Accidental Loads.

Accidental or abnormal loads are those considered to have such a low

probability of occurrence as not to warrant inclusion in design. Such loads include violent changes
in air pressure from high explosives or service system explosion; accidental impact from vehicles,
aircraft, or a crane; faulty practice such as gross construction errors, unauthorized structural
alteration, or lack of maintenance; fire; flood; tornado; severe subsidence or erosion of
foundations; and hail and snow in areas not normally exposed to them.

No structure can be expected to resist all abnormal loads without damage, but the damage
incurred should not be disproportionate to the original cause. Damage should not spread to
locations in the structure remote from the original cause, that is, progressive collapse should not
occur.

The appropriate degree of confinement of consequential damage depends on the structure and its
occupancy. In many cases, it will be sufficient if the damage is confined to spans immediately
adjacent to and floors immediately above and below the incident. Although consequences of
progressive collapse may be more severe in high-rise buildings, the principle of damage control
should be applied to all buildings. This can often be achieved by good design and detailing at no
extra construction cost.

Three ways of dealing with accidental loading are: reduce the probability of accidental loading,
generally employ good design practices, and carry out quantitative design. The probability of
accidental loading can be reduced, for example, by preventing vehicle impact by the use of
landscaping pylons, by providing adequate venting to areas where explosive materials are stored
or used, and by adequate building maintenance.

Good design includes providing lateral support to loadbearing elements in the form of intersecting
walls, buttresses, and returns and providing alternative load paths utilizing continuous
construction and adequate tying of other building components together. For masonry in
particular, significant advantages can be gained by this approach. Many examples exist, such as
shown in Fig. 3.8, where masonry has been able to bridge over large damaged areas by arching
action. In important cases, specific checks should be made to ensure that the structure can remain
stable after damage. In such cases, ultimate strength methods of design with reduced load factors
are appropriate.

Accidental loading, by definition, cannot be adequately dealt with by codes or regulations.

Designers, therefore, have a particular responsibility in all of their work to consider the possibility
of abnormal load conditions and to take reasonable steps to minimize the consequences.

Other Loads and Effects. Various other loads and actions such as earth pressure, groundwater
pressure, and liquid pressure may need to be considered in designing a structure. Also,
consideration should be given to loads that can occur during construction. Construction loads can
be critical because of incomplete restraint of masonry elements and lower strength of recently laid
masonry. Progressive collapse has a higher probability of occurring during construction and
temporary bracing of walls may be necessary (see Chap. 15).

Differential movements of foundations can result from frost heave, seasonal moisture change in
expansive soils, and uneven settlement. These movements plus temperature change, shrinkage,
expansion, and creep are effects that can induce large forces in a structure. Figure 3.9 illustrates
forces and cracking generated due to restraint of movement from shrinkage of masonry wall.

Masonry walls with openings are particularly susceptible to these movements, which often cause
cracks to propagate from the corners of the openings. As discussed in Chap. 15, an effective
approach to accommodate movement without damage to walls with openings is to separate the
wall sections at the window and door openings over the full story or building height. Advice on
spacing and detailing of movement joints is also given in this chapter.

Of particular concern is the case where clay masonry is built within a surrounding concrete frame.
The effects of expanding clay masonry and shrinking concrete are compounded, and, as shown in
Fig. 3.10, the infill can develop high compressive forces in both vertical and horizontal directions
while the concrete frame is correspondingly stressed in tension. Figure 3.11, showing cracking
through the full depth of a beam, is a classic example of just such a situation.

Precautions should also be taken to ensure that movements of nonmasonry elements do not
damage adjacent masonry. Such movements include the thermal expansion and contraction of
roof trusses and roof slabs, shrinkage and creep of concrete slabs or frames, and the creep or long-
term deflections and rotations of connecting or supporting members.

Combinations of loads and Other Effects. Several of the previous loads and other effects can
occur simultaneously and the combined effects on the structure must be considered. However,
because it is unlikely that the maximum value of each type of load will occur at the same time,
increased permissible stresses or reduced load factors are appropriate for some combinations. For
example, a factor of 0.75 is usually applied to the combined effects of dead and live loads plus
either wind or earthquake load. Under combined loading, most masonry structures are subjected
simultaneously to axial loads, in-plane lateral loads, and out-of-plane lateral loads. In some cases,
such as combined bending and axial load, the combination of loads may be less critical than the
individual loads, and, therefore, it is necessary to establish whether the loads are dependent or
independent of each other. An example of a critical load combination is bending moment from
wind with no live load and only the minimum dead load present. Just such a situation does occur
for tension-controlled flexural capacity where axial compression is effectively a beneficial
prestress.

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

A building can be structurally soun but fail to provide a satisfactory internal environment. In the
extreme, a building may be abandoned and demolished because it is functionally unacceptable.
Fortunately, problems with the internal environments created by some buildings do not usually
have such drastic consequences. Nevertheless, the thermal and acoustic characteristics of work or
living spaces and the adequacy of light and access have important influences on the physical and
mental well being of the occupants. In addition, health and safety are dependent upon the ability
of the building to exclude moisture and to resist fire.

In this section, the general environmental requirements in relation to temperature, sound,

moisture, and fire for masonry building are briefly considered. These topics are covered in greater
depth in Chap. 14
3.3.1 Temperature Control

Thermal considerations for buildings include the comfort of users and the energy requirements of
heating and air conditioning equipment. Such considerations can influence building orientation
and configuration, color and texture of surfaces, window size, orientation and position, and
structural system used. Heat gain or loss in a building is dependent upon many factors, including
transmission through roof and floors and air flow through openings, but emphasis is given here to
the role of masonry walls.

One of the obvious functions for masonry walls forming part of the building envelope is to provide
some degree of thermal insulation between the interior and exterior environments. Heat is gained
or lost through exterior walls by conductance. Masonry materials have fairly high conductivities or,
in other words, the thermal resistances of masonry walls are not high. However, the thermal
resistance can be increased by several means. Resistance increases as density of the material
decreases; hence, a wall’s resistance is increased by using masonry units made of less dense or
aerated materials. A rough surface on a unit traps a thicker air film at the surface and increases
resistance. Resistance can also be increased by increasing the length of the transmission path by
using thicker walls or by using hollow or cored units. Overall resistance of a wall system can be
improved by introducing an air space. Incorporating insulation in the cavity or in cores of units or
on the inside face of the wall further increases overall thermal resistance. Insulating the cavity
may require the cavity size to be increased with the consequent need to use stiffer wall ties or
design each wythe independently to resist lateral loads.

In areas where the outside daily temperature remains fairly constant, for example, in some
tropical areas or some very cold areas, the performance of the wall is very largely determined by
its insulation value. For these cases, a static analysis of thermal performance of the walls is valid.

On the other hand, where there is even a mild change between day and night temperatures, the
thermal inertia effect of the wall can dominate. (A wall with high thermal inertia will be slow to
heat up and slow to cool down). For these cases, a dynamic thermal analysis is required as a static
analysis will seriously underestimate the thermal performance of a masonry wall. Thermal inertia
increases with increasing density, mass, and specific heat, but decreases with increasing
conductance. The high density and mass of masonry walls means that they have high thermal
inertia. It is this property of the external masonry walls that greatly improves their thermal
performance by reducing the variation of the inside temperature over a 24 hour period. Heat is
stored as temperature rises and is released as temperature drops, thus reducing heating and
cooling loads. The thermal inertia of internal masonry walls, not part of the building envelope,
increases this effect, thus further reducing inside temperature fluctuations.

It is this property of masonry walls, sometimes referred to as thermal mass, that can be utilized in
both passive and active solar-heating design of rooms or buildings.

3.3.2 Sound Control

It is desirable to limit both the amount of sound within a room that is reflected by walls and also
the amount that passes through walls to adjacent areas, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.12

Reduction of sound within a room is determined by the sound-absorption properties of the wall
surface. The greater the porosity of the material and the rougher the surface texture, the more
sound will be absorbed by the surface. Hence, masonry units with an open structure and a split or
rough face or special units with surface slots can be used to control reflected noise within a room.
Hard smooth surfaces obtained by plastering and painting can give an undesirably high level of
reflected sound. Sound levels within a room can be greatly modified by changing acoustical
properties of the ceiling, floor coverings, and furnishings.

Sound may be transmitted through a wall by forced vibrations or by porosity mechanisms. Impact
sound is passed through a wall by forced vibrations alone. Cushioning the impact will reduce the
impact at the source. The degree of sound insulation against forced vibrations offered by a wall
depends upon its inertia or mass, its stiffness, and its internal damping properties. An intervening
air space may also isolate forced vibrations. Airborne sound passes through a wall by both forced
vibration and porosity mechanisms. Hence structural walls often have masonry units selected on
the basis of porosity, density, and surface texture as well as strength.

Noise control can be greatly enhanced by proper building layout, as is discussed in Chap. 14.

3.3.3 Moisture Control

The building envelope, including the masonry walls, is required to act as a barrier to prevent the
ingress of unwanted moisture into the building. Sources of moisture from outside the building
include rain and snow, water vapor contained in the air, and groundwater. Poor workmanship in
construction of the building envelope or subsequent cracking of the masonry in service can result
in the penetration of rain through the walls to cause dampness on the inside surface, particularly
under high winds. The addition of an outer wythe of masonry to the building envelope to form a
drained cavity can be used to help resist wind-driven rain, as discussed in Chaps. 12 and 14.
Groundwater can soak through basement walls or be drawn into walls above ground by capillary
action. Water vapor in the air can infiltrate through the walls, condense in cavities, and then soak
through to the inside surface. Dampness in masonry is often accompanied by efflorescence- the
deposition of while salts on the surface of the masonry as the moisture evaporates.

There is a long history of problems caused by water vapor condensation in masonry walls due to
air leakage and vapor transmission. However, the phenomenon is well understood and practices
are available that, if properly followed, result in a watertight and durable building. Where
dampness or deterioration occurs in walls, it is commonly due to inadequate design, poor
detailing, poor workmanship, inappropriate use of materials, lack of maintenance, or a
combination of these factors. Flashings, cavities, vapor barriers, air barriers, waterproofing
membranes, and sealants are commonly used to improve the moisture resistance of a wall.
However, these can influence its structural behavior where, for example, flashing at the base of a
wall changes the lateral support conditions of the walls.

More detailed information on moisture control is given in Chap. 14.

3.3.4 Fire Control

Fire is one of the major causes of loss of life and loss of property, and all buildings should be
designed and assessed with regard to fire safety. Although it is desirable to minimize fire damage
costs, the main concern is for the safety of occupants.

In a balanced approach to the problem of fire, there are four basic ways of reducing fire risk to
occupants and fire fighters. First, materials can be selected that reduce the risk of fire. This is
accomplished by reducing the amount of combustible material present and excluding materials
that generate excessive smoke. Masonry, being noncombustible, is excellent in this regard.
Second, an early waring system for both occupants and fire fighters can be provided by smoke and
combustion detectors. Then, once the fire has started, the occupants must be able to find a safe
haven, either in fire-resistant compartments within the building or by escape to the outside.
Tenable conditions, practically smoke-free, must be maintained in these fire compartments and in
the escape routes for a significant period of time during a fire emergency. Masonry is commonly
used for this purpose, even where the structural system is not masonry. Sprinkler system, fire
fighting facilities, acces for fire fighters, and other means to assist in extinguishing the fire should
be provided. This balanced concept provides a backup to detection and fire fighting systems.

Building regulations at national or local levels usually prescribe the minimum fire ratings to be
used in a building, depending upon building type, wall function, etc. Tabulated values of fire
ratings are also often given for common wall types (see Chap. 14)

In North America, the standard test used to determine fire ratings, although common, is fairly
crude. Like all standard tests, the standard fire test is not intended to accurately represent the
performance of masonry members in actual fires, although to a limited extent test conditions are
typical for a member in service. Basically, it provides a means of comparing performance of
different components and systems. The fire rating, like the compressive strength test for masonry,
gives the value of an important parameter that should be modified by many factors in practical
application.

A fully rational approach to design for fire would involve three phases. First is an estimation of the
fire load to which a member could be exposed based on the amount of combustible material
available, the likely combustion rate, and similar factors. Second is an evaluation of the required
performance of the masonry member. For example, isolated piers and walls containing large
unprotected openings cannot contain the spread of fire, and in these cases, the walls need only to
have structural adequacy. Masonry providing fire protection to a steel column must satisfy both
structural adequacy and insulation criteria.

Finally, an assessment of the fire resistance of the wall (insulation, structural adequacy, or both, as
required) must take into account the thermal properties of the materials, the form and dimensions
of the member, the support and restraint conditions to the member, the applied forces, and any
applied finishes.

Although such an approach is not yet fully available, developments in this direction are occurring.
For example, the Australian masonry code AS3700-1988 separates requirements for insulation and
structural adequacy. It gives maximum slenderness ratios (taking into account support and
restraint conditions of the member) that ensure structural adequacy for given fire resistance
periods.
3.4 AESTHETICS

For a building to be fully functional, both the building as a whole and the habitable spaces within
must satisfy human aesthetic needs. Visual comfort can be just as important as physical comfort.

Internally, a pleasing and adequately lit working or living environment can be created by
assembling masonry units of various textures, colors, sizes, and patterns into masonry elements
that form open or closed spaces. The rectangular format of the masonry unit is most simply and
logically extended to form rectangular wall elements that are either simple or compound. These
elements in turn are easily and logically extended to form rectilinear spaces, either simple or
complex, that are pleasing, functional, and stable. Furthermore, despite its rectangular shape, the
small size of the masonry unit and the hand-built site-placed character of masonry enables
curvilinear elements to be readily built. This feature accommodates a wide range of interesting
building shapes. When viewed from nearby, the masonry units establish a subtle reference pattern
that imparts a comfortable human scale to the enclosed space. This pattern can be accentuated by
varying the color of both the units and mortar, by recessing joints, or by using wall lighting to form
a decorative background for plants, furnishings, etc.

The external appearance of a building usually consists of a combination of a limited number of

geometric forms organized in a pleasing visual relationship with a sensitivity to scale, proportion,
symmetry, gradation, and repetition. In masonry buildings, the external appearance can be
intimately linked to the internal division of space and structural action, or completely mask it. For
example, in framed construction, the nonloadbearing nature of masonry infill panels can be
expressed visually by exposing and emphasizing the framing elements or the masonry can
completely cover the frame so as to make it externally indistinguishable from a loadbearing
building. Similarly, polychromatic masonry (using masonry units of different color) can define
patterns on external walls that may or may not relate to the internal structure. These points are
illustrated in Fig. 3.13

The two essential structural elements in masonry buildings are the loadbearing masonry walls and
the floor system. The appearance of the building is largely determined by the relative emphasis
given to these elements. Expression of the loadbearing walls gives a vertical emphasis to the
building, whereas expression of the horizontal loadbearing elements, the floors, gives a horizontal
emphasis to the building. Intermediate treatments are possible where both horizontal and vertical
lines have a similar emphasis.

From afar, the individual identity of the masonry units is lost to the larger building elements and
the treatment of windows has an important role in conveying the desired visual impression. As
shown in Fig. 3.14(a), the continuous vertical lines of windows can minimize the impression of
horizontal floors and accentuate the vertical loadbearing elements. An expansive of glass between
exposed floors minimizes the impression of vertical load-carrying members (see Fig. 3.14 (b)).
Punched windows in the masonry wall allow varying weight to be given to vertical and horizontal
elements and can provide a neutral impression, as shown in Fig 3.14(c). Windows at the top of the
panels in framed construction, as shown in Fig. 3.13(a), add to the feeling that the panels are
nonloadbearing.
Large windows set at the face of the masonry give the impression of lightness of construction,
windows set back from the face create shadows that can accentuate their presence, and small
windows recessed into the masonry give the impression of massive construction. These points are
illustrated in Fig. 3.15

Many decisions made on the basis of aesthetics have other consequences that must be evaluated
in reaching decisions. For example, window treatment in an end wall will determine whether or
not it behaves structurally as a coupled shear wall. The raking of joints to emphasize the modular
nature of masonry will reduce the strength of the masonry and can increase susceptibility to
moisture penetration and corrosion.

3.5 INTEGRATION OF REQUIREMENTS

Integration of all building requirements is needed to achieve good quality and economical
buildings. Inevitably, the integration of structural, environmental, aesthetic, and other
requirements eventually occurs in construction of the building. This integration will be poor if the
planning of the separate requirements has been carried out in isolation. Poor integration is
evidenced by such things as electrical conduits and water pipes mounted on wall surfaces;
exposed heating and air conditioning ducts passing through unplanned holes in the walls at
structurally sensitive locations; unsightly coverstrips, sealants, leakage, or stains at connections
that have been poorly designed or improvised on-site; an unsatisfactory living or working
environment resulting from poor acoustics, poor lighting, or an uncomfortable climate.

Integration of functions will be best achieved if there is close collaboration between the various
professionals involved in the project. Good integration of requirements is evidenced by placing
electrical and water services in wall cavities, the cells of hollow units, or casting within floor slabs;
by placing air conditioning ducts within ceiling spaces or service shafts or exposing them with
architectural effect with properly designed penetrations through walls and floors; by neatly
designing connections that fit in with the masonry coursing, are waterproof, and do not lead to
staining of the masonry; by a pleasing external appearance; by a well-lit, quiet, pleasant, and
comfortable working or living internal environment. Although good integration of functions may
add to the initial design cost, the solving of poor integration problems on-site during construction
can lead to large costs associated with delays, demolition, reconstruction, construction cost
“extras,” increased maintenance, and the reduced value of the building.

Traditionally, the task of integrating the various requirements for masonry buildings has been the
province of the architect. In loadbearing construction, particularly high-rise construction, the
structural engineer must be involved from the early planning stages. Because the building
contractor is not usually engaged until planning is complete, his important contribution only
becomes available at a late stage. Increasingly, it is being realized for all buildings that the input of
those familiar with construction management and construction methods is essential at the
planning and design stages for optimum integration of functions. It is at these early stages of the
project that decisions are made that are likely to have a major influence on construction methods
and project costs.

The terms “buildability” and “constructibility” are now being used to refer to the optimum
integration of construction knowledge and experience into the planning and design phases of a
project. However, a well-thought-out rational design can result in an expensive and poor-quality
building if its construction is poorly managed, whereas, an inadequate design can be partially
remedied by competent construction management. Ideally, achieving constructibility or
buildability is a continuing process that brings together the expertise of the various designers,
builders, contractors, and trades people from the inception of the project to its completion. Its
concern is with cost, time, and quality objectives.

Such elements of constructibility that the masonry contractor or tradesman can advise on are:
construction-driven planning and design; preferred masonry systems; optimum work sequences;
industrial relations implications; safety of construction; practicality of technical specifications and
documentation; construction details and mockups; site training of masons for special
requirements; detailed drawing of service penetrations; modular layouts and dimensional
coordination; standardization and repetition of construction details; construction under adverse
weather conditions; achievable tolerances; accessibility during construction; procurement of
materials; and quality control.

It is clear that the three professionals involved in a building project (architect, engineer, and
builder) judge building quality differently. The architect views quality in terms of aesthetics and
the degree to which the building fulfills the client’s functional requirements. Quality is determined
by periodic visual inspections of the finished product by the architect and (for aesthetic judgment)
comparison with sample masonry panels constructed for that purpose at the beginning of the
project. The engineer views quality in terms of the adequacy of the structure and building services.
In this case, quality is determined by inspection and quantitative testing of materials and
components during construction. The builder assesses quality in terms of constructibility or
buildability and the functional performance of the building as a whole and in particular the
building envelope. To ensure that the quality requirements of the architect and engineer are likely
to be met during construction, the builder generally provides a supervisor to ensure that the
correct materials, proportions, procedures, and workmanship are being employed on a day-to-
day- basis.

These different approaches should be integrated in a quality-assurance scheme. Quality assurance

is a management tool, defined as those planned and systematic actions necessary to assure all
concerned that the finished building will perform its intended function. A quality-assurance
scheme involves planning those actions necessary to be taken in relation to quality, carrying out
those actions, documenting the actions, and resolving any noncomplying conditions. It
incorporates quality control, which is a production tool to measure and control the physical
properties of materials and the construction methods in quantitative terms.

In summary, the involvement of architect, engineer, and builder is ideally required at an early
stage of the project if the various building requirements are to be successfully integrated in the
planning and design of the building. These professionals should also be integrated into a quality-
assurance scheme to ensure that the constructed building achieves the design requirements.

3.6 PLANNING THE BUILDING

The need for the integration of structural, environmental, aesthetic, and constructional
requirements of a building from project inception to completion was generally considered before.
Here, the specific implications for the planning phase of masonry building are discussed in some
detail. Consideration is first given to the form, elevation, and plan of the building, followed by wall
configurations and layouts, floors and roofs, connections of elements, and foundations.

3.6.1 Building Form

The external form of a building is largely determined by the type of internal space required such as
office, commercial, industrial, or residential and can be single or multistory of either framed or
loadbearing wall construction.

Planning of a building usually involves development of a building module that is the least common
denominator that fits into optimum room sizes and other elements such as standard windows,
ceiling and lighting modules. For masonry construction the building module adopted should take
into account the dimensions of the masonry unit or units to be used. The basic module for
masonry is 4 in. (100 mm) and conformance with multiples of this module should include the
actual height of the units plus the thickness of bed joints (usually 3/8 in (10 mm)). Heights of door
and window openings and the clear story height between floors should be compatible with this
modular characteristic. Where double wythe walls of different units are used, the course heights
of both the wythes should preferably correspond at the opening heights. Use of adjustable ties
between wythes has reduced the importance of having courses heights correspond at more
frequent intervals to allow rigid wall ties or headers to be installed. Adjustable ties must be
sufficiently stiff to connect the wythes.

The modular length of a unit is its actual length plus the thickness of a head joint. Lengths of walls
and widths of openings in the wall should correspond to a multiple of the half-modular length for a
half-running bond or a third-modular length for a third-running bond, and so on. The usual 3/8 in.
(10 mm) mortar joint can be varied slightly to give a building module that fits the building
dimensions better and minimizes the need to cut units. Masons often adjust the joint thickness on
site to suit the planned dimensions, and this is normally quite acceptable if uniformly carried out.
However, making joints too thick or too thin can lead to inferior masonry, and in such cases, it is
better to cut the units.

In framed construction, the spacing of the framing members should be based on the modular
dimensions of the masonry cladding or infill walls. Modular planning results in more economical
construction and a more pleasing appearance than when units have to be specially cut.
Nevertheless, units can be readily cut for special purposes where necessary. Apart from these
considerations, the form of a framed building is largely determined by the capabilities of the steel
or concrete framing members.

In loadbearing masonry building, whether they be single or multistory, the walls serve as structural
elements to support or resist loads, as architectural elements to divide or enclose space, or as a
finish material. Within economic constraints, both the geometric configuration and structural form
are determined by a complex interplay of requirements for functional space, environmental
comfort, structural strength, and architectural expression. A comprehensive treatment is not
intended here, however, some factors influencing the elevation, plan, and wall layout of
loadbearing masonry buildings are considered.

3.6.2 Elevation