Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

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Journal of Power Sources

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jpowsour

Performance analysis on liquid-cooled battery thermal management for

electric vehicles based on machine learning
Xingwang Tang a, b, Qin Guo c, Ming Li a, b, *, Changhua Wei d, Zhiyao Pan a, b, Yongqiang Wang d
a
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
b
College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
c
College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
d
Jiangsu Chaoli Electric Co., Ltd., Dangyang, 212321, China

H I G H L I G H T S

• Comprehensive analysis from the perspective of air conditioning system.

• Automatic calibration model for battery thermal management system.
• The battery thermal performance estimation based on the SVR model.
• SVR model with RBF kernel exhibits better generalization ability.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the coupling system of liquid-cooled battery thermal management system (BTMS) and heat pump
Battery electric vehicle air conditioning system (HPACS) for battery electric vehicles (BEV) is designed and analyzed. The performances
Battery thermal management of liquid-cooled BTMS are concerned and analyzed from the perspective of air conditioning based experimental
Liquid cooling
data. Besides, an automatic calibration model of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS is established to predict
Support vector regression
Particle swarm optimization
cooling capacity and system coefficient of performance (COP) of the BTMS by support vector regression (SVR).
To better obtain three hyper parameters (the penalty coefficient C, the RBF kernel function parameter γ, and the
insensitive loss coefficient ε) of SVR model, particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is introduced to
optimize above three parameters. It is found that compared to SVR model, the correlation coefficient (R) of
cooling capacity and system COP for the proposed PSO-SVR model in this paper is improved 2.1% and 2.8%
respectively, the mean squared error (MSE) of and cooling capacity and system COP is reduced 87.8% and 82.9%
respectively, which indicated that PSO-SVR model can be used as a new method to fit the complex nonlinear
relationship among the system COP, cooling capacity and other influencing factors of the liquid-cooled BTMS
based HPACS.

characteristics of lithium-ion batteries, it is found that optimum oper­

1. Introduction
With the improvement of resource conservation and environmental
protection laws and standards, BEV is considered to be the future
development direction of transportation due to its high energy effi­
ciency, environmental protection, and noise-free advantages [1,2]. As
the core component of the BEV, the power battery needs to operate in
the suitable temperature range to ensure driving mileage of vehicles,
safety and life of battery. Based on the research on the thermal
ating temperature range for batteries is 20–30 ◦ C and its temperature
uniformity is less than 5 ◦ C [3,4]. Overheating of battery will lead to
thermal failure and overcooling also harms the charge/discharge effi­
ciency and reduce the available capacity [5–8]. Therefore, it is necessary
to design and develop an efficient integrated electric vehicle thermal
management system to improve the energy efficiency of BEV, increase
the driving mileage of vehicles, and extend reliability and cycle life of
batteries. Zhang et al. [9] proposed the main functions of the BTMS: (1)
Ensuring the power battery operates in the suitable temperature range to

* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China.
E-mail addresses: tangxw18@mails.jlu.edu.cn (X. Tang), guoqin16@mails.jlu.edu.cn (Q. Guo), limingtiger@jlu.edu.cn (M. Li), changhua.wei@chaoli-electric.com
(C. Wei), panzy1516@mails.jlu.edu.cn (Z. Pan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229727
Received 17 September 2020; Received in revised form 3 February 2021; Accepted 25 February 2021
Available online 18 March 2021
0378-7753/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Nomenclature Q Cooling Capacity of Battery Chiller

W Power Consumption of Compressor
HPACS Heat Pump Air Conditioning System h Specific Enthalpy
BEV Battery Electric Vehicles
BTMS Battery Thermal Management System Greek symbols
COP Coefficient of Performance ε loss coefficient
SVR Support Vector Regression γ kernel function parameter
LR Linear Regression η Efficiency
LAR Least Angle Regression Subscripts
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization comp Compressor
MSE Mean Squared Error air Air
MAPE Mean Absolute Percentage Error 0 Ambient
PCM Phase Change Material in Battery inlet
TCS Thermal Conductive Structure Com, in Compressor Inlet
R Correlation Coefficient Com, out Compressor Outlet
RBF Radial Basic Function Chi, in Battery Chiller Inlet
C Penalty Factor Chi, out Battery Chiller Outlet
T Temperature
P Pressure

which makes it popular in the field of BEV. Table 1 shows the BEV with
Table 1 liquid-cooled BTMS.
The BEV with liquid-cooled BTMS. Meanwhile, more and more experts and scholars focus on the study
OEMs Product Thermal management methods
of the liquid-cooled BTMS. Lai et al. designed a thermal conductive
structure (TCS) with three curved contact surfaces based liquid-cooled
NIO ES8 Liquid cooling
BTMS and simulated the effect of different structural parameters and
Mercedes-Benz EQR Liquid cooling
Tesla Model S; Model X; Model3 Liquid cooling mass flow rate of TCS on cooling performances. The results show that the
XPeng G3; P7 Liquid cooling designed TCS can significantly improve the maximum temperature and
GM Chevrolet Bolt Liquid cooling temperature difference of lithium-ion power battery pack and maximum
temperature can be controlled below 313 K and temperature difference
is controlled below 5 K when mass flow rate is 0.0001 kg/s [20]. Zhao
avoid battery temperature distortion (2) The battery high temperature
et al. designed a mini-channel liquid-cooled cylinder based cylindrical
and low temperature identification mode is established to identify the
batteries and investigated the influence of the mini-channel quantity on
critical point of overheating and overcooling, so as to preheat and cool
cooling performance. The results showed that compared to natural
the battery in advance.
convection cooling, the cooling capacity is more advantageous when the
At present, BTMS can be summarized as air cooling, liquid cooling,
mini-channel quantity is greater than eight [21]. Sheng et al. developed
heat pipes cooling and phase change material (PCM) cooling from the
a novel serpentine-channel liquid cooling plate with double inlets and
perspective of different heat transfer media [10]. The air-cooled BTMS
outlets and investigated the effect of flow directions, flows rates and
has the advantages of simple structure and low cost, so it is widely used
channel widths of the cooling plate on cell temperature distribution
in lower energy density electric vehicles [11,12]. However, the cooling
under different operating conditions. The results showed that when
performance of air-cooled battery modules is poor, and the cooling effect
channel width of the cooling plate is increased from 4 mm to 12 mm,
of liquid-cooled battery modules is three times that of air-cooled battery
module maximum temperature is almost unchanged at 36.5 ◦ C, while,
modules [13]. PCM can be another method to cool or heat battery pack
the ratio of power consumption falls sharply. When flow rates of the
[14,15]. It can absorb or release large latent heat during phase change
cooling plate are increased from 0.00025 to 0.002 L s− 1, the maximum
from the solid to the liquid. Although PCM is widely used in BTMS due to
temperature rise decreased significantly, while the change range of
its high latent heat, there are still some significant challenges in this
temperature difference is less than 4 ◦ C [22].
technology: (1) weak structural strength and leakage of melted PCM; (2)
Nowadays, most research on liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS is
relatively low thermal conductivity; (3) low surface heat transfer coef­
limited to the structure optimization of the liquid cooling plate with the
ficient and run out of the available latent heat [16,17]. Heat pipe is a
purpose of minimizing the flow resistance and the best heat transfer
heat exchange element that absorbs and releases heat according to the
performance. However, little research pay attention to the impact of air
phase change of the working medium in the pipe. Compared with other
conditioning systems on BTMS. In addition, there are many factors that
cooling methods, heat pipe has the advantages of high thermal con­
affect the performance of the liquid-cooled BTMS, such as compressor
ductivity and flexible geometry. However, at present, heat pipe cooling
speed, ambient temperature and air flow rate of external heat
technology is still in the research and development stage [18,19].
exchanger. To conduct a comprehensive analysis of liquid-cooled BTMS
The liquid-cooled BTMS mainly decreases temperature of the battery
based HPACS, a lot of experiments are required. Although experimental
system through coolant. The air conditioning system exchanges heat
studies are highly valuable, they are high-cost and time-consuming due
with the coolant in the battery chiller and lowers the temperature of the
to the complexity of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS and a lot of
coolant. After the low-temperature coolant flows through the liquid
operation conditions. Alternatively, machine learning algorithms can be
cooling plate of battery system, the battery pack exchanges heat with the
applied to predict the performance by considering a set of operating
low-temperature coolant and then coolant flows back to the battery
condition.
chiller to achieve the battery cooling cycle. Compared to other cooling
With the development of artificial intelligence technology, machine
methods, the liquid cooling technology has become the mainstream of
learning methods have been widely used in the field of science and
BTMS due to its advantages in cooling speed and compact structure,
engineering. Warey et al. predicted and evaluated the influence of air

2
X. Tang et al.
Fig. 1. Overview of different research methods.
conditioning system on cabin thermal comfort based on the machine
learning method [23]. Krishnayatra investigated and predicated the
thermal performance of fins for a finned-tube heat exchanger by ma­
chine learning regression technique [24]. Generally, machine learning
models use some regressions such as linear regression (LR), least angle
regression (LAR) and SVR to characterize the relationship between input
and output variable [25]. In view of effective nonlinear expression
ability of SVR model, SVR algorithm model is applied in some compli­
cated nonlinear relationship. To find an optimum value of hyper pa­
rameters of SVR algorithm model, PSO algorithm is usually employed
[26–28].
To investigate the performances of liquid-cooled BTMS comprehen­
sively, this paper is organized in the following three points: (1) the
performances of liquid-cooled BTMS are verified under extreme condi­
tions; (2) The performances of liquid-cooled BTMS are investigated
under different ambient temperature, compressor speed and air flow
rate of external heat exchanger; (3) The automatic calibration model of
liquid-cooled BTMS based on PSO-SVR algorithm model is established
and on the basis of this automated calibration model, system perfor­
mance parameters such as cooling capacity and system COP can be
predicted, which makes it possible to get satisfactory performance
parameter of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS without the complicated
thermodynamics theory and equations, thereby avoiding a lot of high-
cost and long-term experiments. In view of above-mentioned organiza­
tional structure of this paper, the novelty of work consists in the per­
formances of liquid-cooled BTMS are concerned from the perspective of
air conditioning system and construction of automatic calibration model
for liquid-cooled BTMS based on machine learning method.
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Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727
2. Research method
2.1. Methodology
Fig. 1 Shows the differences between the research method of this
paper and the traditional method. First of all, the traditional method is
mainly to investigate or improve the performance of the liquid-cooled
BTMS based HPACS through optimizing the structure of liquid cooling
plate, while, in this paper, the performances of the liquid-cooled BTMS
based HPACS are analyzed from the perspective of air conditioning.
Secondly, compared with traditional experimental methods, this paper
combines the experiment and machine learning methods to investigate
the performance of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS and its
advantage is that the performance results are obtained by an “end-to-
end” idea. Namely, establishing a nonlinear relationship between the
input data and the output data about the parameters affecting the liquid-
cooled BTMS based HPACS. Through machine learning method, per­
formance results of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS can be ob­
tained quickly without the complicated thermodynamics theory and
equations.
2.2. Model description and experiment of liquid-cooled BTMS based
HPACS
A model of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS for BEV is illustrated in
Fig. 2(a). After being compressed by the compressor, the refrigerant
R134a enters the internal condenser (the air door is closed to minimize
heat transfer), and then goes through the solenoid valve 02 and enters
the external heat exchanger. Because solenoid valve 04 is closed, the
refrigerant R134a from the external heat exchanger goes through the
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Fig. 2. Model diagram and test system bench of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS.

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X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Table 2 2.3. Data preparation of SVR algorithm model

Sensor type and precision.
Measurement parameter Sensor type Range Precision The input parameters for the SVR model of liquid-cooled BTMS based
HPACS are the compressor speed Vcomp , ambient temperatures T0 and air
Temperature ( C)◦
Omega temperature sensor − 50–200 ±0.1
Pressure (kPa) Omega pressure sensor 0–4000 ±5 flow rate Vair of the external heat exchanger. And the output parameters
Mass flow rate (kg h− 1) Micromotion mass flow meter 0–200 ±0.5 predicted by the SVR model are the cooling capacity and system COP.
Table A.1 in appendices summarizes complete experiment data about
the input and output variables.
Table 3 In order to improve the convergence rate and accuracy of the model,
Operating conditions of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS. the sample data is normalized according to the following formula:
Ambient Compressor speed Air flow rate of the external X − Xmin
(5)
′

temperature (◦ C) (rpm) condenser (m s− 1)

X =
Xmax − Xmin
32 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5
5000/6000 Where Xmin and Xmax are the minimum and maximum of sample data,
34 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5 respectively; X is the sample data, X is the normalized data, which is
′

5000/6000
normalized to the range [0,1].
36 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5
5000/6000
38 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5 2.4. SVR algorithm model
5000/6000
40 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5 SVR is a powerful machine learning tool which is firmly grounded in
5000/6000
42 2000/3000/4000/ 1.5/2.5/3.5/4.5/5.5
the framework of statistical learning theory [29–32]. The basic idea is to
5000/6000 map the training data in the input space to a high-dimensional linear
space through a nonlinear mapping Φ(x), thereby make the nonlinear
function in the input space transformed into a linear regression problem
chiller. At this time, the refrigerant R134a exchanges heat with the in a high-dimensional linear space. If the training data {(x1 , y2 ), (x2 , y2 )
coolant (water and ethylene glycol solution) in the battery chiller, …, (xn ,yn )} are considered, where xi ⊆R, yi ⊆R, i = 1…n and n is the total
thereby, the temperature of the coolant is dropped accordingly. After the number of training samples, then the SVR function can be shown as
cooled coolant flows through the liquid cooling plate of BTMS, the follows:
battery pack exchanges heat with the low-temperature coolant and then
coolant flows back to the battery chiller to achieve the battery cooling f (x) = w⋅Φ(x) + b (6)
cycle. In the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS designed in this paper, a
Where Φ(x) is the nonlinear function that maps the input data vector x
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) is used to simulate battery cool­
into a feature space where the training data exhibit linearity, b is a scalar
ing demand.
bias and w is a weight vector; x is the input variable of sample data.
In this paper, a bench test system of liquid-cooled BTMS based
To minimize the regression risk of the SVR algorithms, the objective
HPACS for BEV is established, as shown in Fig. 2(b). In order to better
function of SVR algorithms can be expressed as Eq. (7).
characterize the refrigeration performance of the system, the evaluation
( )
index cooling capacity and system COP are used. With respect to the 1 ∑ n

cooling capacity of battery chiller, as well as the power consumption of min ‖w‖ + C2
(lε (f (xi ) − yi ) (7)
w,b 2
compressor, the system COP are calculated by the following formula: i=1

( )
Q = qm hchi,out − hchi,in (1) Where lε is ε-insensitive loss function and C is the penalty factor. The
larger the value of C, the greater the penalty for data exceeding lε ; y is
( )
qm hcom,out − hcom,in the output variable of sample data.
W= (2) The ε-insensitive loss function lε can be expressed as:
ηmech
{
0, if |z| ≤ ε
Q lε (z) = (8)
COP = (3) |z| − ε, otherwise
W
Taking the ε-insensitive loss function as the structure minimization
Where Q and W are the cooling capacity of battery chiller and power
risk estimation problem, introducing the slack variables δi , δi * , the
consumption of compressor, respectively; hchi,in and hchi,out are the spe­
optimization objective can be expressed as:
cific enthalpy of battery chiller inlet and battery chiller outlet, respec­
( )
tively; hcom,in and hcom,out are the specific enthalpy of compressor inlet ∑ n
1 ( )
min ‖w‖2 + C δi + δ*i
and compressor outlet; qm is the mass flow of system refrigerant; ηmech is w,b,δ,δh* 2
i=1
the mechanical efficiency. ⎧
The specific enthalpy at each operating point can be obtained based ⎪
⎪ f (xi ) − yi ⩽ε + δi
⎪
on the REFPROP software through the pressure and temperature at this
⎪
⎪ (9)
⎪
⎨
point, as shown in Eq. (4). s.t. ​ yi − f (xi )⩽ε + δ*i i = 1, 2, …n
⎪
⎪
⎪
h = h(P, T) (4) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ δi ⩾0, δ*i ⩾0
Where P and T are the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant
In order to simplify the computation complexity, the Lagrange
measured in the experiment, respectively.
function is introduced to transform the above formula into the dual
And the type and precision information of the sensors used to mea­
problem, which can be shown as follows:
sure the pressure, temperature and flow at each operating point in this
bench test system are listed in Table 2. Besides, the experiment system
provides reliable training data for the machine learning model. The
detailed operating conditions are illustrated in Table 3.

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X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Fig. 3. System performance at an ambient temperature of 42 ◦ C.

[ ]
∑
n
( ) 1∑ n ∑ n
( )( ) ( ) ∑ n
( ) 2.5. PSO algorithm model
* * * *
max αi − α yi − i αi − αi αj − αj K xi , xj − αi + αi ε
α,α* 2
The PSO algorithm is a population-based search optimization tech­
i=1 i=1 j=1 i=1

⎧∑ n
( ) nique developed by Kennedy and Eberhart [33]. Compared with other
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ αi − α*i = 0 evolution algorithms, such as genetic algorithms, PSO algorithm has the
s.t. i=1
advantages of easy implementation, fast convergence speed and strong
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ global search capability, so PSO algorithm is very suitable for SVR model
*
0⩽αi ⩽ C, 0⩽αi ⩽C parameter optimization [34,35]. In this algorithm, a particle represents
(10) an individual, corresponding to a group of solutions and each particle
has its own speed, location, and fitness value determined by the target
*
Where αi , αi are Lagrange multipliers and K(xi , xj ) is the kernel function function. During initialization, particles are randomly generated. The
and common kernel functions include polynomial kernel function, linear global best particles tracked in the iteration process are recorded as Gbest ,
kernel function, radial basis function (RBF) kernel function, and sigmoid and the best particles in each generation are recorded as pbest . Each
kernel function. In the SVR model, the goal is to find a function f(x) generation of particles will undergo adaptive random mutation after
makes possible to express the nonlinear relationship between input updating. The particle update formulas are as follows:
parameters and output parameters. In order to improve the generaliza­ [ ] [ ]
tion ability and regression performance of model, a kernel function is Vi j+1 = W⋅Vi j + a1 ⋅r1 ⋅ Xi pbest − Xi j + a2 ⋅r2 ⋅ Xi Gbest − Xi j (15)
introduced into SVR model.
The regression function f(x) can be obtained by solving Eq. (10) Xi j+1 = Xi j + Vi j+1 (16)
based on Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) condition, which can be shown as
follows: where V is the particle renewal speed; X is the particle solution; W is
⎧ inertia weight, j is the number of iterations; i is the number of particles;
⎪
⎪
⎨ *
αi (f (xi ) − yi − ε − δi ) = 0, r1 and r2 are the random numbers at an interval (0, 1); a1 and a2 are the
αi (f (xi ) − yi − ε − δi * ) = 0, learning factors.
* * (11)
⎪ αi αi = 0, δi δi = 0, * *
⎪
⎩ The specific steps for PSO to optimize SVR parameters can be sum­
(C − αi )δi = 0, (C − αi )δi = 0
marized as following steps:
And the coefficient w and b and the regression function f(x) can be Step 1. Initialize three hyper parameters (C, ε, γ) of the SVR model.
shown as follows:
Step 2. Determine fitness function of PSO algorithm and initialize PSO
∑
n
( ) algorithm parameters: Population number, initial search point position
w= *
αi − α Φ(xi ) (12)
i and speed (X0 , Y0 ), maximum iteration number k, inertia weight W and
i=1
learning factors a1 and a2 .
{ [ ]
1 ∑ ∑( ) ( ) Step 3. Calculate the fitness value of each particle and determine pbest
b= yi − αi − α*i K xi , xj − ε +
NnSV 0<αi <C xi ∈SV and Gbest .
(13)
[ ]} Step 4. Update the particle speed and position according to equations
∑ ∑( ) ( )
yj − *
αj − α K xi , xj + ε
j
(15) and (16).
0<αj <C xj ∈SV
Step 5. Check the termination rule. If the current iteration arrives at its
∑
n maximum value, turn to Step 6. Otherwise, execute Steps 3–4
f (x) = (αi − αi * )K(xi , x) + b (14)
i=1
Step 6. Input the optimal solution of the three parameters (C, ε, γ)
obtained by the PSO algorithm into the SVR model.
Where NnSV is the number of support vectors, SV is the support vector of
Step 7. Train SVR model and output the prediction results.
which some parameters (αi − αi * ) or (αj − αj * ) are unequal to zero.

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X. Tang et al.
Fig. 4. Influence of external heat exchanger air velocity on system performance.
3. Results and discussion
The proposed liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS and its perfor­
mances are investigated under different compressor speed, ambient
temperature and air flow rate of external heat exchanger. The perfor­
mance characteristics are assessed through compressor power, cooling
capacity, system COP and the coolant temperature of the battery inlet.
Besides, for the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS designed in the paper,
the “end to end” automatic calibration model of the operating param­
eters and performances parameters are established based on the PSO-
SVR machine learning algorithm model and the prediction results are
compared with the experiment values.
7
Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727
3.1. System performance verification under extreme conditions
For the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS designed in this article, in
order to test whether it can meet the cooling requirement of the battery
pack, it was found from Fig. 3 that the compressor speed has a greater
impact on the system COP and the coolant temperature of the battery
inlet. The coolant temperature of the battery inlet decreases with the
increasement of compressor speed or air flow rate of the external heat
exchanger. When the ambient temperature was 42 ◦ C, the coolant
temperature of the battery inlet could reach 19.8 ◦ C and the COP at this
time is 2.36 under the operating conditions of the liquid-cooled BTMS
based HPACS, which explains that the system has high energy efficiency.
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Fig. 5. Influence of external heat exchanger inlet air temperature on system performance.

exchanger on cooling performance is investigated by changing its air

Table 4 flow rate. Fig. 4 shows that as the air flow of the external heat exchanger
Kernel function of SVR model.
increases from 1.5 m/s to 5.5 m/s, the compressor power consumption
Kernel Functions Kernel parameter decreases gradually. When the compressor speed is 6000 rpm, the power
Linear K(xi , xj ) = xi T ⋅xj _ consumption of the compressor decreased the most, which is dropped
Polynomial K(xi , xj ) = (xi T xj + 1)γ γ from 2.53 kW to 2.13kw and the drop rate is 15.9%. In fact, the reason
Radial basic function
⃦ ⃦2 why the power consumption of the compressor decreases is that with the
K(xi , xj ) = exp( − γ⃦xi − xj ⃦ ) γ
increment of the air flow rate of the external heat exchanger, the
Sigmoid K(xi , xj ) = tanh(γxi T xj + 1) γ
condensing pressure and temperature will also decrease, at the same
time, the suction pressure of the compressor will also decrease, so the
3.2. Effect of air flow rate of the external heat exchanger evaporation pressure and temperature will decrease. In addition, the
drop of the suction pressure will cause the increase of the suction spe­
As the core component of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS, the cific volume of the compressor and the decrease of the refrigerant mass
external heat exchanger plays an important role in the cooling perfor­ flow, so the power consumption of the compressor will be reduced.
mance of the system. In this section, the influence of external heat Besides, as the compressor power decreases, the COP of the system will

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X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Fig. 6. Comparative analysis of predictive COP and Cooling capacity of different kernel functions. (a) Sigmoid, (b) RBF, (c) Polynomial, (d) Linear.

increase with the increment of the air flow rate of the external heat with the increment of the air flow rate of the external heat exchanger,
exchanger. When the air flow rate of the external heat exchanger reaches which will lead to the decrease of the coolant temperature of the battery
2.5 m/s, the growth rate will obviously decrease. Although the cooling inlet.
capacity can not be increased by adjusting the air flow rate of the
external heat exchanger, the power consumption of the compressor can
be reduced. Furthermore, the evaporation temperature will decrease

9
X. Tang et al.
Fig. 6. (continued).
3.3. Effect of ambient temperature
Nowadays, with the gradual increment of energy density of power
battery and the development of fast charging technology, the heat
generated by power battery increases rapidly in the charging and dis­
charging process, thus too high ambient temperature may aggravate the
thermal failure of the battery. In view of this, in order to ensure that the
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Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727
liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS can have a good cooling performance
at any high temperature, effect of the ambient temperature on the per­
formance of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS is investigated. As can be
seen from Fig. 5, when the compressor speed was 6000 rpm, the
compressor power increased by 0.35kw and the growth rate was 15.2%
as the ambient temperature increased from 32 ◦ C to 42 ◦ C, while the
COP of the system decreased by 15.6%. In fact, when ambient
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Table 5 the experiment value. y is average of predictive value; f is average of the

PSO algorithm initialization parameters. experiment value.
Population size 50 In the paper, in order to better express the generalization ability of
Maximum iterations 100
the model, four common kernel functions are considered for compara­
Learning factor a1 = 1.5;a2 = 1.7; tive analysis and the specific information of the kernel function is shown
(C, ε, γ) C ∈ (0.01, 10); ε ∈ (0.001, 10); γ ∈ (0.1, 1) in Table 4.
It is known from Fig. 6 that the changing trend of predicted value for
system COP and cooling capacity based on the automatic calibration of
the SVR algorithm is basically the same as the experimental value. The
SVR model with the RBF kernel function has the smallest error in the
predicted value, and the worst is the linear kernel function. In addition,
the generalization ability of the automation calibration model to predict
the cooling capacity is not as good as the system COP prediction. In fact,
for system COP and cooling capacity, the R between the measured value
and the predicted value of the SVR model with RBF kernel function is at
least 2.7% and 2.2% higher than the model using the other three kernel
functions, and the MSE is at least 10.1% and 6.7% lower than the model
using the other three kernel functions, respectively, so the best kernel
function is the RBF kernel function for SVR model that predict cooling
performance of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS.
When RBF Gaussian function was selected as the kernel function of
the SVR model, the SVR model can be abstractly expressed as equation
(19),
y = f (x|(C, ε, γ)) (19)
According to the expression of the SVR abstract model (Eq. (19)), the
prediction effect of the SVR model is mainly determined by three hyper
parameters of the model: the penalty coefficient C, the RBF kernel
function parameter γ, and the insensitive loss coefficient ε. In order to
Fig. 7. Fitness curve. ensure good performance in all aspects of the SVR model, the above
three parameters need to be optimized. In the current SVR parameter
temperature is increased, condensing pressure, condensing temperature selection method, there are mainly experience determination and grid
and compressor suction pressure will increase, resulting in a decrease in search. However, the empirical determination method needs to have a
the suction specific volume of the compressor and an increase in the solid SVR theoretical foundation and the grid search method has a large
refrigerant mass flow, which the power consumption of the compressor calculation amount, so the two methods can’t guarantee to find the
will be increased. Moreover, as ambient temperature increased from 32 global optimal solution. Given the complexity of SVR model hyper pa­
to 42 ◦ C, the coolant temperature of the battery inlet will increase rameters selection, in this paper, the PSO algorithm is introduced to
slightly at any compressor speed. The reason why the battery inlet optimize three hyper parameters before predicting the sample data.
coolant temperature is increased is that with the increasement of the In the paper, PSO algorithm parameters are initialized as shown in
ambient temperature, the evaporation temperature will decrease, which Table 5, and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) between the
will cause the coolant temperature of the battery inlet to increase experiment value and the prediction value is used to establish the fitness
slightly. Meanwhile, when compressor speed exceeds 4000 rpm, the function, as shown in Eq. (20).
coolant temperature of the battery inlet can drop to 25 ◦ C to meet the 1∑ n ⃒ ⃒
⃒f (xi ) − yi ⃒
cooling requirements of the battery even if the ambient temperature is MAPE = ⃒ ⃒ (20)
n i=1 ⃒ f (xi ) ⃒
greater than 40 ◦ C.
Fig. 7 shows the change of the population fitness during the evolu­
tion process. After a certain number of iterations, the fitness values of
3.4. Prediction result and discussion for SVR model the system COP and cooling capacity optimization are 0.011 and 0.019
respectively, and remain unchanged, the optimization process will be
When the SVR model is trained, the datasets are provided by the convergent. For the prediction of system COP and cooling capacity,
experimental results and the datasets were randomly separated into two three optimal hyper parameters (C, ε, γ)of the SVR model obtained
different parts, namely training and test datasets. 80% of datasets were through iterative calculation are (0.15,0.11,0.375) and
assigned as training datasets, and the remaining 20% were assigned as (0.23,0.15,0.392), respectively.
test datasets. The prediction performance of the proposed SVR model in After obtaining the optimal values of the three hyperparameters of
this paper is measured by MSE and R, and the calculation formula is as the SVR model through the PSO algorithm, the three parameter values
follows: are brought into the SVR model to predict the system COP and cooling
capacity of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS. In order to further
1∑ n
MSE = (yi − f (xi ))2 (17) verify the generality and generalization ability of PSO-SVR model with
n i=1 RBF kernel function, the comparison between the prediction results of
( ) the SVR model and the PSO-SVR model is shown in Fig. 8. After PSO is
∑
n
(yi − y)⋅ f (xi ) − f introduced to optimize three hyper parameters of SVR model, regardless
i=1
R2 = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (18) of the cooling capacity or COP of the system, the MSE of the training
∑ n ∑ n ( )2
(yi − y)2 f (xi ) − f samples and testing samples is reduced and R is increased. To be specific,
i=1 i=1 R of cooling capacity and system COP for the proposed PSO-SVR model
in this paper is improved 2.1% and 2.8% respectively, MSE of and
where n is the number of samples, yi is the prediction result and f(xi ) is

11
X. Tang et al.
Fig. 8. Comparison on the prediction results between training sample and test sample.
cooling capacity and system COP is reduced 87.8% and 82.9% respec­
tively, which indicated that compared to SVR model, PSO-SVR model
can better express complex nonlinear relations among the system COP,
cooling capacity of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS and other
influencing factors including ambient temperature, compressor speed
and air flow rate of the external heat exchanger.
4. Conclusions
In order to analyze the performances of liquid-cooled BTMS
comprehensively, the performances of liquid-cooled BTMS designed are
concerned and analyzed from the perspective of air conditioning based
experimental data in this paper. The influence of ambient temperature,
12
Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727
the air flow rate of the external heat exchanger and compressor speed on
performances of the liquid-cooled BTMS and construction of automatic
calibration model for liquid-cooled BTMS are summarized as follow:
(1) The liquid-cooled BTMS designed has high energy efficiency and
cooling capacity. When the ambient temperature was 42 ◦ C, the
coolant temperature of the battery inlet could reach 19.8 ◦ C and
the COP at this time is 2.36 under the operating conditions of the
liquid-cooled BTMS. In fact, for the liquid-cooled BTMS based
HPACS designed in this paper even if the ambient temperature
exceeds 40 ◦ C, as long as the compressor speed is greater than
4000 rpm, the coolant temperature of the battery inlet can be
lower than 25 ◦ C.
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

(2) For SVR model that predict cooling performance of liquid-cooled
BTMS based HPACS, the best kernel function is the RBF kernel
function. It is found that for system COP and cooling capacity, the
R between the measured value and the predicted value of the SVR
model with RBF kernel function is at least 2.7% and 2.2% higher
than the model using the other three kernel functions (Linear,
Polynomial and Sigmoid kernel function), and the MSE is at least
10.1% and 6.7% lower than the model using the other three
kernel functions, respectively.
(3) To optimize the performance of the SVR model, PSO algorithm is
introduced to optimize three hyper parameters of SVR model. The
three optimal hyper parameters (C, ε,γ)of the SVR model obtained
through PSO algorithm are (0.15,0.11,0.375) and
(0.23,0.15,0.392), respectively. The results show that compared
to SVR model, R of cooling capacity and system COP for the
proposed PSO-SVR model in this paper is improved 2.1% and
2.8% respectively, MSE of and cooling capacity and system COP
is reduced 87.8% and 82.9% respectively.
(4) The machine learning method mentioned in this paper for pre­
dicting the performance of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS
makes it possible to get satisfactory performance parameter of
liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS without the complicated
thermodynamics theory and equations. Meanwhile, Using the
automatic calibration model based PSO-SVR algorithm to predict
performances of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS for BEV also
avoids a lot of high-cost and long-term experiments and it can be
used as a new method to fit the complex nonlinear relationship
among the system COP, cooling capacity and other influencing
factors of the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS.
In order to further develop the liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS for
BEV, the internal thermal characteristics of battery should be considered
in the automatic calibration model for liquid-cooled BTMS in the future.
Namely, the battery electrochemical model and machine learning model
of HPACS should be coupled and the liquid-cooled battery thermal
management system can be better optimized based on the automatic
calibration model and the battery electrochemical model.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xingwang Tang: Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing
– original draft. Qin Guo: Software, Formal analysis, Writing – original
draft. Ming Li: Conceptualization, Methodology. Changhua Wei:
Investigation, Validation. Zhiyao Pan: Visualization, Writing – review
& editing. Yongqiang Wang: Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge for the financial support from
Technology Breakthrough Project of Department of Science and Tech­
nology of Jilin Province (No.20190302120GX) and State Key Laboratory
of Automotive Simulation and Control (ASCL) Foundation (ascl-zytsxm-
202029), for the work reported in this paper.

Appendices.
Table A.1
Operating conditions of liquid-cooled BTMS based HPACS

Samples Input variables Output variables

x1 x2 x3 y1 y2

Vcomp (rpm) T0 (◦ C) Vair (m s¡1) COP Cooling capacity (kw)

1 2000 32 1.5 5.17546 4.25225
2 2000 32 2.5 5.89625 4.26912
3 2000 32 3.5 6.08945 4.21785
4 2000 32 4.5 6.02152 4.23652
5 2000 32 5.5 6.05875 4.24001
6 3000 32 1.5 4.10254 4.59873
7 3000 32 2.5 4.69458 4.61548
8 3000 32 3.5 4.53214 4.55681
9 3000 32 4.5 4.54218 4.58327
10 3000 32 5.5 4.54017 4.61024
11 4000 32 1.5 3.1568 4.9596
12 4000 32 2.5 3.63689 4.9568
13 4000 32 3.5 3.5021 4.96543
14 4000 32 4.5 3.51865 4.91205
15 4000 32 5.5 3.51245 4.95242
16 5000 32 1.5 2.91247 5.06874
17 5000 32 2.5 3.25487 5.06217
18 5000 32 3.5 3.19451 5.07874
19 5000 32 4.5 3.23458 5.01248
20 5000 32 5.5 3.25124 5.05987
21 6000 32 1.5 2.32557 5.12022
22 6000 32 2.5 2.65706 5.13903
23 6000 32 3.5 2.72354 5.15015
24 6000 32 4.5 2.74038 5.13432
25 6000 32 5.5 2.75587 5.11982
26 2000 34 1.5 5.01824 4.27968
27 2000 34 2.5 5.66723 4.29044
28 2000 34 3.5 5.85456 4.23652
29 2000 34 4.5 5.78654 4.25125
30 2000 34 5.5 5.81258 4.27652
31 3000 34 1.5 4.12548 4.62189
32 3000 34 2.5 4.62387 4.65487
(continued on next page)

13
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Table A.1 (continued )

Samples Input variables Output variables

x1 x2 x3 y1 y2

33 3000 34 3.5 4.60125 4.59874

34 3000 34 4.5 4.61354 4.62127
35 3000 34 5.5 4.61017 4.64328
36 4000 34 1.5 3.09875 4.95128
37 4000 34 2.5 3.51009 4.94717
38 4000 34 3.5 3.49539 4.960121
39 4000 34 4.5 3.50564 4.91942
40 4000 34 5.5 3.50124 4.96127
41 5000 34 1.5 2.76842 5.04874
42 5000 34 2.5 3.02389 5.03698
43 5000 34 3.5 3.10287 5.06321
44 5000 34 4.5 3.12548 5.00854
45 5000 34 5.5 3.13547 5.05976
46 6000 34 1.5 2.24896 5.12024
47 6000 34 2.5 2.57637 5.13285
48 6000 34 3.5 2.64254 5.146822
49 6000 34 4.5 2.65745 5.12028
50 6000 34 5.5 2.66986 5.11682
51 2000 36 1.5 4.86242 4.28965
52 2000 36 2.5 5.46974 4.30145
53 2000 36 3.5 5.29654 4.25864
54 2000 36 4.5 5.2357 4.28125
55 2000 36 5.5 5.2634 4.29246
56 3000 36 1.5 4.01257 4.65327
57 3000 36 2.5 4.42158 4.68764
58 3000 36 3.5 4.53278 4.61985
59 3000 36 4.5 4.55012 4.64578
60 3000 36 5.5 4.54963 4.65782
61 4000 36 1.5 2.98485 4.95324
62 4000 36 2.5 3.39481 4.95818
63 4000 36 3.5 3.49682 4.97004
64 4000 36 4.5 3.5087 4.92852
65 4000 36 5.5 3.5032 4.96867
66 5000 36 1.5 2.65481 5.07019
67 5000 36 2.5 2.91257 5.07824
68 5000 36 3.5 3.03548 5.10538
69 5000 36 4.5 3.08562 5.04982
70 5000 36 5.5 3.31254 5.09324
71 6000 36 1.5 2.19548 5.11996
72 6000 36 2.5 2.49568 5.13009
73 6000 36 3.5 2.56458 5.14285
74 6000 36 4.5 2.58564 5.11965
75 6000 36 5.5 2.89063 5.10362
76 2000 38 1.5 4.6532 4.29085
77 2000 38 2.5 5.23919 4.30213
78 2000 38 3.5 5.34898 4.24865
79 2000 38 4.5 5.34212 4.26125
80 2000 38 5.5 5.34698 4.27156
81 3000 38 1.5 4.59268 4.63017
82 3000 38 2.5 4.40189 4.64871
83 3000 38 3.5 4.52381 4.57954
84 3000 38 4.5 4.53521 4.59124
85 3000 38 5.5 4.53139 4.61248
86 4000 38 1.5 2.8364 4.96
87 4000 38 2.5 3.26801 4.95886
88 4000 38 3.5 3.3764 4.97085
89 4000 38 4.5 3.38754 4.92651
90 4000 38 5.5 3.38254 4.96025
91 5000 38 1.5 2.57542 5.03498
92 5000 38 2.5 2.89645 5.02964
93 5000 38 3.5 2.81263 5.04127
94 5000 38 4.5 2.83654 4.99127
95 5000 38 5.5 2.84821 5.03421
96 6000 38 1.5 2.1687 5.12732
97 6000 38 2.5 2.41499 5.13421
98 6000 38 3.5 2.35887 5.14265
99 6000 38 4.5 2.36879 5.12623
100 6000 38 5.5 2.3784 5.11762
101 2000 40 1.5 4.41273 4.30147
102 2000 40 2.5 5.01615 4.31314
103 2000 40 3.5 5.18121 4.25172
104 2000 40 4.5 5.12707 4.27241
105 2000 40 5.5 5.15027 4.28621
106 3000 40 1.5 3.76542 4.61327
(continued on next page)

14
X. Tang et al. Journal of Power Sources 494 (2021) 229727

Table A.1 (continued )

Samples Input variables Output variables

x1 x2 x3 y1 y2

107 3000 40 2.5 4.23657 4.62579

108 3000 40 3.5 4.34592 4.57324
109 3000 40 4.5 4.34964 4.59127
110 3000 40 5.5 4.35124 4.6012
111 4000 40 1.5 2.78809 4.95517
112 4000 40 2.5 3.17235 4.95172
113 4000 40 3.5 3.27291 4.96207
114 4000 40 4.5 3.28321 4.91034
115 4000 40 5.5 3.28065 4.95517
116 5000 40 1.5 2.38624 5.05498
117 5000 40 2.5 2.68675 5.05013
118 5000 40 3.5 2.79124 5.06547
119 5000 40 4.5 2.79854 5.01048
120 5000 40 5.5 2.81625 5.05987
121 6000 40 1.5 2.06607 5.13448
122 6000 40 2.5 2.34714 5.14178
123 6000 40 3.5 2.40902 5.15172
124 6000 40 4.5 2.41932 5.13628
125 6000 40 5.5 2.42963 5.12759
126 2000 42 1.5 4.2158 4.31768
127 2000 42 2.5 4.80115 4.32069
128 2000 42 3.5 4.98745 4.25587
129 2000 42 4.5 4.92154 4.28156
130 2000 42 5.5 5.02541 4.30312
131 3000 42 1.5 3.79854 4.60182
132 3000 42 2.5 4.12971 4.61287
133 3000 42 3.5 4.25362 4.52387
134 3000 42 4.5 4.27931 4.55624
135 3000 42 5.5 4.28011 4.57421
136 4000 42 1.5 2.74564 4.95337
137 4000 42 2.5 3.03746 4.94994
138 4000 42 3.5 3.15481 4.96482
139 4000 42 4.5 3.17541 4.91512
140 4000 42 5.5 3.17124 5.00151
141 5000 42 1.5 2.28671 5.03349
142 5000 42 2.5 2.65245 5.02178
143 5000 42 3.5 2.75015 5.04129
144 5000 42 4.5 2.77983 4.98657
145 5000 42 5.5 2.78541 5.07124
146 6000 42 1.5 1.97385 5.12789
147 6000 42 2.5 2.24207 5.13559
148 6000 42 3.5 2.3245 5.14688
149 6000 42 4.5 2.3456 5.1263
150 6000 42 5.5 2.35987 5.11861

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