1.

Introduction to Wind Forces and Wind Effects on

Buildings and Structures
1.1. Nature and Causes of Wind
Wind is simply a movement of the earth's atmosphere from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure to equalize the
pressures. Air pressure is a measure of the weight of the air on the surface of the earth. The difference in pressures is related to
the rising and sinking of air. Rising air causes low pressure and sinking of air causes high pressure. Air pressures are generally
connected to the temperature differences of the various parts of the globe and to the rotation of the earth. Warm air near the
equator rises, creating an area of low pressure, and moves toward the colder regions near the poles, leading to high pressure in
those regions. A general wind circulation takes place with air from the polar high-pressure areas moving to replace the rising air
in the low-pressure warmer areas.

1.2. General Overview of Building Design for Wind

Wind effects on buildings and structures are complex. However, and in order to develop design methods for buildings and
structures, it is often necessary to simplify these wind effects. For instance, the wind velocity and direction are rarely constant
in a wind event. Wind can change in velocity and direction fairly quickly in some cases. Building codes and standards generally
provide different design methods depending on the type of building or structure in question. In some cases, it is acceptable to
use some simplified design procedures. In these procedures wind direction and velocity may be considered constant. The wind
direction is often considered horizontal, leading to lateral forces on buildings. In some other cases, buildings and structures
must be designed using wind tunnel procedures by creating reduced-scale models of the structure, and testing these models in
a wind tunnel facility. Wind conditions that are closer to reality are recreated in a wind tunnel laboratory, and reduced-scale
models are subjected to them and studied for wind effects.

The general procedure in designing buildings for wind forces is to consider the wind effect in the form of pressure applied to
various building surfaces. These wind pressures are then converted into wind forces applied to structural members that must
be designed to resist these forces.

The term pressure in physics simply means the force that is applied per unit area of surface. When discussing wind pressure on
building surfaces, the unit often used to express the pressure is psf, pounds per square foot (or N/m2 using metric units).
Pressure is considered as applied in a direction that is perpendicular to the surface in question. In our discussion here, pressure
is a consequence of air flow.

At this time, buildings in the United States are designed according to theInternational Building Code (IBC) and the International
Residential Code (IRC). The current editions are the 2015 editions for both codes.1,2 The structural chapters of these codes are
generally based on a standard published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE): Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, often referred to as the ASCE 7 standard. The current version of this standard is the 2016
edition.3 The title of the current version was slightly changed from the previous ASCE 7-10 to Minimum Design Loads and
Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures. The building design procedures according to the ASCE 7 standard will be
covered in this book. In this first chapter, some of the most basic concepts of wind design are summarized. It is important for
the reader to understand some of the elementary terms and principles associated with wind design, and to have an idea about
the historic basis and context of these principles as explained in this chapter.

1.3. Wind Pressure Distribution on Building Surfaces

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.3. Wind Pressure Distribution on Building Surfaces
Wind flowing around a building or structure creates a complex pressure distribution on the building surfaces. Generally, on a
building of rectangular plan form, the wall under the wind, referred to as the windward wall, is under high inward pressure called
positive pressure. This pressure decreases near the edges of the windward wall. The pressure on the leeward wall is an outward
pressure or suction referred to as negative pressure. This pressure is higher near the edges of the leeward wall and decreases
near the wall center.

As the wind flows around a building, it creates a "drag" effect on the walls that are parallel to the wind direction. Thedrag force
can be described as the resultant of the forces created by the positive and negative pressures acting on the building structure in
the direction of the flow. Side walls also experience an outward pressure. Corners generally get a large outward pressure due to
flow turbulence.

The term turbulence can be discussed at length. In simple terms, the jumbled air at the side walls and leeward wall is called
turbulence, and consists of a chaotic air flow of little swirling and spiraling air movements that tend to join the general air flow.

A flat roof experiences an outward pressure oruplift forces. The wind action on a pitched roof depends on various factors such
as the pitch of the roof and the relative building dimensions. Eaves and overhangs of roofs are affected by wind getting
entrapped underneath those areas, creating turbulence and leading to pressure stagnation on those parts.

Large suction or large negative pressures can also be due to vortex formation. This generally happens when the vertical line of a
building is broken, such as in the case of recesses, protrusions along the building height, or the presence of a podium. The
phenomenon consists of little rotational flows near the building facades, leading to large suctions or negative pressures.

Also, wind speeds are generally lower near the ground due to friction, and they tend to increase with height as explained later.
For this reason, wind pressure on the windward wall is generally considered lower near the ground, and it increases with height
from the ground as explained in later sections.

Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the general pressure distribution as described above, and show diagrams of wind pressure
distribution on a rectangular-shape building, both in plan and elevation views.

Figure 1.1 General pressure distribution on a rectangular building—plan view.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Figure 1.2 General pressure distribution on a rectangular building—elevation view.

1.4. Wind Pressure Distribution on Pitched Roofs

Compared to that on a flat roof, the wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof tends to be more complicated and generally
depends on the roof slope and building dimensions. Wind pressures in this case can be either positive or negative. Figure 1.3
illustrates the general wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof. It is important to note that this distribution is normally not of
the uniform type. Pressures tend to be larger near the ridge and bottom edges. Also, the roof slope plays an important role in
the amount and form of the wind pressure distribution on pitched roofs, as discussed in later chapters of this book.

Figure 1.3 General wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof.

1.5. Internal Pressures

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.5. Internal Pressures
The previous discussion of wind pressure relates to exterior pressures. However, internal pressures on building surfaces may
develop from within the structure. These internal pressures are generally due to window and door openings that may not
remain securely closed during a wind event. As a matter of fact, a lot of glazed surfaces break during extreme wind events such
as hurricanes due to flying debris when these glazed surfaces are not protected by strong shutters.

Internal pressures must generally be considered in the building design because buildings are not entirely fully closed. As air
enters a building through an opening, internal pressures develop on the inside surfaces of windward and leeward wall as well as
on the inner surfaces of the floor and roof. These internal pressures must be algebraically added to the external pressures. The
term algebraically is used here because the external and internal pressure vectors may be in the same direction or in opposite
directions.

Figures 1.4a and b illustrate the concept of internal pressures due to an opening, in both plan and elevation views.

Figure 1.4 Internal pressures due to an opening. (a) Plan view. (b) Elevation view.

1.6. Factors Impacting Wind Effects

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.6. Factors Impacting Wind Effects
Wind effects on buildings and structures depend on various factors. Some of these factors are related to wind conditions, such
as the magnitude of sustained wind velocity, prevailing wind directions, presence of gusts, and duration of high wind velocities.
Other factors are related to the environment, such as effects resulting from sheltering or funneling caused by ground forms and
landscaping or by the presence of adjacent structures. These environmental factors can increase or reduce wind effects. They
can also lead to turbulence. Other factors that generally impact wind effects are connected to the structure itself, such as the
size and dimensions of the structure, its aerodynamic shape, its fundamental period of vibration, type of construction, stiffness
of surfaces, and strength of connections.

Wind tunnel tests have been very useful in providing much of the information we have today regarding building behavior under
wind. Wind tunnel testing of reduced-scale models of buildings and structures has also resulted in establishing much of the
data and methods used today in building design.

The failure of a building component under severe winds can lead to the failure of other structural members, thus triggering a
progressive type of chain reaction. Generally, lateral wind pressures on a building or structure have an overturning effect or a
sliding effect on it. So a structure can actually tend to rotate, or can slide off its foundation due to lateral wind pressures. In
some extreme wind events such as hurricanes, wind is accompanied by heavy rains leading to storm surge, flooding, and
damage from water and airborne debris as discussed later. The effect of flowing water on the foundation of a building can also
be extremely damaging.

1.7. Air Flow around Buildings—Bernoulli Effect

The simplified air pressure distribution on building surfaces as described in the previous sections is closely related to the
patterns of air flow around buildings and structures. In the design of cars and airplanes, some knowledge and an understanding
of air flow around streamlined bodies is required. Buildings and structures are different from cars and airplanes in the sense
that they have sharp edges and are often referred to as bluff bodies. Therefore the study of wind effects on buildings and
structures is a particular field of aeronautics often referred to as architectural aerodynamics.

A fluid or air flow can be represented using a series of parallel lines with arrowheads indicating the direction of the flow. Moving
air with a particular mass at a particular velocity has a kinetic energy that can do "work" and that can be expressed by this
expression from dynamics:

1
E= mv2
2

where E = kinetic energy

m = mass

v = velocity

The mass (m) is the weight (in lb) divided by the gravity constant (g) in ft/sec2 (or kg in metric units). The unit for velocity is
ft/sec (m/s) and that for kinetic energy is ft-lb (N⋅m or joule where 1 J = 1 N⋅m).

Bernoulli's equation establishes a relationship between pressure and velocity for points located along the path of a fluid flow. It
is an important equation in hydraulics and it is given by

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 1 1
p1 + mv12 = p2 + mv22
2 2

The equation means that the sum of pressure and kinetic energy is constant for various points along the flow path. So a
decrease in pressure is compensated for by an increase in kinetic energy and vice versa. Since the kinetic energy is related to
the velocity, and since the mass is constant, an increase in kinetic energy would mean an increase in velocity, and a decrease in
kinetic energy would be a decrease in velocity.

The Bernoulli effect is used to explain wind pressures and air flow around a building or structure. The structure can be seen as
an obstruction in the path of the air flow. The flow must push the same volume of air through. The velocity is decreased when
the flow reaches the windward surface of a building, resulting in a pressure increase there and an inward positive pressure. The
flow velocity increases near the sides of the building, resulting in a drop of pressure on side walls or a negative outward
pressure there. The same effect is seen on the leeward surface that will receive an outward negative type of pressure or suction
effect. At some distance down the flow path, the air flow returns to its original unaltered state. Figure 1.5 shows the air flow
pattern around a building and the Bernoulli effect.

Figure 1.5 Air flow pattern around a building—Bernoulli effect.

1.8. Reynolds Number

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.8. Reynolds Number
A fluid flow experiences shear stresses in addition to the pressures described in the previous section. From Bernoulli's equation,
the fluid velocity induces a pressure on a body as explained earlier, leading to inertial forces. Viscosity makes the fluid adhere to
the body. The ratio between the inertial force and the friction or viscous force on a volume of fluid is referred to as the Reynolds
number of the flow and it is dimensionless. It is interpreted as the ratio of the dynamic pressure (ρV2 ) and the shear stress
(μV/L). The number is expressed as follows:

ρV 2
Re =
μV /L
ρV L
Re =
μ
VL
Re =
ν

where Re = Reynolds number of the flow

ρ = fluid density in lbm/ft3 (kg/m3 )

V = fluid velocity in ft/sec (m/s)

μ = fluid viscosity in lbm/sec ft (N⋅s/m2 )

L = linear dimension of the volume of fluid or traveled length of fluid in ft (m)

ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (μ/ρ) in ft2 /sec (m2 /s)

Reynolds number is used to predict flow patterns in a fluid and the transition of a flow from laminar to turbulent. It has some
important applications in fluid dynamics, such as in scaling effects like in the case between a reduced-scale model in a wind
tunnel and the full-scale version.

1.9. Boundary Layer

In Fig. 1.5, the air flow is deflected and also delayed as it passes near the side surfaces parallel to the air flow motion, due to
friction with these surfaces. The air velocity increases as the distance increases from side surfaces in a direction perpendicular
to them, and gradually regains its original value at some point. This is related to fluid viscosity. A similar effect takes place as
air flows near the ground surface. The air velocity gets reduced due to friction with the ground surface, and then it increases
with height from the ground. The boundary layer or atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is defined as the area between the ground
surface where air velocity is zero and the limit height where friction has no more effect on air flow, and where the air regains its
upper velocity limit. The height of the boundary layer above the earth varies with the degree of surface roughness. The boundary
layer effect is considered in wind engineering. The rough ground surface slows down the average flow, and it also creates
some mixing of flows, leading to turbulence or random wind speed fluctuations. Both effects are considered in wind
engineering applications.

1.10. Gradient Height

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.10. Gradient Height
The surface of the earth has different ranges of surface roughness. The earth surface is nearly flat at seas and oceans; other
areas have mountains and forests. Urban and suburban areas represent another degree of surface roughness influencing wind
velocities. So the height above the ground where the higher limit of wind velocity is reached depends on the degree of surface
roughness. The height above the ground where the influence of friction is diminished and is no longer significant in affecting
the air flow is referred to as the gradient height. This gradient height is function of surface roughness. As a general rule, it
increases as the surface roughness increases. A series of other factors have also an impact on the gradient height. These
factors include the viscosity of the air, pressure gradients of the atmosphere, air mass density, the latitude of the region, and
other factors that will not be discussed here.

Figure 1.6 illustrates the general wind speed profile near the ground surface.

Figure 1.6 General wind speed profile near the ground surface.

1.11. Wind Measurement

Various methods have been used to measure wind speed. A traditional and common way of measuring wind has been by using
a device called a cup anemometer. A sonic anemometer was also invented in 1994 that measures wind speed and direction
using sound waves. There are also other modern methods of measurement, such as inertial navigation and global positioning
systems.

First, the "fastest-mile wind speed" was used as a standard for wind measurement. This speed was measured by the time taken
by a 1-mile-long column of air to pass the cup anemometer device. This anemometer, which is still used today, consists of cups
that rotate horizontally with the wind, and a combination of wheels records the number of revolutions for a given time to
measure the wind speed. The "fastest-mile wind speed" was phased out many years ago by the National Weather Service, and
was replaced by the "3-second gust wind speed," which considers the effect of sudden and short wind gusts. Wind
measurements have been standardized at a height of 33 ft or 10 m. The "3-second gust wind speed" is the maximum 3-second
gust speed that is recorded at this standard height. This is the wind speed used today in the building codes and standards, as
discussed later.

1.12. Power Law

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.12. Power Law
The power law is at the basis of the methods used in the building codes and standards. It is a mathematical formula that has an
exponential form and can be generally expressed by

z 1/a
=( )
Vz
Vx X

where Vz = wind velocity at a height z above ground

VX = wind velocity at a height X above ground

a = constant related to ground surface conditions

The power law allows the calculation of wind speed at a certain height (z) above the ground using a known wind velocity at
another height (X) above the ground, and depending on the ground surface conditions. A height (X) of 33 ft (10 m) is of
particular importance since wind speed measurement has been standardized at this particular height, as mentioned in the
previous section.

Based on the general power law equation, another equation was developed that allows the calculation of wind speed at a
certain height for a particular (a) ground condition based on a known value of the wind speed at another height and for a
different a condition. This equation is given by

900 1/7 z 1/a

Vz = [V33( ) ]( )
33 zg

where V33 = wind velocity at a height of 33 ft above the ground

zg = gradient height corresponding to a particular a-value of 7

z = height for which the velocity is calculated for a different a-value

The number "900" is the gradient height for a particular surface roughness case, or a particular (a) condition.

The work of the wind researcher A. G. Davenport of the University of Western Ontario in Canada led to the definition ofa-values
for various terrain conditions, and became the basis of the applications and methods given in building codes and standards.
The value of 7 used for a in the equation corresponds to a terrain condition given by Davenport as "open slightly rolling
farmland" or "open grassland with few trees." See Davenport4 and Davenport et al.5

There is also another law used to define wind velocity profiles in the lower part of the boundary layer known as thelog law.

1.13. Surface Roughness Categories in Earlier Building Codes

and Standards

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
As explained in the previous section, values of the exponent 1/a were provided in the work of A. G. Davenport. The exponent
value varied from 1/10.5 for coastal waters to ½ for the center of a large city. The value of the exponent increased gradually
with a transition from smooth terrain conditions such as coastal waters to rougher terrain conditions, with the roughest
condition being similar to the center of a large city where tall obstructions such as high-rise buildings are encountered. The
values of the exponent were correlated with the fastest-mile wind velocities. They were changed later to correlate with the 3-
second gust velocities. In the earlier building codes and standards, four different terrain roughness conditions were used. Some
14 different roughness conditions were initially suggested in the work of Davenport.

Figure 1.7 illustrates wind velocity profiles function of terrain roughness.6 The general roughness conditions are urban,
suburban, open country, and very flat terrain. Although the main general form of the wind velocity profile is about the same, the
figure shows the variation in this profile function of terrain roughness.

Figure 1.7 Wind velocity profiles function of terrain roughness categories. (Wind Issues in Building
Design by Structural Wind Engineering Committee of ASCE; with permission from ASCE.)

Initially, "urban centers" were considered as Exposure Category A, "suburban areas" were considered as Exposure Category B,
"open terrain" was considered as Exposure Category C, and "coastal waters" were considered as Exposure Category D. These
terrain roughness conditions and exposure categories have changed in recent building codes and standards. Gradient height
values were also provided for the various exposure categories. This value is needed in order to determine the wind velocity at a
certain height and for a certain roughness condition according to the previous equation. Table 1.1 shows the gradient height
values (in feet) that were used for the four exposure categories mentioned above.

Table 1.1 Gradient Heights for the Four Exposure Categories

Terrain Roughness Exposure Category Gradient Height

Urban A 1500 ft (457 m)

Suburban B 1200 (366 m)

Open C 900 (274 m)

Coastal D 700 (213 m)

Based on the previous discussion, the main concepts used in wind engineering applications and building design can be
summarized. All buildings are generally within the boundary layer. The wind velocity varies exponentially with height above the
ground. This velocity is zero at the ground surface due to friction, and it reaches its maximum velocity at the gradient height.
The value of the gradient height increases as terrain roughness is increased.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.14. Surface Roughness and Exposure Categories of Recent
Codes and Standards
In recent codes and standards, surface roughness categories and exposure categories have changed compared to those
mentioned in the previous section. For instance, Exposure Category A is no longer used. The current ASCE 7-16 standard uses
three surface roughness categories along with three exposure categories (B, C, and D) instead of four.

A detailed description of these categories is given in later chapters of this book. Generally, Surface Roughness B and Exposure
Category B relate to urban and suburban areas. Surface Roughness D and Exposure Category D are used for flat, unobstructed
areas and water surfaces. Surface Roughness C and Exposure Category C are used where categories B and D do not apply.

The wind design methods according to the current building codes and standards are covered in detail in later chapters.

1.15. Wind Hazard Maps

The current IBC and the ASCE 7-16 standard provide wind hazard maps of the United States, with basic wind velocity contour
lines based on the 3-second gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground, for Exposure Category C and for various "Building
Occupancy or Risk Categories." The wind hazard map is used by designers to get the basic wind speed needed for the design
calculations. Wind speeds are given on the wind hazard maps in miles per hour (m/s). Older codes and standards used wind
maps based on fastest-mile wind data. The current wind hazard maps also show some "special wind regions." In these regions,
wind conditions can be different from those indicated on the map, and therefore these areas must be examined for unusual
wind conditions. In these cases, designers must use local wind data, and adjust the map wind values as necessary and possibly
for higher local wind speeds.

The Building Occupancy or Risk Categories mentioned earlier are given in the IBC, and are referred to asBuilding Risk
Categories in the 2015 edition of the IBC. The termBuilding Occupancy Categories was used in earlier versions of this code.
These categories refer to a certain building classification based on the type of occupancy or importance, and are discussed in
the next chapter.

For building design purposes, the wind velocity of importance is obviously the maximum one to be expected at a standard
height for a particular geographic location. Probability methods are utilized to predict wind data for design purposes. A
recurrence interval of 50 years is used on the wind hazard maps of the current codes and the ASCE 7 standard. On each map, a
percentage is given for the probability of exceeding the indicated basic wind velocities in 50 years. For example, basic wind
speeds given on the ASCE 7 wind map for Occupancy Category II have a 7% probability of exceedance in 50 years. In the past,
wind velocity maps given in building codes and standards have typically used recurrence intervals of 25, 50, and 100 years. The
most common, and the currently used, recurrence interval is 50 years.

Similar probability methods have been used for the determination of other structural loads such as snow and earthquake loads.
The concept of recurrence interval has been also utilized for those loads and it is now widely accepted in the design
community.

The wind hazard map and its uses in design methods are explained in further detail in later chapters of this book.

1.16. Types of Building Failures due to Wind and Lateral

Loads

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Building failures due to lateral or wind loads can occur in different ways. Generally, there are three different modes of failures:
uplift failure, overturning failure, and sliding or shearing failure.

An uplift failure occurs when the upward uplift forces become larger than the downward gravity loads and the forces of
attachment to the soil or foundation system. This type of failure is illustrated in Fig. 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Uplift failure of a structure.

An overturning failure occurs when the structure rotates off its foundation about a pivoting point on the side of the building. This
type of failure is caused by the moment of the lateral forces acting on the structure due to wind, which may also get combined
with lateral pressures from flood waters. When these active moments exceed the stabilizing resisting moment, an overturning
failure takes place. The stabilizing resisting moment is generally due to the structure's weight and passive soil pressures.
Figure 1.9 illustrates the concept of an overturning failure. Lightweight structures such as garages and manufactured homes
are especially vulnerable to this type of failure.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Figure 1.9 Overturning failure of a structure.

When the resultant of the lateral loads becomes larger than the foundation strength and the friction forces between the base of
footings and soil, a sliding or shearing failure occurs. In this case, a building can slide off its foundation system. The foundation
can also slide due to lateral loads. In a structure supported on piles, this type of failure can take place if the piles break. Erosion
and foundation scour can also remove the soil around piles and footings and make the foundation system vulnerable to sliding.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the principle of sliding or shearing failure.

Figure 1.10 Sliding or shearing failure of a structure.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
These types of failures can lead to the entire collapse of a structure in some cases. The process of a structural failure is
generally progressive where the failure of one structural member can lead to the failure of other members until the structure
becomes unstable and collapses. When certain members fail, the load path is broken, and forces are no longer transmitted
properly from one structural element to the other.

1.17. Structural Dynamics—Flexible and Rigid Structures

Buildings are structurally designed for wind-induced loads and wind-induced motions. The motion issue is mostly a
serviceability matter in design. Generally, on a typical building, wind forces are considered as horizontal loads, and are divided
into three different types: along-wind loads, across-wind loads, and torsional loads. Figure 1.11 illustrates the building response
to wind and how these loads are applied. Each one of these forces has two components: a static one and a dynamic one.
Generally, the static component is the principal and most important component. In buildings with large roof, the "uplift" wind
force on the roof is also generally significant.

Figure 1.11 Building response to wind.

The behavior of flexible structures under wind loads is different from that of rigid structures. Flexible structures are subject to
dynamic effects that involve motions, and this includes resonant amplification effects. For instance, the effect on a bridge of
soldiers marching on it at a frequency equal to the fundamental frequency of vibration of the bridge is well-known.

In order to estimate the wind loads on flexible structures, a dynamic analysis must be performed that includes the effect of the
resonant response. The dynamic response of a structure is related to Newton's second law, which states that the product of the
mass by the acceleration is equal to the force applied to that mass. For flexible structures, the dynamic response can be
obtained by using frequency domain approaches. For example, the fluctuating wind forces acting on a structure can be linearly
connected to the fluctuating wind speeds, and defined in a similar fashion, thus leading to a solution for the response in the
frequency domain.

Generally, the response of a structure to wind forces can be divided into three components:

1. A static part of the response which is the mean component.

2. A fluctuating dynamic response due to the components of the wind loads that have frequencies different from the natural
frequency of the structure.

3. A fluctuating dynamic response due to the components of the wind loads that have frequencies either equal or close to the
natural frequency of the structure.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
As indicated above, the resonant effect must be considered for flexible structures. However, in rigid structures, this resonant
effect is insignificant and can be neglected.

The ASCE 7-16 standard defines flexible and rigid buildings and structures in Chap. 26. It defines flexible buildings or
structures as "slender buildings and other structures that have a fundamental natural frequency of less than 1 Hz." It defines a
rigid building or structure as "a building or other structure whose fundamental natural frequency is greater than or equal to 1
Hz."

1.18. Aeroelasticity
A structural motion induced by a flow can change the flow in a way that can consequently affect structural motions.Self-exited
structural motions are motions that change the aerodynamic effect of the flow on a building or structure, and their behavior is
generally referred to as aeroelastic. Aeroelasticity can be briefly described as the science that examines interactions between
aerodynamic, elastic, and inertia forces.

A famous example of aeroelastic behavior is the flutter of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Tacoma, Washington, which was
a suspension bridge that collapsed in November 1940 under a 40-mph (64-km/h) wind due to aeroelastic flutter.

The aeroelastic study of buildings and other structures is based mostly on empirical modeling and testing.

The interaction between flow and body can have either a destabilizing or a stabilizing effect due to energy transfer.

1.19. Vortex-Induced Oscillations, Flutter, and Galloping

Vortex shedding can create fluctuating lift forces that can lead to motion especially in flexible bodies. If the motion is small, it
will not affect the vortex shedding. If the frequency of the vortex shedding and that of the related lift force is equal to the natural
frequency of vibration of the body, then a resonant amplification can follow.

Flutter affects mostly structures or bodies that are flexible and flat in form. It is an aeroelastic behavior characterized by
oscillations that increase in time which can lead to structural collapses. Flutter does not generally affect buildings, but it can be
a serious concern in bridge structures as mentioned earlier in the case of the collapse of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge. It is
therefore of interest to structural engineers.

Galloping is an aeroelastic behavior that is related to bodies and elements of certain cross-sectional forms such as some types
of cylinders or prisms. It is an oscillation of relatively large amplitude that can be up to ten times or more the cross-sectional
dimension of the element. The oscillation happens in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the flow velocity affecting the
body.

Issues related to structural dynamics and aeroelasticity are out of the scope of this book. Readers may refer to other textbooks
that deal with these topics in more detail.7

1.20. References
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.20. References
1. 2015 IBC, International Building Code, International Code Council, Inc., 2014.

2. 2015 IRC, International Residential Code, International Code Council, Inc., 2014.

3. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-16, American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), 2017.

4. The Relationship of Wind Structure to Wind Loading, Davenport, A. G., Proceedings of the Symposium on Wind Effects on
Buildings and Structures, Vol. I, 53–102, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, U.K., Her Majesty's Stationary Office,
London, 1965.

5. A Simplified Model of Wind Pressure Coefficients for Low-Rise Buildings, Davenport, A. G., Stathopoulos, T., Surry, D. A.,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Structural Safety & Reliability, ICOSSAR 85, 1985.

6. Wind Issues in the Design of Buildings, Structural Wind Engineering Committee of the Technical Council on Wind Engineering
of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), edited by Leighton Cochran, 2012.

7. Design of Buildings for Wind—A Guide for ASCE 7-10 Standard Users and Designers of Special Structures, Simiu, Emil, Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.