Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering

Process Measurement and Instrumentation

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 CHAPTER-ONE
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

Under this chapter we will discuss:

 What is process measurement and instrumentation?

 Control system

 Open-loop control system

 Closed-loop control system

 The advantages and disadvantages of these two control systems.

 Typical processes that measure pressure, temperature, flow and

level.

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 Process measurement and instrumentation
 Measurement – The process of determining the amount, degree,
capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards
of the system units being used
 Instruments are devices which are used to measure attributes of
physical systems (process variables).
 Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and
control. i.e. “the art and science of measurement & control”.
Basic instrument consists of three elements:
1. Sensor or Input Device: detect signals
2. Signal Processor: analysis, synthesis, and modification
3. Receiver or Output Device: display, record output

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 Measurement:
 It provides a means of describing various phenomena in quantitative
terms.

 It has been quoted “what ever exists, exists in some amount”

 The determination of the amount is measurement all about.

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 Control system
What is a control system?

 System: An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired

purpose or objective.

 Control system: is a system of devices that manages, commands,

directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to
achieve a desired result.

 Process: The device, plant, or system under control.

 The input and output relationship represents the cause-and-effect

relationship of the process.

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 Process Control Terms

Process variable

 A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas)

that can change the manufacturing process in some way.

Set point

 The set point is a value for a process variable that is desired to be

maintained.

Measured variables

 The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be
kept at the designated set point.

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 Cont…
Manipulated variables

 It is the factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at set point.

 If their values can be adjusted freely by human operator or control

mechanism to keep the process at its set point.

Error

 It is the difference between the measured variable and the set point and can
be either positive or negative.

Offset

 It is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the set point.

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Disturbance Cont…
 It is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process
variable.

 Consider the following stirred tank heater:

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 Cont…
Manual control system
 It is a control operations that involve human action to make an
adjustment
Automatic control system
 It is a control operations in which no human intervention is
required.
Control Loop
 It is a process management system designed to maintain a process
variable at a desired set point.
 Each step in the loop works in conjunction with the others to
manage the system.
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 Open-Loop Control Systems
 It is a systems in which the output has no effect on the control action of
the input signal.

 The input and output of an open loop system are unrelated.

 It is referred to as non feedback system.

 The basis of open-loop systems is that the system is controlled by a

signal which is at a pre-set value.

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 Cont…
 This pre-set value assumes the required control can be achieved without
measuring the effect of the system output on the parameter it is set to
control.

 The pre-set value will not change even if other factors do which render
the system output incorrect.

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 Cont…
 The output is neither measured nor feedback for comparison with the
input.

 For each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating conditions;

the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.

 In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop system will not perform

the desired task.

Examples of open-loop control systems

o Washing machines

o Light switches

o Traffic signal system

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 Cont…
 Washing machine

 The operation of a washing machine doesn’t depend on the cleanness

of the clothes, but rather on the preset time.
 Here the result of the output depends on whether the input signal is
appropriate or not.

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 Power
Cont…

Input time Washing/ drying

Washing machine Timer procedures
(Preset time)

Spraying/
Output discharging
controller
Advantage of Open-loop control systems

 Simple construction and ease of maintenance.

 Less expensive than a closed-loop system.

 No stability problem

Disadvantage of Open-loop control systems

 Recalibration is necessary from time to time.

 Sensitive to disturbances
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 Less accurate
 Cont…
When should we apply open-loop control?
 The relationship between the input and output is exactly known.

 There are neither internal nor external disturbances.

 Measuring the output precisely is very hard or economically infeasible.

Closed-Loop Control Systems

 It utilizes feedback control system to compare the actual output to the

desired output response.

 Closed-loop control systems are often referred to as feedback control

systems.

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 Cont…

The idea of feedback control system

I. Compare the actual output with the expected value.

II. Take actions based on the difference (error).

 Feedback is a key idea in the discipline of control.
 Closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback control action in
order to reduce system error.
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 Cont…
 Advantages of closed-loop control system
 Reduce disturbance effects.

 Make system insensitive to variations.

 Stabilize an unstable system.

 Create well-defined relationship between output and reference.

 Drawbacks of closed-loop control system

 Cause instability if not used properly.

 Couple noise from sensors into the dynamics of a system.

 Increase the overall complexity of a system.

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 Example of closed-loop system
 Consider a tank in a chemical plant, containing a hazardous liquid,
as shown below.

 The tank may overfill, spilling hazardous liquid, or run dry and
stop operation of the plant.

 So, how can we control the level of the tank???

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Cont…

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 Open-loop Vs closed-loop

 Closed-loop
 Open-loop
 Ability to correct error
 Simple structure
 High accuracy and resistance
 low cost
of disturbance
 Easy to regulate
 Complex structure
 Low accuracy and resistance
 high cost
to disturbance
 Selecting parameter is critical
(may cause stability problem).

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 Processes
Typical process that measures temperature, pressure, flow,
level:
 Food and Beverage industry (Moha, Coca cola,….)

 Alcoholic industry

 Brewing industry

 Sugar industry

 Bottled water industry

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Coca Cola Process Flow Diagram

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 CHAPTER TWO
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 Contents of the chapter:
 Elements of a measurement system (sensors, Transmitters,
receiving devices, controllers, valves and other process
instruments).

ISA symbols on a process and instrumentation diagram.

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 Elements of a measurement system

 Sensors
 They are the first or primary elements in the control loop to measure
process variables such as, disturbance, output variables and secondary
output variables.

 Sensors are the main source of information about what is going on in

the process.

 It is used for online measurement, process monitoring and process

control.
 Safe plant operation through the help of sensor
 Profitable plant operations

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 Cont…
Major issues for selecting sensor

 Accuracy

• The accuracy specified by a device is the amount of error that may occur

when measurements are taken.

• The capacity of a device to have a true value.

 Repeatability

• It defines how close a second measurement is to the first under the same

operating conditions and for the same input.

 Reliability: The probability that a device will perform within its

specifications for the number of operations or time period specified.

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Reproducibility:

• The similarity of one measurement to another over time, where the

operating conditions have varied within the time span, but the input is
restored.

 Range/span

• The region between the specified upper and lower limits where a value
or device is defined and operated.

• Span is difference between the maximum and minimum range

values.

 Sensitivity

• This defines how much the output changes, for a specified change in
the input to the device.
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 Cont…
 Consistence with the process environment

 Maintenance cost

 Cost /purchasing

 Examples of sensors

Temperature sensing devices:

 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

 Thermocouples

 Thermistors

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 Transducers
 It is a device that translates a mechanical signal into an electrical
signal.

 Are often integral part of sensors and transmitters.

 Example: Inside a capacitance pressure device, a transducer converts

changes in pressure into a proportional change in capacitance.

 Converters

 It is a device that converts one type of signal into another type of signal.

A converter may convert:

 Current into voltage
 Current signal into pneumatic signal
 An analog signal into a digital signal 29
 Cont…
 Transmitters
 Transmitter a device that converts a reading from a sensor or transducer
into a standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.
 Transmitters sometimes function as transducers and send signals to the
controllers, recorders, indicators, and alarms.
 Amplifiers
 Many times the measurement signals coming from a measuring device is
very weak and can not be transmitted over a long distance.
 Amplifiers raise the level of signals which is to be transmitted to the
controller.
 For example, the output of a thermocouple is of the order of a few
millivolts. Before it is transmitted to the controller, it is amplified to the
level of a few volts.
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 Cont…
 Signals

 Signals are passed between devices in order to send and receive information,
which might be video, audio, or some sort of encoded data.

 There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to transmit the
process variable measurement from the instrument to a centralized control
system.

• Pneumatic signal

• Analog signal

• Digital signal

 Pneumatic Signals

 Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal
pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process variable.
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 Analog Signals
• An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature
(variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying
quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.

• The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signal;

however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, human speech, and other
systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.

• For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the

signal varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.

 Because a signal varies over time, it’s helpful to plot it on a graph where
time is plotted on the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis.

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 Cont…

 A time-versus-voltage graph of an analog signal should

be smooth and continuous.

 While these signals may be limited to a range of maximum and minimum

values, there are still an infinite number of possible values within that range.

 For example, the analog voltage coming out of your wall socket might be
clamped between -120V and +120V, but, as you increase the resolution more
and more, you discover an infinite number of values that the signal can
actually be 34
 Digital Signals

 Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are combined in specific
ways to represent process variables and also carry other information, such as
diagnostic information.

 Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values.

 The number of values in the set can be anywhere between two and a-very-
large-number-that’s-not-infinity.

 Most commonly digital signals will be one of two values – like either 0V or
5V.

 Timing graphs of these signals look like square waves.

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 Cont…

• A digital signal might be a discrete representation of an analog waveform.

• The big difference between analog and digital waves. Analog waves are
smooth and continuous, digital waves are stepping, square, and discrete.

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 Cont…
 Indicators

 An indicator is a human-readable device that displays information

about the process.

 Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature gauge or

more complex, such as a digital read-out device.

 Some indicators simply display the measured variable, while others

have control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the
field.

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 Cont…
 Recorders
 A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement
devices.

 Many process manufacturers are required by law to provide a process

history to regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use recorders to
help meet these regulatory requirements.

 Manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for trend analyses.

 By recording the readings of critical measurement points and

comparing those readings over time with the results of the process, the
process can be improved.

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 Cont…
 Controllers
 A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement
instrument, compares that data to a programmed set point and take
corrective action based on the error signal.

 Local controllers are usually one of the three types: pneumatic,

electronic or programmable.

 Controllers may perform complex mathematical functions to compare

a set of data to set point or they may perform simple addition or
subtraction functions to make comparisons.

 Large chemical plants like petroleum refineries, ethylene plants,

ammonia plants and many others are under digital computer control.
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 Cont…
 Direct digital control (DDC)

 In this case, the Computer receives directly the measurements from the
process and based on the control laws which is already programmed
and resides in its memory, calculates the value of the manipulated
variables.

 These decisions are directly implemented on the process by computer

through proper adjustment of final control elements (valve, pumps,
compressors, switches, etc).

 Controllers always have an ability to receive input, to perform a

mathematical function with the input, and to produce an output
signal.
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 Cont…
• Common examples of controllers include:

 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

 PLCs are usually computers connected to a set of input/output (I/O)

devices.

 The computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending outputs

to maintain all processes at set point.

 Distributed control systems (DCSs)

 DCSs are controllers that, in addition to performing control functions,

provide readings of the status of the process, maintain databases and
advanced man-machine-interface.

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 Cont…
 Final Control Elements
 It is correcting elements

 It is the part of the control system that acts to physically change the
manipulated variable.

 In most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut
off fluid flow, but pump motors, compressors, switches, solenoids and
other devices can also be final control elements.

 Actuators

 An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical

change in the final control device when signaled to do so.

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 Cont…
 The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which
opens or closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller.
 Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or
electrically.
 Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, pistons,
or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system.
 Alarm
 An alarm is a device that produces a signal such as light or sound when a
process variable value is out of permissible range.
 Alarms normally receive input from transmitters, sensors, or
controllers.
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 ISA Symbols on a Process and Instrumentation
Diagram
 ISA stands for Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society.
 It is one of the leading process control trade and standards
organizations.
 The ISA has developed a set of symbols for use in Engineering
drawings and designs of control loops.
 The symbols and designations are used as conceptualizing aids, as
design tools, as teaching devices, and as a concise and specific means of
communication in all types and kinds of technical, engineering,
procurement, construction, and maintenance documents (international
society of automation, 2009)
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 Advantages of ISA Standards
 Use of standards in industry:
 Improves communication.
 Component identification
 How instruments are connected
 Where instruments are located
 Function with the process
 Standards help to achieve operational excellence by
improving performance:
 Lowering maintenance costs.
 Reducing downtime.
 Enhancing operability.
 Saving money. 45
 Symbols
 In a P&ID, a circle represents individual measurement instruments, such as
transmitters, sensors and detectors.

 A single horizontal line running across the center of the shape indicates that
the instrument or function is located in a primary location (e.g., a control
room).
 A double line indicates that the function is in an auxiliary location.
 The absence of a line indicates that the function is field mounted.
 A dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is inaccessible (e.g.,
located behind a panel board).
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 Cont…

 A square with a circle inside represents instruments that both display

measurement readings and perform some control function.

 Many modern transmitters are equipped with microprocessors that

perform control calculations and send control output signals to final
control elements.

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 Cont…
 A hexagon represents computer functions such as those carried out by a
controller.

Computer Functions (Controllers)

 A square with a diamond inside represents programmable logic control

(PLC).

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Instrument representation on flow diagrams

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Process devises Cont…
 Valves

 Two triangles with their apexes contacting each other (a bow tie shape)
represent a valve in the piping.

 An actuator is always drawn above the valve.

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Equipment representation

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 Piping and Connections

 Piping and connections are represented with several different

symbols.
 A heavy solid line represents piping.
 A thin solid line represents process connections to instruments (e.g.,
impulse piping).
 A dashed line represents electrical signals (4–20mA connections).
 A slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes.
 A line with circles on it represents data links.
 Other connection symbols include capillary tubing, Hydraulic signals
and guided electromagnetic or sonic signal.
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Cont…

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 Identification Letters and tag number
 Identification letters

• Identification letters on the ISA symbols (e.g., TT for temperature

transmitter)

• The variable being measured (e.g., flow, pressure, temperature)

• The device’s function (e.g., transmitter, switch, valve, sensor, indicator).

• Some modifiers (e.g., high, low, multifunction).

 In the ISA identification letter designations:

 The initial letter indicates the measured variable.

 The second letter indicates a modifier, readout, or device function.

 The third letter indicates either a device function or a modifier.

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55
 Cont…
 For example: FIC on an instrument tag represents a Flow Indicating
Controller.

 PT represents a pressure transmitter.

 Tag Numbers

 Numbers on P&ID symbols represent instrument tag numbers.

 Often these numbers are associated with a particular control loop (e.g.,
flow transmitter 123).

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Referring to the Example P&ID diagram,
 FT 101 represents a field-mounted flow transmitter connected via
electrical signals (dotted line) to flow indicating controller FIC 101
located in a shared control/display device.
 A square root extraction of the input signal is applied as part of FIC
101’s functionality.
 The output of FIC 101 is an electrical signal to TY 101 located in an
inaccessible or behind-the-panel-board location.
 The output signal from TY 101 is a pneumatic signal (line with double
forward slash marks) making TY 101 an I/P (current to pneumatic
transducer).
 TT 101 and TIC 101 are similar to FT 101 and FIC 101 but are
measuring, indicating, and controlling temperature.
 TIC 101’s output is connected via an internal software or data link (line
with bubbles) to the set point (SP) of FIC 101 to form a cascade
control strategy
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 Often P&ID’s include a cover page where common and typical terms,
symbols, numbering systems, etc., are defined.
 Typical YIC would likely appear on the cover page and the simplified
form of YIC would appear throughout the P&IDs.
 Typical YIC indicates an on/off valve is controlled by a solenoid valve
and is fitted with limit switches to indicate open (ZSH) and closed
(ZSL) positions.
 All inputs and outputs are wired to a PLC that’s accessible to the
operator (diamond in a square with a solid horizontal line).
 The letter 'Y' indicates an event, state, or presence. The letter ‘I' depicts
indication is provided, and the letter 'C' means control takes place in
this device.
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