li-ion battery module in
high-temperature environment. Energy Convers. Manage. 176, 131–146.
Rao, Z., Qian, Z., Kuang, Y., Li, Y., 2017. Thermal performance of liquid cooling based
thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion battery module with
variable contact surface. Appl. Therm. Eng. 123, 1514–1522.
Ren, R., Zhao, Y., Diao, Y., Liang, L., Jing, H., 2021. Active air cooling thermal
management system based on U-shaped micro heat pipe array for lithium-ion
battery. J. Power Sources 507, 230314.
Sepehri, A., Sarrafzadeh, M., 2019. Activity enhancement of ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria in activated sludge process: metabolite
reduction and CO2 mitigation intensification process. Appl. Water Sci. 9, 131.
Sheng, L., Zhang, H., Su, L., Zhang, Z., Zhang, H., Li, K., et al., 2021. Effect analysis on
thermal profile management of a cylindrical lithium-ion battery utilizing a
cellular liquid cooling jacket. Energy 220, 119725.
Sun, Z., Fan, R., Yan, F., Zhou, T., Zheng, N., 2019. Thermal management of the
lithium-ion battery by the composite PCM-Fin structures. Int. J. Heat Mass
Transf. 145, 118739.
Tang, X., Guo, Q., Li, M., Wei, C., Pan, Z., Wang, Y., 2021. Performance analysis on
liquid-cooled battery thermal management for electric vehicles based on
machine learning. J. Power Sources 494, 229727.
Tousi, M., Sarchami, A., Kiani, M., Najiafi, M., Houshfar, E., 2021. Numerical study of
novel liquid-cooled thermal management system for cylindrical Li-ion battery
packs under high discharge rate based on AgO nanofluid and copper sheath. J.
Storage Mater. 41, 102910.
Trigui, A., Karkri, M., Krupa, I., 2014. Thermal conductivity and latent heat thermal
energy storage properties of LDPE/wax as a shape-stabilized composite phase
change material. Energy Convers. Manage. 77 (5), 86–96.
Wang, F., Cao, J., Ling, Z., Zhang, Z., Fang, X., 2020. Experimental and simulative
investigations on a phase change material nano-emulsion-based liquid cooling
thermal management system for a lithium-ion battery pack. Energy 207,
118215.
Wang, J., Huang, Q., Li, X., Zhang, G., Wang, C., 2021. Experimental and
numerical simulation investigation on the battery thermal management
performance using silicone coupled with phase change material. J. Storage
Mater. 40, 102810.
Wang, H., Tao, T., Xu, J., Mei, X., Liu, X., Gou, P., 2020. Cooling capacity of a novel
modular liquid-cooled battery thermal management system for cylindrical
lithium ion batteries. Appl. Therm. Eng. 178, 115591.
Wang, M., Teng, S., Xi, H., Li, Y., 2021. Cooling performance optimization of air-
cooled battery thermal management system. Appl. Therm. Eng. 195, 117242.
Weng, J., Ouyang, D., Yang, X., Chen, M., Zhang, G., Wang, J., 2019. Alleviation of
thermal runaway propagation in thermal management modules using aerogel
felt coupled with flame-retarded phase change material. Energy Convers.
Manage. 200, 112071.
Weng, J., Yang, X., Zhang, G., Ouyang, X., Chen, M., Wang, J., 2019. Optimization of
the detailed factors in a phase-change-material module for battery thermal
management. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 138, 126–134.
X. Li, J. Deng, Q. Huang et al.
Wu, W., W W, Wang, S., 2019. Form-stable and thermally induced flexible
composite phase change material for thermal energy storage and thermal
management applications. Appl. Energy 236:10–21.
Wu, C., Wang, Z., Bao, Y., Zhao, J., Rao, Z., 2021. Investigation on the performance
enhancement of baffled cold plate based battery thermal management system.
J. Storage Mater. 41, 102882.
Wu, W., Ye, G., Zhang, G., Yang, X., 2022. Composite phase change material with
room-temperature-flexibility for battery thermal management. Chem. Eng. J.
428, 131116.
Yang, M., Wang, H., Shuai, W., Deng, X., 2019. Thermal optimization of a kirigami-
patterned wearable lithium-ion battery based on a novel design of composite
phase change material. Appl. Therm. Eng. 161, 114141.
Yao, X., Shamsaei, E., Wang, W., Zhang, S., Sagoe-Crentsil, K., Duan, W., 2020.
Graphene-based modification on the interface in fiber reinforced
cementitious composites for improving both strength and toughness. Carbon
170, 493–502.
Yu, Q., Zhang, C., Lu, Y., Kong, Q., Wei, H., Yang, Y., et al., 2021. Comprehensive
performance of composite phase change materials based on eutectic chloride
14
Chemical Engineering Science 264 (2022) 118089
with SiO2 nanoparticles and expanded graphite for thermal energy storage
system. Renewable Energy 172, 1120–1132.
Zeng, Y., Chalise, D., Lubner, S., Kaur, S., Prasher, R., 2021. A review of thermal
physics and management inside lithium-ion batteries for high energy density
and fast charging. Energy Storage Mater. 41, 264–288.
Zhang, J., Li, X., Zhang, G., Wang, Y., Guo, J., Wang, Y., et al., 2020. Characterization
and experimental investigation of aluminum nitride-based composite phase
change materials for battery thermal management. Energy Convers. Manage.
204, 112319.
Zhang, J., Wu, X., Chen, K., Zhou, D., Song, M., 2021. Experimental and numerical
studies on an efficient transient heat transfer model for air-cooled battery
thermal management systems. J. Power Sources 490, 229539.
Zhao, G., Wang, X., Negnevitkky, M., Zhang, H., 2021. A review of air-cooling battery
thermal management systems for electric and hybrid electric vehicles. J. Power
Sources 501, 230001.
Zhou, H., Lv, L., Zhang, Y., Ji, M., Cen, K., 2021. Preparation and characterization of a
shape-stable xylitol/expanded graphite composite phase change material for
thermal energy storage. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 230, 111244.