Thermal Lab Manual Guide

BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
THERMAL LABORATORY MANUAL
PREPARED BY:
Jemanesh Awol
Tesfa Nega
2012 E.C, BAHIR DAR, ETHIOPIA

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. The fluids
may be in direct contact with each other or separated by a solid wall. Heat Exchangers can be
classified based on its principle of operation and the direction of flow. The temperatures of
the fluids change in the direction of flow and consequently there occurs a change in the
thermal head causing the flow of heat. In this laboratory manual different types of laboratory
heat exchangers are described along their objective with their respective laboratory
procedures. Those equipment are shell and tube heat exchanger, evaporators and thermal
conductivity.
The Shell and Tube exchanger allows the measurement of hot and cold water temperatures at
different points within the exchanger. The base unit and the exchanger are joined by flexible
tubes so cold and hot water will circulate freely through the exchanger.
The tube side is used for the fluid that is more likely to foul the walls, or more corrosive, or
for the fluid with the higher pressure (less costly). Cleaning of the inside of the tubes is
easier than cleaning the outside. When a gas or vapor is used as a heat exchange fluid, it is
typically introduced on the shell side. Also, high viscosity liquids, for which the pressure
drop for flow through the tubes might be prohibitively large, can be introduced on the shell
side.
Evaporation is an operation used to remove a liquid from a solution, suspension, or emulsion
by boiling off some of the liquid. It is thus a thermal separation, or thermal concentration,
process. We define the evaporation process as one that starts with a liquid product and ends
up with a more concentrated main product from the process. There are actually a few
instances where the evaporated, volatile component is the main product, but we will not
discuss that here.
In most cases it is essential that the product be subject to minimal thermal degradation during
the evaporation process, requiring that temperature and time exposure must be minimized.
This and other requirements brought on by the physical characteristics of the processed
product have resulted in the development of a large range of different evaporator types.
Additional demands for energy efficiency and minimized environmental impact have driven
development toward very innovative plant configurations and equipment design.
In the field of thermal separation / concentration technology, evaporation plants are widely
used for concentration of liquids in the form of solutions, suspensions, and emulsions.
The major requirement in the field of evaporation technology is to maintain the quality of the
liquid during evaporation and to avoid damage to the product. This may require the liquid to
be exposed to the lowest possible boiling temperature for the shortest period of time.
This and numerous other requirements and limitations have resulted in a wide variation of
designs available today. In almost all evaporators the heating medium is steam, which heats a
product on the other side of a heat transfer surface. The following list contains the
descriptions of thermostat common types of evaporators.
Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a heated item to a cooler item. When an
object or fluid is at a different temperature than its surroundings or another object, transfer of
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thermal energy, also known as heat transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the
body and the surroundings reach thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer always occurs from a hot
body to a cold one, a result of the second law of thermodynamics. Where there is a
temperature difference between objects in proximity, heat transfer between them can never be
stopped; it can only be slowed down. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature through direct molecular
communication within a medium or between mediums indirect physical contact without a
flow of the material medium. The transfer of energy could be primarily by elastic impact as
in fluids or by free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or phonon vibration as
predominant in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent
atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from atom to atom.
Conduction is greater in solids, where atoms are in constant close contact. In liquids (except
liquid metals) and gases, the molecules are usually further apart, giving a lower chance of
molecules colliding and passing on thermal energy. Heat conduction is directly analogous to
diffusion of particles into a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents. This type
of heat diffusion differs from mass diffusion in behavior, only in as much as it can occur in
solids, whereas mass diffusion is mostly limited to fluids. Metals (eg. copper) are usually the
best conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals are chemically bonded:
metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons and form a
crystalline structure, greatly aiding in the transfer of thermal energy. As density decreases so
does conduction. Therefore, fluids (and especially gases) are less conductive. Thermal
conductivity is a material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase,
temperature, density, and molecular bonding.
Cleanliness and Safety
Cleanliness
There are certain rules that the user of the laboratory should be aware of and abide by.
The first rule is that every equipment should be cleaned after every experiment. In thermal
lab most of the equipment’s use water on the equipment and or the floor. If no one cleaned up
his working area after performing an experiment, the lab would not be a comfortable or safe
place to work in. No student appreciates walking up to and working with a piece of
equipment that another student or group of students has left in mess. Consequently, students
are required to clean up their area at the conclusion of the performance of laboratory work.
Clean up will include removal of spilled water or any liquid, and wiping the tabletop on
which the equipment is mounted. The laboratory should always be clean or cleaner than it
was when you entered. Finally, cleaning the laboratory equipment’s is the responsibility of
the user.
Safety
The layout of the equipment and storage cabinet in thermal laboratory involves resolving
variety of conflicting problems. This includes traffic flow, emergency facilities, exit location
and etc…. The goal is to implement safety requirements without impending egress, but still
allowing adequate workplace and necessary informal communication opportunities.
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Students are encouraged to handle equipment safety and to be aware of, and avoid being
victims of hazardous situations. Students should properly dress for the laboratory work.
Wearing overcoats and closed shoes is mandatory for attending the laboratory session.
Students will not be permitted to the lab sessions unless they are properly dressed.
PART ONE
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER MANUAL
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1 Introduction to shell and tube heat Exchanger
The EDIBON Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger allows the study of heat transfer between hot
water flowing through an internal tube and cold water flowing in the annular area lying
between the internal and external tubes.
The equipment consists of two parts: the base unit and Shell and tube
1.1. Tube exchanger.
The base unit performs the following functions:
i. Water heating
ii. Cold and hot water flow measurement.
iii. Hot water pumping.
iv. Changing the direction of the cold water flows.
The Shell and Tube exchanger allows the measurement of hot and cold water temperatures at
different points within the exchanger. The base unit and the exchanger are joined by flexible
tubes so cold and hot water will circulate freely through the exchanger.
2 Working principle and equipment description
2.1 Hot water circuit

Hot water flows through a closed circuit. An electrical resistance (AR-1) immersed in the
tank heats the water to a certain temperature (ST-16). Water leaves the tank and is driven by a
pump (AB-1) into the exchanger. Some water enters the exchanger and some returns to the
tank via a bypass. To facilitate this, there is a bypass valve (AVR1). Water is cooled along
the exchanger then flows through a flow sensor (SC-1) as it exits, and later flows back into
the heating tank and restarts the cycle. For drainage and control of hot water, the circuit is
equipped with 4 ball valves: 2 at the base unit (AV-1 and AV-6) and 2 at the inlet and outlet
of the exchanger.
2.2 Cold water circuit
Cooling water enters from the main supply system, goes through a flow control valve (AVR-
2) then through a pressure regulator programmed at 0.5 bar to avoid any excess pressure on
the equipment. Before entering the exchanger, it goes through a flow sensor (SC-2) then into
the exchanger where it is heated. Water exits the exchanger and flows to the drainage system.
Cold water may enter the exchanger through either end. Depending on the configuration of
the valves (AV-2, AV-3, AV-4 and AV-5) we may obtain parallel or counter-current flow.
This setup can be observed in the following picture or on the sticker of the base unit.
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Figure 2.1: flow arrangement of shell and tube heat exchanger
Counter-current flow
AV-2 Valve Closed
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AV-3 Valve Opened
AV-4 Valve Opened
AV-5 Valve Closed
Parallel flow
AV-2 Valve Opened
AV-3 Valve Closed
AV-4 Valve Closed
AV-5 Valve Opened
2.3. Heat exchanger
It consists of a group of tubes inside the heat exchanger. The hot water flows through the
internal tubes and cooling water circulates through the space between the internal and the
external tubes. There are traverse baffles placed in the external tube to guide the cold water
and maximize the heat transfer.
The exchanger has 8 thermocouples placed strategically: 5 for measuring cold water
temperature (ST-3, ST-4, ST-5, ST-6 y ST-7), 2 for measuring hot water temperature (ST-1
and ST-2), and 1 for measuring the temperature inside the heating tank (ST-16).
2.3 Control system
The temperature of the water tank (ST-16) can be regulated through the PID in the software;
it is limited to 65OC. Cold water flow is regulated by the control valve (AVR-2) on the base
unit. Hot water flow is regulated by the pump’s speed, which is controlled in the software,
and by the bypass valve (AVR-1).
Points 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent the connections of the flexible tubes joining the exchanger with
the base unit.
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Figure 2.1: Control system of shell and tube heat exchanger
Identification of the elements available in the TICT unit:
Identification description
ST-16 Water Tank Temperature Sensor
ST-1 Hot Water Temperature Sensor at the inlet of the exchanger
ST-2 Hot Water temperature Sensor at the outlet of the exchanger
ST-3 Cold Water Temperature Sensor at the inlet/outlet of the exchanger
ST-4 Cold Water Temperature Sensor in the first section of the exchanger
ST-5 Cold water temperature sensor in the second section of the

exchanger
ST-6 Cold water temperature sensor in the third section of the exchanger
ST-7 Cold Water Temperature Sensor at the inlet/outlet of the exchanger
SC-1 Hot Water Flow Sensor
SC-2 Cold Water Flow Sensor
AVR-1 Hot Water Flow Regulation Valve
AVR-2 Cold Water Flow Regulation Valve
AN-1 Water Tank Level switch
AR-1 Electric Resistance
AB-1 Hot Water Flow Centrifugal pump
AP-1 Cold Water Circuit Purge Valve
AP-2 Hot Water Circuit Purge Valve
AV2, 3, 4, 5 Cold water circuit ball valves to set parallel/countercurrent flow
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AV1, 6, 7, 8 Ball valves for draining the pipes AVS 1, 2 Safety valve
Heat exchanger
Consists of 21 stainless steel tubes wherein hot water flows.
4 segmented baffles placed transversally in the tube.
Exchange length of external tube and other tubes: L = 0.5m.
Internal tube:
- Internal diameter:
Dint = 8·10^-3 m
- External diameter:
Dext = 10·10^ -3 m
- Thickness = 10-3 m
- Heat Transfer Internal Area: Ah = 0.0126 m2
- Heat Transfer External Area: Ac = 0.0157 m2
External Tube:
- Internal diameter:
Dint,c = 0.148 m
- External diameter:
Dext,c = 0.160
- Thickness = 6·10-3m
Heating tank
- Stainless steel tank equipped with:
- Electric resistance (AR-1) (3000 Watt).
- J type thermocouple for measuring water temperature (ST-16).
- Level switch to check the level of the water in the tank (AN-1).
- Stainless steel cover to avoid contact with the hot water. A hole on the cover allows
the viewing of the water level and easy refilling of the tank.
- Draining valve, this valve sticks out through a hole on the equipment plate to simplify
its use.
Pump (AB-1)
- Centrifugal pump with velocity adapter.
Sensors
- Flow Sensor:
- Electronic flow transducer with acetate-aldehyde copolymer body and brass
compressive joints on both ends.
- 2 units: one for hot (SC-1) and another for cold (SC-2) water.
- Temperature Sensor:
- 100 mm length and 4 mm diameter J type Thermocouple.
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Level Switch
- Sheets interrupter and pivoting actuator magnet, packed in waterproof polymer
moldings.
Heating system
- Thermal resistance and thermostat with cap to heat the water in the tank (AR-1).
Flow control
- 2 control valves made of brass to control cold (AVR-2) and hot (AVR-1) water.
Control of the direction of cold water flow
- 4 ball valves that may provide parallel or counter current flow in the exchanger (AV-
2, AV-3, A V -4 and A V -5) a c c o r d i n g t o their configuration.
Air removal system
- Four valves to remove the air from the carcass.
- Two valves, located at each end of the exchanger, to remove the air from the tubes.
Draining valves
- 4 ball valves which allow draining all the pipes (AV-1, AV-6, AV-7, and AV-8).
3 Theory
Heat is energy in transit due to differences in temperature. Wherever there may be a

temperature difference in one or between several there will be heat transfer. There are three
distinct modes, or processes, of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction: Heat transfer mode through solids and through stationary fluids. Conduction´s
physical mechanism is the diffusion of energy originating from interactions among the
molecules within a medium. The equation that quantifies Conduction Heat Transfer Processes
is known as Fourier’s law. In one-dimensional and stationary cases, Heat Transfer Rate
through a wall will be given by the following expression:
−K∗A∗T 2−T 1
q=
X
Where:q: Heat Transfer Rate (w)
K: thermal conductivity of the wall (w/m·k)
A : perpendicular area to the direction of heat flow (m2)
X: Wall Thickness (m)
T2: temperature on the cold surface of the wall (k)
T1: temperature on the hot surface of the wall (k)
Convection: the heat transfer mode between a surface and a fluid in motion which are at
different temperatures. It is the result of the superposition of two physical phenomena: energy
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transported by the random movement of molecules (diffusion) and energy transported by the
fluid´s flow (macroscopic motion).
Convection Heat transfer may be classified as either forced or natural convection.
Forced convection occurs when external means (a fan, a pump or atmospheric wind) cause a
flow or current. Natural convection occurs when flow is induced by buoyancy forces which
are a result of density differences caused by the variations in temperature of the fluid.
A consequence of fluid-surface interaction is the formation of an area within the fluid through
which velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite value associated with the fluid. This
is area is called the Hydrodynamic Limit Layer. If the temperature also varies between the
surface and the fluid, a thermal limit layer. 99% of the heat transfer between the surface and
the fluid takes place within this thin layer.
A first step in the calculation of Convection Heat Transfer is determining whether the
Hydrodynamic Limit Layer is laminar or turbulent since Heat Transfer Rate depends strongly
on this condition.
In laminar configuration the motion of the fluid moves in a predictable manner, it is possible
to identify the flux lines within which fluid flows. Laminar fluid is associated with low
Reynolds numbers, that is, the ratio between inertia forces and viscosity forces is low. This
way, fluid perturbations (originating from surface friction or by the free flow itself) vanish
quickly when the flow is arranged (laminar).
If Reynolds number is high, inertia forces will be strong enough to amplify perturbations
produced in a laminar flow, generating vortexes that indicate the existence of a turbulent flow
in the fluid. Turbulent flow is characterized by irregular and unpredictable movement
combined with random fluctuations in velocity.
Since the diffusivity of vortexes is much greater than that of laminar flow patterns; velocity
and temperature profiles at the core of the limit layer are more uniform in turbulent regime,
therefore velocity and temperature gradients are greater as well. Thus heat transfer rate is
much higher in turbulent than in laminar flows. On the other hand, high velocity gradients
cause large superficial currents, which cause a larger pressure drop along the exchanger. This
may be considered an adverse effect because this higher pressure drop will require stronger
pumps or fans to achieve the same flow.
Regardless of whether it may be laminar or turbulent, the convection heat transfer rate
between a surface and a fluid is given by Newton's law of cooling, which is expressed as:
Q= A∗h∗( Ts−T ∞)
Where
Q= Convection heat transfer rate (W)
h= Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
A= Heat transfer area (m2) Ts=Surface temperature (K) T∞= Fluid temperature (K)
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3.1 Heat transfer in heat exchangers
A heat exchanger is a device originally developed for heat transfer between two fluids, at
different temperatures, separated by a solid wall. They have many applications in engineering
and, as a consequence, there are many models adapted to each application. The most simple
is built with two concentric tubes, where fluids can move in the same or opposite directions.
In parallel flow, hot and cold water flow in and out through the same end and circulate in the
same direction. In countercurrent flow, the fluids flow in and out through opposite ends and
they circulate in opposite directions.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.1: (a) Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger in parallel flow; (b) Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger in counter-current flow
The other common configuration is the internal and external tube exchanger constituted by a
group of tubes inside an external tube. These exchangers usually feature baffles to increase
heat transfer.
Figure 3.2: configuration of internal and external part of tube

3.2 Temperature distribution in heat exchangers
Temperatures distribution of a heat exchanger in parallel and countercurrent flow
configuration are shown in the following figures:
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Figure 3.3: Temperature distribution profile
Where
Th,i: Hot fluid temperature at the inlet of the exchanger
Th, o: Hot fluid temperature at the outlet of theexchanger
Tc, i: Cold fluid temperature at the inlet of the exchanger
Tc,o: Cold fluid temperature at the outlet of the exchanger
In the parallel flow exchanger, the hottest zone of the hot fluid exchanges heat with the
coolest zone of the cold fluid, at the inlet region. At the beginning, heat transfer is big since
temperature differences are at t h e m a x i m u m b u t t h e difference drops quickly along
the exchanger, asymptotically approaching zero. We should emphasize that for this type of
exchanger, the output temperature of the cold fluid never exceeds the output temperature of
the hot fluid.
In counter-current flow, the hottest zone of the hot fluid exchanges heat with the hottest zone
of the cold fluid, and the coolest zone of the hot fluid with the coolest zone of the cold fluid.
This configuration provides an optimum heat transfer between the warm parts of both fluids
at one end as well as between the cold parts at the other end.
This configuration maintains a consistent temperature difference which achieves consistent
heat transfer rates. Also, the output temperature of the cold fluid may exceed the output
temperature of the hot fluid.
3.3 Logarithmic average temperatures difference
As seen previously, the temperature differences between fluids vary along the exchanger so
defining an average value is key. This average is represented by ∆Tm, and is used for the
calculation of total heat exchange:
q = U* A ∗ ∆Tlm
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From the analysis developed in most of the text books dealing with heat transfer, we may find
that the appropriate average temperature difference is a logarithmic average temperature
difference, ∆Tlm
Being:
∆ T 1=Th ,i−Tc ,i∧∆ T 2=Tho−Tco
∆ T 1=Th ,i−Tc ,o∧∆T 2=Th , o−Tc ,i
We may see that for equal input and output temperatures ∆Tlm i s greater for counter-current
than for parallel flow. Thus the area required for a specific q heat transfer rate is smaller for
counter-current than for parallel flow, assuming the same U value.
3.4 Calculation of heat transfer coefficient from heat transfer rate
Two important relations for a heat exchanger analysis are the Global Energy Balances both
for the hot and the cold fluids. By ignoring potential and kinetic energy changes along the
exchanger, we may obtain are the specific heats of the hot and cold fluids.
General heat transfer rate from the hot fluid:
qh=mh∗Cph(Thi−Tho)
General heat transfer rate from the hot fluid:
qc=mc∗Cpc (Tco−Tci)
Where:
mh and mc are the mass flows (Kg/s), and Cph and Cpc are the specific heats of the hot and
cold fluids.
Note: Theoretically qh should equal qc but due to environmental energy losses and also due
to instrumental and observational measurement errors, they are not always equal.
We have previously obtained another important expression for heat transfer derived from
Newton’s cooling law using U instead of h:
q = U A *Tlm
The hot fluid is surrounded by the cold fluid while the latter is in contact with the
surrounding atmosphere) the Global Heat Transfer Coefficient multiplied by the Transfer
Area will be:
U∗A=
qh
∆ Tlm
=qh∗ln (
∆T 1
∆T 2 )
3.5 NTU-effectiveness method for a heat exchanger analysis
If heat exchanger output temperatures are unknown, in order to calculate the heat transfer rate
from the logarithmic average temperature differences we should solve the problem by
iteration, from an approximate value of one of the temperatures. This method may be time
consuming and expensive. Using the NTU-Effectiveness method proves to be more
convenient.
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First we may define effectiveness as the coefficient between the actual heat exchanged and
the maximum that may be transferred in an infinite area exchanger in counter-current flow.
q real
ε=
qmaximum
Where:
qmaximum=mhCph ( Th ,i−Tc , i ) if mhCph<mcCpc because the hot fluid may experience the
highest change in temperature and
qmaximum=mhCph ( Th ,i−Tc , i ) if mcCpc <mhCph because the cold fluid may experience the
highest temperature change, being (Th , i−Tc ,i) the highest possible difference in temperature
that may experience one of the two fluids.
Therefore, effectiveness may be:
Thi−Tho
ε= , if mhCph< mcCpc
Thi−Tci
Tco−Tci
ε= , if mcCpc < mhCph
Thi−Tci
The number of transmission units (NTU) is dimensionless parameter widely used for heat
exchanger analysis being defined as: Also we may define capacity coefficient (C ) as:
( m∗Cp ) min
CR=
( m∗Cp ) max
4 Experiments
4.1 Experiment 1: Global energy balance in the exchanger and losses study
Objective
 To calculate the global energy balance in the exchanger by calculating the heat
transferred by the hot fluid, the heat gained by the cold fluid and heat losses.
Calculate the logarithmic temperature mean difference and the global heat transfer
coefficient.
Materials
EDIBON TICT's Shell and Tube exchanger, thermometer, water, beaker.
Procedure
1. Check that the valves are opened and that we have parallel flow configuration.
2. Check that the heating tank is full of water, above the level switch.
3. Switch on the pump and the resistor (equipment supply).
4. Set the tank temperature at 45 ºC (ST16).
5. Fix the hot water flow in about 3 l/min (SC1) and adjust cold water flow until
reaching stationary operating conditions keeping the temperature set in the tank
constant.
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6. Write down temperature and flow measurements on the experimental sheet.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for different water temperatures in the tank
Readings to be taken
Table for measurements taken during the practice:
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
ST-16 (OC) 45 50 55 60
ST-1 (OC)
ST-2 (OC)
ST-3 (OC)
ST-4 (OC)
ST-5 (OC)
ST-6 (OC)
ST-7 (OC)
SC-1 (l/min) 3 3 3 3
SC-2 (l/min)
Calculations
Considering the measurements above, you may calculate the following
thermodynamic variables:
1. Heat transferred by the hot water (qh)
2. Heat absorbed by the cold water (qc)
3. Heat loses (ql)
4. Logarithmic temperatures mean difference between hot and cold water (∆Tlm)
5. Global heat transfer coefficient (U)
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4
qh ( w )
qc ( w )
ql ( w )
∆Tlm ( k )
U ( w/m2 k )
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4.2 Experiment 2: Determination of the exchanger effectiveness using NTU
method
Objective
 To determine the exchanger effectiveness empirically as well as theoretically (by
using the NTU method), then to compare both. To estimate the hot and cold water
outlet temperatures, which you may compare with the measured values.
Materials
EDIBON TICT's Shell and Tube heat exchanger, thermometer, water, and beaker.
Procedure
1. Check that the valves are opened and that we have countercurrent flow configuration.
2. Check that the heating tank is filled with water above the level switch.
4. Set the tank temperature in 60 ºC (ST16).
5. Fix the hot water flow in 3 l/min approx. (SC1) and adjust cold water flow to reach
stationary operating conditions, keeping constant temperatures set for the tank.
6. Write down the temperature and flow measurements on the
experimental sheet.
7. Set the valves appropriately in order to invert cold water flow direction to produce a
parallel flow configuration.
8. Make sure that 60ºC temperatures are kept in the tank and that the same hot and cold
water flows set in step 5 are also maintained
9. Once the system is stabilized, write down the temperature measurements and flow
values on the experimental sheet.
10. Once the measurements have been taken, calculate the experimental effectiveness, the
theoretical effectiveness by the NTU method and the theoretical temperatures at the
exchanger outlet.
Readings to be taken
Table for the measurements taken during the tests.
TEST 1 TEST 2
Counter-current flow Parallel flow
ST16 ( ºC ) 60 60
ST1 ( ºC )
ST2 ( ºC )
ST3 ( ºC )
ST4 ( ºC )
ST5 ( ºC )
ST6 ( ºC )
ST7 ( ºC )
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SC1 ( l/min ) 3 3
SC2 ( l/min )
Calculations
Considering the measurements above, you may calculate the following
1. Experimental effectiveness
3. Logarithmic average temperature difference between hot and cold water (∆Tlm)
- Parameters: U*A, NTU and CR.
Effectiveness obtained by the NTU method (NTU)
-Hot and cold water temperatures at the exchanger outlet obtained by experimental
effectiveness (Th,o and Tc,o).
4.3 Experiments 3: Study of the heat transfer in countercurrent and parallel
flow conditions
Objectives
 To compare heat transfer in countercurrent and parallel
flow conditions.
 To represent the temperature distribution along the exchanger in both configurations.
Required elements
Procedures
1. Check that the valves are opened and that we have a
countercurrent flow configuration.
5. Fix the hot water flow in 2.5 l/min approx. (SC1) and adjust the cold water flow until
reaching stationary operation conditions are met maintaining the temperature set for
the tank constant.
6. Write down temperature and flow measurement on the experimental sheet.
7. Set the valves appropriately in order to invert the water flow direction to obtain
parallel flow disposition.
8. Make sure that 60ºC temperatures are maintained in the tank and cold and hot water
flow temperatures are the same or very similar to those obtained in counter-current
flow.
9. Once the system is stabilized, write down temperature and flow measurements on the
experimental sheet.
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10. Calculate the heat transferred by the hot fluid, the heat gained by the cold fluid and
heat losses. Calculate the logarithmic temperature mean difference and represent the
temperature distribution.
Reading to be taken
Table for the measurements taken during the tests.
TEST 1 TEST 2
Counter-current flow Parallel flow
ST16 ( ºC ) 60 60
ST1 (ºC)
ST2 ( ºC )
ST3 ( ºC )
ST4 ( ºC )
ST5 ( ºC )
ST6 ( ºC )
ST7 ( ºC )
SC1 ( l/min ) 2.5 2.5
SC2 ( l/min )
Calculations
Considering the measurements above,may calculate the following
3. Heat losses (ql)
4.4 Experiment 4: Flow influence in heat transfer and calculation of Reynolds
number
Objectives
 To study the hot water flow influence in the heat transfer in the exchanger.
 To calculate the velocity and Reynolds number associated to the motion of the fluid.
Materials
Procedures
1. Check that the valves are open and that we have a countercurrent flow configuration.
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5. Fix the hot water flow in 3 l/min approx. (SC1) and adjust the cold water flow until
reaching stationary operation conditions are met maintaining the temperature set for
the tank constant.
6. Write down temperature and flow measurement on the experimental
sheet.
7. Reduce the hot water flow to 2.5 l/min approx. keeping the cold water flow constant.
8. Once the system is stable, write down temperature and flow measures on the
experiment sheet.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for 2 l/min and 1.5 l/min hot water flow rate.
10. Calculate the heat transferred by the fluid, the heat gained by the cold fluid and
determine the losses. Determine the logarithmic average temperature difference, the
global heat transfer coefficient and the Reynolds number. Readings to be taken
Table for measurements taken during the practical exercise:
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

ST-16 ( C)
O
45 50 55 60
ST-1 (OC)
ST-2 (OC)
ST-3 (OC)
ST-4 (OC)
ST-5 (OC)
ST-6 (OC)
ST-7 (OC)
SC-1 (l/min) 3 3 3 3
SC-2 (l/min)
Calculations
Considering the measurements above, you should calculate the following thermodynamic
variables:
3. Heat losses (ql)
5. Global heat transfer coefficient (U)
6. Hot and cold water velocity in the exchanger (Th, Tc)
7. Reynolds number for hot and cold water (Reh, Rec)
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4

qh ( w )
qc ( w )
ql ( w )
∆Tlm ( k )
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2
U ( w/m k )
Th (m/s)
Tc (m/s)
Reh
Rec
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PART TWO
EVAPORATION
1 INTRODUCTION TO EVAPORATION
Evaporation is an operation used to remove a liquid from a solution, suspension, or emulsion

by boiling off some of the liquid. It is thus a thermal separation, or thermal concentration,
process. We define the evaporation process as one that starts with a liquid product and ends
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up with a more concentrated, but still liquid and still pump-able concentrate as the main
product from the process.
In the field of thermal separation / concentration technology, evaporation plants are widely
used for concentration of liquids in the form of solutions, suspensions, and emulsions.
The major requirement in the field of evaporation technology is to maintain the quality of the
liquid during evaporation and to avoid damage to the product. This may require the liquid to
be exposed to the lowest possible boiling temperature for the shortest period of time. This and
numerous other requirements and limitations have resulted in a wide variation of designs
available today. In almost all evaporators the heating medium is steam, which heats a product
on the other side of a heat transfer surface.
The most common types of evaporators are;
1. Falling Film Evaporators
2. Rising Film Evaporators
3. Forced Circulation Evaporators
4. Plate Evaporators
5. Thermal and Mechanical Vapor Recompression (TVR & MVR)
Typical evaporator applications includes: Product concentration, Dryer feed preconcentration,
Volume reduction, Water / solvent recovery, Crystallization
2 Operating Principle and Equipment Description
2.1 Single-Effect Evaporators

A simplified diagram of a single-stage or single-effect evaporator is given in Fig.1. The feed
enters at TF K and saturated steam at T enters the heat-exchange section. Condensed steam
leaves as condensate or drips. Since the solution in the evaporator is assumed to be
completely mixed, the concentrated product and the solution in the evaporator have the same
composition and temperature Tts, which is the boiling point of the solution. The temperature
of the vapor is also T pressure is P1t, since it is in equilibrium with the boiling solution. This
is the vapor pressure of the solution at Tt.
If the solution to be evaporated is assumed to be dilute and like water, then 1 kg of steam
condensing will evaporate approximately 1 kg of vapor. This will hold if the feed entering
has a temperature TF near the boiling point.
The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the calculation of the rate of heat
transfer in an evaporator. The general equation can be written
q=UA ∆ T =UA (Ts−T 1)
Where:- q is the rate of heat transfer in W, U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient in W/m.
K, A is the heat-transfer area in m2, Ts k is the temperature of the condensing steam in K, and
T is the boiling point of the liquid in K.
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Figure 2.1: Single effect evaporator
Figure 2.2: Climbing film evaporator, single effect
All numerical references relate to the Components Diagram on page and in the experimental
section of this manual.
23 | P a g e
All letter coded references relate to the Control and Instrumentation System Diagram on page
9 and in the experimental section of this manual.
The equipment comprises a single complete floor-standing assembly. All the system
components are contained within the framework and only require connection to the
appropriate services.
The liquid to be concentrated is contained in the tall glass feed vessel (6). The liquid flows
under gravity through a flow control valve (C2) and flow meter (F2) to the base of the
evaporator fabrication (8). Boiling occurs inside the vertical tube which is heated by steam in
the outer jacket. Steam supplied to the jacket is controlled by a regulator valve (C4) and
pressure in the jacket is indicated on a pressure gauge (P1). A vent (7) at the top of the steam
jacket ensures that air is expelled and a steam trap (9) at the base allows condensate to be
expelled via the drain tube. The liquid boils vigorously inside the evaporator forming a film
on the inside wall which is carried up the evaporator by the evaporating water vapour. The
liquid film can be clearly seen in the glass elbow at the top of the evaporator. The
concentrated liquid and water vapour pass to the tangential inlet of the vortex separator (5).
The water vapour from the top of the separator passes via a manifold to a shell and tube
condenser (3). Cooling water to the condenser is controlled by a valve (C1) and flow rate is
indicated on a flow meter (F1). The condensate so formed passes by gravity to either one of
two receiver vessels (1 and 2). Concentrated liquid leaving the base of the separator passes
back into the glass feed vessel (6). A vent pipe is connected between the feed vessel and the
vortex separator to promote a steady flow of liquid down the connecting pipe.
If concentration under vacuum conditions is being carried out, the feed is placed in the
stainless steel feed tank (11). The vacuum pump (10) is switched on at the panel and the
vacuum is adjusted by the valve (C6). The vacuum is indicated on the pressure gauge (P2).
The evaporator system is protected by a pressure relief valve (4) in the event of equipment
malfunction or operator error.
The feed vessel (6) may be drained via the drain cock (V7) and the condensate vessels by the
cocks (V2) and (V5). To facilitate drainage, air leaks into the system are provided in the lids
of the condensate vessels by cocks (V1 and V2).
Changeover valves (V3 and V4) allow one condensate vessel to be filing while the other is
being drained. The air leak points also serve as connections for a vacuum pump (not
supplied) if it is desired to run the system under reduced pressure.
A Tee connection and control valve (C3) allow an external feed tank (not supplied) to be
connected to the system allowing continuous once-through operation. Temperatures within
the system (Tl - T6) are monitored using thermocouples which are connected to a direct read-
out in °c on the console. The temperature to be indicated is selected by depressing the
appropriate button on the console.
24 | P a g e
Figure 2.3: Components of climbing film evaporator
Start-Up and Operating Procedures Preliminary
1. Check that condensate vessels and feed vessel are drained and clean.
2. Check that electricity, steam and cooling water services are available.
3. Check that all the valves are closed.
4. Fill the feed vessel with water or solution to be concentrated as appropriate.
Start-Up
1. Open and adjust valve Cl to give the required cooling water flow.
2. Open either valve V3 or V4 or the appropriate vent Vl or V6.
3. Connect the steam supply and adjust regulator C4 to obtain the required steam
pressure on Pl.
4. Open the flow control valve C2 to give the required feed flow rate.
Calibration of Feed and Receiver Vessels
The feed and receiver vessels are fitted with metric scales which require calibration. This can
be simply done by pouring in known amounts of water, say one liter at a time, and noting the
scale readings. A calibration curve relating the scale reading and the contents can then be
drawn for each vessel.
Flushing the System
The system may be flushed by connecting a hose to the valve VB, the feed vessel drain via
valve V7 or to the condensate vessel drain via valves V2 and V3.
25 | P a g e
2.1.1 EXPERIMENT 1
Objective
To investigate the concentration of a sugar solution by evaporation and obtain a mass balance
based on total quantities.
Theory:
In theory, the amount of sugar and water in the solution, initially loaded into the feed vessel
should be balanced by the amount of sugar and water in the concentrated solution and in the
condensate. Thus:
Water balance
Sugar balance Where W F = mass of water in solution loaded into evaporator.
WE = mass of condensate collected in condensate tank.
WC = mass of water in concentrated solution.
SF = mass of sugar in the original solution.
SC = mass of sugar in concentrated solution.
These balances assume that the evaporator is operating steadily and that no sugar solution is
carried over from the evaporator to the condenser Procedure:
Prepare a 4% w /w solution of sugar for use in this experiment.
Take the initial level reading in the feed vessel.
Follow the preliminary and start-up procedures with a feed rate of 10 l/hr. operate the
evaporator with a steam pressure of 1.5 bar.
Note: It is ESSENTIAL that the system is drained and thoroughly washed out after this
experiment.
Readings to Be Taken:
Take the initial level reading in the feed vessel. Run the evaporator until the feed vessel
contents have been reduced by about half, recording the operating conditions, feed flow rate
(F2), steam pressure (P1), boiling point (T6) every few minutes.
Read the levels in the feed vessel and the condensate tank in use at the end of the run.
Take a sample of the concentrate remembering to clear the line of the previous solution.
Determine the sugar solution. The readings should be recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
1) Calculate the initial mass of water WF in the feed vessel from:-
Where:
C3 = is the calibration factor for the feed vessel.
L31 = is the initial level in the feed vessel.
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ρF1= is the initial specific gravity of the feed sugar solution (found from the concentration
CF1 and specific gravity tables for sugar solution).
And the initial mass of sugar, SF in the feed vessel from:2) Calculate the final mass of water
WC, in the feed vessel from:-
Where L32= is the final level in the feed vessel. ρF2= is the final specific gravity of the feed
sugar solution (found from the concentration CF2 and Specific Gravity Tables for sugar
solutions).
And the final mass of sugar, SC in the feed vessel from:-
3) Calculate the mass of water WE, in the condensate tank from:-
WE = C1.Ll (or C2.L2 as appropriate)
Where C1 and C2 are the calibration factors for the condensate tanks and, Ll and L2 are the
levels in the condensate tanks.
This assumes that the tank used is empty initially.
Then in theory:
The student should verify this and explain any discrepancies.
2.1.2 EXPERIMENT 2
Objective:
To obtain an energy balance.
Theory:
The following energy balance can be written for the eveaporator:-
W phF + Q.HS = WE.HE + WChC + Q.hS
Where WF = mass of water fed to evaporator, kg
WE = mass of water evaporated, kg
WC = mass of water in concentrate returned to feed vessel, kg
Q = mass of steam condensed, kg hF = enthalpy of feed at TS, kJ /kg
HE = enthalpy of vapour leaving evaporator at T6, P1, kJ /kg
hC = enthalpy of concentrate at T6, kJ /kg
HS = enthalpy of steam entering evaporator jacket at P2, kJ /kg
hS = enthalpy of condensate leaving evaporator jacket at P2, kJ /kg
This energy balance assumes that the evaporator is operating steadily and that there are no
heat losses. In practice, heat will be lost to the surroundings; these losses will be measured by
the difference between the LHS and RHS of the theoretical energy balance.
Procedure:
27 | P a g e
Lag the cyclone separator and its feed pipe with the lagging provided.
Follow the preliminary and start-up procedures with a water feed rate of 10 l/hr.
Operate the evaporator with a steam pressure of 1.5 bar.
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read the feed flow rate (F2), steam
pressure (Pl), feed and vapour/concentrate temperatures (TS, T6) every 5 mins for as long as
possible. Read the levels in the feed and condensate tanks (L3, LI/2) at the beginning and end
of this period. Collect and measure the amount of condensate (Q) discharged from the steam
trap (9) during this period. The readings should be recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
For each experiment:-
1) Calculate average feed flow rate (F2), steam pressure (Pl), feed and vapour
/concentrate temperatures (T5, T6).
2) Find the enthalpies of the feed at T5 (h F), vapour at T6, PI, (H E), concentrate at T6
(hC) steam and condensate at P1 (HS, hS) from Steam Tables
3) Calculate the changes in levels in the feed and EE condensate tanks
(∆ L3, ∆L1/2).
4) Calculate the mass of water fed, water evaporated and "concentrate" formed (WF,
WE, WC) from:-
W F = Flow rate x time
WE =C1.∆L1 or C2.∆L2 (or C3.∆L3)
WC=WF-WE
Where: C1, C2 and C3 are the appropriate tank calibration constants.
5) Calculate an energy balance:-
WF*hF + Q*HS =WE*HE+ WC*hC+ Q*hS
The student should verify these balances and account for any discrepancies
2.2 MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATION
An evaporator is essentially a heat exchanger in which a liquid is boiled to give a vapour, so
that it is also, simultaneously, a low pressure steam generator. It may be possible to make use
of this, to treat an evaporator as a low pressure boiler, and to make use of the steam thus
produced for further heating in another following evaporator called another effect.
Consider two evaporators connected so that the vapour line from one is connected to the
steam chest of the other as shown in Fig below, making up a two effect evaporator.
28 | P a g e
Figure2.1: Double effect evaporator – forward feed
If liquid is to be evaporated in each effect, and if the boiling point of this liquid is unaffected
by the solute concentration, then writing a heat balance for the first evaporator:
q 1=U 1∗A 1∗( Ts−T 1 )=U 1 A 1 ∆ T 1
where q1 is the rate of heat transfer, U1 is the overall heat transfer coefficient in evaporator 1,
A1 is the heat-transfer area in evaporator 1, Ts is the temperature of condensing steam from the
boiler, T1 is the
boiling temperature of the liquid in evaporator 1 and ∆T1 is the temperature difference in
evaporator, ∆ T 1=(Ts−T 1)
Similarly, in the second evaporator, remembering that the "steam" in the second is the vapour
from the first evaporator and that this will condense at approximately the same temperature as
it boiled, since pressure changes are small,
q 2=U 2 A 2 ( T 1−T 2 )=U 2 A 2 ∆ T 2
In which the subscripts 2 indicate the conditions in the second evaporator.

If the evaporators are working in balance, then all of the vapours from the first effect are
condensing and in their turn evaporating vapours in the second effect. Also assuming that
heat losses can be neglected, there is no appreciable boiling-point elevation of the more
concentrated solution, and the feed is supplied at its boiling point, q1 = q2
Further, if the evaporators are so constructed that A1 = A2, the foregoing equations can be
combined.
U2 ∆T 1
=
U1 ∆T 2
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The above equations states that the temperature differences are inversely proportional to the
overall heat transfer coefficients in the two effects. This analysis may be extended to any
number of effects operated in series, in the same way.
2.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The equipment comprises an evaporator module, receiver module and electrical console
which are bolted together to form a complete, floor standing assembly. All the system
components are contained within the framework and only require connection to the respective
services.
The Double Effect Evaporator consists of two evaporator systems which may be operated in
different configurations depending on the setting of isolating valves in the pipe work.
These configurations are:
1. Forward Feed
2. Reverse Feed 3
3. Parallel Feed
4. Single Effect Only
Considering the equipment is configured for operation in single effect for simplicity: The
liquid to be concentrated starts its journey in the feed tank (3) on the receiver module. A feed
pump (5) transfers the liquid to the first 'effect' evaporator module via a thermostatically
controlled preheater vessel (6) which incorporates a float switch to protect the two heating
elements when liquid is not present. The heated liquid passes via a flow control valve (C13)
and flow meter (F4) to the base of the evaporator fabrication (20). Boiling occurs inside the
vertical tube which is heated by steam in the outer jacket. Steam supplied to the jacket is
controlled by a regulator valve (C15) and pressure in the jacket is indicated on a pressure
gauge (P3). A vent (19) at the top of the steam jacket ensures that air is expelled and a steam
trap (21) at the base allows condensate to be expelled via the drain tube. The liquid boils
vigorously inside the evaporator forming a firm on the inside wall which is carried up the
evaporator by the evaporating water vapour. The liquid film can be clearly seen in the glass
elbow at the top of the evaporator.
The concentrated liquid and water vapor pass to the tangential inlet of the vortex separator
(16). The water vapor from the top of the separator passes via a manifold to a shell and tube
condenser (7).
Cooling water to the condenser is controlled by a valve (C2) and flow-rate is indicated on a
flow-meter (F1). The condensate so formed passes by gravity to a receiver vessel (2) on the
receiver module.
Concentrated liquid leaving the base of the separator passes down into a glass level vessel
(17) which incorporates level electrodes for the control system. A vent pipe is connected
between the level vessel and the vortex separator to produce a smooth flow of liquid down
the connecting pipe.
A circulating pump (18) beneath the level vessel transfers liquid from the glass vessel to the
flow control valve (CLL) and flow meter (F5) for re-circulation through the evaporator. A
second connection to the pump discharge conducts the concentrated liquid via a control valve
30 | P a g e
(C10) and solenoid valve (C9) to the receiver vessel (4). An additional connection after the
control valve permits operation of the equipment in a forward feed - double effect mode
when the appropriate isolating valves are set. A controller in the electrical console opens the
solenoid valve when the level rises to the electrodes in the glass vessel. A small amount of
hysteresis is built into the level system to reduce chatter of the solenoid valve. A vacuum
pump (1) connected to the condensate and concentrate receiver vessels may be used to reduce
the pressure in the system to demonstrate the improvement in evaporator performance. A
control valve (C1) and pressure gauge (P1) is incorporated in the vacuum system.
Valves (C14 and C12) in the discharge pipework of the feed pump and re-circulation pump
permit samples to be extracted during operation for analysis. The first effect evaporator is
protected by a pressure relief valve (15) in the event of equipment malfunction or operator
error. All electrical controls are contained within the electrical console which incorporates a
system diagram on the front panel to simplify operation. Temperatures within the system are
monitored using thermocouples which are connected to a direct readout in °c on the console.
The temperature to be indicated is selected by depressing the appropriate button on the
console.
The operation of the right-hand evaporator system is identical to the left-hand one except that
steam for the jacket of the evaporator is obtained from the 'waste' water vapor produced in the
first effect. Valve V13 in the steam manifold permits connection of the steam jacket to the
vortex separator of the first effect. In this configuration valve V9 is closed and valve V8 is
opened to connect the vortex separator of the second effect to the condenser.
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Figure 2.2: Double effect evaporator
2.4 Start-Up and Operating Procedures
2.4.1 Preliminary
1. Check that condensate and concentrate tanks (2, 4) are drained and that the electricity,
steam and cooling water are available.
2. Check that the following valves are OPEN:-VL, V4.
3. Check that all the valves are CLOSED: - V2, V3, V5, C6, C8, C9, C12, C14.
4. Fill the feed tank (3) with water or a solution as required by the experiment.
2.4.2 Start-Up and Operation - Single Effect
1. Check that the following valves are OPEN: V7, V9, V16, and CL0.
2. Check that the following valves are CLOSED: - V6, V8, VLL, V12, V13, V14, V15.
3. Start feed pump (5) and open valve C13 fully so as to prime the system.
4. Switch on the feed pre-heater (6).
5. When liquid appears in flow-meter F4, adjust the desired feed rate on F4. Valve C13
so as to obtain
6. Open and adjust valve C2 so as to obtain a cooling water flow-rate on
7. Flowmeter Fl of 40 times that of the feed on F4. Open and adjust valve C15 so as to
obtain the desired steam pressure on P3.
32 | P a g e
8. When liquid appears in level vessel (17), start the concentrate/re-circulation pump
(18). Open V14 and adjust valves CL0 and CLL so as to obtain the desired circulation
rate on 5flow-meter F5.
9. Adjust the thermostat control on the feed pre-heater (6) so that temperatures Tl0 and
Tll are as close as possible.
10. Either for operation under vacuum start vacuum pump (1) and adjust valve Cl so as to
obtain the desired system pressure on PL OR for operation at atmospheric pressure,
leave valve CL fully open.
2.4.3 Start-Up and Operation - Double Effect, Forward Feed
1. Check that the following valves are OPEN:- V6, V8, VLL, V13, V16, C4 , Cl0.
2. Check that the following valves are CLOSED:-V7, V9, VL0, V12, V14, V15.
3. Start feed pump (5) and open valve C13 fully so as to prime the first effect.
4. Switch on the feed pre-heater (6).
5. When liquid appears in flow-meter F4, adjust valve C13 so as to obtain the desired
feed rate on F4.
6. Open and adjust valve C2 so as to obtain a cooling water flow-rate on flowmeter Fl of
40 times that of the feed on F4.
7. Open and adjust valve C15 so as to obtain the desired steam pressure onP3.
8. When a liquid level appears in the level vessel of the first effect (17) start the
concentrate/re-circulation pump (18). Open valve V14 and adjust valves Cl0 and Cll
so as to obtain the desired circulation rate for the first effect on flowmeter F5.
9. Adjust the thermostat control on the feed pre-heater (6) so that temperature Tl0 and
Tll are as close as possible.
10. When a feed rate to the second effect is established on flow-meter F2 open V13 and
shut V9.
11. When a liquid level appears in the level vessel of the second effect (10) start the
concentrate/re-circulation pump (11). Open valve Vl0 and adjust valves C4 and C5 so
as to obtain the desired circulation rate for the second effect on flowmeter F3.
12. EITHER for operation under vacuum, start vacuum pump (1) and adjust valve Cl so
as to obtain the desired second effect pressure on PL, OR for operation at atmospheric
pressure, leave valve CL fully open.
2.4.3.1 EXPERIMENT 1
Objective:
(a)To determine and compare the economies (kg water evaporated/kg steam condensed) for
single and double effect operation.
(b) To investigate the effect of forward, backward and parallel feed on the economy of a
double effect evaporator
Theory:
The overall economy, ECO of a double effect evaporator is given by:
ECO= (WE1 +WE2)/QC
Where:-W E1 = water evaporated in first effect, kg
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W E2 = water evaporated in second effect, kg
QC1 = steam condensed in evaporating water in the first effect, kg
If the feed to each effect enters at its boiling point (i.e. T10 = T11, T6 = T7) and there are no
heat losses, then each kg of steam condensing in the first effect will evaporate a kg of water.
This vapour will, in turn, evaporate a second kg of water in the second effect and the
economy, ECO = 2. In practice, however, a certain amount of heat will be lost to the
surroundings in each effect and so an additional amount of steam or vapour, Q L1, QL2, will be
condensed. The overall economy, ECO will then be given by:-
ECO= (WE1 +WE2)/ (QC1 +QL1) = (WE1 +WE2)/Q1
Where Q1 is the total amount of steam condensed in the first effect.
Now:WE1=Q2
Where Q2 is the total amount of steam condensed in the second effect
Hence
Eco= (Q1 +WE2) /Q1
The economies of each individual effect, EC1’EC2’, are given by
EC1= WE1/Q1=Q2/Q1
EC2=WE2/Q2
The relationship between individual and overall economies is given by:
ECO=Q2/Q1 +WE2/Q1 = (Q2/Q1 + WE2/Q2) *(Q2/Q1) = (E1 + EC1) *EC2
The economy of a double effect evaporator wil also depends on the method of operation
(forward, backward or parallel feed) and on the feed temperature. A detailed analysis of the
problem is complex. In general terms, however, for systems in which the feed enters near its
boilng point, the economies would be expected to be in the order:-
- ECO (forward)
- ECO (parallel)
- ECO (backward)
Procedure:
Carry out one experiment with method of double effect operation (forward, backward,
parallel feed).
In each case, follow the preliminary procedure and the appropriate start-up and operating
procedure with a water feed rate of 10 J/hr. Operate the evaporator with a circulation rate of
30 J/hr in each effect, a steam pressure of 1.5 bar and a system pressure of 400m Hg vacuum.
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read feed and circulation Flow-rates
for each effect (F4, F2, F5, F3), steam, first and second effect pressures (P3, P2, PL), boiling
points (T11, T7) every 5 mins for a period of 1 hr.
34 | P a g e
During this period collect and weigh separately the condensate discharged from the first
effect steam trap (8), Qi, and from the second effect steam trap (13), Q2' Read the level in the
condensate tank (L2) at the beginning and end of this period. The readings should be
recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
1. Calculate average feed and circulation rates (F4, F2, F5, F3), steam, first and second
effect pressures (P3, P2, PL), boiling points (T11, T7).
2. Calculate the amount of water evaporated in the second effect, W E2'. From:-
WE2=C2*∆ L2
3. Calculate the individual and overall economies from: -
EC1= Q2/Q1
EC2=WE2/Q2
ECO=(Q2+WE2)/Q1
Comparethe value of overall economy obtained with those calculated from the individual
economies using ECO= EC1 + EC1*EC2
Compare the overall economies for forward, parallel and backward feed.
Objective
To investigate the concentration of a sugar solution by evaporation in a single effect and
obtain a mass balance based on total quantities.
Theory:
In theory, the amount of sugar and water in the solution fed to the evaporator in a given time
should be balanced by the amount of sugar and water removed in the concentrated solution
and as condensate. Thus:-
WF= WE + WC – Water balance
SF=SC- Sugar balance
Where:-
W F = mass of water in solution fed to evaporator, kg
WE = mass of condensate collected in condensate tank, kg
W C = mass of water in concentrate solution, kg
SF = mass of sugar in solution fed to evaporator, kg
Sc = mass of sugar in concentrated solution, kg
Procedure:
Prepare a 4% w IW solution of sugar in water for use in this experiment.
35 | P a g e
Follow the preliminary procedure and start-up and operating procedure for single effect
operation with a feed rate of 10 J/hr. Operate the evaporator with a circulation rate of 30 J/hr,
a steam pressure of 1.5 bar and a system pressure of 400mm Hg Vacuum.
N.B. It is essential that the system is drained and thoroughly washed out after this
experiment.
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read the feed and circulation
Flow rates (F4, F5), steam and system pressures (P3, PL) and boiling point (Tl1) every 5
minutes for a period of 1 hr. Read the levels in the feed, condensate and concentrate tanks
(Ll, L2, L3) at the beginning and end of this period.
Take samples from the feed (via valve C14) and concentrate (via valve C12) every 5m
minutes during this period. Analyze these samples for sugar concentration using a refracto-
meter (not provided) and record the results. The readings should be recorded on an
evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
1. Calculate average feed and circulation flow-rates (F4, F5), steam and system
pressures (P3, Pl), boiling point (T11), sugar concentration in the feed and concentrate
(cF, cC)
2. Calculate the changes in levels in the feed, condensate and concentrate tanks (∆L1,
∆L2, ∆L3).
3. Calculate the mass of water, Wp and sugar, SF’ fed to the evaporator from: -
L∗ρF∗100−CF
WF=C 1∗∆
100
1∗ρF∗CF
SF=C 1∗L
100
Where: - C 1 is the calibration factor for the feed tank and PF is the specific gravity fo the
feed sugar solution (found from the concentration cF and specific gravity tables for sugar
solutions).
4. Calculate the mass of water, W 0 and sugar, So in the concentrated sugar
3∗ρC∗100−Cc
WC=C 3∗∆ L
100
3∗ρC∗Cc
Sc=C 3∗∆ L
100
where :- C3 is the calibration factor for the concentrate tank, and ρc is the specific gravity of
the concentrated sugar solution (found from the concentration Cc and specific gravity tables
for sugar solutions).
5. Calculate the mass of water, WE’ in the condenser tank from:
WE=C 2 ∆ L 2
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Where: - C2 is the calibration factor for the condensate tank.
In theory:-
WF= WE + WC
SF=SC
The student should verify this and account for any errors.
Objective:
a. To investigate the concentration of a sugar solution by double effect evaporation
withforward, backward and parallel feed.
b. To obtain mass balances based on flow rates and compositions.
c. To compare the degree of concentration achieved with double effect operation with
that achieved with a single effect.
(N.B. It is assumed that the student has already carried out the single effect experiment).
Theory:
In theory, the amount of sugar and water in the solution fed to the evaporator should be
balanced by the amount of sugar and water removed in the concentrated solution and as
condensate.
These balances can be expressed:-
a) In terms of total quantities in a given time. This form of mass balance is used
b) In terms of flow rates and concentrations
F∗100−cF c∗100−Cc
=E+Q 2+ -water balance
100 100
F∗CF C∗Cc
= -sugar balance
100 100
Where:-
F = mass flow rate of feed, kg/hr
E= mass flow rate of condensate, kg/hr
C= mass flow rate of concentrated solution, kg/hr
Q2= mass flow rate of condensed vapour from second effect steam trap, kg/hr
CF= concentration of sugar in fee, % w / w
CC= concentration of sugar in concentrate from second effect, % w / w - forward feed
= concentration of sugar in concentrate from first effect, % w / w - backward feed
= average of concentrations of sugar in concentrates from each effect, % w / w parallel feed
37 | P a g e
These balances assume that the evaporator is operating steadily and that no sugar solution is
carried over from the evaporator to the condenser. In the case of parallel feed it is also
assumed that the mass flowrates of concentrate from each effect are equal.
Procedure:
Prepare a 4% w/w solution of sugar in water for use in this experiment.
Carry out one experiment with each method of double effect operation (forward, Backward,
parallel feed).
procedure with a feed rate of 10 l/hr. Operate the evaporator with a circulation rate of 30 l/hr
in each effect, a steam pressure of 1.5 bar and a system pressure of 400m Hg vacuum.
N.H. It is ESSENTIAL that the system is drained and thoroughly washed out after this
experiment.
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read the feed and circulation rates in
each effect (F4, F2, F5, F3), steam, first and second effect pressures (P3, P2, Pl), boiling
points (Tll, T7), levels in feed, condensate and concentrate tanks (Ll, L2, L3) every 5 mins
for a period of 1 hr. During this period collect and weigh the total amount of condensed
vapour discharged from the steam trap of the second effect (14). Every 5 mins take samples
from the feed and concentrate via the appropriate valves as set out in the following table:-
Method operation of Feed Concentrate
1st effect 2nd effect

Forward C14 C6
Back ward C8 C12
parallel C8 or c14 C12 c6
Analyze the samples for sugar concentration using a refract meter (not provided) and record
the results. The readings should be recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
38 | P a g e
1) Calculate average feed and circulation rates in each effect (F4, F2, F5, F3), steam,
first and second effect pressures (p3, P2, PL), boiling points (Tll, T7), sugar
concentrations in feed and concentrate (cp cC),
2) Calculate the average rate of condensation of vapour in the second effect from:-
Q2= WQ2/T
Where: - W Q2 (kg) is the total amount of condensate collected from the steam trap (14) in
time T (hr).
3) Plot feed, condensate and concentrate tan levels against time. Find the slopes Sl,S2,S3
of the "best' straight lines through the points in each case.
4) Calculate feed, condensate and concentrate flow-rates (F, E, C) from:-
F= 60*S1*C1* ρ F
E= 60*S2*C2
C= 60*S3*C3* ρ C
Where: - C1, C2, C3 are the appropriate tank calibration constants and ρF,ρc are the specific
gravities of the feed and concentrate.
5) Calculate the appropriate sugar and water balances. The student should accountfor
any errors.
The change in concentration, cC' cp achieved for each method of double effect operation
should be compared with each other and with that achieved in the single effect
Objective:
 To obtain an energy balance for operation with a single effect.
Theory:
The following energy balance can be written for the first effect (Le. Item 4, 5, 6, 7).
WF* Hf + Q1 *HS = WE *HE + WC *hC + Q *hS
Where:-
W F = mass of water fed to evaporator, kg
WE = mass of water evaporated, kg
W C = mass of steam condensed in first effect, kg
Qi = mass of steam condensed in first effect, kg hF = enthalpy of feed at T9, kJ/kg
39 | P a g e
HE = enthalpy of vapour leaving first effect at T3, PL, kJ Ikg hC = enthalpy of concentrate at
T12, kJ/kg
HS = enthalpy of steam entering evaporator jacket at P3, kJ Ikg hS = enthalpy of condensate
leaving evaporator jacket at P3, kJ Ikg
heat losses. In practice, heat wil be lost to the surroundings; these losses will be measured by
the difference between the LHS and RHS of the theoretical energy balance.
The following mass balance can also be written for the first effect:-
WF = WE + WC
Since the quantities in the mass balance also appear in the energy balance, the mass balance
should be calculated in addition to the energy balance as a check.
Procedure:
Follow the preliminary procedure and the start-up and operating procedure for single effect
operation with water feed rate of 10 J/hr. Operate the evaporator with a circulation rate of 30
J/hr, a steam pressure of 1.5 bar and a system pressure of 400mmHg vacuum Readings to Be
Taken:
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read the feed and circulation
flowrates (F4, F2), steam and system pressures (P3, PL), feed, vapour and concentrate
temperatures (T9, T3, T12) every 5 mins for a period of 1 hr. Read the levels in the feed,
condensate and concentrate tanks (Ll, L2, L3) at the beginning and end of this period. Collect
and measure the amount of condensate (Qi) discharged from the steam trap (14) during this
period.
The readings should be recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
1) Calculate average feed and circulation flow-rates (F4, F2), steam and system
pressures (P3, P1), feed, vapour and concentrate temperatures (T9, T3, T12).
2) Find the enthalpies of the feed at T9 (hF), vapour at T3, PL (HE) concentrate at T12
(hC) steam and condensate at P3 (HS,hS) from steam Tables.
3) Calculate the changes in levels in the feed, condensate and concentrate tanks
(∆Ll ,∆L2, ∆L3).
4) Calculate the mass of water fed, water evaporated and concentrate
(WP, WE, WC) from:-
WF = C1 *∆Ll
WE = C2 *∆L2
WC = C3 *∆Ll
Where: - C1, C2, and C3 are the appropriate tank calibration constants.
5) Calculate a mass balance: -
WF = WE +WC
And an energy balance: -
WF *hF + Q1*HS = WE*HE +WC*HC +Q1*hS
40 | P a g e
The student should verify these balances and account for errors.
Objective
To obtain and compare energy balances for each method of double effect operation (forward,
backward, parallel feed).
Theory:
The following overall energy balance can be written for the two effects (Le. items 4, 5, 6,7,9,
10, 11, 12):-
WF*hF + Q1*HS=WE2 + WC*hC+Q1*hS +Q2*h2
Where:-
W F = mass of water fed to evaporator, kg
WE2 = mass of water evaporated in second effect, kg
WC = mass of concentrate, kg
Q1 = mass of steam condensed in first effect, kg
Q2 = mass of vapour condensed in second effect, kg
hF = enthalpy of feed at T9, kJ/kg - forward feed
= enthalpy of feed at T5, kJ/kg - backward feed
= enthalpy of feed at average of T9 and T5, kJkg - parallel feed
HS = enthalpy of steam at P3, kJ Ikg
HE2 = enthalpy of vapour leaving second effect at T3, PL, kJ Ikg
hC = enthalpy of concentrate at T8. kJ Ikg - forward feed
= enthalpy of concentrate at T12, kJ Ikg - backward feed
= enthalpy of concentrate at average of T12, T5, kJ Ikg - parallel feed
hs = enthalpy of condensate leaving first effect at P3, kJ Ikg
h2 = enthalpy of condensate leaving second effect at P2, kJ/kg
heat losses.
In practice, heat wil be lost to the surroundings; these losses wil be measured by the
difference between the LHS and RHS of the theoretical energy balance.
In the case of operation with parallel feed, it is also assumed that the mass flowrates of
concentrate from each effect are equal.
The following mass balance can also be written for the two effects:-
41 | P a g e
WF = Wc + WE2 + Q2
Since the quantities in the mass balance also appear in the energy balance, the mass balance
should be calculated in addition to the energy balance as a check.
Procedure:
Carry out one experiment with each method of double effect operation (forward, backward,
parallel feed).
procedure with a water feed rate of 10 J/hr. Operate the evaporator with a circulation rate of
30 J/hr in each effect, a steam pressure of 1.5 bar and a system pressure of 400m Hg vacuum.
Allow the evaporator to reach steady operation and then read the feed and circulation flow
rates for each effect (F4, F2, F5, F3), steam, first effect and second effect pressures (P3, P2,
PL), the appropriate feed, vapour and concentrate temperatures (T5 or T9, T3, T8 or T12)
every 5 mins for a period of 1 hr. Read the levels in the feed, condensate and concentrate
tanks (Ll, L2, L3) at the beginning and end of this period. During this period, collect and
measure separately the amounts of condensate (Qi, Q2) discharged from the first and second
effect steam traps (8, 13). The readings should be recorded on an evaporator log sheet.
Calculations:
1) Calculate average feed and circulation flowrate for each effect (F4, F2, F5, F3),
steam, first and second effect pressures (P3, P2, PL), feed, vapour and concentrate
temperatues (5 or T9, T3, T8 or T12).
2) Find the enthalpy of the feed (hF), vapour (HE2), concentrate (hC)' steam and
condensate (HS' hS)' condensate from second effect (h2) from Steam Tables.
3) Calculate the changes in levels in the feed, condensate and concentrate tanks (∆L1,
∆L2, ∆L3).
4) Calculate the mass of water fed, water evaporated in the second effect and concentrate
(WF, WE2, WC) from:-
WF = C1.∆ Ll
WE = C2.∆ L2
W C = C3.∆ L3
Where Cl' C2 and C3 are the appropriate tank calibration constants.
5) Calculate a mass balance:-
WF = Wc + WE2 + Q2
And an energy balance:-
WF*hF + Q1*HS = WE2*HE2 + WC*hC + Q1*hS + Q2*h2
The student should verify these balances and account for any errors.
42 | P a g e
PART THREE
MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER
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I. General background of heat transfer mechanisms
The science of thermodynamics deals with the as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another, and makes no reference to how long the process will take. But in
engineering amount of heat transfer, we are often interested in the rate of heat transfer, which
is the topic of the science of heat transfer. In this labratory, we will see the three basic
mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduction, convection, and radiation in paractical.
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent, less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Convection is
the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation is the
energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
44 | P a g e
1 Heat transfer by conduction
1.1 Unit description of conduction

Lay out
1.linear conduction 4. Control and display unit
2. radial conduction 5. Data cable
3. insert 6. Power cable
Figure: WL 372 heat conduction unit
The WL 372 heat conduction unit is a tabletop unit with two experimental arrangments,
linear conduction (1) and radial conduction (2). The storage vessels serve as storage locations
for the insert (3). The control and display unit (4) is placed near the study unit. The two units
are connected together via two cables, a data cables (5) and a power caple (6). A laboratory
cooling water feed and return system and mains power complete the experimental setup.
1.2 Components
Linear conduction
The setup for linear conduction (1) comprises three elements:
45 | P a g e
- Fixed part with heater (1.1)
- Moveable part with cooler (1.4)
- Various inserts
By opening the toggle fastener (1.2) and sliding back the cooler, the insert can be installed.
By this means the heat is transferred linearly from the heater, though an insert, to the cooler.
Figure: Linear conduction
Heater
The heater (1.1) comprises external insulation, lid, brass rod and the electrical heater element.
There are three temperature measuring points under the insulation in the brass rod at 45℃ .
Together with the insert there is thus a measurement section of nine measuring points.
Figure: Heater
46 | P a g e
Cooler
The cooler (1.4) comprises external insulation and a brass rod as for the heater. However this
brass rod has bores through which the cooling water can flow.
Figure: Cooler
Inserts
Insert 1 (1.1) has three temperature measuring points in a brass rod. This brass rod has the
same diameter as the heater (1.1) and the cooler (1.2). when using other inserts, insert 1 can
be placed on one side.
Insert 2 (3.2) also has the same diameter as the heater and the cooler, but is made from
corrossion resistance steel (13) and does not have any temperature measuring points.
Insert 3 (3.3) on the other hand has a smaller diameter and is again made from brass, it also
has no temperature measuring points. All the inserts are fitted with an insulating sleeve.
47 | P a g e
Figure: inserts
Radial conduction
The radial conduction (2) experimental setup is a sealed unit. It comprises:
- An insulating housing with lid.

- A disc (2.2) with heater (2.3) and cooler (2.1).
The heater is fixed from below in the centre of the brass disc (2.2). There is copper pipe (2.1)
around the disc through which cooling water can flow. From above, six temperature
measuring points (2.4) are fitted in a line that stretches radially from the centre to the
circumference. Using this apparatus the heat is transferred radially from the heater to the
cooler.
Figure: Radial conduction
Measuring points and dimensions
48 | P a g e
Linear conduction
Figure: Measuring points linear conduction
The measuring points are numbered from left to right. The distance between measuring points
is 10 mm. The diameter of the heater, cooler, insert 1 and insert 2 is 25 mm. Insert 3 has a
diameter of 15 mm. If insert 1 is not used in the experiments, the temperatures displayed for
measuring points 4,5 and 6 should be ignored.
Radial conduction
Figure: Measuring points radial conduction
The measuring points are numbered from the center outwards. The distance between adjacent
measuring points is 10 mm. The diameter of the disc is 110 mm; it is 4mm thick. The heater
49 | P a g e
is in the center of the disck on the underside and has a diameter of 12mm. The temperatures
for measuring points 7, 8 and 9 should be ignored during the experiments.
1.3 General experimental setup of the unit

- Place the test unit and the control and display unit on a table and ensure that they are
securely located.
- Provide electrical power: On the rear of the control and display unit(4) there is a
mains connector with a series fuse and the main switch (4.8) via which the control and
display unit is supplied. Connect this to the power supply.
- Connect the test unit to the control and the display unit with the data cable (5) and the
mains cable (6). The sockets for the heater load (4.9) and the connection for the data
acquisition (4.10) are on the rear. The data cables and socket on the left of the test unit
are used for experiments on radial conduction (2). Those on the right for linear
conduction (1).
- Make the connections for the cooling water feed and return using a 6mm hose.
Figure: Experimental setup
Figure: Rear side of control- and display unit.
50 | P a g e
1.4 Introduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can
take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the
combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons. A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually warms up to the
room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink through the
aluminum can by conduction. The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the
geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the
temperature difference across the medium. We know that wrapping a hot water tank with
glass wool (an insulating material) reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank. The thicker the
insulation, the smaller the heat loss. We also know that a hot water tank loses heat at a higher
rate when the temperature of the room housing the tank is lowered. Further, the larger the
tank, the larger the surface area and thus the rate of heat loss.
In technical calculations it is important to be able to determine the amount or heat that is

transferred between two mediums of different temperatures per unit time, when the two
mediums are separated by a wall. The transport of heat is termed heat transfer and occurs in
three main forms:
- Thermal conduction in a solid body, in moving liquid body, or gaseous body.

- Convection between a solid medium an a flowing liquid or gaseous body.
- Thermal radiation, occurs without a material carrier.
Heat is mostly transferred simultaneously by conduction, convection radiation. Since the
individual types of heat transfer are governed by different laws, they must be addressed
separately. Using the G.U.N.T.WL 372 heat conduction unit the fundamental laws and
characterstics of thermal conduction in solid bodies can be determined experimentally. The
tabletop WL 372 heat conduction unit comprises two experimental arrangments, linear
conduction and radial conduction. Using the linear conduction arrangments, experiments
can be made with different materials or diameters by installing different inserts.
1.5 Theory
Steady state thermal conduction
51 | P a g e
Thermal conduction is the molecular transfer of heat in solid (see fig below), liquid and
gaseous media under the influence of a temperature difference. The maintenance of the
transfer of heat by the continueous supply of heat is the commonest form of steady state
thermal conduction, e.g. in heat exchanger. The quantity of heat Q flow through the cross
section of the solid body, as shown in figure below, over time t in a steady state in accordance
with fourier’s law. The cross sectioonal area is considerably larger than the peripheral area.
The flow of heat Q due to the conduction of heat is described by the following equation:
Q=−λ . A .t . ( dϑdx )................................................1

Here λ is the coeffieciecnt of thermal conductivity of the material through which the heat
dϑ
flows, ϑ the temperature, A the isothermic area and the temperature drop in the direction
dx
of the heat flow.
The quantity of Q̇ is equal to the quotient of the amount of heat per unit time.
Q dϑ
Q̇= =−λ . A . .............................................2
t dx
Figure: Conduction of heat through a wall
52 | P a g e
It is the prerequisite for the calculation that a temperature difference is the only present in one
direction; the temperature in the layers perpendicular to this temperature difference is
constant.
The flow of heat per unit area is termed as the density of heat flow q̇
q̇= ( Q̇A ) ...............................................................3

If one defines a material with a temperature dependent coefficient of thermal conductivity
λ=f (ϑ ) , and sets this coefficeint of thermal conductivity λ to an average coefficient of

thermal conductivity λ 1,2 over the range between the temperatures λ 1 and λ 2, then one obtains
for the density of the heat flow q̇
λ
q̇= .(ϑ 1−ϑ 2) ................................................ 4
s
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a molecular process that comprises an exchange of kinetic energy

from one molecular to another. In addition to molecular viberation, thermal conduction in
metals occurs due to the flow of electrons that increases the conduction properties. In such
materials electrons are not bound to a fixed position but move around in a lattice (like the
molecules in gas). This is the reason why electrical conductors have considerably higher
thermal conductivity than electrical insulators.
Linear conduction
Heat conduction through a wall
From formula (2) the heat flow through a wall is:
Q dϑ
Q̇= =−λ . A . ....................................... 5
t dx
For a constant cross-sectional area A and dx=s one obtains:
λ
Q̇= . A .(ϑ 1−ϑ 2) .....................................6
s
Heat conduction through a wall made up of several layers
53 | P a g e
For every layer in the wall the heat flow is the same. The following applies:
1st layer
λ1
Q̇= . A .(ϑ 1−ϑ 2) ................................................. 7
s1
2nd layer
λ2
Q̇= . A .(ϑ 1−ϑ 2) ........................................ 8
s2
n.layer
λn
Q̇= . A .(ϑn−ϑn+1) ......................................9
sn
By rearranging and adding equations for the individual layers together, the heat flow from the
over all temperature difference is found to be as follows:
A . ( ϑ 1−ϑn+1 )
Q̇=
( )( )( )
s1
λ1
+
s2
λ2
+
sn .................................................. 10
λn
Figure: Conduction of heat through a wall made up of several layer
Radial conduction
54 | P a g e
Radial conduction corresponds to the conduction of the heat through a hollow cylinder.
Whilst for a wall the cross-sectional area of the heat flow remains constant, the area through
which the heat flows changes in the case of radial heat transfer, A=f(r).
Figure: Radial conduction
However, the flow of heat remains constant, and at any point on the cylinder one obtains:
Q dϑ
Q̇= =−λ . A . .................................................. 11
t dr
With
A=2.r . Π . L .................................................... 12
L= lengthof the cylinder
This yields
dϑ
A=−λ .2 .r . Π . L . ............................................ 13
dr
By reorganising and integrating over the limits ri to ra one obtains the flow of heat through a
hollow cylinder:
2. Π . L
Q̇= λ . .(ϑ 1−ϑ 2)
ra ................................................... 14
ln ⁡
ri
1.6 Experiments
1.6.1 Experiment 1: Linear conduction with insert 1
Objective
55 | P a g e
- Plotting a temperature curve of the linear conduction and determination of the thermal
conductivity coefficient.
Experimental procedure
- Set up the unit as per general experimental setup of the unit, install inser 1 and adjust
the cooling water flow rate (only a very low cooling water flow rate of approx. 1L/h is
required to dissipate a heater power of approx. 90 watt at a temperature differnce of
90 K).
- Switch on the unit and adjust the desired temperature drop via the power setting on
the control and display unit.
- When the thermal conduction process has reached a steady state conduction, i.e. the
temperature at the individual measuring points are stable and no longer changing, note
the measurement results at the individual measuring points and the electrical power
supplied to the heater.

Objective
- Install insert 2 and adjust the cooling water flow rate.


Objective
- Install insert 2 and adjust the cooling water flow rate.
56 | P a g e
1.6.4 Experiment 4: Radial conduction

Objective
- Plotting a temperature curve of the radial conduction and determination of the thermal
- Set up the unit as per general experimental setup of the unit, install inser 1 and adjust
the cooling water flow rate (only a very low cooling water flow rate of approx. 1L/h is
required to dissipate a heater power of approx. 90 watt at a temperature differnce of
90 K).
57 | P a g e
2 Heat transfer by convection
2.1 Basic principle

This chapter lists some of the basic theoretical principles that should make it easier to
understand and evaluate the subsequent experiments. Having said this, only a limited area of
heat transfer is represented with respect to the trainer, since a complete theoretical analysis is
too large a scope to cover.
2.2 Introduction
Convection is a heat transfer mechanism, during which a fluid absorbs heat. When in contact
with a surface with a different temperature this occurs by heat conduction. The fluid can also
absorb heat via radiation. This requires the radiation to be absorbed. The fact that the fluid
does not have a fixed form compared to the solid body, the fluid particles can move freely,
which means they can transport heat. Where such transport takes place, it is called
convection.
Achieving a certain temperature difference in a body requires a certain amount of energy:
58 | P a g e
Q=m. Cp. ∆ T ..........................................1
Here the mass m of the material to be heated up, and the specific thermal capacity Cp are
significant. While the mass m describes the physical quantity of material, the specific thermal
capacity Cp indicates how much energy is stored per temperature difference and mass.
This instruction manual uses the measured temperature rise of the air mass flow rate to
calculate
the convective capacity. In steady operating mode, flow passes through the trainer with a
constant air mass flow rate. The observation of the heat flow with the measured air mass flow
rate is:
Q̇= ṁ. Cp. ∆ T ............................................................... 2
The air mass flow rate consists of:
ṁ=w . Α m . ρ .............................................. 3
The temperature difference is calculated from:
∆ T =T 2−T 1 ............................................ 4
While T1 roughly corresponds to the ambient temperature T0, T2 is simplified in that the
measured value corresponds to the average temperature at the unit outlet. This simplification
is important for the subsequent evaluation of results.
Figure: Hot gases rise
The flow velocity w and the temperature difference are average variables over the entire flow
cross-section. The flow cross-section in the trainer is defined as constant at
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0,0144m2. The cross-section is a result of the air duct dimensions of 120mm x 120mm.
• The density of air can be derived from the general gas equation:
m P
ρ= = ................................... 5
V R .T
The density of air to be used to calculate the mass flow rate depends on the temperature at
the velocity measuring point.
The universal gas constant R of the air depends on the relative humidity and temperature. The
KJ
value of 287 of dry air can be used here with only negligible error.
Kg . K
• The specific thermal capacity of air also depends on the air temperature. It increases with
KJ
the temperature. In the later experiments the simplified value of 1,008 can be assumed.
Kg. K
The error lies in the region of single digit parts per thousand.
Figure: Balloon with equal air mass and different temperatures
Heat transfer coeffiecient
Another method for calculating the transferred heat is via the heat transfer coefficient :
Q̇= Aα . α . ΔT ................................................... 6
The area Aα is the surface of the heat exchanger and ∆ T the temperature difference between
the surface temperature T4 of the heat exchanger and the temperature of the fluid, in this case
equal to the ambient temperature which is nearly equal to T1.
The heat transfer coefficient can be determined experimentally using Formula
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ṁ. Cp . ( T 2−T 1 )
α= =f ( Nu) ............................................... 7
Α α . (T 4−T 1 )
Figure: Large and small intentional heat transfer
For select technically relevant applications it is possible to calculate the heat transfer
coefficients by means of the theory of similarity. This is done through empirical formulae
with ratios. A short overview of the theory of similarity is given below.
Theory of similarity
The method mentioned above for calculating the heat transfer coefficient is based on the
theory of similarity. This is used in many fields of physics and is a particularly important
foundation in heat transfer. Physical similarity means that the model is similar to its original
in a certain property. Example of scale: A model of the Cologne Cathedral looks similar to its
original; it is similar in appearance (geometric similarity). However, it is different when we
consider the interior or the building materials.
We use ratios in order to demonstrate and study similarities. These ratios are dimensionless,
and their similarity only describes the parameters under consideration.
Example: The Mach number is a ratio which is used in fast vehicles (e.g. aircraft) as a
measure of velocity. The Mach number is defined as the ratio of current velocity to the
velocity of sound. Using the theory of similarity we can also perform calculations on heat
flows. This often has advantages in technical handling, especially in construction matters.
The following ratios are essential when considering and assessing convection. Here we only
refer to the mainly significant ratios. Calculating heat transfer is also based on formulae
61 | P a g e
determined empirically from ratios obtained from models. Please refer to the relevant
specialist literature for a deeper understanding of the subject.
Figure: Matryoshka dolls, similarity in form
Nusslet number
The Nusselt number is a measure of the heat transfer in convection. It is given by:
α .l
Nu= ....................................... 8
λ
It is the ratio of convective heat transfer to heat conduction in motionless fluid. The Nusselt
number is thus the improvement of heat transfer in convection compared to the heat transfer,
which 'only' takes place by the heat conduction of the fluid.
According to this definition, in a one-dimensional approach Nu is always greater than one

since each movement of fluid represents an additional transfer of heat for conduction.
The Greek letter λ stands for the coefficient of thermal conduction of air. This coefficient is
dependent on temperature.
The length l is called the characteristic length. This length represents the geometric similarity.
In a flat plate this is the overflowed length l , in a (quantity = 1)
π
overflowed cylinder it is . l=d .
2
The Nusselt number depends on other ratios. Formulae have been created from experiments
which reflect the ratios in different applications. The heat transfer coefficient can only be
determined subsequently, using Formula (4.8), through the Nusselt number which can be
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calculated for a few cases. The Nusselt number has to be re-calculated accordingly when the
parameters are changed.
Figure: Characteristic length
Reynolds number
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertia force to the viscosity force of a fluid:
w.l
ℜ= .................................................... 9
v
w: Flow velocity
ι : Characteristic length,
ν : Kinematic viscosity, see table,
The Reynolds number represents a ratio for the formation of the flow. We make a distinction
between laminar and turbulent flow.
Laminar flow
Laminar flow means that the fluid particles have only one velocity value in the direction of
flow. Fluid particles in the vicinity of the heating element keep their distance from the surface
as long as the flow is parallel to it. The heat transport occurs both by heat conduction and also
by transport with the fluid particles. Heat conduction takes place in all directions. Transport
with the particles of matter only in accordance with the direction of flow. Therefore, a small
transfer of heat takes place perpendicular to the flow as in the flow direction.
At low Reynolds numbers we assume laminar flow. The amount of the Reynolds number
depends on the geometry. Other geometries mean other Reynolds numbers and also other
63 | P a g e
Reynolds number variables for the laminar region. This must be determined by experiments
for each problem case. For pipes there is laminar flow at Re < 2300. In the flat plate this is
the case at Re < 10^5. We must make this distinction for areas of validity when calculating
the Nusselt number, but in the subsequent calculation we only refer to one case by way of
example.
Figure: Laminar pipe flow, Re < 2300
Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow occurs when turbulence causes other velocity components to be present in the
flow in addition to the main direction of flow. This turbulence is irregular and random. For
heat transfer, this means better mixing, since the heat is now also transported with the fluid
particles, across the main flow. Above a certain Reynolds number, we can assume that the
flow changes from laminar to turbulent. How big this Reynolds number is depending on the
geometry of the body being flowed through.
With increasing flow velocity, after laminar flow there follows a transition area, designated
by the range of the critical Reynolds number. The turbulent flow only develops fully at higher
flow velocities. In the analytical calculations in industry and technology there is usually a set
of formulae describing the areas of validity using ratios.
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Figure: Turbulent pipe flow, Re > 2300
Free convection
As already mentioned, convection describes the transport of heat by moving fluid particles. In
free convection, this motion is caused by the density differences resulting from warming.
The heater element gives off its heat to the air. This occurs in the heating element by heat
conduction to the surface. The heated air flows upwards through the resulting difference in
density. The equilibrium between the air being heated up and flowing out is such that an
increased velocity and temperature can be noted near to the heated surface.
Figure: free convection
Forced convection
In forced convection, the flow is made possible by an outside technical device, such as a fan,
pump and wind. This results in an increased speed compared to free convection. The quicker
transport of the fluid causes a higher temperature gradient from the warm surface to the fluid
and thus a better heat transfer. If the velocity is so high that the flow changes from laminar to
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turbulent, the additional fluid movement across the main direction (turbulence) provides
improved heat transfer - away from the surface. This can also only happen locally (e.g.
between the fins on the fin heater), since the local Reynolds number can vary over the cross-
section.
Figure: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.
2.3 Experiments
2.3.1 Experiment 1: Evaluation of free convection
Note for free convection:
If, following a period of downtime that allows a uniform temperature distribution in the room
and the device, the trainer indicates a temperature difference from T1 to T2, then there is
temperature layering present in the room air in the experiment space. This temperature
difference must be subtracted from the subsequent value of air heating, because it means an
increase in energy level, which is already given by the space.
2.3.2 Experiment 1a: Evaluation of the flat plate

At the start of the experiment, the 'flat plate' heating element is attached to the control and
display unit and installed in the trainer. The heating output is adjusted so as to set a
temperature between 105...115°C on the surface of the flat plate. In factory experiments this
was achieved at 55 watts. The surface temperature T4 is measured by the thermocouple in the
centre of the plate as shown in Fig. below. For this purpose, a hole is added in the front
Plexiglas plate. The values can be recorded on the computer according to the table given
below.
The measurements can be documented via data acquisition or using the following prepared
sheets.
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Learning objectives:
– Familiarization with the experimental unit.
– Record readings.
– Calculate convection characteristic values.
– Interpret convection characteristic values.
Figure: Measuring point for T4 with the flat plate' heater insert
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value
Electrical power Pel
Flow velocity w
Inlet temperature T1
Outlet temperature T2
Flat plate heating element T4
Values for calculation Unit Value
Temperature difference T2 - T1
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Table value of air density
Table value of spec. thermal

capacity cp
Thermal energy
Heating element area A
Heat transfer coefficient
Nusselt number Nu
Heating surface load
Table: Measurements
2.3.3 Experiment 1b: Comparison of different heating elements

The trainer is operated as in the previous experiment, however, the heating element is
replaced by the fin heater or the pipe bundle. As in experiment 1a, the maximum surface
temperature on the rear wall of the element should be between 105...115 °C. In factory
experiments, this was the case of at 160 watts for the fin heater and 145 watts for the pipe
bundle. The measurements can be documented via data acquisition or according to the
following prepared sheets. To make things simpler, the surface temperature of the heater can
be measured through the side measuring points as shown in Fig below.
– To recognize how the heater surface affects heat transfer
Figure: Measuring point for T4 with the 'fin heater' heater insert (left side) and with the
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'pipe bundle' heater insert (right side)
Fin heater Pipe bundle

Measuring point - measured values Unit
value value
Electrical power Pel approx. 160 approx. 145
Flow velocity w
Surface temperature T4
Fin heater Pipe bundle

Values for calculation Unit
value value

capacity cp
Thermal energy
Heater surface A
Nusselt number Nu
Table: Measurements
2.3.4 Experiment 1c: Varying the heater temperature

In this experiment the fin model is used as a heating element. The efficiency of convection is
much better here than in the flat plate, thus the learning
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objectives can be more clearly seen. The following experiment has to be distinguished from
the pipe bundle. Start-up takes place as in the previous experiments. The measurements can
be documented via data acquisition or according to the following prepared sheets.
– To recognize the relationship between surface temperature to heat transfer
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value Value Value Value
approx. approx. approx. approx.

75 100 125 150
Flow velocity w
Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value

capacity cp
Thermal energy
Heater surface A
Nusselt number Nu
Table: Measurements
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2.3.5 Experiment 1d: Influence of the heating element's overflow
This experiment is designed as a follow-up to experiment 1c. The pipe bundle is used as a
heating element. Start-up takes place as in the previous experiments. The measurements can
be documented via data acquisition or using the following prepared sheets.
– To recognize what affect flow mixing has.
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value Value Value Value
approx. approx. approx. approx.

75 100 125 150
Flow velocity w
Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value

capacity cp
Thermal energy
Heater surface A
Nusselt number Nu
Table: Measurements
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2.3.6 Experiment 2: Flow velocity in forced convection
This experiment is intended to demonstrate what effect flow velocity has on the trainer
system. The fundamentals of the influence of flow velocity on convection can be found in the
"Basic principles" chapter. Start-up takes place as in the previous experiments. The
measurements can be documented via data acquisition or using the following prepared sheets.
– To identify the influence of velocity on the heater insert
– To identify the influence of velocity on heat transfer
Measuring point -
Unit Value Value Value Value Value Value
measured values
approx. approx. approx. approx. approx. approx.

Flow velocity w
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value Value Value
Temperature difference
T2 - T1
Temperature difference
T4 - T1
Table value of air

density
Table value of spec.

thermal capacity cp
Thermal energy
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Heater surface A
Nusselt number Nu
Table: Measurements
2.3.7 Experiment 3: Heat distribution on the pipe bundle

This experiment looks at the qualitative evaluation of the influence of heat transfer in the pipe
bundle. The documentation is based on the following prepared spread sheet.
Learning objective:
– To identify the temperature gradient in the pipe bundle
– To identify the relationship to convection
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value
Flow velocity w
Table: Measurements
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3 Heat transfer by convection and radiation
3.1 Introduction
In the case of real heat transport between two bodies, the heat transfer generally takes place
simultaneously through material-bound transport, such as convection or thermal conduction,
and non-material-bound transport, such as radiation.
It is difficult to determine the individual heat quantities in a particular kind of transfer. With
the WL 377 trainer, it is possible to allocate these individual heat quantities to the transfer
types. The core component is a metal cylinder located in a pressure vessel. There is a
temperature-controlled heating element in the middle of the cylinder. Sensors record the
cylinder wall temperature, the heater temperature and the heater power. This metal cylinder is
used to investigate the heat transfer between the heating element and the vessel wall. The
pressure vessel can be subjected to a vacuum or excess pressure. In a vacuum, the heat
transport takes place primarily through radiation. If the vessel is filled with gas and subjected
to excess pressure, the heat is additionally transferred through convection. It is possible to
compare heat transfer in various gases. Nitrogen, helium or carbon dioxide are suitable for
testing in addition to air. A rotary pump generates vacuums of up to approx. 0,02 mbar.
Excess pressure of up to approx. 1bar can be generated with air pressure. Two pressure
transducers with suitable measuring ranges are available for pressure measurement: the
vacuum is recorded with a Pirani gauge, whereas a piezo-resistive sensor is used for tests
where the cylinder is filled.
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Figure 1: WL 377 main view
1. Moveable table frame with pressure 18. Oil filter (with zeolite) on the
vessel intake side (not shown here)
2. Air inlet valve (V4) 19. Vacuum pump (P) with electric
motor
3. Pressure vessel with heater
20. Air or gas inlet
4. Pressure relief valve (V3)
5. Bleed valve (V5)
6. Feed valve (V2)
7. Connection for heater and

thermocouple
8. Vacuum pump on/off
(! The vacuum pump may have an

additional switch at the rear of the electric
motor)
9. Pressure display pabs in Pa
10. Pressure display prel in bar
11. Temperature display of the vessel

wall (T2)
12. Temperature controller with

display (T1) (displays the heater
temperature)
13. Heater on/off
14. Heater power display (E1)
15. Main switch
16. Oil separator on the outlet side
17. Valve on the intake side (V1)
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Both pressure transducers (P1) (P2) and the temperature transducer (T2) are located on rear of
the pressure vessel.
3.2 Fundamental principles

Convection
Heat transfer by convection involves the heat being transferred to flowing liquids or gas
particles. This energy is carried along by the particles as a flow. If the flow is itself caused by the
heat transfer, as in the case of air flowing past a central heating radiator for example, the
movement is termed free convection. If the movement is due to pumps or fans independent of the
heat transfer, e.g. for cooling of an engine, the movement is termed forced convection.
The heat transferred by convection is expressed relative to the area of the material to which the
heat is transferred. If, for example, the heat is transferred from a gas like air to a solid medium
like a wall, then the heat flow can be calculated as follows:
Q̇=α . A .(tG−tW ) ………………………………. 1
Here:
Q̇ ; The heat flow being transferred in W
α ; The coefficient of heat transfers in W/m2K
A; The area of the wall in m2
tG; The temperature in the gas in °C
tW; The wall temperature in °C
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Figure: convection
The coefficient of heat transfer α can be calculated as:
λ 2
α = ∈W /m K ……………………….. 2
ϑ
Here:
λ Thermal conductivity ( λ = 0,026W/m2K)
ϑ Thickness of boundary layer (Fig.: 1)
From the relationship in equation 2 and 1, the heat flow transferred by convection can be
calculated as:
λ
Q̇= . A .( tG−tW ) ……………………………. 3
ϑ
The coefficient of heat transfer depends on a complex relationship of a wide range of factors
that are defined by the physical properties and flow state of the fluid, as well as the geometrical
shape of the heated surfaces. A few general figures for the coefficient of heat transfer are given
below.
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Coefficients of heat transfer for air
Unit in W/m2K
vertical to the metal wall
Stationary 3.5...35
Moving gently 23...70
Moving strongly 58...290
Table 1
For calculation of the heat transfer by convection, the coefficient of heat transfer for stationary
air is to be assumed. These values assume dry air, as α changes depending on the humidity of the
air.
Radiation
Temperature radiation is termed heat radiation or thermal radiation. There are two approaches for
theoretical description of the emission, transmission and absorption of radiation: the classic
theory of electromagnetic waves and the quantum theory of photons.
The radiation addressed here can be explained as the sum of the contributions of many smalls
amounts of emitted energy. Although the movements and the position of the individual photons
cannot be given, the behavior of a large number can be described as an electromagnetic wave.
We will address radiation in terms of its wave character.
The waveband for thermal radiation is between:
λ = (0.35...10) µm
The ray’s incident on a body are either reflected, absorbed or let through by the body. Generally,
from the law of conservation of energy we can state that:
ρ+ α +τ =1 ……………………………. 4
Here:
ρ Reflection coefficient
α Absorption coefficient
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τ Passage or transmission coefficient
Most solid and liquid bodies prevent passage even at very small thicknesses - around 1 µm for
metals and around 1 mm for liquids. Thus, for solid and liquid bodies in the technical area:
ρ+ α=1 ………………………….. 5
A body is referred to as black, if it absorbs all incident rays( α =ε=1 )
White, if it reflects all rays
Grey, if it absorbs the same fraction of all wavelengths ( αλ=ελ )
Coloured, if reflection of certain wavelengths (corresponding to the "colour") is favoured when

the radiation is incident
Reflective, if all incident rays are reflected at the same angle (relative to the surface normal)
Matt, if the rays are scattered diffusely in all directions.
Everybody emits rays depending on its temperature and surface properties. A so-called black
body provides the maximum possible amount. A technical body emits less than the black body at
the same temperature. This ratio is known as the emission ratio and is designatedε .
Kirchhoff's Law states that the emission ratio is equal to the absorption ratio α :
α=ε …………………………………… 6
Several emission coefficients εn are listed below for the angle φ = 90°:

Surface Temperature in °C
n
Copper (polished) 20 0,030
Aluminium (bright
170 0,039
rolled)
Iron (polished) 20 0,24
Iron (rusty) 20 0,85
Radiator paint 100 0,925
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Black paint, matt 80 0,970
Table 2
The flow of energy radiated from a black body into the half-space from Stefan-Boltzmann's law
is:
˙ , s=σ .T 4 ………………………………………… 7
q rad
where:
q̇ The energy per unit area
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.86 x10-8 W/m2K4
T Medium temperature (to the power of four)
For easier analysis, in practice this law is generally written in the following form:
˙ , s=Cs .
q rad ( )
T 4
100
∈W /m K ………………………………….. 8
2 4
8 W
Cs: Radiation constant of the black body¿ 10 . σ=5.67 2
m K4
For bodies that are not black:
˙
˙
( )
q rad =¿ ε . q rad , s=ε . Cs .
T 4
100
¿ ……………………….. 9
The heat flow density emitted by a non-black body is given by the figure for a black body
multiplied by the emission ratio.
Thermal radiation between solid surfaces (enclosed body)
Two surfaces emit radiation to one another and thus transfer heat. A body can absorb radiation
and, because of its temperature, emit radiation itself. Therefore, it will irradiate another body of
any temperature and be irradiated by that body. However, because of this exchange of radiation
its internal energy only changes if the two bodies absorb different proportions of the radiation,
i.e. if there are temperature differences between the bodies. The heat then flows
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Q ˙12=C 12. A 1. ( T 1 −T 2 ) ………………………… 10
4 4
from the warm to the cold body. Positive values forQ ˙12 therefore mean that body 1 with surface
temperature T1 emits heat to body 2 with surface temperature T2.
If body 2 completely encloses body 1, the radiation exchange coefficient C12 is given by:
σs
C 12=
1 A1 1
+ .
ε1 A2 ε2
−1 ( )
................................................... 11.
For A1≈ A2 (Formel (11)) becomes (Formel (12)),
σs
C 12=
1 1 .......................................................... 12
+ −1
ε1 ε2
while for A2 ≫ A 1 for example the emission from a surface A1 into free space is described by
C 12=ε 1. σs .. ........................................................ 13
The heat flow for an enclosed body with A2≫ A1is given by:
Q ˙12=ε 1. σs . A 1. ( T 14−T 24 ) .................................... 14
Figure 2: Temperatures and surfaces for radiation exchange in an enclosed body
Path of radiations in cylinders
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Figure 3 shows the path of radiation between two concentric cylinders that reflect like mirrors.
The radiation (a) emitted by the inner surface A1 is incident on the outer surface A2 and is
reflected there by the mirror-like surface such that it is again incident on surface A1. This is a
case of diffuse reflection where the radiation continues to be reflected between the two surfaces
until it is completely absorbed. In the case of radiation (b), the surface A2 is never left and the
radiation always moves along the wall. This radiation does not contribute to the exchange of
heat. The radiation (c) emitted from the outer surface A2 is reflected by the inner surface A1,
reduced by the area 2-1, until it is completely absorbed.
Figure 3: Path of radiation in the cylinder
Calculation of heat flows in pressure ranges where heat flow by thermal conduction
(convection) takes place in addition to the heat flow by radiation.
With an initial pressure reduction, there is no change over a wide range as the thermal
conductivity of the gas in this range does not depend on the pressure. It only changes at a very
low residual pressure if the continuum flow collapses and free molecular flow is finally
established. The necessary residual pressure to achieve free molecular flow for a specific case
can be calculated using the Knudsen number. For free molecular flow to be established, the
pressure must be reduced so far that the mean free path of the gas particles (atoms, molecules) is
greater than the free path in the surrounding solid. It is important to note that the gas conductivity
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is greater than zero even with free molecular motion. If thermal conduction cannot be ruled out,
the procedure is as follows.
Figure 2: hermal conductivity of N2 at +10°C, proportion in air approx.80%
Calculating the emission coefficient for radiation
As there are wide pressure ranges in which the vacuum is not sufficient to prevent thermal
conduction, this must be taken into account. Calculation is performed using the electrical
analogy of thermal resistances.
T 1−T 2
Rth , total= ............................... 15
Pele
Where:
T1-T2, Temperature difference in K
Pele: Heat flow from electrically supplied energy in W
Rth,total : Total thermal resistance in K/W
Calculation of thermal resistance based on the thermal conduction model through a hollow
sphere.
The surfaces of the heater and tank are assumed to be spheres with the following surfaces:
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A2 ; Inner surface of tank = 0.20957 m2
A1 : Outer surface of heater = 0.006097 m2
The radii are determined using:
r= ( √ Mk2 / π ) .......................................................16
where
r: Sphere radius in m
Mk: Surface area of spheres in m2
The radii calculated from the sphere surface areas are:
r2 : 0.129 m (sphere radius calculated from tank surface area)
r1 : 0.022 m (sphere radius calculated from heater surface area)
For the heat flow in a hollow sphere:
˙ 4π
Qht= λ. .(T 1−T 2)
1 1 ............................................ 17
−
r1 r 2
where
λ : 0,03 W/(m K) (standard value for air)
Dividing by (T1-T2) gives the thermal resistance for conduction RHT:
1 1
−
T 1−T 2 r 1 r 2 ..................................................... 18
Rht = =
˙
Qht λ .4 . π
Based on the electrical analogy with parallel connection of resistors, the total thermal resistance
is made up of the parallel connection of the thermal resistance for radiation and the thermal
resistance due to conduction:
1 1 1
= + ....................................................19
Rth ,total Rrad Rht
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Rearranging the equation, the thermal resistance for radiation Rrad is given by:
1
Rrad=
1 1 in K/W....................................... 20
−
Rth , total Rht
The following relationship exists between thermal resistance and heat flow:
T 1−T 2
Q̇= ∈ K /W ................................................. 21
Rrad
Using the heat flow by radiation (Formel (21)), the emission coefficient can be calculated based
on the formula for radiation exchange in enclosed bodies (Formel (4.22)).
Radiation exchange in enclosed bodies
Q ˙12=ε 1. σ . A 1. ( T 1 −T 2 ) in W.......................................... 22
4 4
From Formel (21) and Formel (22) we obtain the emission coefficient for radiation:
T 1=T 2
ε 1= ................................................. 23
Rrad . σ . A 1. ( T 14 −T 24 )
The energy transferred by conduction is given by:
˙
Qht=Pele− ˙ in W................................................ 24
Qrad
The heat transfer by conduction is given by:
˙
Qht
αht =
A . ( T 1−T 2 )
in W/(m2 K) ............................... 25
The heat transfer by radiation is given by:
˙
Qrad
αrad=
A . ( T 1−T 2 )
in W/(m2 K) .............................. 26
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3.3 Experiments
3.3.1 Experiment 1: Determination of the emission coefficient
Aim of experiment
- To determine the emission coefficient

Preparing the experiment
- Check the on/off switch on the vacuum pump. The switch must be turned on.
- Close valve V2.
- Open valve V1.
Performing the experiment

- Turn on the main switch.
- Turn on the vacuum pump.
- Check the gas ballast valve. This should be set to "0".
- Close the ventilation valve V5. The pressure must now fall.
- Turn on the heater with the switch (13) and set the setpoint on the controller (12) for the
temperature to be regulated. Use the "Down" and "Up" direction buttons to do this. The
controller shows the heater temperature (green: temperature setpoint; red: actual
temperature).
- After reaching the temperature setpoint and after the transient oscillation of temperature
and heating power, the controller can be switched over to manual operation so that no
power fluctuations occur due to changing the controller which may have a negative
impact on the calculation of the emission coefficient.
- When the indications on the temperature displays no longer change and the pressure is
below 20 Pa, measurement can commence.
3.3.2 Experiment 2: Determination of the amounts of heat transferred by convection

α con and radiation α rad, and calculation of the heat transfer coefficients and at 0
bar rel. and 1 bar abs
Aim of the the experiments
- To determine the amounts of heat transferred by convection α con and radiation α rad,
and calculation of the heat transfer coefficients and at 0 bar rel. and 1 bar abs
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Preparing the experiment
- Check the on/off switch on the vacuum pump. The switch must be turned on.
- Close valve V2.
- Open valve V1.
Performing the experiment
- Turn on the main switch.

- Turn on the vacuum pump (switch cabinet).
- Check the gas ballast valve. It must be set to "0".
- Close the ventilation valve V5. The pressure must now fall.
- Turn on the heater with the switch (13) and set he setpoint on the controller (12) for the
temperature to be regulated. Use the "Down" and "Up" direction buttons to do this. The
controller shows the heater temperature (green: temperature setpoint; red: actual
temperature).
- After reaching the temperature setpoint and after the transient oscillation of temperature
and heating power, the controller should be switched over to manual operation so that no
power fluctuations occur due to changing the controller which would have a negative
impact on the calculation of the emission coefficient.
- If the temperature displays do not indicate any changes, and if the pressure is below 20
Pa, the measured values (Tab. 5.2) can be read and the transfer button for the epsilon
value can be pressed.
- Afterwards, the vacuum vessel can be ventilated by opening the valve V2.
- In the window with the graphical representation of radiation and convection power, the
values can be read and it is also possible to observe when a steady state has been
achieved.
- In the system diagram window, the values are displayed as numerical values.
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Appendix A
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
mm Milli metres
Kg Kilograms
V Volts
A.C. Alternating Current
A Amps
W Watts
mK Metre Kelvin
°C Degrees Celsius
Cp Specific Heat Capacity
m Minutes
s Second
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APPENDIX B
EVAPORATOR DATA LOG
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1 WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARALLEL FLOW,
COUNTER FLOW AND CROSSFLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS?
by Enerquip Administrator | Mar 12, 2018
One of the most critical factors in the efficiency and effectiveness of a shell and tube heat
exchanger is flow pattern. Flow pattern refers to the direction that the tubeside fluid runs in
relation to the shellside fluid. There are several distinct patterns engineers can choose from:
 Parallel flow.
 Counter flow.
 Cross flow.
But while each is unique and has its own pros and cons, there are many times when a
combination of multiple flow patterns is beneficial, or even necessary. Here’s what you need
to know about these three flow patterns for shell and tube heat exchangers:
Parallel flow shell and tube heat exchangers
A parallel flow pattern, also referred to as a cocurrent flow, is one in which the shellside and
tubeside fluids flow in the same direction. This is widely seen in double-pipe heat
exchangers and can be replicated in shell and tube heat exchangers as well, according to
Bright Hub Engineering.
2 “The dramatic temperature difference at the inlet can cause thermal
stress in parallel flow heat exchangers.”
The inlet temperatures of the two fluids may be significantly different, but by the conclusion
of the process they’re relatively the same temperature. With parallel flow, the wall
temperatures throughout the exchanger will be more uniform than with other flow patterns,
Thermopedia noted. When the goal is to wind up with two fluids that have a relatively
insignificant temperature gap, a parallel flow shell and tube heat exchanger may be the
ideal solution, Engineers Edge explained. When there is a notable temperature gap,
the cold-fluid temperature will always be colder than the hot-fluid temperature, Marine Notes
pointed out.
It’s important to note that because the heat exchange rate isn’t as high as other flow
patterns, parallel flow heat exchangers need greater heat transfer surface area. As such, it’s
critical that facility executives ensure they have the available floor space for their parallel
flow shell and tube heat exchangers, as they may be larger than another exchanger with a
different flow rate.
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Additionally, the dramatic temperature difference at the inlet can cause thermal stress,
which may result in vibrations that lead to equipment damage.
Counter flow shell and tube heat exchangers
A counter flow or countercurrent shell and tube heat exchanger’s construction is in many
ways identical to that of a parallel flow shell and tube heat exchanger. The main difference
is that the tubeside fluid enters the exchanger at the opposite end of the shellside fluid. This
results in the two fluids running against each other rather than in the same direction.
3 “The counter flow pattern in shell and tube heat exchangers is the most
efficient.”
The counter flow pattern is the most common in shell and tube heat exchangers, primarily
because it’s the most efficient. This flow pattern allows for the greatest temperature change
between fluids. Additionally, unlike in parallel flow exchangers, the cold-fluid can reach the
hottest temperature of the hot-fluid since it exits at the end where the hot-fluid enters.
The temperature difference in counter flow configurations is more uniform throughout the
entire exchanger, which reduces thermal stress that can lead to shaking or motions that can
become damaging to the equipment. Further, since the temperature difference is more
consistent, the heat exchange rate is also more consistent throughout the exchanger.
It’s easiest to achieve “true” counter flow, in which both fluids travel perfectly parallel to one
another in opposite directions, in double-pipe heat exchangers, although shell and tube heat
exchangers can get remarkably close. The baffles typically included in construction causes
the shellside fluid to travel up and down within the shell as well as from the front to back (or
vice versa), which lends to a somewhat cross flow pattern. The bigger the length-to-
diameter ratio of the exchanger, the closer to “true” counter flow the exchanger will
experience, Bright Hub Engineering pointed out.
Crossflow shell and tube heat exchangers
A crossflow heat exchanger is designed so that the two fluids flow perpendicular to one
another. This is typically utilized when one fluid is a liquid and the other is a gas, as in a car
radiator in which hot water flowing left and right is cooled by air moving up or down, Bright
Hub Engineering explained. Crossflow exchangers are also common in steam condensers,
in which a liquid transforms into a gas by the end of the process.
Combining flow patterns in shell and tube heat exchangers
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In practice, shell and tube heat exchangers are highly complex pieces of equipment, which
are integrated into complicated processes. As such, many heat exchangers utilize a
combination of multiple flow patterns to accommodate limits related to:
 Available space for the equipment.
 Budget.
 Fluid types to be used.
 Pressure.
 Temperature.
 Weight of the equipment.
A common combination is counter flow and cross flow, as seen in many multipass shell and
tube heat exchangers. As the tubeside fluid flows back and forth between the two bonnets,
the shellside fluid runs up and down, guided by baffles installed at regular intervals
throughout the equipment. One advantage of this is maximizing the heat transfer rate while
also minimizing the floorspace taken up by the exchanger.
When you’re looking to either add or replace a shell and tube heat exchanger in your
operation, it’s important to understand the significance of different flow patterns. The
engineers at Enerquip are experts at determining the most beneficial flow pattern for various
processes. Reach out to them to get advice, discuss a project or request a quote.
99 | P a g e

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BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING

THERMAL LABORATORY MANUAL

2012 E.C, BAHIR DAR, ETHIOPIA

Cleanliness and Safety

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER MANUAL

2 Working principle and equipment description

2.1 Hot water circuit

ST-5 Cold water temperature sensor in the second section of the

Heat is energy in transit due to differences in temperature. Wherever there may be a

Figure 3.2: configuration of internal and external part of tube

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4

Evaporation is an operation used to remove a liquid from a solution, suspension, or emulsion

2 Operating Principle and Equipment Description

2.1 Single-Effect Evaporators

In which the subscripts 2 indicate the conditions in the second evaporator.

Method operation of Feed Concentrate

1st effect 2nd effect

MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER

1.1 Unit description of conduction

1.linear conduction 4. Control and display unit

2. radial conduction 5. Data cable

3. insert 6. Power cable

Figure: WL 372 heat conduction unit

The setup for linear conduction (1) comprises three elements:

Figure: Linear conduction

The radial conduction (2) experimental setup is a sealed unit. It comprises:

- An insulating housing with lid.

Figure: Radial conduction

Measuring points and dimensions

Figure: Measuring points linear conduction

Figure: Measuring points radial conduction

1.3 General experimental setup of the unit

Figure: Experimental setup

Figure: Rear side of control- and display unit.

In technical calculations it is important to be able to determine the amount or heat that is

- Thermal conduction in a solid body, in moving liquid body, or gaseous body.

Q=−λ . A .t . ( dϑdx )................................................1

Figure: Conduction of heat through a wall

q̇= ( Q̇A ) ...............................................................3

λ=f (ϑ ) , and sets this coefficeint of thermal conductivity λ to an average coefficient of

Thermal conductivity is a molecular process that comprises an exchange of kinetic energy

Heat conduction through a wall

From formula (2) the heat flow through a wall is:

For a constant cross-sectional area A and dx=s one obtains:

Heat conduction through a wall made up of several layers

Figure: Conduction of heat through a wall made up of several layer

Figure: Radial conduction

L= lengthof the cylinder

1.6.2 Experiment 2: Linear conduction with insert 2

- Install insert 2 and adjust the cooling water flow rate.

1.6.3 Experiment 3: Linear conduction with insert 3

- Install insert 2 and adjust the cooling water flow rate.

1.6.4 Experiment 4: Radial conduction

2.1 Basic principle

Achieving a certain temperature difference in a body requires a certain amount of energy:

Q̇= ṁ. Cp. ∆ T ............................................................... 2

The air mass flow rate consists of:

The temperature difference is calculated from: