Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

A lumped electro-thermal model for a battery module with a novel hybrid

cooling system
Jiacheng He *, Md Sazzad Hosen, Rekabra Youssef, Theodoros Kalogiannis, Joeri Van Mierlo,
Maitane Berecibar
ETEC Department & MOBI Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: An accurate thermal model is one of the keys to a thermal management system. However modeling of these
Thermal modelling battery modules based on lumped thermal model is challenging. The extension of the single battery model to a
Electric vehicles multi-battery model requires not only the connection between the electrical models of the multiple batteries, but
Lithium-ion batteries
also the consideration of the heat transfer between the batteries and the BTMS. In this paper, a lumped electrical-
Thermal management system
thermal model is proposed for the investigation of a complex hybrid cooling systems. The proposed model en­
ables the cell to cell temperature variations analysis with the hybrid cooling thermal management system under
the 1D level, which has considerable time savings compared to running a 3D numerical model simulation. A good
agreement between experimental and simulation results is observed. The maximum error for the voltage
calculation is 1.64%. The maximum differences between the modelled and experimental results for battery
module temperatures are 4.5% and 1.7%, corresponding to the battery in the middle and at the ends of the
module, respectively. To compare with the 3D numerical model, similar CFD simulations have been performed.
Although this model has an approximate accuracy loss of around 1%, the model only requires 3.9% of the time
required by the CFD model. The proposed model is computationally efficient and can be easily used to optimise
algorithms to optimise temperature control during battery module operation.

passive cooling systems with phase change materials (PCM) [15–17],

1. Introduction
Most EVs choose Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as the energy storage
system for reasons of high energy density and high rates of charging and
discharging loading profiles. However, the increased energy density of
the lithium-ion battery in accordance with the increased demand of
current rates leads to a vast amount of heat generation during operation
in various ambient conditions [1]. Hence, the safety of LIBs operating at
high currents becomes a significant point of concern as it may result in
thermal runaway [2,3]. In addition, batteries operating within a safe
operational area (SOA) can boost vehicle driving distance and reduce
the degradation rate of batteries [4–9]. It has been reported that the
lithium-ion battery temperature should be under 45 ◦ C for efficient
[8,9].
To ensure that the batteries operate within SOA, many research
works have been focused on the battery thermal management system
(BTMS). Most BTMS can be classified according to different cooling
methods, active cooling systems mainly with liquid and air [10–14],
and liquid–air mixed with PCM as a hybrid cooling system [18–23]. In
active cooling system, the heat transfer rate depends on the medium, the
inlet velocity of the medium and the design of the cooling system ge­
ometry. Typically, liquid-based cooling systems are more efficient than
air-based active cooling systems. Behi et al. [14] proposed forced air-
cooling active cooling system in which inlet of the module is
embedded with 54 holes to improve the cooling effect. The results have
shown that the module temperature decreases by 34.5% compared to
natural cooling, with a temperature difference of 5.26 ◦ C at a discharge
rate of 1.5C. Ravindra et al. [15] propose a sturcut with two-layer
nanoparticle enhanced phase change materials. They use two different
enhanced phase change materials warrap the battery layer by layer, with
the layer near the battery having a lower melting point and the outer
layer having a higher melting point. The results show that the maximum
battery temperature under 3C discharge is maintained below 46 ◦ C.
In summary, active cooling systems are more efficient but require
extra energy while passive cooling systems do not require extra energy
but are not efficient when it comes to high power distribution. To take

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Jiacheng.He@vub.be (J. He).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.119874
Received 2 August 2022; Received in revised form 25 October 2022; Accepted 12 December 2022
Available online 15 December 2022
1359-4311/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

Nomenclature Q̇p amount of heat transferred into the PCM

Lt thickness of thermal interface material
Symbols Description Lpcm average distance between the cooling plate and PCM
mbatt mass of battery L tube length in an element of cooling plate
mc mass of cooling plate Nu Nusselt number
mp mass of PCM Pr Prandtl number
Cpbatt battery specific heat Re Reynolds number
Cc cooling plate specific heat capacity ν velocity of the coolant
Cpp PCM specific heat capacity d diameter of the tube
( )
Cpps PCM solid phase specific heat capacity f Tpcm PCM liquid fraction
Cppl PCM liquid phase specific heat capacity Vocv Battery open-circuit voltage
Tb battery temperature Vterminal battery terminal voltage
Tc cooling plate temperature VR0 Voltage of ohmic resistor R0
Ta ambient temperature VRi capacitor voltage in ith RC pairs
Tpcm PCM temperature Vci capacitor voltage in ith RC pairs
Tcl coolant temperature R0 ohmic resistor
Tm PCM melting point Ri resistor in ith RC pairs
ΔTpr PCM temperature range of the phase change Ci capacitor in ith RC pairs
kt thermal interface material conduct coefficient Ibat battery current
kpcm PCM thermal conduct coefficient
Greek letters
kcl coolant thermal conduct coefficient
μ viscosity at coolant temperature
At conducting area between the single battery and cooling
μc viscosity at cooling plate temperature
plate
ρ density of the coolant
Av convection area between the battery and ambient
γ dimensionless inclination
Apcm conducting area between the PCM and cooling plate
Ac area cooling plate exposed to the ambient Acronyms
Acl area of the tubes in each element LIBs Lithium-ion batteries
hn nature convection coefficient BTMS thermal management system
hc convection coefficient RC resistor and capacitor
hcl convection coefficient between cooling plate and coolant PCM phase change materials
Q̇gen battery heat generation rate OCV open circuit voltage
Q̇cond conduction heat transfer rate HPPC hybrid pulse power characterization
Q̇conv natural convection heat transfer rate CFD Computational fluid dynamics
n
SOA safe operational area
Q̇cl heat transfer rate between cooling plate and coolant

the benefits of both active and passive cooling systems, hybrid systems
have been introduced [18]. Wu et al. [23] employed a structural hybrid
liquid cooling system with a high latent heat PCM for a battery module.
They indicate that the hybrid cooling system effectively reduces the
maximum temperature and temperature difference by approximately
42.67% and 38.27%, respectively compared to the liquid-only cooling
system. Akbarzadeh et al [22] proposed a hybrid cooling plate
embedded with phase change material (PCM). They indicated that this
hybrid cooling plate is 36% lighter than the volumetrically equivalent
traditional aluminium cooling plate. The experiment indicated that the
proposed hybrid cooling plate can reduce the energy consumption
required for pumps in cooling systems by up to 30%.
Many studies are investigating the battery performance and effec­
tiveness of BTMS [24–31]. The numerical thermal model is mostly used
as it provides good accuracy and detailed information. Jabbari et al
[32], developed a numerical model including LIB and graphene-
enhanced nanocomposite plates to capture the temperature distribu­
tion in the pouch cell. Qian et al [33] presented a 3D model of a pris­
matic battery pack with a mini-channel to investigate the efficiency of
heat dissipation for different numbers of channels and coolant flow
rates. Basu et al [34] employed a coupled three-dimensional electro­
chemical thermal model to investigate the proposed battery pack. the
effects of different discharge rates and coolant rates on the pack tem­
perature are evaluated by the developed model. Wang et al [35] pre­
sented a numerical model to optimize the parallel plate installation
method for active air cooling system. With this model, they investigated
the effect of the number of parallel plates on the cooling performance of
the battery pack and proposed an optimised solution. Following this
solution, the maximum temperature and temperature difference are
reduced by 3.42 ◦ C (6.26%) and 6.4 ◦ C (90.78%) respectively compared
to the original design.
Although 3D numerical models help to better understand the thermal
behaviour of the BTMS, it is not suitable for a platform to develop a
controlling strategy for the cooling system where based on the tradi­
tional optimized algorithm or machine learning. This is because these
algorithms often require multiple simulations for different values of the
same parameters, however, the computational time for a 3D numerical
model is often counted in hours or even days. As a alternative, the
lumped models is employed. Although a lumped thermal model is not
able to provide as much detailed information as a 3D numerical model
and possibly loses some accuracy, it allows for significant savings in
calculation time compared to a 3D numerical model. Therefore, several
researchers have used lumped models to model or optimise BTMS
[26–28,36–41]. Under the cell level, Forgez et al [41] and Lin et al
[26,39] developed a two-state lumped parameter electro-thermal model
to estimate the voltage and temperature behaviour of the battery under
different current loads. In their study, the electrical and thermal parts
are coupled through heat generation and temperature dependency of the
electrical parameters. Estevez et al [42] propose an electro-thermal
model estimating all the electrical parameters and their dependencies
on state of charge and temperature for the electrical part. Reuslt show
that the mean square error of the voltage and temperature predictions
are 0.014 V2 and 2.28 ◦ C2, respectively.
Due to the simplicity of the BTMS at the cell level, these lumped

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J. He et al.
Fig. 1. a Proposed battery thermal management system; Fig. 1.b Diagram of individual battery in the module connected to the right hybrid cooling plate.
electro-thermal coupling models focus more on the description of the
individual battery voltage and temperature characteristics. In order to
evaluate the temperature variation under the module level, several
studies have extended the lumped thermal model and introduced BTMS
with a lumped thermal model. Gottapu et al [43] reported a lumped
thermal model for a series–parallel configured battery pack (7S4P) with
passive air cooling system. In their model, simplified electrochemical
models along with an equivalent circuit model are deployed to calculate
the heat generation of battery. Then by coupling natural convective
thermal network model, the temperature of each battery is calculated.
Experimental results indicate that the error between the model and the
actual experiment is approximately 6% when the battery pack is at a
dynamic current at an ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C. Jiang et al [44]
developed a lumped model for a battery pack with PCM based on lum­
ped thermal resistance network and electric circuit analogy to predict
the propagate thermal runaway in the battery module. Lebrouhi et al
[45] presented a lumped thermal model to investigate battery modules
containing PCM and air cooling system. In their model the battery pack
heat generation and the the battery temperature in the module is
considered uniform. Results indicated that the maximum relative error
between the experimental and the proposed model is approximately 6%.
The calculation of the heat generated from the battery according to
the different current loads is an important part of the electro-thermal
coupling model. The battery heat generation during the operation is
predominantly produced by two heat source terms: reversible heat and
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Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874
irreversible heat [46]. The reversible heat is generated by a change in
entropy during the electrochemical reactions and can be estimated using
the entropy coefficient. The irreversible heat is caused by the internal
resistance that represents concentration, activation, and ohmic polari­
zations [47]. In general, during charging or discharging at high C-rates,
the irreversible heat is much greater than the reversible heat and
therefore the reversible heat is often neglected and the irreversible could
be calculated based on the battery temernal voltage and open circuit
voltage (OCV) [26]. Litrature [48–50] indicated that states that the rate
of battery heat generation is highly dependent on the battery SoC and
temperature in a single charge and discharge. The heat generation rate
of the battery decreases as the temperature rises and the heat generation
of battey during low SoC range is higher than the high SoC range.
Although temperature dependence of battery heat generation has
been reported in the literature, the relationship between temperature
and heat generation has not usually been considered in previously
proposed models. And the previous model is mainly focus on BTMS with
air or PCM based cooling structures. Few research focuses on lumped
models for hybrid BTMS with liquid cooling, and enabling lumped
models to analyse cell-to-cell temperature variations in modules with
this type of BTMS.
In this paper, a lumped electro-thermal model is proposed for a
complex structure of a battery module with a hybrid BTMS containing
liquid cooling and PCM. In this BTMS, two chambers are excavated in
the cooling plate to fill the PCM, and three parallel flow channels are
J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

Table 1
Characteristics of battery, liquid plate and PCM.
Characteristic Value
Battery mass 0.94 kg
Battery capacity 43 Ah
Battery heat capacity 1015 (J kg− 1 ◦ C− )
Battery dimension L:148 mm × W:27 mm × H:91 mm
Liquid plate dimension L:360 mm × W:8mm × H:91 mm
Liquid plate martial Aluminium
PCM density 1305 (kg m− 3)
PCM heat capacity 1430 (J kg− 1 ◦ C− 1)
PCM thermal conductivity 2.32 (W m− 1 ◦ C− 1)
PCM melting temperature 27–28 ◦ C
PCM latent heat 150 (kJ kg− 1)
integrated from top to bottom for active liquid cooling, which compli­
cates the heat transfer route in the BTMS. By analysing the heat transfer
paths of this complex structure and simplifying it appropriately and
coupling with the electrical model. The proposed model not only relates
the temperature and heat generation of the battery, but also enables the
analysis of cell-to-cell temperature variations with complex hybrid
cooling systems at the 1D level. To do so, the battery module is
considered to be composed of many parts. Each part includes one battery
and partly of PCM and a liquid plate. By considering each battery have
independent heat generation and taking into the heat transfer not only
inside each part but also among them, this model could predict the
temperature difference between each cell in the battery module at the
1D model level, which provides an efficient model for the optimisation
algorithm to be implemented. By combining this model with dynamic
planning, for example, an optimal pre-cooling or pre-heating solution
can be proposed for a vehicle before it arrives at a charging station.
2. Model development
2.1. System description
The battery thermal management system used has been reported in
our previous study [22]. In this BTMS, a battery module, including 12
NMC/C batteries in serial (each cell is 1 mm away from each other.),
with two novel hybrid cooling plates is used as shown in Fig. 1a. Each
side of the battery module has a hybrid cooling plate placed on it.
Fig. 1b. presented schematic of the internal structure of the hybrid
cooling plate and the connection between the individual battery and the
module’s right-hand side hybrid cooling plate. The interior of the hybrid
cooling plate consists of two chambers for storing PCM and three par­
allel flow channels with the same cross-section and length. One advan­
tage of this BTMS is that the peak power that needs to be supplied by the
liquid cooling system is shaved, as part of the heat generated by the
battery is absorbed by the PCM and those absorbed heat could be
transferred to the ambient by passive cooling later. The basic parameters
of the battery, liquid plate and PCM are reported in Table 1.
2.2. Thermal model development
2.2.1. Heat transfer routing analysis
The direct conduction heat transfer among batteries is not consid­
ered as the batteries inside the module are not in contact (1 mm gap
between batteries). The heat generated by the battery operation is
therefore mainly transferred to the cooling plate by heat conduction,
while a small amount of heat is dissipated to the environment by natural
convection. Additionally, no direct heat transfer between the PCM and
the cell is considered, this is because aluminium has a much higher
thermal conductivity than the PCM as well as the fact that the PCM is
filled inside the cooling plate.
Therefore the heat transfer routes in the module could be expressed
in Fig. 2. First the battery temperature increased due to its heat gener­
ation during the operation. Then, as the battery temperature is higher
than the cooling plate and environment, there will be natural convection
happened between the battery and environment carrying away a little
part of the heat as shown in the white arrow in Fig. 2. And the primary
amount of heat will be transferred to the cooling plate by the conduction
represented by the light blue arrow in Fig. 2. When the heat is in the
cooling plate, there are two main transfer routes for the heat. One is
carried away by the coolant through convection like a normal cooling
plate. And the other is that the heat will be transferred to the PCM
through conduction marked as the light green arrow in Fig. 2. And then
the PCM will store the heat through temperature increase and phase
change.
It is worth mentioning that although there is no direct conduction
between the batteries, there is indirect heat transfer between them via
battery A to the cooling plate to battery B. Besides, thermal interface
material (TIM) is considered the primary thermal resistance between the
battery and cooling plate. Similarly, as the low thermal conductivity of
the PCM, thermal resistance between PCM and cooling plate is primarily
considered from the PCM.
2.2.2. Battery thermal modelling
The transient thermal behaviour of the battery during operation is
analysed utilizing lumped models, two-dimensional models and detailed
three-dimensional models. Several researches have shown that for a
single battery, a lumped thermal model coupled with a heat generation
model is satisfactory and can predict the actual behaviour of the battery
with acceptable accuracy and decrease the computation time [28,44]. At
the module level, the temperature difference between batteries plays an
important role in the performance of the module. The heat generation of

Fig. 2. The overview of the heat dispute route in the single system.

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J. He et al.
a cell at the same current also varies at different temperatures. It is
therefore necessary to analyse the temperature of each battery in the
module. Therefore the following assumptions are taken into
consideration:
1. The temperature of each battery itself is uniform.
2. Battery heat generation is related to its own temperature.
3. The temperature of each battery in the module could be varied.
To do so, 12 lumped battery models coupled with 12 heat generation
models are employed to investigate the temperature difference of each
battery in the module. The energy governing equation for each battery is
presented in Equation(1):
dTb
mbatt Cpbatt = Q̇gen − Q̇cond − Q̇conv n (1)
dt
Where, mbatt is the mass of the battery, Cpbatt is the specific heat ca­
pacity of the battery,
Tb is the battery temperature, Q̇gen is the battery heat generation rate
during operation, Q̇cond is the conductive heat transfer rate from the
battery to the cooling plate, Q̇conv n is the convective heat transfer rate
from the battery. Following the thermal routing analysis presented in
the previous section, the heat generated by the battery is transferred
partially by heat conduction to the cooling plate, and partially by nat­
ural convection to the environment, with the remaining part resulting in
temperature changes of the battery. Therefore, based on Fourier‘s law of
conduction and Newton‘s law of convection, Equation (1) is rewritten as
Equation (2):
dTb At
mbat Cpbatt = Q̇gen − kt (Tb − Tc ) − hn Av (Tb − Ta ) (2)
dt Lt
Where, the kt is the conduct coefficient of thermal interface material,
At is the conducting area between the single battery and cooling plate, Lt
is the thickness of thermal interface material, Tc is the temperature of the
cooling plate, hn is the nature convection coefficient, Av is the convection
area between the battery and ambient, and Ta is the ambient tempera­
ture. In general, the natural convection coefficient varies with the
temperature difference between two objects. To find the value of this
coefficient, the Rayleigh number is first calculated, then the Nussle
number is calculated based on the Rayleigh number, lastly the natural
convection heat transfer coefficient of the current system is derived from
the Nussle number. However, this method requires the solution of a
complex set of higher-order equations, but in this BTMS, the effect of
natural convection on battery temperature is minimal and it is not worth
investing significant computational resources in it. Instead, a constant
value of the convection coefficient based on the battery location in the
module is used.[51]
The heat generation of the battery during charging and discharging
could be divided into two parts, reversible heat which is due to the
entropic heat losses and irreversible heat which is due to the joule effect
and based on ohmic heating. As the amount of irreversible heat is much
larger than the reversible heat, the reversible heat is often neglected
during battery operation. Therefore the battery heat generation rate is
the ohmic heating which is equal to the absolute value of battery open
circuit voltage (Vocv) during thermodynamic equilibrium minus the
terminal voltage (Vterminal) multiplied by the current (Ibat) as stated in
Equation (3) [26]:
Q̇gen = |Vocv − Vterminal | • Ibat (3)
As the LIB potential will vary at the different temperatures, charge or
discharge current and state of charge (SoC), in this study, an equivalent
circuit model for estimating the battery voltages is used and presented in
the subsequent sections.
2.2.3. Cooling plate thermal modelling
In this BTMS, the temperature of the cooling plate is an important
parameter as the temperature of the cooling plate will affect all the heat
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Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874
exchange rates among the cell, the coolant and the PCM. If the tem­
perature of the whole cooling plate is considered to be the same, then the
effect of the PCM on the battery temperature hardly reflects reality as
depending on the position of the battery in the module, the cooling plate
in contact with it will have a different temperature in reality. Therefore,
based on the number of batteries, the cooling plates are divided into 12
elements, each corresponding to one battery. In each element, the
following assumptions are taken into consideration:
1. Each element of the cooling plate is temperature independent,
which means that the temperature can vary in different elements.
2. The temperature PCM in the element of the cooling plate is
uniform.
3. The mass flow rate in all the elements of cooling plates is uniform.
As the heat absorbed by the cooling plate is equal to the heat
transferred by the battery from which the heat absorbed by the PCM, the
natural convection losses of the cooling plate, and the coolant carried
away are substructed, to formulate the energy governing equation for
each element of the cooling plate expressed as:
dTc At Apcm ( )
m c Cc = kt (Tb − Tc ) − kpcm Tc − Tpcm − hc Ac (Tc − Ta ) − Q̇cl (4)
dt Lt Lpcm
Where, mc is the single part cooling plate mass, Cc is the specific heat
capacity of the cooling plate, kpcm is the conduct coefficient of PCM, Apcm
is the conducting area between the PCM and cooling plate, Lpcm is the
average distance between the cooling plate and PCM, Tpcm is the tem­
perature of PCM, hc is the convection coefficient, Ac is the area cooling
plate exposed to the ambient. The heat transfer rate between the cooling
plate and the coolant Q̇cl is dependent on the transient temperature of
the cooling plate and coolant (Tcl ) and is described in the following
equation:
Q̇cl = hcl Acl (Tc − Tcl ) (5)
Where, Acl is the area of the tubes in each element. The convection
coefficient between the cooling plate and the coolant is calculated from
the Nusselt number as stated in Equation (6):
Nu
hcl = kcl (6)
d
Where, the Nu is the Nusselt number, d is the diameter of the tube, kcl
is the coolant thermal conductivity coefficient.
The value of the Nusselt number varies on the status of flow. For the
laminar flow it could be calculated as [52]:
( )1/3 ( )0.14
d μ
Nu = 1.86 • (RePr)1/3 (7)
L μc
Where, the Pr is the Prandtl number, Re is the Reynolds number, L is
the tube length in an element of cooling plate, μ is the viscosity at
coolant temperature, μc is the viscosity at cooling plate temperature. If
the flow state is turbulent flow, the following equation is presented [52]:
( )0.14
μ
Nu = 0.027•Re0.8 Pr1/3 (8)
μc
To distinguish the flow state in the tube whether it is laminar or
turbulent, the Reynolds number needs to be calculated and used as an
index to indicate the flow state. Typically, laminar flow is only observed
when the Reynolds number is less than 2300, otherwise, the turbulent
flow will be presented. Equation (9) presents the calculation of the
Reynolds number:
ρνd
Re = (9)
μ
Where, ρ is the density of the coolant, d is the diameter of the tube, ν
is the velocity of the coolant.
J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

( )
The PCM liquid fraction f Tpcm varies between 0 and 1. If the frac­
( )
tion f Tpcm = 0, it means that no liquid phase is present, which typically
appears when the PCM temperature is below the melting temperature. In
( )
contrast, if f Tpcm = 1, this means that the PCM is completely melted
and present in the liquid phase. Literature [45] indicates the PCM
fraction function could be determined by the equation:
[ [ ( )] ]
( ) 1 2γ Tpcm − Tm π
f Tpcm = arctan + (13)
π ΔTpr 2

Where, ΔTpr is the PCM temperature range of the phase change, γ is

the dimensionless inclination, Tm is the melting point.
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit model.
2.3. Battery electric model
2.2.4. PCM thermal modelling
PCM is used in this BTMS as it could absorb the heat without addi­ Based on Thevenin’s theorem, the battery voltage can be modelled
tional energy consumption. This material could store a huge amount of by an ideal power supply, an ohmic resistor and several resistor and
heat due to the phase transition phenomena which means when the capacitor (RC) pairs. In this theorem, OCV is treated as the ideal power
phase change happened the heat will be absorbed and stored by the source. In addition to adding ohmic resistors to find an instant response
latent heat and the temperature of PCM will be fixed at a certain level. to the voltage, several Polarization resistors work with the capacitors to
When there is no phase change, PCM can only store the heat by the simulate the activation (electrochemical) and concentration polariza­
sensible heat and cause the temperature increase. Therefore, PCM stores tion effect during battery operation. Generally, the accuracy of the
the heat in two parts, one is stored by the latent heat, and another is the model improves as the number of RC pairs increases, but it will cost
sensible heat. Typically, when there is no phase change, the modelling of more computation resources as the RC pairs grow [53]. Literatures
PCM is expressed as: [26,54] indicated that there is a significant improvement from first to
second RC pairs, but the improvement is much smaller when trans­
dTpcm
Q̇p = mp Cpp (10) ferring the two RC pairs to the three RC pairs and further. Therefore, two
dt
RC pairs equivalent circuit model is employed in this paper.
Where, Q̇p is the amount of heat transferred into the PCM, mp is the Fig. 3 illustrates the schematic diagram of the equivalent circuit. It
mass of PCM, Cpp is the specific heat capacity of PCM. When the phase consists of an ideal voltage source Vocv which represents the OCV, the
change begins, the PCM absorbs heat equal to the sum of the sensible ohmic resistor R0 and two RC pairs for the activation (R1C1) and con­
heat and latent heat. At this moment, the energy equation is stated as centration (R2C2) Based on the equivalent circuit, the terminal voltage is
[52]: calculated by the following equation (14):
( ( )) Vterminal = VOCV − VR0 − VR1 − VR2 (14)
df Tpcm dTpcm
Q̇p = mp Cpp + Ls (11)
dTpcm dt Where, Vterminal is the battery terminal voltage, VOCV is the battery
( ) voltage of OCV, VR0 is the voltage drop due to v, VR1 is the voltage of R1
Where, Ls is the PCM latent heat of fusion, f Tpcm is the PCM liquid
and VR2 is the voltage of R2. In each RC pair, the capacitor voltage is
fraction. During the phase transition, both the solid and liquid phases of
equal to the resistor voltage due to the parallel connection, therefore,
PCM are present. The specific heat capacity at this point depends on the
the relationship between the battery charge/discharge current and the
solid–liquid ratio, the solid phase specific heat capacity (Cpps ) and liquid
capacitor voltage in each RC pair could be expressed as the following
phase specific heat capacity (Cppl ) which is expressed as:
equation:
( ) ( ( ))
Cpp = f Tpcm • Cppl + 1 − f Tpcm Cpps (12)

Fig. 4. a Battery module model structure Fig. 4.b Overview of the 1D numerical model.

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J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

Fig. 5. Overview of the battery module – total electrical model (top), battery single electric model (bottom).

dVci Vci initial condition state as Vci (t0 ) = 0, therefore the right side of Equation
Ibat = Ci + (15)
dt Ri (17) is equal Vci (t) and Equation (17) could be rewritten as equation(18):
∫ t( )
Where, Ibat is the battery current, Vci and Ri the capacitor voltage and Ibat Vci
(18)
resistor in ith RC pairs. Therefore, the differential equation of capacitor
Vci (t) = −
t0 C i Ri C i
voltage express as the equation (16):
For the voltage of the resistor R0, it obeys Ohm’s law VR0 = R0 Ibat .
dVci Ibat Vci
= + (16) Hence substituting equation (18) into equation (14), the relationship
dt Ci Ri Ci among OCV, terminal voltage and current is described in equation (19):
Integrating equation (16) leads to equation (17): ∫ t(
Ibat Vc1
) ∫ t(
Ibat Vc2
)
∫ ∫ t( ) Vterminal = VOCV − R0 Ibat − − − − (19)
t
dVci Ibat Vci t0 C 1 Ri C 1 t0 C 2 R2 C 2
= − (17)
t0 dt t0 C i Ri C i In equation (19), the value of the OCV, resistors and capacitors are
Where, t0 is the moment when charge/discharge begins and t is the taken to depend on the SoC and temperature variation of the battery. To
moment when the battery has been charged/discharged for t seconds. At determine these values, several experiments need to be performed [55].
the moment when the battery is first charged and discharged, the For example, the OCV could be determined by a quick OCV test that uses
capacitor has no charge, stating that the voltage is equal to 0. Thus, the a small discharge current like C/20 or records voltage after 2 h of rest for

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J. He et al.
Fig. 6. Overview of the thermal model in Amesim.
every 5% of the discharge. And the value of resistors and capacitors
could be determined by the hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC)
test [53,55–57].
2.4. Module-level battery model
The structure of the module-level model is presented in Fig. 4.a. This
battery module is simplified into a model consisting of 12 lumped
thermal model groups corresponding with the battery numbers of the
module. Each group contains a battery, cooling plate, PCM and coolant.
Except for the coolant, the other parts interact with each other by con­
duction. For example, the temperature of each cooling plate is not only
related to the temperature of the battery in which this group is located
but also considers the temperature difference with neighbouring cooling
plates resulting in conduction heat transfer. This means the heat gen­
eration from the neighbouring could be transferred to the battery by
conduction through the cooling plate. It is worth noting that the coolant
has only one-way arrows in the illustration. This is because the flow of
the fluid is in a single direction and therefore the direction of heat
transfer is also single. The heat transferred into the coolant will cause the
temperature difference between the inlet and outlet, therefore the
temperature of the previous outlet will be the temperature of the next
inlet.
Fig. 4.b. presents the overview of the 1D numerical model at the
module level. The physical thermal model was developed in Amesim,
which provides 1D multi-physics coupled functions, especially 1D CFD
simulations of fluid-thermal coupling and phase change modelling of
latent heat. The advantage is that this bridges the deficiency of Simu­
link’s 1D physical field simulation. However, as Amesim does not have
an elegant mathematical calculation and electrical circuit simulation
module, the electrical model of the battery is built in Simulink, which is
also a strong field of Simulink. Although the thermal model is built in
8
Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874
Amesim, the final platform is calculated in Simulink. This is because
Amesim offers the ability to convert its built thermal models to S-func­
tions. Therefore, the thermal model (S-function) calculates the temper­
ature of each battery based on the heat generation acquired from the
electrical model and then updates the temperature of the electrical
model. And the eclectic model will base on the updated temperature
associated with other parameters to update the heat generation of each
battery and sent to the thermal model for the next iteration.
2.4.1. Electrical model for battery module
The electrical section of the battery module is modelled as shown in
Fig. 5 (top). It consists of 12 series-connected battery equivalent circuit
blocks and one module’s SoC estimation block. When the module is
built, the batteries will have a pre-screened to ensure each battery
performs consistently in the module. Depending on this, each battery is
assumed to have the same capacity and when current is passed through
serially connected batteries, the current is equal for any battery in the
circuit. Therefore, in this study, it is assumed that there is no variation in
the SoC of each battery in the module and a coulomb counter is applied
to estimate the SoC of all batteries in the module.
Fig. 5 (bottom) presents a single equivalent circuit block in the
battery module. This block is divided into three sectors, the lookup table
sector to provide the recorder experiment data for the model, the
equivalent circuit sector which will calculate the terminal voltage and
the heat generation sector to calculate the heat generation of the battery.
As the values of R0, R1, R2, C1 and C2 are temperature and SoC based, the
temperature and SoC will be sent to the lookup table area to interpolate
the values about resistors, capacitors, and OCV. The equivalent circuit
calculates the terminal voltages based on those dynamic values. Lastly,
the heat generation rate is calculated based on the values of OCV, ter­
minal voltage and current.
J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

Fig. 7. a. Single-cell setup Fig. 7.b. Climate chamber Fig. 7.c. Battery module Fig. 7.d. Overview of the module test setup.

2.4.2. Thermal model for battery module
The battery is modelled as a constant mass block connected to a
thermal network which includes a cooling plate, PCM and liquid in the
pipe. As stated in the previous section, in this model the cooling plate is
evenly divided into as many parts as the number of batteries as shown in
Fig. 6. The different parts of the model are coloured in different colours.
Each dark blue block represents the battery thermal mass block with
natural convection. The generated heat of the battery is transmitted
from the electric model via the purple receiver and the red transmitter
passes the battery temperature to the electric model. Moreover, the heat

Fig. 8. The parameters of battery at different temperatures.

9
J. He et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874

Fig. 9. a WLTC current Fig. 9.b Battery voltage under WLTC test conditions.

generated by the battery is transferred to the brown cooling plate block

partly by the light blue heat transfer block. Two heat transfer path in the
cooling plate is estimated, part of the heat will be transferred into the
coolant in the pipe which is coloured yellow in the model, and another is
transferred and stored by the PCM which is the green part of the model.
Meanwhile, since the effectiveness of liquid cooling during operation is
much greater than that of natural convection cooling, the latter is
neglected to simplify the model.

3. Experiment setup

The goal of this paper is to develop an electro-thermal model which

can quickly predict the thermal and electrical behaviour of a battery
module with a new hybrid cooling plate. The experiments in this paper
are divided into two parts. The first part is the determination of the
battery-electric parameters under different temperatures through OCV
and HPPC tests. The second part is the verification of the simulation
results for both electric and thermal models. In the first part, an NMC
battery from the battery module is used. In the OCV test, the battery is
fully charged first and left idle for 2 h after every 5% discharge of SoC,
then the measured voltage at the end of every idle is recorded as the
value of OCV. The HPPC test is conducted under the same temperature
and is performed every 5% SoC decrease from a fully charged state and
before the test starts the battery is idle for 1 h to allow the battery reach
to stable status. Both tests are conducted in a climate chamber in order to
prevent the effects of temperature variations. This is because the bat­
tery’s electrical parameters vary with temperature, which means that
even at the same charge or discharge current, the battery heat genera­
tion may be different because of the temperature difference. In order to
obtain the battery-electric parameters as a function of temperature,
these two tests are repeated with the climate chamber set to 0 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C,
25 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C, respectively, as shown in Fig. 7.a and 7.b.
Fig. 7.c. and Fig. 7.d. presents the setup of the battery module and
module for testing. A battery tester from the manufacturer of PEC with
the type of SBT8050 is used for this test. This tester provides the ability
to charge/discharge battery modules with up to 600A/80 V. Meanwhile,
Accel 250 LC recirculating chillers from the manufacturer of Thermo
scientific are used for the liquid system. This chiller could keep the flow
rate and coolant temperature at a constant value for a maximum flow
rate of 15 L/min with an operating temperature range of − 10 ◦ C to +
80 ◦ C. Therefore, the hot coolant output from the battery module is
cooled down to a constant temperature by the chiller. Two temperature
sensors are placed on the middle and end of the module, separately to
measure the temperature of the module. In this study, to allow the
module generates enough heat during charging/discharging, 2C
discharge (86A) from 80% to 20% of SoC is used. Meanwhile, in the
coolant circuit, the chiller is set to cool the coolant to 25 ◦ C and the flow
rate of the coolant is set to 1 L/min.
Fig. 10. Heat generation of the battery at different temperatures under
2C discharge.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Identified battery parameters
Fig. 8.f illustrates the OCV profile of the battery at temperatures of
0 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C. The temperature has a noticeable effect on
the OCV of the battery when the battery is in the low SoC range (below
25%).. However, the effect of temperature on the battery OCV becomes
visibly smaller as the SoC increases. Especially, when the battery SoC is
in the 25%-85% range, the effect is almost negligible.
Fig. 9. Presented the parameters of the equivalent circuit are deter­
mined by HPPC test under different temperatures. It can be seen that the
ohmic resistance of the battery is more sensitive to temperature than the
SoC, especially, when the battery is at low temperatures. To validate the
parameters, an experiment and simulation results comparison based on
the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test (WLTC) current profile
will be presented in the next section.
4.2. Electric model validation and heat generation of the battery
To validate the electric model the WLTC profile is employed as it not
only contains discharging processes but also considers the charging
processes due to braking as shown in Fig. 9.a. The battery voltage
variation of the experiment and simulation is presented in Fig. 9.b.
During the experiment, the battery temperature keeps at around 25 ◦ C

10
J. He et al.
Fig. 11. a Experimental and simulated temperatures during 2C discharge Fig. 11.b Difference between experiment and simulation Fig. 11.c Cell simulation tem­
peratures in the module Fig. 11.d Each cell heat generation in the module.
and the battery SoC changed from 67% to 54%. The accuracy of the
model is examined by comparing the voltage response obtained from the
experiments and simulations. The difference between the simulation
and the experimental results reaches its maximum around the 1700 s,
which is about 0.058v (1.64% error), indicating a good agreement be­
tween the experiment and simulation model.
Based on the electric model, the battery heat generation is calcu­
lated. Because the battery heating rate at different temperatures can be
obtained by multiplying the current by the absolute value of the dif­
ference between the OCV and battery terminal voltage. Fig. 10 presents
the battery heat generation at different temperatures under 2C dis­
charging from 100% to 0% of SoC. A high correlation can be observed
between the battery heat generation rate and the temperature of the
battery, which is approximately twice larger at low temperatures than at
room temperature. This is possible because the low-temperature resis­
tance of R0 is also twice as large as the room temperature resistance in
the equivalent circuit of the battery. In addition, at the same tempera­
ture, the battery heating generation rate does not always increase as the
SoC decreases, where the battery heating rate is lower in the medium­
–low SoC range than in the other ranges.
4.3. Experimental and simulation results of the thermal model
Fig. 11.a illustrates the experimentally measured battery tempera­
tures at the end of the module (Cell 12) and the middle position (Cell 6),
as well as the temperatures predicted by the 1D thermal model. It can be
seen that the temperature of the middle position is higher than the end
position. This is to be expected because cell 12 (end position) has more
convective heat transfer to the environment than cell 6 (middle posi­
tion). Fig. 11.b shows the error in the temperatures of the 1D thermal
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Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874
model relative to the experimental measurements at the middle and end
positions, respectively. It is observed that the simulation error at the
middle position (Cell 6) is higher than at the end position (Cell 12), this
is possible because the nature convection coefficient of the battery is
replaced by the constant value depending on the battery location and at
the middle position the convection coefficient change more diversely
than at the end position. The maximum error between the simulation
results and the experimentally measured temperature of the middle
location (cell 6) is 4.5% at around 350 s and the end location (cell 12)
only has a maximum of 1.3% difference at around 270 s. For the similar
3D numerical model literature [22] report the maximum error of 3.5%,
while the literature [58] reports the maximum error of 3.14%. There­
fore, although the accuracy of this model is slightly lower than the 3D
numerical model (around 1% loss), it saves multiples of computational
time. This means that it has good advantages in cases where multiple
simulation runs are required, for example, some optimizing algorithms
based on the multi-simulation runs.
Fig. 11.c illustrates the temperature changes of each cell in the
module during the 2C discharge. As expected, the temperature of the cell
located in the middle of the module is higher than the other cells due to
the convection heat transfer with the ambient. Fig. 11.d presents each
cell’s heat generation rate during 2C discharging. For approximately the
first 400 s, the difference in heat generation between the cells is rela­
tively slight. Starting around the 400 s, the difference in heat generation
between the cells starts to be noticeable. This is expected, as stated in
Fig. 10 the battery’s heat generation depends not only on its current
level and SoC but also on its temperature. As mentioned earlier, the
difference in battery temperature becomes apparent from around 400 s
onwards, which also leads to the difference in battery heat generation
becoming visible.
J. He et al.
Table 2
Hardware configuration.
Items Components
CPU Intel Core i7 8750H (6 cores)
RAM 32 GB DDR4
ROM 1 TB SSD
Table 3
Computational time.
This model CFD model 1 CFD model 2
Number of meshes – 780592 1.5 million
Computation time 1.3 min 33.6 min 122.4 min
Percentage of time used 3.9% 100 % 367.5%
4.4. Comparison of computation times with 3D numerical models
To compare the difference in computation time between this model
and the 3D numerical model, CFD simulations with a similar structure of
this cooling system are performed by means of ANSYS software. Table 2
presented the hardware platform used for this comparison. As the
compution time is of CFD model is also highly denpended on the amount
of the mesh. Also the size of the mesh is one of the most important pa­
rameters affecting the accuracy of the CFD simulation. In this paper, the
same CFD model using different size meshes is used for calculations.
Table 3 presents the time used for the computation. This model takes
only 1.3 min for a single running, whereas a similar CFD model with a
smaller number of meshes takes 33.6 min. This means that the calcu­
lation of this model takes only 3.9% of the time required for the CFD
model. And as the mesh size increases, the CFD model takes 122.4 min to
complete. Proving that this proposed lumped thermal model is effective
in saving computational resources.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a lumped electro-thermal model battery module with a
complex hybrid cooling systems (PCM and liquid cooling) for compu­
tationally efficient and robust modeling is developed. In this hybrid
cooling system, two chambers are excavated in the cooling plate to fill
the PCM, and three parallel flow channels are integrated from top to
bottom for active liquid cooling, which complicates the modeling of this
BTMS. However, the proposed lumped model allows not only the anal­
ysis of the average temperature of the module, but also predicts the cell-
to-cell temperature variation quickly and efficiently.
The proposed model considers the battery module is composed of
serval parts. Each part includes one battery and partly of PCM and a
liquid plate. By considering each battery have independent heat gen­
eration based on its temperature and taking into the heat transfer not
only inside each part but also among them enables the cell to cell tem­
perature variations analysis. Compared to experimental data, the model
was able to successfully predict the voltage characteristics of the battery
and the temperature behaviour of the module with a maximum voltage
error of approximately 1.6% and a maximum temperature error of 4.5%.
Compare with the similar 3D numerical model, this model has an
approximate accuracy loss of around 1%, but it only requires 3.9% of the
time required by the CFD model, which offers a fast and efficient way to
predict the temperature of the complex battery modules. This means
that the model can be used in optimisation algorithms such as dynamic
programming. For example to propose an optimal pre-cooling or pre-
heating solution for a vehicle before it arrives at a charging station.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
12
Applied Thermal Engineering 221 (2023) 119874
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research has been made possible. The financial support of the
China Scholarship Council to the author (He Jiacheng) is gratefully
acknowledged. Furthermore, We acknowledge Flanders Make for the
support of our research team.
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