Thermal Analysis of Electronic Equipment

Tomer Avraham
CFD and Thermal Analysis Specialist
Lets delve into the world of thermal
analysis of electronic equipment…
See the following link for a comprehensive guide for thermal analysis of electronic

equipment
TIP: Conduct heat
Modes of Heat Transfer
load comparison for
negligence of
radiation heat
transfer mode
 Thermal Analysis:

 Along with the increasing power of electronic devices, the demand on the thermal
management has also increased. One important part of the thermal management chain is the
heat conduction/convection from the hot component to it’s final heat sink.

 thermal management can be divided into management on different electronic packaging

levels:

 Component level: dissipate heat from an actual chip – analysis guidance

 board level: heat transfer from the printed circuit board (PCB) or chip package to the
electronic system or chassis – analysis guidance

 system level: dissipating the heat from the system or chassis to the system heat
exchangers and to the ambient – analysis guidance
System to Component Level Thermal Solutions
The Component Level…
 Compact Thermal Model (CTM):
The Thermal Resistance Conundrum
 In practice, the flow of heat is invariably very different from the one-dimensional flow of
electrical current in wires. True one-dimensional flow of heat can only ever be approximated,
because no material comes close to being a perfect insulator, and heat is radiated across a
vacuum. Therefore, there is always some leakage of heat, and end effects are always present.
Consequently, the heat flow pattern within a mono-chip package is a complex three-
dimensional one, and so any operational definition of thermal resistance has to be couched
very carefully.

Thermal Resistance (Def.):

The temperature difference between two isothermal surfaces divided by the heat that
flows between them is the thermal resistance of the materials enclosed between the two
isothermal surfaces and the heat flux tube originating and ending on the
boundaries of the two isothermal surfaces.
 Compact Thermal Model (CTM):
Common Usage

 Packaging thermal resistances commonly in use:

• The junction-to-ambient thermal resistance can be shown to consist of an internal

(largely conductive) resistance and an external (largely convective and radiative)
resistance.

• The internal resistance RJC characterizes the thermal path from the active layers
of semiconductor silicon within the die, through the materials used to support
and bond the die, to the case (or outer surface) of the chip package.

• The internal resistance, RJB characterizes the thermal path to a standardized

location near the board surface.
 Natural/Forced Convection (Moving Air) Chamber Theta-JA Set Up

Package Inlet
Package

Fixture
JEDEC Test Board
JEDEC
Test Board
Enclosure

Ambient
Temperature Probe
Internal
Ambient
Wind Tunnel

Exhaust
 Theta-JB (Ring Cold Plate Set Up)

1 to 5 mm Gap
Insulation to Board or Package Board Temperature
Insulation to Package

Water Channel
Insulation
5 mm Minimum
Qj-b Simulation – or… How Shall I Defined a Junction to Board Thermal Resistance :
• For components missing Qj-b (only Qj-a defined) the data was completed thru
simulating the JESD51-2A standard experiment for the definition of Qj-a
(Simulation setup is displayed below).
• The Standard defines the setup (calibration, exact placement, PCB – JESD51-9/7,
vias application, power and environmental conditions)
• The methodology of the simulation is to assume a Qj-b in an iterative manner,
solving for the components Qj-a and comparing to manufacturer data after
calculating Tj.

TIP: Construct an
infrastructure for
JEDEC simulations.
 Compact Thermal Model (CTM):
Thermal Characterization Parameters
 JEDEC introduces a new quantity—the junction-to-top-center-of-package thermal
characterization parameter, denoted by ψJT and defined as the temperature
difference between the junction and top center of the package divided by the total
power. The top-to-ambient thermal characterization parameter is denoted ψTA.
Although the junction-to-ambient thermal resistance RJA is the sum of the two
thermal characterization parameters ψJT and ψTA, neither of these components
individually is a thermal resistance:
TIP: Avoid using Thermal
Characterization Parameters in
simulations .

The thermal characterization parameters, ψJT and ψTA, have the units of K/W but are mathematical
constructs rather than thermal resistances because not all of the heating power flows through
the exposed case surface.
 Compact Thermal Model (CTM):
Boundary-Condition Independent (BCI) Models
 A compact model is a BCI model for an agreed
set of boundary conditions (BC-set) when the
relative difference between compact and
detailed model results does not exceed a
certain agreed percentage (e.g., 10%).

 A Boundary Condition Independent compact

thermal model is just an extension of the 2R
model concept, as discussed previously. The
only difference is an increase in the number of
nodes, and especially the use of shunted
resistances that are essential for grasping the
heat flow paths for a multitude of boundary
conditions.
Principles of BCI Models Generation (Created via ANSYS Icepak)

Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD

Specialist - TAZ Engineering)

TIP: Contact manufacturer for

DELPHI, especially for high-end
components.
 Generic Network – The Reduced Order Modeling
(ROM) Analogy (example taken from ANSYS presentation)

 The concept is analogous to a field in mathematics that is called Reduced Order Modeling (ROM), a very active
albeit not so new field of research. One of the aims in ROM is to reduce the dimensionality of the problem.

 Definition: Network model of a system or component that includes a combination of:

 Thermal Resistive links.
 Flow links.
 Capacitive nodes (for transient analysis).
Which together “replicate” the behavior of the detailed CFD model at discrete locations

 Methodology: Any method that provides a representative network model capable of faithfully replicating the
original CFD model.

 Objective: Apply the Network Model as “Plug and Play” into larger CFD models. Achieving this will allow Icepak
users to model much larger systems in realistic time scales with narrower uncertainty bands.

See the following link for New-Tech Magazine article

 Simple Electronic Box: Problem Definition
• Objective: Demonstrate generic network model containing flow and thermal resistance links

• Model Description and Characteristics:

• Steady State
• Forced convection
• PCB with traces
DDR
• ICs – Lumped models
CPU Heatsink Exhaust Grille

CPU
PMIC1

PMIC2 CoCPU

Fans
Simple Electronic Box: CFD Model Post Processing
• Record all pertinent data:
 Each Powered Devices:
– Tmax
– Heat flow into fluid
– Heat flow into each passive contact body

 Passive Devices (Heat sinks, PCBs, etc)

– Tmean
– Heat flow into fluid
– Heat flow into each passive contact body

 Flow rates through Flow Devices

• Depending on the user-defined topology, additional reports may be needed

 Simple Electronic Box: Network Topology – Conduction Nodes Resistive Links
• Identify suitable network topology based on post processing and generate (or training) set of
combinations of boundary conditions
• 1 Node for each powered device
• 1 Node for each passive device that contacts only 1 powered device  CPU Heatsink
• Multiple nodes in passive devices contacting multiple powered devices  PCB
… Revise contour temperature bands to help identify node influence zones

Heat flows between

PMIC1 PCB nodes
PCB2
DDR1

DDR2
CPU CPU_HS
PMIC2
DDR3 PCB3
PCB1
DDR4
CoCPU

Temperatures: Global legend Legend modified to suit PCB nodes

 Simple Electronic Box: Network Topology – Flow Nodes and Links
• Post process flow streamlines through the model
• Similar to the PCB – Identify flow nodes based on streamlines and temperature contours in fluid
• For convective heat transfer  Need fluid temperature upstream of device in focus
• Input mass flow at each flow link  The engineer ensures mass flow balance at each flow node
 Simple Electronic Box: Final Network - Geometry
• Network Model talks to remaining CFD model through face nodes – in this case all face
nodes are flow nodes

Exhaust

Combined Fans “Blackbox” contains

Network model
 Exhaust
Simple Electronic Box: Final Network - Topology
• Topology after calibration:
Fans

Fluid Nodes and

Flow Links

PCB Nodes
Simple Electronic Box: Final Network – Metric versus Detailed CFD

Model Type Detailed CFD Generic Network

Mesh Count 220 k 100
Comment Detailed packages will Small cell count at face
increase mesh count nodes

%Error of DTmax of Devices

3
2
1
% Error

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
PMIC1 PMIC2 CoCPU CPU DDR.1 DDR.2 DDR.3 DDR.4
Device
The Board Level…
 Board level - pcb

TIP: Verify PCB orientation

through post-processing.

TIP: Apply the effect of

thermal vias by means
normal conductivity
effect under a
component CTM
 More on ICEPAK – Electronics Dedicated CFD…
TIP: Communicate
tightly with the board
designer and editor
More on ICEPAK – Electronics Dedicated CFD…
The System Level…
 System Level CTM – Fans
TIP: Apply fans in
TIP: Watch for density variation effects! parallel setting for
low resistance
systems and in series
for high resistance
ones.
CFD Analysis for evaluation –
Fan Choice and System Static Pressure Curve Evaluation
by Tomer Avraham
CFD and Thermal Analysis Specialist
(TAZ Engineering)
 Analysis objectives:

Evaluate the effect of two fans working serially on system static pressure
difference and flow distribution (cooling efficiency) for a high pressure
difference double cold-plate.
 CFD analysis – model and geometry preparation
• The design to be simulated is presented in the figure below.

• The design was simplified to include only features which non-negligible effect on the flow.

Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD

Specialist)
 CFD analysis – mesh generation

• The mesh was generated via ANSYS Fluent Meshing. A surface mesh was extracted and size
functions of proximity (at least 6 free stream cells between adjacent faces), curvature
(normal angle of 10° - i.e. 18 cells to capture a semi-circle).

• A body of influence size function was defined for the fan inlet to preserve high resolution
(converged) refined volumetric mesh in that region.

• A polydhera volumetric mesh was extracted with prism growth (orthogonal to flow
gradients) of 10 layers of <200 aspect ration, preserving a 𝑦 + ≤ 1 on all walls (in order to
capture the viscous sub-layer adequately – confirmed during post processing).

• The volumetric mesh was ensured to have a high quality of a minimal 0.15 orthogonality
metrics (most relevant for poly mesh) and a maximum skewness of 0.85 in the entire
domain. Gradation of volumetric cells was limited to 1.15 between freestream elements, as
well as between boundary layer (poly-prism) cells and free-stream (poly) cells.
 CFD analysis – mesh generation

• The figure below displays the generated mesh along with cell count and a short quality
summary.
Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD
Specialist)
 CFD analysis – boundary and material conditions

• An inlet and an exhaust fan boundary condition was applied according to the fan curve
description below

• Fluid material was defined as air at constant density and viscosity (standard atmospheric
conditions).
 CFD analysis – turbulence modeling

• Turbulence was modeled according to RANS methodology. An initial converging simulation was conducted
via invoking the k-w Shear-Stress Transport (SST) model.

• A derived calculation for the Reynolds number in the plated fins along with axial velocity profiles extracted at
various sections along the outlet tube deemed the flow to be near the critical Reynolds in various areas of
the plates.

• The turbulence model was than switched to k-w SST Local Correlation-Based Transition Model (LCTM) based
on two additional transport equations for the intermittency-γ and the momentum thickness (or the
transition Reynolds number)-R θt .

• The intermittency function is coupled with the turbulence kinetic energy equation to impact the production
of turbulence kinetic energy downstream of the transition point in the boundary layer.

• a transport equation for the transition Reynolds number (momentum thickness) is added to capture the
non-local effects of changes in turbulence intensity and free-stream velocity outside the boundary layer.
This equation also relates empirical correlations to the transition onset in the intermittency equation.
 CFD analysis – Numerical algorithms and schemes

• The pressure based coupled algorithm was used for the entirety of the simulation.

• Numerical schemes for all variables were chosen as 2nd order accuracy.

• A residual of 10−4 was arbitrarily defined to observe the convergence along with physical monitors of
domain mass flux and a slow changing outlet turbulent viscosity ratio to ensure convergence to the steady-
state solution.
 CFD analysis – Results

• Results were extracted as 2D contour plots for the selected planes (figure below, sections 1-6, section 6
located at x=55mm) – velocity magnitude.

Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD

Specialist)
 CFD analysis – Results

• Streamlines were extracted Post to describe the steady-state particle path (i.e. the equivalence of
streaklines and streamlines as far as the steady-state simulation is considered).

Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD

Specialist)
 CFD analysis – Results

• A 3D (and 2D) static pressure contour plot was extracted to evaluate the inlet to outlet static pressure
variation along with a calculation of the volumetric flow at the inlet (higher pressure  2 fans in series)

Simulated by Tomer Avraham (CFD

Specialist)
 CFD analysis – Results

• The graph below displays the system pressure difference variation with volumetric flow rate along with the
fan setup representative fan curve.
Advanced Cooling Solutions…

See the following link for a comprehensive guide for

cooling solutions for electronic equipment
 Component level cooling
solutions
Thermal Interface Materials
(TIMs)
 Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs)
 Thermal interfaces occur when two components meet, for example between a
component and a ruggedized aluminum cover.
 Due to micro level imperfections in the mating surfaces, the actual contact area
could be as little as 1 % of what is apparent on a macroscopic level (air-filled gaps
with very low thermal conductivity of 0.026 W/(m∙K) )

 In some applications the distance between the surfaces is larger due to the
construction of the mechanical outline there will be no contact at all between
the materials and a gap filler is needed
 Important characteristics of TIMs
 When working with thermal interfaces it is common to talk about the thermal
resistance, Rth. The absolute thermal resistance is defined as:

 When a TIM is considered, there is a bulk resistance within the material (based
on the thermal conductivity, area and thickness) and a resistance related to the
contact between the TIM and the mating surfaces:
 Important characteristics of TIMs
 Thermal conductivity within the material
 Conformability and “wetting” of surfaces (low contact resistance)
 Heat spreading capability
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
 Compressibility characteristics of material
 Density
 Electrical Conductivity
 Compatibility with materials
 Long-term reliability
 Ease of application and replacement
 Environmental sustainability
 Price
 Thermal grease

 Thermal grease is a highly conformable material that wets the surfaces

well under low pressures.

 Often made of silicone, the grease itself has very low thermal
conductivity but it is enhanced by loading the grease with highly
conductive particles.

 A very thin layer could be applied due its low viscosity.

 Disadvantages: it is messy during the application, could “pump out”, dry

and tolerances must be adjusted accordingly.
 Phase Change Materials (PCMs)

 solid at room temperature, but changes to liquid state as it heats up.

 Mostly organic PCMs are widely the organic type (paraffin, fatty acids, etc…)

 advantages: A suitable melting point (typically between 50°C and 90°C), high heat of fusion,
good stability during thermal cycling, low viscosity in liquid state, high thermal conductivity.
The main advantages of PCM over thermal grease are that it is easier to work with and has
better stability over time

 Disadvantages (over thermal grease): thermal performance is slightly lower as both the bulk
material thermal conductivity is lower, the surface resistance is higher and a higher contact
pressure is needed, increasing the mechanical stresses in the thermal package.
 Gap pads
 thicker materials (typically 0.2mm-3mm) that can be used if the surfaces in the thermal
interface are not in direct contact with each other, hence serve as gap fillers.

 Consist of polymer matrices (low thermal conductivity) with high thermally conductive particles
or fibers embodied.

 Trade-off between the ability to deform and the thermal conductivity: The more filler used the
harder the pad will get.

 advantages: can be deformed and are therefore not sensitive to tolerance issues in the
assemblies.

 Disadvantages: the larger thickness serves as larger distance for heat to travel and hence
“bulk” thermal resistance is increased. surface resistance increases or that the TIM loosens
from the surface if the applied pressure is too low .
 Putties

 The main matrix is often silicon based with filler materials such as aluminium or boron nitride and
serve as gap fillers.

 The denser a putty material is used the harder it is to compress

 Pressure applied is time dependent with a peak during the initial phase before the material relaxes.

 Trade-off between the ability to deform and the thermal conductivity: The more filler used the
harder the pad will get.

 advantages: compress at low pressures (good for the components), reusable and have a thermal
conductivity of up to 17 W/(m∙K).

 Disadvantages: adhesiveness is more pronounced then gap pad making large surfaces filled putty
harder to disassemble. May “pump out” after continuously temperature cycled.
 Carbon based TIMs
 Theory based Atomeric Covalent strong bonds in-plane and Van-Der Vals normal to plane weak
bonds these Nano technology materials are the Diamond in the rough of thermal solutions
future.

 The main matrix is often silicon based with filler materials such as Aluminum or Boron nitride
and serve as gap fillers.

 By bonding to other elements or to other carbon atoms, a great variety of materials can be
formed (nano-materials), all with different mechanical and thermal properties: Diamond,
Graphite, Graphene and Carbone-nano-tubes, Pyrolytyc Graphite.

 advantages: control over mechanical properties (CTE, thermal and electrical conductivity,
hardness).

 Disadvantages: Mostly very expensive due to production process (as CVD).

Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs)
 Card level cooling solutions
Heat spreading and “Thermal
shortage”
 Passive liquid cooling solution - Heat pipe

A heat pipe is a hollow tube enclosed

structure, containing a working fluid
(usually water for copper structure) that
transfer heat as it evaporates and a wick
that brings the fluid back to its starting
point when it condenses. As the entire
thermal cycle is conducted without
outside interference, a heat pipe is
considered a passive liquid cooling
device.
 Passive liquid cooling solution – Vapor chamber

A vapor chamber is essentially

a planar heat pipe and as
such could be defined as a
heat pipe device. Its thermal
process is also described by
the same general
thermodynamic cycle, but its
role is rather as a heat
spreading cooling solution to
be placed above high density
dissipative component for
diminishing a hotspot.
Card level cooling solutions – Vapor chamber
 Card level cooling solutions
AlSiC + Pyrolytic Graphite
graphite, formed of a layered
structure with strong covalent bonds
within the layers, and weak Van-der-
Vaals bonds connecting the layers (as
opposed to diamond which has only
strong covalent bonds.
The cooling solution presented considers
embedding thin graphite plate in an
aluminum ruggedized cover, while
avoiding air voids which shall hamper its
thermal performance by attaching the
interfaces by a specific chemical process
CPS – AlSiC + GP
System level cooling solutions
Thermal Interface Materials
(TIMs)
Passive liquid cooling solution
Heat pipe network
 LRU Level Cooling Solutions
Air Flow Through Cooling (AFTC)
 Motivation
 Cards heat load has been increased significantly in the past decade, from 30W up to 130W.

 The standard VME conduction cooling design (VITA 46/ 48.2) can not provide the adequate
heat dissipation for such power and is strongly depended by the amount of ECS cooling
available while in fan cooling platforms the heat dissipation is even more limited.

 Increased heat dissipation and especially its density thermal stresses components and as a
direct result reduction in its reliability.

 Due to unchanged size of cards some components may dissipate 30W or more for as low as
50mm2 hot spot. For such a high density dissipating components “Air Flow Through Cover”
(AFTC) optimally uses heat spreading such that heat is removed per component in contrast to
standard VME conduction cooling where heat is removed per card.
 AFTC eliminates thermal design limitations on chassis.

 VITA standards for high (density) heat dissipation loads:

VITA 48.3 Liquid Cooling
VITA 48.5 Air Flow Through Cooling (AFTC)
 LRU Level Cooling Solutions
Active Liquid Cooling System
Accommodating heat flux for a desired temperature gradient 
is a function of the effective heat transfer coefficient derived
from the cooling technique chosen.
Accommodating a heat flux ofcmW50 cmW to a 50⁰C gradient from 
2
2

its final heat-sink requires an effective heat transfer

coefficient of ≈20,000 achieved only by liquid cooling (and
possible area enlarging factor by heat spreading)
Active liquid cooling solution – Thermodynamic cycle
 Liquid Cooling: Small scale and miniature vapour compression •
refrigeration systems
Small scale and miniature vapor
compression refrigeration
Systems for cooling electronics devices.

Microchannel evaporators and

condensers are vital components of
these miniature systems.

A miniature vapour-compression
system consists of five main
Components:

• miniature compressor
• microchannel condenser
• Throttling device
• Microchannel evaporator
• Accumulator.
 Liquid Cooling: (Single-Phase) Microchannels •

• Microchannel is a channel with

a hydraulic diameter below 1 mm.

• Microchannels are used in fluid

control and heat transfer. The concept
of the microchannel was proposed for
the first time by Tuckerman and
Pease.

• They suggested an effective method

for designing microchannels in the
laminar and fully developed flow.
 Liquid Cooling: Flow Boiling in Microchannels – Nucleate Boiling •

• When the temperature difference is between

approximately 4-13°C above saturation
temperature, isolated bubbles form
at nucleation sites and separate from the surface.

• This separation induces considerable fluid mixing

near the surface, substantially increasing the
convective heat transfer coefficient and the heat
flux .

• In this regime, most of the heat transfer is through

direct transfer from the surface to the liquid in
motion at the surface and not through
the vapor bubbles rising from the surface.

• Between 10 °C - 30 °C above TS, a second flow

regime may be observed. As more nucleation sites
become active, increased bubble formation
causes bubble interference and coalescence. In this
region the vapor escapes as jets or columns which
subsequently merge into slugs of vapor.
 Liquid cooling: Flow Boiling in Microchannels – •
Practical Engineering Advantages
Flow boiling in microchannels is one of the most promising cooling methods for such huge heat flux
densities due to its specific attributes, namely:

• The capability of achieving very high heat transfer rates with small variations in the surface
temperature, thereby significantly reducing thermo-mechanical stresses inside the chip (accentuated
under harsh military standard environmental conditions).

• The capability of achieving very high heat transfer rates at small liquid flow rates compared to single
phase cooling resulting in a very compact cooling system which allows weight and complexity
reduction.

• The increase of the heat transfer coefficient with increasing heat flux in nucleate boiling and its
comparable independency on flow rate result in a reduction of component temperature and make the
use of speed controlled pump redundant, both carrying a substantial impact on MTBF.

However, the transition from laboratory research to commercial applications is hindered by

several fundamental issues which are still not well understood, one of which is the lack of a
generally accepted prediction methods for flow patterns, heat transfer and pressure drop.
 A CFD methodology for the prediction of Flow Boiling in Microchannels •

Objective – to develop a comprehensive CFD model for simulation of boiling flow and heat transfer from
Nucleate Boiling to Critical Heat Flux
Modeling Approach: Eulerian Multiphase Method + RPI boiling model (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, by
Kurul & Podowski in 1990)
Features of the Boiling Model
• RPI Model
• Non-equilibrium Boiling and Critical Heat Flux
• Interfacial Area : algebraic formulations and IAC equation
• A range of sub-models for drag, lift and turbulent dispersion
• Liquid/vapor-interface heat and mass transfer models
• Multiphase turbulence models: mixture, dispersed & per-phase
• Flow regime transitions
A CFD methodology for the prediction of Flow Boiling in
Microchannels - Validation of Boiling in Vertical Pipes
Reliability Affected Thermal
Management
by Tomer Avraham
 Problem Statement:
Thermal Degradation and Reliability of Electronics
Scope:

• The electronics industry is realizing that derating strategies are not

the best methods for designing optimal electronics. The broad
assumptions of derating strategies can result in conservative,
expensive designs or designs with insufficient reliability.

• In essence, there seem to be an inherent difficulty in knowing how

cool an environment components need to operate to avoid
thermal degradation of them and of neighboring components.

• A more effective and efficient approach is to couple the survey for

components that are susceptible to temperature degradation with
thermal simulation, such that our trusted thermal analysis tool
would provide the infrastructure for a subsequent physics-based
reliability analysis conducted by a dedicated, and powerful tool
such as DFR Sherlock.
 Example 1: Transformers (magnetics)
Issues:
Objectives
• Transformers are typically custom made, many do
not come with a temperature rating.
• Therefore, they are often not considered when
temperature concerns arise during design
reviews.
• An adverse effect to overall reliability of the
product is guaranteed to be minimized upon
incorporating these key issues in a preceding
thermal simulation to then build on these
simulations to conduct a streamlined reliability
analysis.
1. Saturation. Current saturation curves for ferrite
materials tend to obscure when these materials starts
to saturate. Saturating the magnetic material will not
damage a magnetic, but it will appear to be shorted —
causing the circuitry to fail.
2. Designers sometimes mistake a magnetic’s maximum
temperature rating as being equal to the Curie
temperature which defines the magnetic behavior.
Core loss.
3. Thermal aging in powder iron cores (cheaper).
Long-term exposure to elevated temperatures can
induce thermal aging of the binding agents. As thermal
aging progresses, the eddy current loss becomes
significantly higher. Increasing core loss results in
higher core temperatures and failure of the magnetic
component.
 Example 2: Diodes/Optocouplers
Issues:
Objectives
1. LEDs are in many times used as indicators. However,
this incorporation can be tricky because of LEDs’
• LEDs are in many times used as indicators sensitivity to temperature.

• However, this incorporation can be tricky because
of LEDs’ sensitivity to temperature.
• LEDs are used in optocouplers — The primary
challenge is to locate the optocoupler where the
LED can stay cool.
2. LEDs are used in optocouplers — The primary
challenge is to locate the optocoupler where the LED
can stay cool. An environmental harsh condition with
respects to optics!

• A preceding thermal simulations would assist in

optimizing the placement of LEDs into electronics
based on thermal stress.
 Example 3: Electrolytic Capacitors
 A streamlined thermal
Objectives
• Electrolytic capacitors are the
components designers need to
be most concerned about with
regards to temperature.
• This is because electrolytic
capacitors rely on liquid for
functional operation.
• loss of electrolytes leads to
decreasing capacitance and
increasing equivalent series
resistance. As a result of this
process, all electrolytic
capacitor manufacturers
provide a rated lifetime.
Issues:
simulation-based augmenting
effects such as temperature
non-uniformities approach
would assist in the prevention
of accelerated degradation
upon augmenting the
capacitor’s sensitivity to heat
stresses
1. Gradual Evaporation of the liquid. most
companies extrapolate a manufacturer’s
ratings using a classical Arrhenius
equation. The equation develops a
conservative prediction of the capacitor’s
lifetime that is hit-or-miss. Not applicable
for real-life temperature non-uniformity.
2. Lifetime of the capacitor varies
depending upon the sensitivity of the
circuit to changes in component
parameters. The manufacturers’
definition of lifetime is typically a 20%
drop in capacitance. However, at that
point the equivalent series resistance
could experience an increase of 2X to 5X.
Depending on the sensitivity of the
circuit, this could induce failure in the
product before the capacitor is
considered to be in failure mode.
 Example 4: Ceramic Capacitors
Issues:
Objectives
1. Ceramic capacitor manufacturers have aggressively
increased the capacitance of their products. This
• Combine standard design information with improvement requires the capacitor to have more
comprehensive embedded databases to provide dielectric layers, each with a reduced thickness.
the inputs necessary to perform these complex
calculations. 2. Voltage hasn’t been able to keep up with the changing
thickness of the capacitor’s dielectric layers, resulting
in a significantly higher electric field across the
dielectric.

3. Accelarated testing shows that most ceramic

capacitors may see a 2-4% higher failure rate after 10
years. Once you consider all of the capacitors in your
design THIS IS A LOT!!
 Example 5: Solder Joints
Objectives
• Combine standard design information with
comprehensive embedded databases and
parametrized reliability equations solved locally
and based on and streamlined with thermal
simulation and analysis.
• Simulation can be used to model how each
additional temperature cycle will accumulate
damage, leading to cracks and eventual failure.
Issues:
1. Solder joints provide electrical, thermal and
mechanical connections between components,
substrates or boards.
2. When experiencing changes in temperature, the
components and boards will expand or contract at
different rates — placing the solder joint under shear
loads.
3. The stress is far below the strength criteria, yet,
repeated exposure to temperature changes can
introduce damage in the bulk solder.
4. The failure of solder joints due to thermomechanical
fatigue is one of the primary wearout mechanisms in
electronic products. This is because inappropriate
designs, material selections and environments can
result in relatively short times to failure.
 Example 6: Integrated Circuits

Objectives

• Engineers need to investigate the effects of

environmental conditions on integrated circuits
to ensure they don’t wear out during their
intended lifecycle.

• Combining a streamlined thermal analysis with

reliability physics analysis, simulation and failure
mechanism models.
Some Strategic Views…
 Strategic View (1): Thermal analysis does not work in the vacuum!

• Electronic equipment is not meant to simply heat up and cool down. It has a
certain functionality. Thermal issues are artifacts.

• Thermal analysis should always be symbiotic with the strategic mission:

produce value (time frame, risk mitigation, quantitative outcomes, etc…)!

• Make sure the analysis group

understands not only the HOW, but also
the WHY!
 Strategic View (2): Tailor Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

• Time dedicated in creation of good SOPs will produce an

enormous value in the future.

• Saves inventing the wheel each and every simulation. Let

creativity be a Bonus. SOPs provide the discipline which allows
freedom and maneuverability where it counts.

• Human ignorance compounds in the analysis margin for error.

• Good SOPs maintain a high standard as a baseline.

• SOPs serve as guidelines for novice analysis engineers in the

team.

• SOPs should be tailored and consolidated by the frontline

engineers in a bottom-up approach.
 Strategic View (3): Take Extreme Ownership on the Analysis

• Make sure the inputs for the analysis are clearly understood.

• Make sure the clearly understood inputs make physical sense.

• Make sure the clearly understood inputs which make physical sense and adhere to the
strategic goal of the project.

• Make sure your resources are aligned with the clearly understood inputs which make
physical sense and adhere to the strategic goal of the project.

The customer is actually always right (or at the very least it is your fault…)
 Strategic View (4): Improve Your Knowledge Every Day
(you are not quite the expert…)

• There are things that are known, things that we know to not know, and then there are
the unknown unknowns. As we acquire the knowledge of the second we brake apart
the third.

• Constant self learning, trainings and evaluations.

• Team brief simulation conducted.

 Strategic View (5): Choose the right code
• The budget is always tight. Do not
settle for mediocracy!
A good simulation infrastructure
shall provide an enormous future
dividend.

• The software should be as general

as possible as to allow agility in
modeling the physics, yet allow for
quick object based solutions.

• In the past three years most

leading commercial codes made a
huge step to provide the users
with a friendly and easy to use
interface.
Thermal Analysis and Cooling Solutions for Electronic
Equipment – a comprehensive guide