4

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General
This chapter deals with the natural hazards such as storms. It introduces the
behavior of high-rise building and also presents the causes of natural hazards (tropical
cyclone) and the categories of tropical cyclone. Wind loading competes with seismic
loading as the dominant environmental loading for structures. They have produced
roughly equal amount of damage over a long time period, although large damaging
earthquakes have tended to occur less often than severe wind storm. On almost every
day of the year a severe windstorm is happing somewhere on earth-although many
storms are small and localized. In the tropical oceans, the most severe of all wind
events-tropical cyclones are generated. When these storms make landfall on populated
coastlines, their effects can be devastating. Gales produced by large extra-tropical
depression, tropical cyclones and downbursts, squall lines and tornados associated
with thunderstorms, including the expected horizontal variation in wind speed during
these events. So the structural elements are designed to resist not only gravity forces
but also lateral forces.

2.2. Behavior of High Rise Building

A high rise structure is essentially a vertical cantilever that is subjected to
axial loading by gravity and to transverse loading by wind or earthquake. Gravity live
load acts on the slabs, which transfer it horizontally to the vertical walls and columns
through which it passes to the foundation. The magnitude of axial loading in the
vertical components is estimated from the slab tributary areas. Horizontal loading
exerts at each level of a building a shear, a moment, and sometimes, a torque, which
have maximum values at the base of the structure that increase rapidly with the
building’s height. The external shear, moment and torque are more complex than its
first-order response to gravity loading. The recognition of the structure’ behavior
under horizontal loading and the formation of the corresponding model are usually the
dominant problems of analysis. The principal criterion of a satisfactory model is that
 4

under horizontal loading it should deflect similarly to the prototype structure. The
resistance of the structure to the external moment is provided by flexure of the vertical
components and by their axial action acting as the chords of a vertical truss. The
described flexural and axial action of the vertical components and the shear action of
the connection members are interrelated and their contributions define the
characteristics of the structure.
The horizontal shear at any level in a high-rise structure is resisted by shear in
the vertical members and by the horizontal component of axial force in any diagonal
bracing at that level.
Torsion on a building is resisted mainly by shear in the vertical components,
by the horizontal component of axial force in any diagonal bracing members and by
the shear and warping torque resistance of elevator, stair and service shafts.
A structure's resistance to bending and torsion can be significantly influenced
also by the vertical shearing action between connected orthogonal bents or wall.
High rise building is designed to serve the needs of an intended occupancy.
All structures and their constituent components are designed to resist with reasonable
safety the worst loads and deformations that are liable to occur during construction
and service, and to have adequate durability during their lifetime [10].

2.3. Nature of Wind

Wind is the term used for air in motion and is usually applied to the natural
horizontal motion of the atmosphere. Motion in a vertical or nearly vertical direction
is called a current. Movement of air near the surface of the earth is three –
dimensional, with horizontal motion much greater than the vertical motion. Vertical
air motion is of importance in meteorology but is of less importance near the ground
surface. On the other hand, the horizontal motion of air, particularly the gradual
retardation of wind speed and the high turbulence that occurs near the ground surface,
are of importance in building engineering. In urban areas, this zone of turbulence
extends to a height of approximately one-quarter of a mile above ground, and is called
the surface boundary layer. Above this layer, the horizontal airflow is no longer
influenced by the ground effect. The wind speed at this height is called the gradient
wind speed, and it is precisely in this boundary layer where the most human activity is
conducted. Therefore, how wind effects are felt within this zone is of great concern.
Although one cannot see the wind, it is a common observation that its flow is quite
 5

complex and turbulent in nature. This sudden variation in wind speed, called gustiness
or turbulence, plays an import part in determining building oscillations [11].

2.3.1. Types of Wind

Winds that are of interest in the design of buildings can be classified into three
major types: prevailing winds, seasonal winds and local winds.
(a) Prevailing winds: Surface air moving toward the low-pressure equatorial belt
is called prevailing wind. In the northern hemisphere, the northerly wind
blowing toward the equator is deflected by the rotation of the earth to a
northeasterly direction and hence commonly known as the northeast prevailing
wind. The corresponding wind in the southern hemisphere is the southeast
prevailing wind.
(b) Seasonal winds: Air over the land is warmer in summer and colder in winter
than the air adjacent to oceans during the same seasons. During summer the
continents become seats of low pressure, with wind blowing in from the colder
oceans. In winter, the continents experience high pressure with winds directed
toward the warmer oceans. These movements of air caused by variations in
pressure difference are called seasonal winds. The monsoons of the China Sea
and the Indian Ocean are examples of these movements of air.
(c) Local winds: There are associated with the regional weather patterns and
include whirl-winds and thunderstorms. They are caused by daily changes in
temperature and pressure, generating local effects in winds. The daily
variations in temperature and pressure may occur over irregular terrain,
causing valley and mountain breezes.

All three types of wind are of importance in building design. However, for the
purpose of determining wind loads, the characteristics of prevailing and seasonal
winds are grouped together, whereas those of local winds are studied separately. This
grouping is to distinguish between the widely differing scales of fluctuations of the
winds; prevailing and seasonal winds fluctuate over a period of several months,
whereas the local winds vary almost every minute. The variations in the speed of
prevailing and seasonal winds are referred to as fluctuations in mean velocity. The
variations in the local wind, are referred to as gusts [11].
 6

2.4. Exposure Categories

The upwind exposure category shall be based on ground surface roughness
that is determined from natural topography, vegetation and constructed facilities.
According to UBC-97 code, there exists three types of exposures and the
characteristics are as follow:
Exposure B has terrain with buildings, forest or surface irregularities, covering
at least 20 percent of the ground level area extending one mile or more from the site.
Exposure C has terrain that is flat and generally open extending half mile or
more from the site in any full quadrant.
Exposure D represents the most severe exposure in areas with basic wind
speeds of 80 mile per hour (mph) or greater and has terrain that is flat and
unobstructed facing large bodies of water over one mile or more in width relative to
any quadrant of the building site. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline one
quarter mile or ten times the building height, whichever is greater [9].

2.5. Behavior of Storm

Tropical cyclones are low pressure system that form over warm tropical
waters and have gale force winds near the center. These can persist for at least six
hours. The gale force winds can extend hundreds of kilometers from the cyclone
center. If the sustained wind around the center is greater than 74 miles per hour, the
system is called severe tropical cyclones. These are referred to as hurricane or
typhoons in other countries. Sustained wind less than 150 mph is referred to as
typhoons. They will not form within about 5 degrees of the Equator, and do not reach
full strength until they reach at least 10 degrees latitude. They are usually at full
strength when they are located between 20 and 30 degrees latitude, but can travel to
higher latitudes if there are warm ocean currents to sustain them.
A developed tropical cyclone has a three-dimensional vortex structure. The
horizontal dimensions of these storms are less than the extra-tropical cyclones, or
depressions, discussed earlier, but their effects can extend for several hundred
kilometers. The circulation flows with a radial component towards the ‘eye’, outside
which is a region of intense thermal convection with air currents spiraling upwards.
The circular eye or center of a tropical cyclone is an area characterized by
light winds and often by clear skies. Eye diameters are typically 40km but can range
 7

from under 10 to 100 km. The eye is surrounded by a dense ring of cloud about 16 km
high known as the eye wall which marks the belt of strongest winds and heaviest
rainfall.
Tropical cyclones derive their energy from warm tropical oceans and do not
form unless the sea-surface temperature is above 26.5 degree celsius. This cyclone
can persist for many days and may follow quite erratic path. They usually dissipate
over land or colder oceans. It is very dangerous in one area fallen by tropical cyclones
because they produce destructive winds, heavy rainfall with flooding damaging
storm surges that can cause inundation of low-lying coastal areas.
Heavy rainfall associated with the passage of tropical cyclone can produce
extensive flooding. Storm coincidence with spring tides or higher than normal water
levels also plays a major role in determining storm impacts and property damage. The
most severe cyclones can cause extensive property damage. A tropical cyclone can
last for a few days or up to two or three weeks. Movement in any direction is
possible including sharp turns and even loops [5].

2.6. Regional Names for Tropical Storms

There are different names of tropical storms according to region of ocean.
Region of Ocean Name:
(a) Indian Ocean Cyclone
(b) Western North Pacific Ocean Typhoon
(c) Eastern North Pacific Ocean and North Atlantic Ocean Hurricane

2.7. Effects of Storm

High wind can originate from a number of events. Tropical storms, hurricanes,
typhoons, other coastal storms and tornadoes generate the most significant coastal
wind hazards. Most wind damage to building occurs during high winds. High winds
are capable of imposing large lateral (horizontal) and uplift (vertical) forces on
building. Residential building can suffer extensive wind damage when they are
improperly designed and constructed and when wind speed exceed design levels.
The effects of high winds on a building will depend on several factors.
(a) Geographical location proximity of other obstructions to air flow
 8

(b) Exposure or shielding of building relative to wind direction

(c) Wind speed and duration of high wind
(d) Height of building above ground
(e) Strength of the structural frame, connections and envelope
(f) Shape of building and building components
(g) Number, size, location and strength of openings
(h) Type, quality and velocity of windborne debris [1].

2.8. Damaging Effects of Cyclone on Building

Damage to buildings and other structures by windstorms has been a fact of life
for human being. The vulnerability of a human settlement to a cyclone is determined
by it sitting, the probability that a cyclone will occur, and the degree to which its
structures can be damaged by it. Buildings are considered vulnerable if they cannot
withstand the forces of high winds. Due to the high wind pressure and improper
connection of the house to the footing it can be blown away. Roofing materials not
anchored can be blown away. Light weight verandah roofs are more susceptible to
damage due to high wind speed. When cyclones are accompanied with heavy rain for
along duration, the buildings can be damaged due to flooding also. Building contents
are spoiled due to rain when roofing sheets fly away [4].
 9

Figure 2.1. Damaging Effects of Cyclone on Building [4]

2.9. Tropical Cyclone Categories

Cyclones are classified into one to five rating levels based on cyclone
intensity. This is used to give an estimate of the potential property damage and
flooding expected along the coast from a cyclone landfall. Wind speed is the
determining factor in the scale, as storm surge values are highly dependent on the
slope of the continental shelf and the shape of the coastline in the landfall region. All
winds are using the US one minute average.
There are five types of cyclone categories. They are as follows;
(a) Category 1: Minimal Damage Winds: 74-95 mph
(b) Category 2: Moderate Damage Winds: 96-110 mph
(c) Category 3: Extensive Damage Winds: 111-130 mph
(d) Category 4: Extreme Damage Winds: 131-155 mph
(e) Category 5: Catastrophic Damage Wind: More than 155 mph
 10

2.9.1. Category 1: Minimal Damage, Winds: 74-95 mph

Cyclone category 1 has wind speed 74 mph to 95 mph. These wind caused
minimal damage. Storm surge generally 4-5 ft above normal. There is no real damage
to building structures. Damage primarily to unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery
and trees. There is also some damage to properly constructed signs. Also, some
coastal road flooding and minor pier damage.

Figure 2.2. Cyclone Category 1: Minimal Damage (Winds: 74-95 mph) [3]

2.9.2. Category 2: Moderate Damage, Winds: 96-110 mph

Cyclone category 2 has wind speed 96 mph to 110 mph. These wind caused
moderate damage. Storm surge generally 6-8 ft above normal. Some roofing material,
door, and window damage to buildings. Considerable damage to shrubbery and trees
with some trees blown down. Considerable damage to mobile homes, poorly
constructed signs, and piers. Coastal and low lying escape routes flood 2-4 hours
before arrival of the hurricane center. Small craft in unprotected break moorings.

Figure 2.3. Cyclone Category 2: Moderate Damage (Winds: 96-110 mph)[3]

 11

2.9.3. Category 3: Extensive Damage, Winds: 111-130 mph

Cyclone category 3 has wind speed 111 mph to 130 mph. These wind caused
extensive damage. Storm surge generally 9-12 ft above normal. Some
structural damage to small residences and utility buildings with a minor amount of
curtainwall failure. Damage to shrubbery and trees with foliage blown off trees
and large trees blown down. Mobile homes and poorly constructed signs are
destroyed. Low-lying escape routes are cut by rising water 3-5 hours before
arrival of the center of the hurricane. Flooding near the coast destroys smaller
structures with larger structures damaged by battering of floating debris. Terrain
continuously lower than 5 feet above mean sea level may be flooded inland 8
miles (13 km) or more. Evacuation of low-lying residences with several blocks
of the shoreline may be required.

Figure 2.4. Cyclone Category 3: Extensive Damage (Winds: 111-130 mph) [3]

2.9.4. Category 4: Extreme Damage, Winds: 131-155 mph

Cyclone category 4 has wind speed 131 mph to 155 mph. These wind
caused extreme damage. Storm surge generally 13-18 ft above normal. More
extensive curtainwall failures with some complete roof structure failures on
small residences. Shrubs, trees and most signs are blown down. Complete
destruction of mobile homes. Extensive damage to doors and windows. Low-
lying escapes routes may be cut by rising water 3-5 hours before arrival of the
center of the hurricane. Major damage to lower floors of structures is near the
shore. Terrain which is lower than 10 ft above sea level may be flooded
requiring massive evacuation of residential areas as far inland as 6 miles
(10km).
 12

Figure 2.5. Cyclone Category 4: Extreme Damage (Winds: 131-155 mph) [3]

2.9.5. Category 5: Catastrophic Damage, Winds: More than 155 mph

Cyclone category 5 has wind speed more than 155 mph. These wind caused
catastrophic damage. Storm surge generally greater than 18 ft above normal.
Complete roof failure on many residences and industrial buildings. Some complete
building failures with small utility buildings blown over or away. Most shrubs, trees,
and signs are blown down. There are complete destruction of mobile homes and
severe and extensive window and door damage. Low-lying escape routes are cut by
rising water 3-5 hours before arrival of the center of the cyclone. Major damage to
lower floors of all structures located less than 15 feet above sea level and within 500
yards (457 meters) of the shoreline. Massive evacuation of residential areas on low
ground within 5-10 miles (8-16 km) of the shoreline may be required.

Figure 2.6. Cyclone Category 5: Catastrophic Damage (Winds: More than 155 mph)
[3]
 13

2.10. Structural Systems

The value of response modification factor and seismic force amplification
factor is determined according to the structural framing system used in the design of
structures. The determination of the structural form of a high-rise building would
ideally involve the selection and arrangement of the major structural elements to resist
most efficiently the various combinations of gravity and lateral loads. The sufficient
strength and stiffness in any pair of orthogonal horizontal direction is provided to
resist earthquake loads acting in any direction.
The UBC-97 recognizes seven major types of structural systems capable of
resisting lateral force. These structural systems are as follow;
(a) Bearing Wall Systems
(b) Building Frame Systems
(c) Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
(d) Dual Systems
(e) Cantilever Column Building Systems
(f) Shear Wall-Frame Interaction Systems
(g) Undefined Systems [6].

2.10.1. Bearing Wall Systems

A bearing wall system is a structural system that relies on the same elements
to resist both gravity and lateral loads. There are two main types of structural walls. A
bearing wall is designed and constructed to resist vertical loads. A shear wall is
designed and constructed to resist lateral loads. A bearing wall system does not have a
complete vertical load carrying space frame. Bearing walls or bracing systems support
all of the gravity loads. Bearing wall system is shown in Figure 2.7 [6].

Gravity Force
Lateral Force

Figure 2.7.Bearing Wall System [6]

 14

2.10.2. Building Frame Systems

A building frame system has separate systems to provide support for lateral-
forces and gravity loads. Building frame system operates a complete space frame to
carry vertical (gravity) loads and a separate system of nonbearing shear walls or
braced frames to resist the lateral (seismic) load.
The gravity loads supporting frame does not require special ductile detailing,
but it is required to satisfy the deformation compatibility requirements of UBC-97 and
this imposes a practical limitation on the height of a building frame system. Failure of
the lateral support members will not result in collapse of the building since the frame
continuous to support gravity loads. Building frame system is shown in Figure 2.8
[6].

Gravity Force
Lateral Force

Figure 2.8. Building Frame System [6]

2.10.3. Moment-Resisting Frames

A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing
support for gravity loads. Moment-resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load
primarily by flexural action of member. There are three types of moment-resisting
frame: intermediate moment-resisting frame, ordinary moment-resisting frame and
special moment-resisting frame.
(a) Intermediate moment-resisting frame (IMRF)
A moment-resisting frame in which members and joints are capable of
resisting forces by flexure as well as along the axis of members.
 15

(b) Ordinary moment-resisting frame (OMRF)

A moment-resisting frame in which members and joints are capable of
resisting forces by flexure as well as along the axis of the members. OMRF is
a moment-resisting frame not meeting special detailing requirements for
ductile behavior.
(c) Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF)
A moment-resisting frame in which members and joints are capable of
resisting forces by flexure as well as along the axis of the members. SMRF is a
moment-resisting frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior.
The Special Moment-Resisting Frame is appropriate in high seismic risk areas,
especially in seismic zones 3 and 4. Moment-resisting frame in shown in Figure 2.9
[6].
Gravity Force
Lateral Force

Figure 2.9. Moment-Resisting Frame [6]

2.10.4. Dual Systems

It is a structural system with the following features:
(a) An essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity loads.
(b) Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames and
moment-resisting frames. The moment-resisting frames shall be designed to
independently resist at least 25 percent of the design base shear.
(c) The two systems shall be designed to resist the total design base shear in
proportion to their relative rigidities considering the interaction of the dual
system at all levels.
Dual system is shown in Figurem2.10 [6].
 16

Gravity Loads

Lateral Force

Figure 2.10. Dual System [6]

2.10.5. Cantilever Column Building Systems

Cantilever column building systems have single cantilevered column elements
supporting beams or framing at the top. In this system, cantilevered column provide
both lateral and gravity load resistance. Cantilever column building system is shown
in Figure 2.11 [6].

Gravity Force
Lateral Force

Figure 2.11. Cantilevered Column System [6]

2.10.6. Shear Wall-Frame Interaction Systems

This system uses both shear walls and moment frame, concrete frame, to resist
lateral forces. But, these systems can only be used in low seismic zones. Shear wall
frame interaction system is shown in Figure 2.12.
 17

Gravity Force

Lateral Force

Figure 2.12. Shear Wall-Frame Interaction System [6]

2.10.7. Undefined Systems

The structural system that does not include in these categories is known as
undefined system [6].

2.11. Regular and Irregular Structures

There are many types and configuration for building structures. In the UBC-
97, structures are classified as either structurally regular or structurally irregular.
Regular structure in accordance with the UBC-97 are described as structures having
no significant physical discontinuities in plan or vertical configuration or in their
force-resisting systems. Regular structures have a uniform and continuous distribution
of mass, stiffness, strength and ductility with no significant tensional force or large
height to width ratio or large change in plan area from floor to floor. They have
relatively shorter spans than irregular structures, simple structural subsystems and
balanced stiffness and strength between members.
Irregular structures in accordance with the UBC-97 are described as structures
having significant physical discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral-force-
resisting systems. Structures with irregular shapes, changes in mass from floor to
floor, variable stiffness with height, and unusual setbacks historically have not
performed well during earthquakes. However, such kinds of building are generally the
most pleasing in appearance and aesthetic perspectives [2].
 18

2.12. Structural Irregularities

There are two main types of structural irregularities. They are plan structural
irregularities and vertical structural irregularities.

2.12.1. Plan Structural Irregularities

There are five types of plan irregularities.
(a) Torsional irregularity exists when the maximum storey drift caused by the
lateral load and the accidential torsion at one end of the structure transverse to
its axis is more than 1.2 times the average storey drift calculated from both
ends. Only buildings with rigid diaphragms are affected by this types of
irregularity.
(b) Re-entrant corner irregularity exists when one or more parts of the structure
projected beyond a re-entrant corner a distance than 15% of the plan
dimension in the given direction.
(c) Diaphragm discontinuity exists when the half of area of opening is greater
than gross diaphragm area.
(d) Out-of-Plane offset irregularity exists when an out-of-plane offset of the
vertical elements.
(e) A non-parallel system is one for which the vertical load resisting elements are
not parallel to or symmetrical about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral
force resisting system [2].

2.12.2. Vertical Structural Irregularities

There are five types of vertical irregularities
(a) Stiffness irregularity exists when a storey has stiffness less than 70% of the
storey immediately above or less than 80% of the average stiffness of three
stories above.
(b) Weight or mass irregularity exists when a storey has the mass more than 150%
of the mass of the storey above or below.
(c) Vertical geometric irregularity exists when the horizontal dimension of a
storey lateral force resisting system is more than 130% of that in an adjacent
storey.
(d) In-plane discontinuity exists when a storey has an in-plane offset of lateral
load resisting elements greater than the length of those elements.
 19

(e) Weak storey or discontinuity in capacity exists when the strength of all
seismic resisting elements at a storey is less than 80% of that in the storey
above [2].

2.13. Seismic Design Criteria Selection

The seismic design process involves consideration of a number of structural
and site characteristics, including seismic zoning, occupancy, seismic importance
factors, building fundamental period, site geology and soil characteristics and soil
profile type, seismic source types, near-source factors, seismic ground response
coefficients, response modification factor, configuration, structural system and height.
Furthermore, the UBC-97 requires that all parts of the structure be designed with
adequate strength to withstand the lateral displacements induced by the design ground
motion considering the inelastic response of the structure and the inherent
redundancy, over strength and ductility of the lateral-force resisting system [9]

2.13.1. Seismic Zone Factor, Z

The seismic zone factor, Z is the code estimate of the applicable site
dependent effective peak ground acceleration expressed as a function of the gravity
constant, g. The values of Z range from 0.075 to 0.4. The zone factor corresponds to
ground motion values with a recurrence interval of 475 years which gives a ten
percent probability or of being exceeded in fifty years period. These valves are based
on historical records and geological data and are also adjusted in order to provide
consistent design criteria within local jurisdictions. UBC-97 Table A-5, shows the
values of seismic zone factor [9].

2.13.2. Seismic Importance Factor, I

The importance factor reflects the relative importance attached to a structure
remaining (standing and preferably functional) during and following an earthquake.
The seismic important factor is either 1.0 or 1.25, depending on how critical, it is for
the structure to survive a major earthquake with minimal damage. From UBC Table
A-6, it is obvious that a higher importance factor, I equal to 1.25 is designated for
essential and hazardous facilities order to ensure that these facilities remain functional
and operational after a severe earthquake. The design base shear is increased 25
percent for these facilities. Increasing the design base shear increases the seismic
safety of a structure [9].
 20

2.13.3. Soil Profile Types

The ground vibration caused by an earthquake tends to be greater on soft soil
than on hard soil or rock. As the vibration propagates through the material underlying
the structure, it may be either amplified or attenuated depending on the fundamental
period of the material. To account for this potential amplification, six different soil
types are classified in UBC-97 Table A-7 ranging from hard rock to soft soil. The
classification may be made by determining on site the average shear wave velocity in
the top 100 feet of material [9].

2.13.4. Near-Source Factors, Na and Nv

In regions subjected to large magnitude earthquakes, such as those which
occur in seismic zone 4, location close to the fault rupture may experience a ground
acceleration up to twice that at a distance of 10 kilometers from the source. To
account for this, the UBC-97 introduces two near source amplification factors. These
are Na, the acceleration-based factor for short period structures and N v, the velocity-
based factor for periods exceeding one second. These factors are applicable to seismic
source type A and seismic source type B, and have the value of unity for type C faults
regardless of distance. UBC-97 Table A-9 and show the values of near source factors
[9].

2.13.5. Seismic Response Coefficients, Ca and Cv

The ground response coefficients Ca and Cv are the parameters which reflect
the potential amplification of the ground vibration caused by different soil types. The
fundamental period of a structure determines which of the two coefficients C a or Cv
governs the seismic design of the structure. The acceleration-based coefficient C a
controls for shorter period up to approximately one second and the velocity-based
coefficient Cv controls for longer periods. UBC-97 Table A-8 shows the values of the
seismic response coefficients [9].

2.13.6. Seismic Source Types

The maximum moment magnitude potential of a fault and its slip rate are used
to classify seismic source types. Three different source types are identified in UBC-97
Table A-10 ranging from the most active type A source to the least active type C
source [9].
 21

2.13.7. Response Modification Factor, R

The structure response modification factor R given in UBC Table A-12 is the
ratio of the seismic base shear, which would develop in a linearly elastic system, to
the prescribed design base shear, which would develop in a nearly elastic system, to
absorb energy and sustain cyclic inelastic deformation without collapse. In addition to
compensating for the energy dissipation capability, lateral force system redundancy
and increase in natural period and damping ratio, the response modification factor
allows for the provision of secondary lateral support systems and the observed
performance of specific material and structural system in past earthquakes. The value
of R increases as the overall ductility of the structure and its energy dissipation
capacity increases and degree of redundancy increases [9].

2.14. Lateral-Force Procedures

There are three alternate methods of determining the lateral-forces in the
UBC-97. The selection of the appropriate lateral-force procedure primarily depends
on the type of structure (that is, regular versus irregular), number of stories, and
height, among other factors.
These procedures are:
(a) Simplified static
(b) Static (equivalent) and
(c) Dynamic lateral-force procedure.
The simplified static lateral-force procedure may be used for the following
structures of occupancy category 4 or 5 (UBC-97 Table A-6).
(a) Buildings of any occupancy (including single-family dwellings) not more than
three stories in height excluding basements that use light-frame construction.
(b) Other buildings not more than two stories in height excluding basements.
The static lateral-force procedure may be used for the following structures:
(c) All structures, regular or irregular in seismic zone 1 and in occupancy
categories 4 and 5 in seismic zone 2.
(d) Regular structures under 240 feet in height.
(e) Irregular structures not more than five stories or 65 feet in height.
(f) Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion
where both portions of the structure is considered separately.
The dynamic lateral-force procedure shall be used for following structures:
 22

(g) Structures 240 feet or more in height.

(h) Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric vertical irregularity of type
1, 2 or 3 as defined in UBC-97 or structures having irregular features are not
described.
(i) Structures over five stories or 65 feet in height in seismic zones 3 and 4 not
having the same structural system throughout their height.
(j) Structures, regular or irregular, located on soil profile type SF that has a period
greater than 0.7 second [9].

2.15. Total Seismic Dead Load

The weight, W, used to calculate base shears and building periods, is normally
the total seismic dead load of the structure. In general, W is the total weight of the
building and part of service load that will most likely be present at the time of an
earthquake. Applicable parts of other loads that must be included in W are as follows
UBC-97.
(a) A minimum of 25 percent of the floor live load is added in warehouses and
storage buildings.
(b) No less than 10 psf must be added when partition loads are used in the design
of the floor.
(c) Design snow loads exceeding 30 psf must be included, but may be reduced by
up to 75 percent if approved by the local building official.
(d) The total weight of permanent equipment must be included.
For design of a multilevel structure, the total seismic dead load is the sum of
the seismic dead loads of all levels [9].
n
∑ Wx
W = x= 1 (2.1)
where,
W = the total seismic dead load
Wx = that portion of W located at or assigned to level x

2.16. Determination of the Total Design Base Shear

 23

The UBC-97 states that the structure should be designed to resist minimum
total lateral seismic load V, which shall assumed to act non-concurrently in
orthogonal directions parallel to the main axes of the structures. The total design base
shear in given direction should be determined from the Equation 2.2 [9].

Cv I
W
V = RT (2.2)
Equation 2.5 can be written in the form of base shear. V = C s W described in
UBC-97, where Cs is the seismic base shear coefficient. C s can be calculated from the
Equation 2.3.

Cv I
Cs = RT
(2.3)
Based on the design response spectra, the C v I/RT portion of the spectrum
is velocity –controlled and is the representative of longer period structures. The
equation is capped for the acceleration-controlled portion of the spectrum which
controls shorter period structure. The code sets this limit by the way of Equation
2.4.

From the above equation, the equivalent of Cs is

2. 5C a I
Cs = R (2.5)
In Equation 2.5 in all seismic zones for short period structures, C a represents
the effective peak acceleration at grade with a maximum natural period of 1 second.
The minimum total design base shear in all seismic zones can be determined from the
following equation [9].

Vmin = Cs, min W = 0.11 Ca I W (2.6)

In addition, for seismic zone 4 only, the UBC-97 requires that the minimum
total design base shear be more controlled to account for near-source effects. This
minimum total design base shear in seismic zone 4 can be determined from the
following equation [9].
 24

0. 8 ZN v I
W
Vmin ,zone 4 = Cs min W = R (2.7)
where,
V = the total design lateral-force or design base shear
W = the total seismic dead load
Cv = the seismic response coefficient, as set forth
Ca = the seismic response coefficient, as set forth
R = the numerical coefficient representative of the inherent over strength
and global ductility capacity of lateral-force resisting system
I = the importance factor, depending on the Occupancy Category
T = the elastic fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of the structure
in the direction under consideration
Z = the seismic zone factor
Nv = the velocity-dependent near source factor

For design calculation, the total design seismic base shear in a given direction
can be computed with the following limitations.

2 . 5 Ca C I
IW ≥ V = v W ≥ 0 . 11 C a IW
R RT (all seismic zones)

2 . 5 Ca C I 0. 8 ZN v IW
IW ≥ V = v W ≥ 0 . 11 C a IW≥
R RT R (seismic zones 4
only)

The minimum design base shear limitation for seismic zone 4 was introduced
as a result of the ground motion effects observed at sites near the fault rupture in the
1994 Northridge earthquake [9].

2.17. Distribution of Lateral-Forces

The base shear (V) is first distributed vertically to each floor level of the
building. The storey shears at each floor level are then distributed to the various
lateral-force resisting elements depending on their relative stiffness and the stiffness
of the diaphragm. There are two procedures for distribution of lateral-forces, vertical
force distribution and horizontal force distribution [9].
 25

2.17.1. Vertical Force Distribution

The total base shear shall be distributed over the height of the building. A
portion of the base shear is concentrated at the top of the building with fundamental
periods greater than 0.7 second to account for higher mode effects. The remaining
portion of the base shear is distributed over the height of the building, varying from a
maximum value at the top to a minimum value at the bottom, in correspondence with
the fundamental mode response [9].

(V  Ft ) w x h x
n

Fx
 wi hi
= i 1
(2.8)
where ,
Fx = that lateral-force at level x
wx,wi = that portions of W which is located at or assigned to level x or i
respectively
Ft = concentrated force applied at the top of the structure

2.17.2. Horizontal Force Distribution

The seismic design storey shear (Vx) in any storey is determined as following:
n
∑ Fi
Vx = Ft + i= x

(2.9)
where,
Fi = the portion of the seismic base

2.18. Building Period

The natural period of a building is the time it takes the building to complete
one full swing in its primary mode of oscillation. In order to compute the fundamental
period of vibration of a building, member sizes must be known. Without member
sizes, it becomes necessary to estimate the period in order to calculate the base shear,
so that a preliminary design can be performed. UBC-97 [Sec 1630.2.2], the estimated
building period can be computed by the Equation 2.10 [9].
 26

T = Ct (hn)3/4 (2.10)
where,

hn = the height of the building in feet above the base to nth level
Ct = 0.03 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames and eccentrically
braced frames
Ct = 0.02 for all other buildings
The UBC-97 contains an alternate method to be used in finding C t for
structures with concrete or masonry shear walls by the Equation 2.11.

0.1
Ct = √ Ac (2.11)
where,

Ac = the combined effective area of shear walls in the first storey of the
structure

Ac = ∑ Ae [0.2 + (De/hn)2] , De/hn ¿ 0 .9 (2.12)

Ae = the minimum cross-sectional area in any horizontal plane in the first
storey of a shear wall
De = the length of a shear wall in the first storey in the direction parallel to
the applied forces

2.19. Structural Stability Consideration

In designing the structure, sliding Resistance, overturning moment, storey

drift, torsional irregularity and P-∆ effect should be checked for the structural
stability. Without careful design, forces and displacements can be concentrated on the
portions of a structure that are not capable of providing adequate strength or ductility.
The irregular structure can cause undesirably high displacement or forces due to its
discontinuity in stiffness or geometry.

2.19.1. Sliding Resistance

The resistance to sliding is checked by the following equation:
FRqq =  × 0.9 × WD . (2.13)
 27

where,

WD = total dead weight

FR = resistance due to friction
 = frictional coefficient

However, ratio of resistance force to driving force must be greater than 1.5. In
this building, the friction coefficient  is taken as 0.25 for soil type SD [9].
2.19.2. Overturning Moment
The distribution of earthquake forces over the height of a structure causes the
structure to experience overturning effects. The design overturning moment is
distributed to the various resisting elements. The summation of moments due to the
distributed lateral forces is the overturning moment. If the overturning moment is
large enough, it can reverse the compression that normally exists in outer columns
caused by the dead and live building loads. The overturning moment will increase the
compressive stress in outer columns on the opposite side of the building. Such an
increase must be countered by increasing the thickness of shear walls and using extra
steel reinforcement in concrete columns.
Overturning moments should be calculated for each floor level. The first
overturning moment taken about the ground level should be used to design footings
and primary outer columns. The overturning moment for each subsequent floor is
used to design the shear walls and other supporting structures at that floor. The
overturning moment is shown in Figure 2.13.

F6 (roof)
level 6

F5 level 5

F4 level 4
h OTM
h4
F3 level 3

F2 level 2

F1 level 1

V base shear V
 28

OTM
n
∑ F i hi
OTM at base = i=1
n
∑ F i ( hi −h4 )+ F t ( hn −h 4 )
OTM at level 4 = i =5

2.19.3. Storey Drift Figure 2.13. Overturning Moment [9]

In the UBC-97, drift requirements are based on the strength design method to
conform to newly develop seismic base shear forces. In that regard, complete inelastic
response drifts rather than force level drifts are used.
Storey drift is the lateral displacement of one level of a structure relative to the
level above or below. Storey drifts should be determined using the maximum inelastic
response displacement, ∆M, which is defined as the maximum total drift or total storey
drift caused by the design-level earthquake.
Displacement includes both elastic and inelastic contributions to the total
deformation. The maximum inelastic response displacement should be determined
from the following equation.
Δ M = 0.7 R Δs (2.14)

where,
∆M = the maximum inelastic response displacement
∆s = design level elastic response displacement
R = ductility factor or response modification factor
The calculated storey drift using ∆M shall not exceed 0.025 times the storey
height for structures with a fundamental period (T) less than 0.7 seconds. The storey
drift shall not exceed 0.020 times the storey height for structures with T greater than
or equal to 0.7 seconds. It is important to note that these drift limits are appropriate for
structures analyzed according to the static force procedure and response spectrum
techniques. The explanation of story drift is shown in Fig. 2.14.
 29

F4 Level 4 δ4

F3 Level 3 δ3

F2 Level 2 δ2

F1 Level 1 δ1
∆level 3=δ3-δ2
Base

Figure 2.14. Explanation of Storey Drift [9]

2.19.4. Torsional Irregularity

Accidental torsion, due to uncertainties in the mass and stiffness distribution,

must be added to the calculated eccentricity. This is done by adding a torsional
moment at each floor equal to the story shear multiplied by ± 5% of the floor
dimension, perpendicular to the direction of the force. This procedure is equivalent to
move the centre of mass by ± 5% of the plan dimension, in a direction perpendicular
to the force (UBC-97, section 1630.6).
This eccentricity is included to account for accidental errors in workmanship,
uncertainties in the actual location of the centers of mass and centre of rigidity, non-
uniform distribution of dead and live loads, non-uniformities that result from
subsequent building modifications and eccentricities that develop during an
earthquake after the failure of certain structural elements.
A building's centre of mass, CM is a point through which the base shear (i.e.,
the total lateral seismic force) can be assumed to act. This base shear is resisted by the
vertical members at the ground level. Each such member may be a different rigidity
and thus provide a different lateral resisting force in the opposite direction of the base
shear. The building's centre of rigidity (CR) is a point through which the resultant of
all the resisting forces acts.
If the building's centre of mass does not coincide with its centre of rigidity, the
building will tend to act as if it is "pinned" at its centre of rigidity. It is said to be
acted upon by a torsional moment, calculated as the product of the shear, V and the
eccentricity. This eccentricity is the distance (measured perpendicular to the direction
of lateral load) between the centre of mass and rigidity.
 30

When torsional irregularity exists at a level x, the accidental eccentricity equal

to 5% of the building dimension must be increased by an amplification factor Ax [9].

2
Δ max
A x=
[ 1. 2× Δavg ]
(2.15)
where,
∆avg= the average of the displacement at the extreme points to the structure
at level x
∆max= the maximum displacement at level x
Ax < 3, If Ax < 1, Use Ax = 1
2.19.5. P-D Effect

The P-D effect is the secondary effect on shears, axial forces, and moments of
frame members induced by the gravity loads acting on the laterally displaced structure
frame. P-D effect need not be considered in the analysis of the entire structure when
the ratio of secondary moment to primary moment in any storey is equal to or less
than 0.1 and the storey drift ratio does not exceed 0.02/R in seismic zones 3 and 4 for
all stories. P-D effect must be considered wherever the ratio of secondary moments to
primary moments exceeds 10% [9].
p x s x
θ
= vx h x (2.16)
x

where,
θx = stability coefficient for storey x
px = total vertical load (un-factored) on all columns in storey x
Dsx = storey drift due to design base shear
vx = design shear in storey x

2.20. Overview of ETABS Software

ETABS means Extended Three-Dimensional Analysis of Building Systems.

ETABS is a stand-alone finite-element-base structural analysis program with special
purpose features for structural design and analysis of building systems. Embedded
beneath the simple, intuitive user interface are very powerful numerical methods,
 31

design procedures and international design codes that allow the users to be versatile
and productive, whether they are designing a simple 2-dimensional frame or
performing a dynamic base isolation analysis of a complex high-rise. The analysis
methods include a wide variety of Static and Dynamic Analysis Options.
For steel design in ETABS, the user needs no preliminary structural sections.
There is an automated processed for members selection and drift optimization. The
following general steps are required to analyze and design a structure using ETABS;
(a) Create or modify a model that numerically defines the geometry, properties,
loading, and analysis parameters for the structure
(b) Perform an analysis of the model
(c) Review the results of the analysis
(d) Check and optimize the design of the structure.
ETABS software can analyze Static, Dynamic, Static Nonlinear/Pushover
Cases, P-∆ case, and add sequential construction case, Response Spectrum Case and
Time-History Case. Steel frame elements designed as a group are all given the same
section size. In ETABS the user only defines objects. ETABS automatically creates
elements [shell, frame, and link] from these objects. All joints needed by the elements
are automatically generated. No predefinition joint is needed. It is usually a good idea
to run a model every time the designer makes a major change or addition. This will
give the designer a way to catch the mistakes early and save the time in the final
design.
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