Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Thermal management of lithium-ion battery pack under demanding

conditions and long operating cycles using fin-enhanced PCMs/water
hybrid cooling system
Zhenwei Liu, Boyuan Wang, Youwei Tan, Ping Li *
Key Laboratory of Thermo–Fluid Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710049, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A fin-enhanced hybrid cooling system combining phase change material (PCM) and liquid cooling is designed
Lithium-ion battery and optimized in this work to ensure the stable operation of lithium-ion battery under high ambient temperature,
Thermal management high discharge rate or long operating cycles, which is a challenging and burning issue. The coupling effects of
Composite phase change material
composite PCM, fin arrangements, cooling water inflow schemes, and ambient temperature on the heat dissi­
Liquid cooling
pation performance of battery pack are numerically studied. The maximum temperature can be reduced by up to
Fin
7.66 ◦ C with expanded graphite modified PCM at 5C discharge rate and 40 ◦ C ambient temperature, and the
optimal mass fraction is found to be 12–16%. The arrangement of composite fins and two-layer PCM can further
improve adaptability with better temperature control or temperature uniformity, and the suitable ranges of
ambient temperature, coolant inlet temperature and velocity for safe operation are obtained. In general, the
hybrid cooling system with fins and counter flow can be used for the thermal management design of batteries
used at high temperature of 40 ◦ C and high discharge rate of 5C, and the temperature and temperature difference
can be controlled to within 46.2 ◦ C and 4.2 ◦ C respectively. The hybrid cooling system also offers a reliable
cooling performance during 2C rate of charging and discharging cycle process, and the temperature and tem­
perature difference can be controlled below 42.2 ◦ C and 1.7 ◦ C respectively.

performance and its phase change temperature being slightly lower than
the upper temperature limit for efficient operation of the battery, but the
1. Introduction
low thermal conductivity makes it difficult to export heat in time at high
heat release [8,9]. Therefore, some high thermal conductivity materials
With the development of clean energy technology, electric vehicles
have been added to improve the thermal conductivity of PCM, such as
(EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been widely manufac­
expanded graphite (EG) [10], metal foam [11] and carbon nanotube
tured and utilized [1]. The power battery system is the guarantee of the
[12]. Lv et al. [13] developed a BTMS using silica/paraffin as a com­
efficient and safe operation of EVs and HEVs. The stable operation of the
posite phase change material (CPCM), which endow the obtained bat­
battery module under long-term working and diverse environments is
tery module with much better cooling efficiency and durability. Wang
crucial to improve the performance of EVs and HEVs [2]. The high
et al. [14] prepared graphite powder/paraffin CPCM and graphite
temperature and non-uniformity would reduce the stability and service
powder/paraffin/nickel foam ternary CPCM with optimized composi­
lifespan of battery module, and even cause serious safety accidents [3].
tion, which both can effectively control the surface temperature rise of
Therefore, an effectual battery thermal management system (BTMS)
lithium-ion battery. However, the poor heat exchange coefficient at PCM
should be fabricated and used to effectively dissipate heat and control
surface does not allow for efficient transfer of absorbed heat to outside
the battery temperature during the ideal work temperature range of
ambience, especially under demanding scenarios and long operating
20–50 ◦ C, and keep the temperature difference within 5 ◦ C [4,5].
cycles [15,16].
In all BTMS, the phase change cooling system has large storage ca­
According to the classification of cooling medium, common BTMS
pacity and simple structure without power requirements, as it uses high
can be classified into air cooling system [17,18], liquid cooling system
latent heat phase change materials (PCM), and hence the heat exchange
[19,20], phase change cooling system [21,22] and heat pipe cooling
with batteries [6,7]. Paraffin wax is a common PCM due to its stable

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pingli@xjtu.edu.cn (P. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121214
Received 27 March 2023; Received in revised form 12 July 2023; Accepted 20 July 2023
Available online 22 July 2023
1359-4311/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Liu et al.
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat capacity (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1)
d inner diameter of channel (m)
hs Sensible heat of PCM (J⋅kg− 1)
H Enthalpy of PCM (J⋅kg− 1)
ΔH Latent heat of PCM (J⋅kg− 1)
I Current (A)
k Thermal conductivity (W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1)
n Nominal direction
P Static pressure (Pa)
q Heat generation of battery (W⋅m− 3)
t Time (s)
T Temperature (K)
T0 Initial temperature of the system (℃)
Tamb Ambient temperature (℃)
Tmax Maximum temperature (℃)
ΔTmax Maximum temperature difference (℃)
U Terminal voltage (V)
UOC Open-circuit voltage (V)
v Velocity (m⋅s− 1)
v0 Initial velocity of coolant (m⋅s− 1)
V Volume of battery (m3)
system [23,24]. Limited by the complex structure of the liquid cooling
system and its endothermic capability, the temperature of batteries may
exceed safety limit under demanding scenarios like high currents and
high external temperatures [25]. However, the liquid cooling system
offers good heat transfer with external environment due to the contin­
uous flow of coolant into and out of BTMS [26], which is what the phase
change cooling system lacks.
The integrated cooling system uses designable combinations to
achieve better cooling efficiency in a compact design [27]. PCM cooling
can maintain the batteries at a low operating temperature, but the heat
cannot be removed from the cooling system in time. The addition of
liquid cooling provides an effective means to carry the heat absorbed by
PCM out of the system during battery operation [28]. Yang et al. [29]
compared the three cooling schemes, PCM cooling, liquid cooling and
PCM/liquid coupled cooling, and found the coupled system decreased
the start–stop frequency by less than half and reduced the pumping
power consumption by at least 60%. Zhang et al. [30] adopted a coupled
cooling technique with PCM and cold plate installed under the module
to control the maximum temperature (Tmax) below 50 ◦ C and the
maximum temperature difference (ΔTmax) below 3.4 ◦ C, and improved
the thermal performance during continuous operation. Cao et al. [31]
proposed a composite cooling mode combined with PCM and delayed
liquid cooling, which effectively reduced the ΔTmax between batteries.
By analyzing the effects of water temperature and flow rate, they found
that controlling the water temperature close to the ambient could reduce
the temperature difference, and the low flow rate was beneficial to
reduce power consumption.
The integrated cooling system combined with phase change cooling
and liquid cooling can effectively regulate temperature of battery pack.
However, the temperature difference between batteries is easily
increased after introducing liquid cooling due to the low thermal con­
ductivity of PCM. Therefore, fins are arranged in the PCM to further
enhance the BTMS performance with the combination of PCM cooling
and liquid cooling [32]. Liu et al. [33] used fins to enhance the com­
bination of thermoelectric cooler and PCM. The fins could transfer the
heat of the PCM to the cold side of the thermal cooler and effectively
cool the battery at high temperatures. Choudhari et al. [34] investigated
the performance of a battery pack with PCM of RT44HC combined with
fins. The results showed that different fins installations on the battery
2
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
Greek symbols
β Liquid fraction of melted PCM (%)
γ Specific phase change enthalpy (J⋅kg− 1)
μ Dynamic viscosity (Pa⋅s)
ρ Density (kg⋅m− 3)
ω Mass fraction (%)
Subscripts
b Battery
in Inlet of water
l Liquid
PCM Phase change material
s Solid
w Water
Acronyms
Al Aluminum
BTMS Battery thermal management system
CPCM Composite phase change material
EG Expanded graphite
EVs Electric vehicles
HEVs Hybrid electric vehicles
PCM Phase change material
surface increased the convection effect and decreased the Tmax. In
addition, the layered cooling of PCM is also conducive to improve the
cooling performance of battery pack [35,36]. The two-layer PCM
structure can improve the environmental adaptability of PCM cooling
module. Jilte et al. [37] used Disodium Sulfate Decahydrate and Eico­
sane with three different arrangements to cool a single cylindrical bat­
tery. The results showed that both trans-axial arrangements introduced
the same results, while the trans-radial arrangement maintained the
optimal performance.
It can be concluded from the above studies that the combination of
liquid cooling and PCM has been proved to have potential in effective
thermal management, but the most battery thermal management studies
are carried out at low discharge rates and room temperature. In com­
parison to regular driving operations, the heating power of battery pack
will be much higher during severe operating situations such as hill
climbs, hard loads and accelerations. Similarly, in extreme ambient
temperatures, the requirements for BTMS are higher to ensure proper
battery operation. It is important and meaningful to control the tem­
perature of the battery module and improve its temperature uniformity
at high discharge rates and ambient temperatures. Moreover, ensuring
both extreme discharge conditions and stable cyclic operating charac­
teristics has not been effectively established at high ambient tempera­
tures. In summary, the stable operation of lithium-ion battery pack with
suitable Tmax and ΔTmax during high discharge rate and long operating
cycles at high ambient temperature is a challenging and burning issue.
In this work, a new fin-enhanced hybrid cooling system is proposed
with liquid cooling channels and PCM cooling module for a 16-cylindri­
cal battery module with a single discharge rate of up to 5C and a cyclic
charge/discharge rate of up to 2C at 40 ◦ C. A numerical study is carried
out to analyze the influences of CPCM with different EG content and two
different fin structures on the thermal performance of BTMS. The effects
of two-layer CPCM combination, inlet temperature and inlet velocity of
cooling water, ambient temperature, forward flow and different counter
flow schemes of cooling water on the heat dissipation performance of
battery pack are studied and discussed. Furthermore, the optimized
system is tested for cooling performance during long operating cycles at
high temperature.
Z. Liu et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

2. Numerical calculation method Table 1

Material properties used in the simulation.
2.1. Physical model Materials Density Specific heat capacity Thermal conductivity
(kg⋅m− 3) (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1) (W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1)
As shown in Fig. 1, the battery module consists of 16 lithium-ion Battery 2765 1300 2
batteries of type 18,650 with nominal capacity of 2.0 Ah, nominal Aluminum 2719 871 238
voltage of 3.7 V and internal resistance of 45 mΩ. C-rate of batteries, the Water 992.2 4174 0.635
measurement of charge and discharge current with respect to its nomi­
nal capacity, can reach up to 5C. The diameter and height of a single
(UOC − U) can be replaced by the product of battery charging and dis­
battery are 18 mm and 65 mm respectively, and the distance between
charging current and internal resistance. ∂UOC/∂T represents the coef­
two adjacent batteries is 23 mm [35]. The gap between the batteries is
ficient of voltage affected by temperature, which is generally an
filled with PCM with liquid cooling channels. The overall size of BTMS is
empirical constant in engineering application, and this takes 0.01116
97 × 97 × 65 mm. A total of 9 liquid cooling flow channels are arranged
mV⋅k− 1 [39]. The average values of q are 372381 W⋅m− 3, 250434
in parallel with the inner and outer diameters of 4 mm and 6 mm
W⋅m− 3, 180707 W⋅m− 3, 87012 W⋅m− 3 and 25938 W⋅m− 3 under 5C, 4C,
respectively. The liquid cooling channels are made of aluminum, and the
3C, 2C and 1C discharge respectively. The charging process is based on
water is selected as the coolant. The thermophysical parameters of
constant current.
battery, aluminum and water are shown in Table 1. The Tmax and ΔTmax
of batteries are important parameters to measure the stable operation of
2.2.2. PCM model
the battery module, and a suitable cooling strategy is crucial to ensure
The PCM used in this study is paraffin RT44HC with melting tem­
the efficiency of BTMS. Therefore, the Tmax and ΔTmax are studied under
perature of 41–44 ◦ C, which has stable performance, low undercooling,
different cooling conditions and discharge rates.
small volume expansion rate, high latent heat and a phase change
temperature slightly lower than the upper temperature limit for efficient
2.2. Mathematical formulation operation of the battery [26]. The CPCM is made by adding EG to
paraffin, and the thermophysical properties of CPCM is influenced by
2.2.1. Battery model the distribution of EG. The thermal properties of the CPCMs used in this
In this study, it is assumed that the thermophysical parameters work with different EG mass fraction are shown in Table 2.
remain constant, the interior of the battery is a uniform heat source, and In this study, it is assumed that the physical properties for each phase
the radiation heat transfer is ignored in the process of charge and of PCM are constant and the internal materials of PCM are uniform. The
discharge. For simple calculation, the battery cell is regarded as a single heat transfer inside the PCM is divided into specific heat and latent heat,
material [11]. The energy conservation equation is: and the energy equations are given as follows [13]:
∂T ∂H
ρb Cp,b = kb ∇2 T + q (1) ρPCM = kPCM ∇2 T (3)
∂t ∂T
where ρb, Cp,b and kb denote the density, specific heat capacity and
H = hs + ΔH (4)
thermal conductivity of the battery, respectively. T and t denote the
temperature and time, respectively. q denotes the heat generation of ∫ T
battery, and its equation is as follows [38]: hs = Cp,PCM dT (5)
T0
[ ]
I ∂UOC
q= (UOC − U) + T (2)
V ∂T ΔH = βγ (6)

where I, V, UOC and U represent the current, volume, open-circuit ⎧

0 T < Ts
⎪
voltage and terminal voltage, respectively. The thermal transformation ⎪
⎪
⎨T− T
caused by material reactions and concentration changes during the use (7)
s
β= Ts < T < T1
⎪ T1 − Ts
is ignored. I(UOC − U) are the heat generations due to direct current ⎪
⎪
⎩
resistances consisting of Joule resistance and polarization resistance. 1 T > T1

where ρPCM, Cp,PCM and kPCM represent the density, equivalent spe­
cific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of PCM, respectively. H, ΔH
and hs represent enthalpy, latent heat and sensible heat of PCM,
respectively. β represent liquid fraction of melted PCM. γ represents
specific phase change enthalpy. Ts and Tl represent temperature of
freezing point and melting point, respectively.

Table 2
Thermophysical properties of composite phase change materials [26].
Mass Density Specific heat Thermal Latent heat
fraction of (kg⋅m− 3) capacity conductivity (kJ⋅kg− 1)
EG (%) (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1) (W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1)

0 800 2000 0.20 275.0

3 825 1963 0.58 266.8
6 832 1926 1.23 258.3
9 845 1889 3.50 250.2
12 897 1852 5.74 242.0
16 909 1803 8.41 231.0
20 913 1754 10.60 220.0
30 920 1631 13.85 192.5
Fig. 1. Structure diagram of battery pack with PCM and water hybrid cooling.

3
Z. Liu et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

2.2.3. Liquid cooling model Table 4

The cooling liquid used in this study is water, which is treated as an Time step independence analysis.
incompressible Newtonian fluid. The energy conservation equation of Time step (s) Tmax (℃) Difference (×10 %)
water is given as follows [31]:
20 46.50 —
∂( ) ( ) 15 46.45 1.00
ρ Cp,w T + ∇⋅ ρw Cp,w →
v T = − ∇⋅(kw ∇T) (8) 10 46.43 0.51
∂t w 5 46.42 0.06
The momentum conservation equation of water is specified as 1 46.42 0.01
follows:
∂ρw solidification and melting model and laminar model are used in the
+ ∇⋅(ρw →
v→v ) = − ∇P (9)
∂t numerical models. In this study, Reynolds number is defined as follows:
The continuity equation of water in the cooling channels is defined ρw vin d
Re = (14)
as: μw
∂ρw where d, vin and μw represent the inner diameter of channel, inlet
+ ∇⋅(ρw →
v)=0 (10)
∂t velocity and dynamic viscosity of water, respectively. Turbulence model
where ρw, Cp,w and kw represent the density, equivalent specific heat is not considered since the maximum inlet Re of all the coolants flow in
capacity and thermal conductivity of water, respectively. →v represents this investigation is 791 (vin = 0.2 m/s), which is less than 1000 and
velocity vector of water. P represents static pressure. corresponds to the laminar flow range. SIMPLE algorithm scheme, sec­
ond order upwind spatial discretization and second order implicit
2.2.4. Initial and boundary conditions transient formulation are used for the pressure–velocity coupling
The initial condition is as: t = 0, T = T0, v = v0 and P = 0, where T0 is method. The iteration residual of continuity equation and energy are
set as 40 ◦ C and v0 is set as 0.01 m/s. The cooling water inlet adopts below 10− 4 and 10− 6 respectively to meet the convergence criteria.
velocity inlet condition, and the outlet use pressure outlet condition.
The contact surface of PCM and air is in a state of natural convection, 2.4. Model verification
and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 5 W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1 [40]. The
inner and outer walls of the liquid-cooled channel are fluid–solid The Fluent conducts numerical simulations to research the heat
coupling with the phase change material and the cooling liquid. The generation of the battery at different discharge rate. The discharge
boundary conditions between the interfaces of batteries and PCM, PCM processes of lithium-ion battery are simulated at ambient temperature of
and Al channels, Al channels and water are: 25 ◦ C and discharge rates of 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C and 5C. Fig. 2 shows the
∂T ∂T comparison of average temperature of battery surface between simula­
− kb = − kPCM (11) tion and experiment [42]. During the whole discharge processes, the
∂n ∂n
deviation is within ± 2 ◦ C, and the simulated temperatures matches the
∂T ∂T experimental temperatures well.
− kPCM = − kAl (12)
∂n ∂n Moreover, the discharge process of a battery wrapped with a 4 mm
thick PCM, which is made by adding 16% EG in the paraffin, is
− kAl
∂T
= ρw Cp,w ∇T (13) numerically simulated. Fig. 3(a) shows the comparison of maximum
∂n temperature of battery surface between simulation and experiment [43]
at ambient temperature of 37 ◦ C and discharge rate of 3C, and Fig. 3(b)
2.3. Numerical method shows the comparison at ambient temperature of 28 ◦ C and discharge
rate of 5C. In the whole discharge process, the maximum deviation be­
The 3D geometry of the computational domain is built and meshed tween simulation and experiment is less than 2 ◦ C. The deviation is like
with structured grids using pre-processing software packaged in ANSYS. the numerical study of the same type and acceptable.
The grid number and time step are selected by checking the dependency
of Tmax to ensure calculation accuracy. The grid independence analysis is
carried out with 93720, 185,934, 368,256, 727,320 and 1,227,116 grid
nodes. As shown in Table 3, with the increase of grid number, the Tmax is
decreased. The number of grid nodes increase from 727,320 to
1,227,116, and the Tmax is only changed by 0.05%. Therefore, the grid
number of 727,320 is used as a benchmark for the follow-up study.
Sensitivity analysis of time step is shown in Table 4. Considering the
accuracy and cost of numerical calculation, the time step of 10 s is
selected in the subsequent simulation.
ANSYS Fluent is employed to solve the transient conjugate heat
transfer problem. The governing equations are solved using the
pressure-based segregated solver [41]. The energy equation,

Table 3
Grid independence analysis.
Nodes Tmax (℃) Difference (%)

93,720 47.09 —
185,934 46.84 0.54
368,256 46.62 0.47
727,320 46.43 0.41
Fig. 2. The comparison of average temperature of battery surface between
1,227,116 46.40 0.05
simulation and experiment [42] in a single battery at 25 ◦ C.

4
Z. Liu et al.
Fig. 3. The comparison of maximum temperature of battery surface between simulation and experiment [43]: (a) 3C discharge with PCM at ambient temperature of
37 ◦ C; (b) 5C discharge with PCM at ambient temperature of 28 ◦ C.
In summary, the calculation model in this work can effectively
simulate the process of battery discharge and PCM phase change, and
the model accuracy is reliable enough to meet the following research
needs.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of different cooling systems
Phase change cooling and liquid cooling are common methods of
BTMS with their own limitations, and the combination of them can give
full play to their respective advantages. Therefore, the simplified models
of BTMS under three cooling schemes are established, as shown in Fig. 4.
The discharge process of battery pack at 40 ◦ C and different discharge
rate (1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C) are studied to compare and analyze the effects
of different cooling schemes. PCM uses paraffin, the inlet temperature of
cooling water is consistent with the environment, and the inlet flow
velocity is 0.01 m/s.
With the increase of the discharge rate, the discharge current in­
creases and the discharge time decreases, resulting in the increase of
heating power and temperature of battery pack. Fig. 5(a) shows the Tmax
of battery pack at the end of 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C and 5C discharge with
different cooling schemes, respectively. Compared with liquid cooling,
the temperature rises of battery pack with the schemes of PCM and PCM
combined with liquid cooling are significantly lower as the discharge
rate increases. When using liquid cooling, the batteries temperature
usually exceeds the upper threshold once the discharge power is high. As
shown in Fig. 5(a), the Tmax exceeds the safety limit of 55 ◦ C when the
Fig. 4. Plane Structures of three cooling schemes: (a) PCM cooling; (b) liquid cooling; (c) composite PCM and liquid cooling.
5
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
discharge rate exceeds 3C. In contrary, the Tmax of battery pack with
PCM cooling and composite PCM and water cooling is always below the
safety limit at the discharge rate of 1C–5C. At the discharge rate of 5C,
the Tmax of battery pack cooled by water reaches 69.21 ◦ C, and the PCM
cooling and composite PCM and water cooling just are 54.70 ◦ C and
54.53 ◦ C respectively, which is much lower than the water cooling.
Fig. 5(b) shows the Tmax variation over 36,000 s with PCM cooling
and composite PCM and CP cooling during cyclic 1C and 2C discharging
and charging. Compared with PCM cooling, the scheme of PCM com­
bined with cooling water has a lower temperature rise during contin­
uous charging and discharging, which can carry the heat absorbed by
PCM out of the BTMS. While, the temperature of battery pack is kept
consistently elevated during long operating cycles. The main reason is
that the thermal conductivity of PCM area is relatively low, and the heat
taken away by the cooling water is not as much. To further improve the
cooling effect of BTMS under demanding conditions and provide a
reliable cooling performance during continuous charging and dis­
charging, CPCM with high thermal conductivity can be used or fins can
be arranged in the area of PCM to enhance heat transfer.
3.2. Effects of EG mass fraction in CPCM
The thermal conductivity of CPCM prepared by adding EG into
paraffin can be improved. Fig. 8 shows the influence of mass fraction (ω)
of EG in CPCM on the temperature of battery pack at 40 ◦ C ambient
temperature, 40 ◦ C inlet temperature and 0.01 m/s inlet velocity of
cooling water. As shown in Fig. 6(a), when CPCM is used in BTMS, the
temperature rise curve of battery pack over time shows an obvious
Z. Liu et al.
Fig. 5. The effect of different cooling schemes: (a) the Tmax at the end of discharge; (b) the Tmax variation during continuous discharging and charging.
Fig. 6. The effect of mass fraction of EG: (a) the Tmax variation with time during discharge; (b) the Tmax and ΔTmax at the end of discharge.
platform. During this period, PCM absorbs and stores the latent heat in a
small range of temperature, which can effectively control the overall
temperature rise of batteries.
As shown in Fig. 6(b), when mass fraction of EG is lower than 16%,
the Tmax of battery pack is decreased with the increase of EG, but the
ΔTmax is increased. Once the mass fraction of EG reaches 16% and
continues to increase, the ΔTmax is increased along with the increase of
Tmax. In this situation, the latent heat of CPCM decreases too much, and
the CPCM near batteries is incapable to absorb all the heat released by
the battery pack, leading to higher Tmax and ΔTmax in the later stage of
discharge. In terms of maximum temperature reduction effect alone, the
battery pack has the lowest Tmax when the mass fraction of EG is be­
tween 12% and 16%. While Considering the increase of temperature
difference, the CPCM used with 3% EG has a largest reduction ratio, and
Tmax is decreased by 4.86 ◦ C and ΔTmax is increased by only 0.27 ◦ C
compared with 0% EG. The mass fraction of EG increased from 0% to
3%, and the thermal conductivity of material increased to 2.9 times. The
decrease in latent heat is limited, which does not affect the absorption of
heat released by batteries. Due to the timely absorption and export of
heat, there is a significant decrease in the temperature of battery pack,
which is no longer significant as the mass fraction of EG continues to
6
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
increase and the latent heat decreases. As mentioned above, CPCMs
containing EG mass fractions of 3%, 12% and 16% perform relatively
well in the whole BTMS.
The addition of a suitable amount of EG to paraffin can improve the
thermal management effect of BTMS, significantly. The Tmax of battery
pack is reduced by 7.66 ◦ C at most in CPCM with different EG mass
fractions. The temperature field of battery pack with EG mass fraction of
0%, 3% and 12% at the end of discharge are shown in Fig. 7. The full
field temperature is decreased with the increase of EG content, and the
temperature field is uniformly decreased due to the CPCM directly
wrapping the lithium-ion batteries.
3.3. The effect of fins and two-layer CPCM
The further way to improve the effect of cooling water in composite
cooling scheme is to arrange fins in the area of PCM to enhance the heat
transfer between the batteries and cooling water. At 40 ◦ C ambient
temperature, 5C discharge rate, 40 ◦ C inlet temperature and 0.01 m/s
inlet velocity of cooling water, the enhanced heat transfer by fins was
studied. Fig. 8(a) shows the BTMS model with the arrangement of fin
scheme 1, where the fins pass through the PCM and directly contact with
Z. Liu et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

Fig. 7. Temperature distribution at the end of 5C discharge of battery pack at different mass fraction of EG: (a) CPCM with 0% EG; (b) CPCM with 3% EG; (c) CPCM
with 12% EG.

Fig. 8. Fin scheme 1: (a) plane structure of the BTMS; (b) 3D structure of the fins; (c) temperature distribution at the end of discharge of battery pack.

batteries and water channels. The thickness of fins is 1 mm as shown in
Fig. 8(b) with the detailed structure, and the material is Al. Fig. 8(c)
shows the temperature distribution of battery pack at the end of
discharge when the PCM is pure paraffin. After arranging the fins, the
Tmax is decreased from 54.53 ◦ C to 53.39 ◦ C, but the ΔTmax is increased
from 2.86 ◦ C to 9.08 ◦ C. The reduction in temperature field of battery
pack shows a large nonuniformity. Mainly due to the large thermal
conductivity of the Al fins, the temperature at the place of direct contact
between the batteries and the fins is excessively low. In addition, due to
the contact arrangement of the fins, there is a possibility for safety issues
such as short circuits and fires.
To solve the problem of low local temperature of batteries and
improve the temperature uniformity of battery pack, direct contact
between the fins and batteries should be avoided. Therefore, the cylin­
ders are arranged around the batteries, and the fins connect the cylin­
ders to water channels, as shown in Fig. 9(a) and Fig. 9(b). The cylinder
divides the PCM into two layers. The thickness of the cylinder is 0.8 mm,
and the thickness of the inner layer of PCM is 1.2 mm. Fig. 9(c) shows the
temperature distribution of battery pack at the end of discharge when
the PCM is pure paraffin. Compared with fin scheme 1, the Tmax of
battery pack is increased from 53.39 ◦ C to 53.90 ◦ C, but the ΔTmax is
decreased from 9.08 ◦ C to 3.51 ◦ C. The temperature uniformity of bat­
tery pack is significantly improved.
Fig. 10 shows the Tmax and ΔTmax of battery pack with no fin, fin
scheme 1 and fin scheme 2 when the mass fractions of EG are 0%, 3%,
12% and 16%, respectively. At low EG content, the temperature of the

Fig. 9. Fin scheme 2: (a) plane structure of the BTMS; (b) 3D structure of the fins; (c) temperature distribution at the end of discharge of battery pack.

7
Z. Liu et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

Fig. 10. The effect of no fins, fin scheme 1 and fin scheme 2: (a) the Tmax; (b) the ΔTmax.

battery module can be reduced by arranging fins to increase the thermal
conductivity. However, when the mass fraction of EG reaches 12%, the
Tmax and ΔTmax of battery pack are increased after arranging fins. As the
thermal conductivity of CPCM is already large enough, the arrangement
of fins can no longer improve the performance of the BTMS.
Fig. 11 shows the proportion of liquid phase at 1/2 height cross
section of the battery module before and after the deployment of the fin.
Due to the low thermal conductivity of the PCM, temperature non-
uniformity is evident in the PCM area. The PCM near the batteries
quickly changes phase and becomes liquid. The thermal conductivity of
the liquid PCM is less, further hindering the transfer of heat. Therefore,
the variation gradient of liquid phase share of the PCM is large around
the batteries, while the PCM in slightly more distant regions is always
solid. After arranging fins, the area where phase transition occurs is
increased, and the change gradient of liquid phase proportion is more
uniform. The proportion of liquid phase materials near the battery is
decreased, and the slightly distant area is increased. Among the different
case, the effect of fin scheme 2 is better than fin scheme 1. In addition,

Fig. 11. Liquid phase share at the end of discharge before and after the arrangements of fins: (a) paraffin with no EG; (b) CPCM with 12 wt% EG.

8
Z. Liu et al.
the heat dissipation capacity at the periphery of the whole battery pack
is poor and the liquid phase share of PCM is relatively low, since the
liquid cooling channels are only arranged between different batteries.
The cylinders in the fin scheme 2 expand the area of phase change
around batteries and increase the phase change degree of the internal
area, which in turn improves the utilization of PCM.
Further, different CPCMs are filled in the inner area and the outer
area separated by the cylinders structure in fin scheme 2 to investigate
the effect of two-layer CPCM combination. The case of two-layer CPCM
combination is named “x + y EG”, where the “x” is the EG mass fraction
of inner layer CPCM and the “y” is the outer layer. Fig. 12 shows the Tmax
and ΔTmax of battery pack at the end of 5C discharge for different
combinations of two-layer CPCM. Among all the cases, the use of CPCM
with good thermal conductivity in the inner layer and CPCM with high
thermal storage capacity in the outer layer results in a better tempera­
ture control performance of battery pack module. The inner layer is
made of CPCM with high thermal storage capacity and the outer layer is
made of CPCM with good thermal conductivity, the temperature uni­
formity of battery pack module is better. In general, the Tmax of battery
pack is lower when the EG content of the CPCM is high, and the battery
pack temperature uniformity is better when the EG content of the CPCM
is low. However, the temperature uniformity requirement of battery
pack is satisfied with the ΔTmax within 5 ◦ C for all cases. The different
combinations of two-layer CPCM can further improve performance and
adaptability of BTMS, which can be adopted according to the actual
demand.
3.4. Effect of water flow and ambient conditions
Taking the PCMs/water hybrid cooling system with fin scheme 2, the
effects of inlet temperature (Tin) of cooling water and ambient temper­
ature (Tamb) are studied. The inlet velocity and the discharge rate are
kept at 0.01 m/s and 5C, respectively. Table 5 gives the Tmax and ΔTmax
of battery pack at difference Tin and Tamb. Among different CPCM
combinations, the Tmax with 12% EG is the lowest, and the case of 3 +
12% EG has the lowest temperature difference. With the decrease of Tin,
the Tmax shows a downward trend and the ΔTmax shows an upward
trend. With the decrease of Tamb, both Tmax and ΔTmax show a downward
trend. In all operating conditions, the Tmax is always less than 50 ◦ C. Just
at Tin of 40 ◦ C and 35 ◦ C and Tamb of 40 ◦ C, the ΔTmax can be guaranteed
to keep below 5 ◦ C for all CPCM combinations. The greater difference
between Tamb and Tin, the worse temperature uniformity of battery pack
is. Therefore, only reducing the Tin can reduce the temperature of bat­
tery pack, but the temperature uniformity becomes poor, which cannot
Fig. 12. The Tmax and ΔTmax of battery pack with different combinations of
two-layer CPCM, where the EG mass fraction of “x + y” means “inner layer +
outer layer”.
9
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
effectively improve the thermal management performance of the BTMS.
Based on the case of 3 + 12% EG, suitable combinations of Tin and
Tamb are found. Fig. 13(a) shows the ΔTmax of battery pack at the end of
discharge with different Tin and Tamb, and the safety threshold of 5 ◦ C is
highlighted. To maintain the ΔTmax within 5 ◦ C, the inlet temperature
must not be lower than the ambient temperature when the ambient
temperature is lower than 23.5 ◦ C. At the high ambient temperature of
40 ◦ C, the minimum of inlet temperature can be about 28 ◦ C to keep the
temperature as low as possible and ensure enough temperature
uniformity.
Based on the change of Tin, the research on the influence of vin of
cooling water is added in the case of 3 + 12% EG. At high Tin, the
variation in temperature of battery pack is little in relation to changes of
vin. And the Tmax is less than 50 ◦ C under all combinations of Tin and vin.
As shown in Fig. 13(b), when the Tin is low, the ΔTmax of battery pack is
first increased and then decreased with the increase of vin. Whereas at
high Tin, the ΔTmax is increased with the increase of vin. To ensure that
the requirements of temperature and temperature uniformity of battery
pack are met, the thresholds of coolant inlet velocity are obtained with
the inlet temperature rises from 20 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C. The maximum allowable
inlet temperature is 28.2 ◦ C at inlet velocity of 0.01 m/s, and the ΔTmax
will be greater than 5 ◦ C with further reduction of inlet temperature.
When the inlet temperature reaches 36.7 ◦ C, all inlet velocity from 0.01
m/s to 0.2 m/s are desirable. Due to the main study content being
conducted at low vin, the laminar flow model is used in this numerical
work, and the maximum value selected for studying influence of vin is
only 0.2 m/s. From the research conclusions, it can also be found that
the thermal management performance of the cooling system is sufficient
at 0.01 m/s, which has extremely small pump power consumption.
3.5. Performance under continuous operating cycles
The downstream arrangement of all cooling water channels may
affect the axial temperature difference of batteries. Therefore, the flow
direction of cooling water in different channels is numerically investi­
gated with fin-enhanced PCMs/water hybrid cooling system. The
different combinations of water flow direction are analyzed with fin
scheme 2 at 5C discharge, 40 ◦ C ambient temperature, 30 ◦ C inlet
temperature and 0.01 m/s inlet velocity of water. The initial solution for
the flow direction of water in all channels is along the -z direction, and
the different combinations of water flow direction are shown in Table 6.
Without considering the effect of gravity, the five combinations of
cooling water counterflow contain all the possible optimal solutions.
Fig. 14 shows the variations of the Tmax and ΔTmax of battery pack
with different combinations of water flow direction. Compared with the
cases 1, both the Tmax and ΔTmax are reduced to a certain extent. The
battery pack with counter flow of cooling water has better thermal
performance compared with parallel flow. Especially, the ΔTmax is
decreased significantly. The counter flow of coolant can avoid the
temperature difference brought by the inlet and outlet of cooling water
in parallel flow. The cases 6 and cases 2 have the worst improvement in
temperature uniformity of battery pack, but the case 6 has the best
improvement in maximum temperature. In all cases, the case 5 has the
largest reduction in ΔTmax and is decreased by 0.59 ◦ C. The Tmax in cases
6 with 12% EG has a minimum value of 46.16 ◦ C, and the ΔTmax in cases
5 with 3 + 12% EG has a minimum value of 4.15 ◦ C.
Based on the PCMs/water hybrid cooling system with fin scheme 2
and water flow direction of case 5, the cyclic charging and discharging
process of battery pack is investigated at the ambient temperature of
40 ◦ C, the cooling water inlet temperature of 35 ◦ C and the inlet velocity
of 0.01 m/s. Fig. 15 shows the changes of the Tmax and ΔTmax of battery
pack during the 2C rate of charging and discharging process in 5 cycles.
The hybrid cooling system combining CPCMs and liquid cooling with
fins and counter flow offers a reliable cooling performance during
continuous operations. In different combinations of CPCMs, the 12% EG
case and the 12 + 3% EG case perform better in terms of temperature
Z. Liu et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214

Table 5
The Tmax and ΔTmax at difference inlet temperature and ambient temperature.
Tin (℃) Tamb (℃) 3 wt% EG 12 wt% EG 3 + 12 wt% EG 12 + 3 wt% EG

Tmax (℃) ΔTmax (℃) Tmax (℃) ΔTmax (℃) Tmax (℃) ΔTmax (℃) Tmax (℃) ΔTmax (℃)

40 40 49.40 3.56 47.20 3.94 48.97 3.80 47.51 3.68

35 40 48.93 4.61 46.61 4.23 48.27 4.05 47.17 4.63
30 40 48.48 5.22 46.26 4.92 47.94 4.72 46.84 5.43
25 40 47.98 5.94 45.93 5.69 47.61 5.53 46.44 6.17
20 40 47.29 6.83 45.43 6.79 47.04 6.40 45.80 7.30
20 35 46.26 6.48 44.89 6.75 46.05 6.10 45.09 7.14
20 30 45.25 6.53 43.81 6.78 45.03 6.15 44.17 7.28
20 25 43.88 6.41 42.20 6.33 43.55 5.96 42.55 6.82
20 20 42.07 5.89 40.56 5.87 41.82 5.52 40.85 6.29

Fig. 13. The ΔTmax with (a) different ambient temperature and inlet temperature at inlet velocity of 0.01 m/s; (b) different inlet velocity and inlet temperature at
ambient temperature of 40 ◦ C.

Table 6
The different combinations of water flow direction.
Serial number of liquid cooling channel Flow direction of cooling water

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

1 − z − z − z +z − z +z
2 − z − z − z − z +z − z
3 − z − z − z − z − z +z
4 − z − z +z − z +z − z
5 − z +z +z +z − z − z
6 − z − z +z − z +z − z
7 − z − z − z − z − z +z
8 − z − z − z − z +z − z
9 − z − z − z +z − z +z

control, while the 3 + 12% EG case has the best temperature uniformity.
In all 5 cycles, the maximum temperature of battery pack can be
controlled below 42.2 ◦ C while the maximum temperature difference
below 1.7 ◦ C. The melting and solidification are recyclable and suit for
long-term use.
4. Conclusions
A hybrid cooling BTMS with PCM and water cooling is designed and
optimized during high discharge rate and cyclic operations under high
ambient temperature to ensure the stable operation of lithium-ion bat­
tery. The coupling effects of CPCMs, the cooling water inflow schemes,
and the ambient temperature, as well as fin arrangements, on thermal
management are numerically studied. The following conclusions can be
drawn:
(1) The Tmax of battery pack cooled by composite PCM and water can
be reduced by 14.68 ◦ C compared with liquid cooling at 40 ◦ C
ambient temperature and 5C discharge. The addition of EG to
paraffin can improve the temperature control capability of BTMS.
The Tmax of battery pack has a minimum value and is further
reduced by 7.66 ◦ C at most when the mass fraction of EG is be­
tween 12% and 16%.

10
Z. Liu et al.
Fig. 14. The effect of different combinations of water flow direction at the end of 5C discharge: (a) the Tmax; (b) the ΔTmax.
Fig. 15. Cycle performance of battery pack during 2C charging and discharging: (a) the Tmax; (b) the ΔTmax.
(2) Composite fins and two-layer PCM on periphery of batteries can
improve temperature control and adaptability of BTMS. The case
of CPCM with good thermal conductivity in the inner layer and
CPCM with high thermal storage capacity in the outer layer re­
sults in a better temperature control performance. Contrary
CPCM layout of inner and outer produce better temperature
uniformity.
(3) With ambient temperature rises from 20 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C, the Tmax is
only increased by about 5 ◦ C. Threshold ranges of coolant inlet
temperature and velocity are obtained under the temperature
uniformity requirement. The counter flow of cooling water can
obtain a lower Tmax and ΔTmax. In all combinations of coolant
flow directions, the case 5 has the largest reduction in ΔTmax and
is decreased by 0.59 ◦ C.
(4) The hybrid cooling system combining CPCMs and liquid cooling
with fins and counter flow offers a reliable cooling performance
during continuous operations at the high ambient temperature of
40 ◦ C and the 2C rate of charging and discharging. The Tmax can
be controlled below 42.2 ◦ C while the ΔTmax below 1.7 ◦ C. The
melting and solidification are recyclable and suit for long-term
use.
11
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51976152).
References
[1] P. Zare, N. Perera, J. Lahr, R. Hasan, Solid-liquid phase change materials for the
battery thermal management systems in electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles–A systematic review, J. Storage Mater. 52 (2022) 105026.
[2] J. Kim, J. Oh, H. Lee, Review on battery thermal management system for electric
vehicles, Appl. Therm. Eng. 149 (2019) 192–212.
Z. Liu et al.
[3] K.V. Jithin, P.K. Rajesh, Numerical analysis of single-phase liquid immersion
cooling for lithium-ion battery thermal management using different dielectric
fluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 188 (2022) 122608.
[4] R.R. Kumar, K. Alok, Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects
for sustainability, J. Clean. Prod. 253 (2020) 119911.
[5] A. Kumar Thakur, R. Sathyamurthy, R. Velraj, R. Saidur, A.K. Pandey, Z. Ma,
P. Singh, S.K. Hazra, S. Wafa Sharshir, R. Prabakaran, S.C. Kim, S. Panchal, H.
M. Ali, A state-of-the art review on advancing battery thermal management
systems for fast-charging, Appl. Therm. Eng. 226 (2023) 120303.
[6] V. Talele, M.S. Patil, S. Panchal, R. Fraser, M. Fowler, Battery thermal runaway
propagation time delay strategy using phase change material integrated with pyro
block lining: Dual functionality battery thermal design, J. Storage Mater. 65 (2023)
107253.
[7] N. Farouk, A.A. Alotaibi, A.H. Alshahri, K.H. Almitani, Challenges in incorporating
phase change materials into thermal control units for lithium-ion battery cooling,
J. Storage Mater. 49 (2022) 104094.
[8] Y. Azizi, S.M. Sadrameli, Thermal management of a LiFePO4 battery pack at high
temperature environment using a composite of phase change materials and
aluminum wire mesh plates, Energ. Conver. Manage. 128 (2016) 294–302.
[9] M. Pan, Y. Zhong, Experimental and numerical investigation of a thermal
management system for a Li-ion battery pack using cutting copper fiber sintered
skeleton/paraffin composite phase change materials, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 126
(2018) 531–543.
[10] Z. Ling, J. Chen, X. Fang, Z. Zhang, T. Xu, X. Gao, S. Wang, Experimental and
numerical investigation of the application of phase change materials in a
simulative power batteries thermal management system, Appl. Energy 121 (2014)
104–113.
[11] H. Najafi Khaboshan, F. Jaliliantabar, A. Adam Abdullah, S. Panchal, Improving
the cooling performance of cylindrical lithium-ion battery using three passive
methods in a battery thermal management system, Appl. Therm. Eng. 227 (2023)
120320.
[12] Z.-X. Wang, P.-Y. Du, W.-J. Li, J.-H. Meng, L.-H. Zhao, S.-L. Jia, L.-C. Jia, Highly
rapid-response electrical heaters based on polymer-infiltrated carbon nanotube
networks for battery thermal management at subzero temperatures, Compos. Sci.
Technol. 231 (2023) 109796.
[13] Y. Lv, W. Situ, X. Yang, G. Zhang, Z. Wang, A novel nanosilica-enhanced phase
change material with anti-leakage and anti-volume-changes properties for battery
thermal management, Energ. Conver. Manage. 163 (2018) 250–259.
[14] Z. Wang, C. Du, R. Qi, Y. Wang, Experimental study on thermal management of
lithium-ion battery with graphite powder based composite phase change materials
covering the whole climatic range, Appl. Therm. Eng. 216 (2022) 119072.
[15] P. Qin, M. Liao, D. Zhang, Y. Liu, J. Sun, Q. Wang, Experimental and numerical
study on a novel hybrid battery thermal management system integrated forced-air
convection and phase change material, Energ. Conver. Manage. 195 (2019)
1371–1381.
[16] W. Wu, G. Zhang, X. Ke, X. Yang, Z. Wang, C. Liu, Preparation and thermal
conductivity enhancement of composite phase change materials for electronic
thermal management, Energ. Conver. Manage. 101 (2015) 278–284.
[17] Y. Liu, J. Zhang, Design a J-type air-based battery thermal management system
through surrogate-based optimization, Appl. Energy 252 (2019) 113426.
[18] Y. Fan, Y. Bao, C. Ling, Y. Chu, X. Tan, S. Yang, Experimental study on the thermal
management performance of air cooling for high energy density cylindrical
lithium-ion batteries, Appl. Therm. Eng. 155 (2019) 96–109.
[19] T. Zhang, Q. Gao, G. Wang, Y. Gu, Y. Wang, W. Bao, D. Zhang, Investigation on the
promotion of temperature uniformity for the designed battery pack with liquid
flow in cooling process, Appl. Therm. Eng. 116 (2017) 655–662.
[20] Y. Lai, W. Wu, K. Chen, S. Wang, C. Xin, A compact and lightweight liquid-cooled
thermal management solution for cylindrical lithium-ion power battery pack, Int.
J. Heat Mass Transf. 144 (2019) 118581.
[21] E. Yousefi, H.N. Khaboshan, F. Jaliliantabar, A.A. Abdullah, The effect of different
enclosure materials and NePCMs on performance of battery thermal management
system, Mater. Today:. Proc. 75 (2023) 1–9.
[22] M. Nofal, S. Al-Hallaj, Y. Pan, Thermal management of lithium-ion battery cells
using 3D printed phase change composites, Appl. Therm. Eng. 171 (2020) 115126.
12
Applied Thermal Engineering 233 (2023) 121214
[23] L. Feng, S. Zhou, Y. Li, Y. Wang, Q. Zhao, C. Luo, G. Wang, K. Yan, Experimental
investigation of thermal and strain management for lithium-ion battery pack in
heat pipe cooling, J. Storage Mater. 16 (2018) 84–92.
[24] Z. Tang, R. Feng, P. Huang, Z. Bai, Q. Wang, Modeling analysis on the cooling
efficiency of composite phase change material-heat pipe coupling system in battery
pack, J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 78 (2022) 104829.
[25] X. Wang, S. Liu, Y. Zhang, S. Lv, H. Ni, Y. Deng, Y. Yuan, A review of the power
battery thermal management system with different cooling, heating and coupling
system, Energies 15 (6) (2022) 1963.
[26] Q. Xin, J. Xiao, T. Yang, H. Zhang, X.i. Long, Thermal management of lithium-ion
batteries under high ambient temperature and rapid discharging using composite
PCM and liquid cooling, Appl. Therm. Eng. 210 (2022) 118230.
[27] J.R. Patel, M.K. Rathod, Recent developments in the passive and hybrid thermal
management techniques of lithium-ion batteries, J. Power Sources 480 (2020)
228820.
[28] F. Bai, M. Chen, W. Song, Z. Feng, Y. Li, Y. Ding, Thermal management
performances of PCM/water cooling-plate using for lithium-ion battery module
based on non-uniform internal heat source, Appl. Therm. Eng. 126 (2017) 17–27.
[29] N. Yang, M. Wang, J. Wang, L. Wang, Y. Fu, A model-based assessment of
controllable phase change materials/liquid coupled cooling system for the power
lithium-ion battery pack, Energ. Technol. 9 (5) (2021) 2000924.
[30] H. Zhang, X. Wu, Q. Wu, S. Xu, Experimental investigation of thermal performance
of large-sized battery module using hybrid PCM and bottom liquid cooling
configuration, Appl. Therm. Eng. 159 (2019) 113968.
[31] J. Cao, Z. Ling, X. Fang, Z. Zhang, Delayed liquid cooling strategy with phase
change material to achieve high temperature uniformity of Li-ion battery under
high-rate discharge, J. Power Sources 450 (2020) 227673.
[32] V.G. Choudhari, A.S. Dhoble, S. Panchal, Numerical analysis of different fin
structures in phase change material module for battery thermal management
system and its optimization, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 163 (2020) 120434.
[33] X. Liu, C.-F. Zhang, J.-G. Zhou, X. Xiong, Y.-P. Wang, Thermal performance of
battery thermal management system using fins to enhance the combination of
thermoelectric Cooler and phase change Material, Appl. Energy 322 (2022)
119503.
[34] V.G. Choudhari, A.S. Dhoble, S. Panchal, M. Fowler, R. Fraser, Numerical
investigation on thermal behaviour of 5× 5 cell configured battery pack using
phase change material and fin structure layout, J. Storage Mater. 43 (2021),
103234.
[35] F. Zhang, L. Zhai, L. Zhang, M. Yi, B. Du, S. Li, A novel hybrid battery thermal
management system with fins added on and between liquid cooling channels in
composite phase change materials, Appl. Therm. Eng. 207 (2022) 118198.
[36] M.Y. Ramandi, I. Dincer, G.F. Naterer, Heat transfer and thermal management of
electric vehicle batteries with phase change materials, Heat Mass Transf. 47 (7)
(2011) 777–788.
[37] R. Jilte, A. Afzal, S. Panchal, A novel battery thermal management system using
nano-enhanced phase change materials, Energy 219 (2021) 119564.
[38] D. Bernardi, E. Pawlikowski, J. Newman, A general energy balance for battery
systems, J. Electrochem. Soc. 132 (1) (1985) 5–12.
[39] Y. Chen, J.W. Evans, Three-dimensional thermal modeling of lithium-polymer
batteries under galvanostatic discharge and dynamic power profile,
J. Electrochem. Soc. 141 (11) (1994) 2947–2955.
[40] J.R. Patel, M.K. Rathod, Phase change material selection using simulation-oriented
optimization to improve the thermal performance of lithium-ion battery, J. Storage
Mater. 49 (2022) 103974.
[41] J.R. Patel, M.K. Rathod, Novel approach for the performance augmentation of
phase change material integrated battery thermal management system for number
of charging/discharging cycles, Energy Storage (2023) e456.
[42] X. Hu, Z. Hui, P. Guo, C. Yang, J. Bang, C. Xue, Y. Xiao, J. Zhang, Research on the
indirect contact liquid cooling heat dissipation structure of lithium-ion battery
pack, J. Hunan Univ. Nat. Sci. 46 (2) (2019) 44–50.
[43] G. Jiang, J. Huang, M. Liu, M. Cao, Experiment and simulation of thermal
management for a tube-shell Li-ion battery pack with composite phase change
material, Appl. Therm. Eng. 120 (2017) 1–9.