Tropical cyclone

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm

system characterized by a low-pressure center, a
closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong
winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms
that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending
on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is
referred to by different names, including
hurricane (/ˈhʌrɪkən, -keɪn/), typhoon
(/taɪˈfuːn/), tropical storm, cyclonic storm,
tropical depression, or simply cyclone. A
hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs
in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific
Ocean, and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Hurricane Florence in 2018 as seen from the
Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean, South International Space Station. The eye, eyewall, and
Pacific, or (rarely) South Atlantic, comparable surrounding rainbands, characteristics of tropical
storms are referred to simply as "tropical cyclones in the narrow sense, are clearly visible in this
cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean view from space.
can also be called "severe cyclonic storms".

"Tropical" refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical
seas. "Cyclone" refers to their winds moving in a circle, whirling round their central clear eye, with their
surface winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect. Tropical cyclones typically
form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water
from the ocean surface, which ultimately condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to
saturation. This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as nor'easters and
European windstorms, which are powered primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. Tropical cyclones
are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. Every year tropical cyclones impact
various regions of the globe including the Gulf Coast of North America, Australia, India, and Bangladesh.

The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum
imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they rarely
form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional
examples do occur) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone.
Conversely, the African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability give rise to cyclones in the Atlantic
Ocean and Caribbean Sea, while cyclones near Australia owe their genesis to the Asian monsoon and
Western Pacific Warm Pool.

The primary energy source for these storms is warm ocean waters. These storms are therefore typically
strongest when over or near water, and they weaken quite rapidly over land. This causes coastal regions to
be particularly vulnerable to tropical cyclones, compared to inland regions. Coastal damage may be caused
by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure
changes), and the potential of spawning tornadoes. Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and
concentrate the water content of that air (from atmospheric moisture and moisture evaporated from water)
into precipitation over a much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause
multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40  km (25  mi) from the coastline, far beyond the
amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river flooding,
overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area.
Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones may play a role in
relieving drought conditions, though this claim is disputed. They also carry heat and energy away from the
tropics and transport it towards temperate latitudes, which plays an important role in regulating global
climate.

Contents
Background
Intensity
Factors that influence intensity
Formation
Rapid intensification
Dissipation
Methods for assessing intensity
Intensity metrics
Classification and naming
Intensity classifications
Naming
Structure
Eye and center
Size
Movement
Environmental steering
Beta drift
Multiple storm interaction
Interaction with the mid-latitude westerlies
Formation regions and warning centers
Preparations
Impacts
Natural phenomena caused or worsened by tropical cyclones
Impact on property and human life
Environmental impact
Response
Climatology
Influence of climate change
Observation and forecasting
Observation
Forecasting
Geopotential height
Related cyclone types
See also
References
External links

Background
A tropical cyclone is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system
over tropical or subtropical waters around the world.[1][2] The systems generally have a well-defined center
which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface.[1]

Historically, tropical cyclones have occurred around the world for thousands of years, with one of the
earliest tropical cyclones on record estimated to have occurred in Western Australia in around 4000 BC.[3]
However, before satellite imagery became available during the 20th century, there was no way to detect a
tropical cyclone unless it impacted land or a ship encountered it by chance.[4]

These days, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over
half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more.[4] Around the world, a
tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h;
40 mph) are observed.[4] It is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and
can continue to intensify without any help from its environment.[4]

A study review article published in 2021 in Nature Geoscience concluded that the geographic range of
tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the Hadley
circulation.[5]

Intensity
Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure; relationships between winds and pressure
are often used in determining the intensity of a storm.[6] Tropical cyclone scales such as the Saffir-Simpson
Hurricane Wind Scale and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology) only use wind speed for determining
the category of a storm.[7][8] The most intense storm on record is Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific
Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hPa (26 inHg) and maximum sustained wind
speeds of 165  kn (85  m/s; 306  km/h; 190  mph).[9] The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever
recorded was 185 kn (95 m/s; 343 km/h; 213 mph) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015—the most intense cyclone
ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere.[10]

Factors that influence intensity

Warm sea surface temperatures are required in order for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The
commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27  °C (79–81  °F), however,
multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5  °C (77.9  °F).[11][12] Higher sea surface
temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification.[13] High ocean
heat content, also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential, allows storms to achieve a higher
intensity.[14] Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high
ocean heat content rather than lower values.[15] High ocean heat content values can help to offset the
oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the
storm.[16] Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content
values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve the same
intensity.[15]

The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially,
a process known as upwelling,[17] which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This
cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm
surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or
lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is
because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean,
by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these
effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few
days.[18] Conversely, the mixing of the sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with potential
effects on global climate.[19]

Vertical wind shear negatively impacts tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from
a system's center.[20] Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for strengthening, while stronger
wind shear induces weakening.[21][22] Dry air entraining into a tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect
on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in
the storm's structure.[23][24][25] Symmetric, strong outflow leads to a faster rate of intensification than
observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear.[26][27][28] Weakening outflow is associated with
the weakening of rainbands within a tropical cyclone.[29]

The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more
prone to rapid intensification than larger ones.[30] The Fujiwhara effect, which involves interaction between
two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of the weaker of two tropical
cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear.[31]
Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often
unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing.[32] The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical
cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall, in cases where there has been copious
rainfall, through the release of latent heat from the saturated soil.[33] Orographic lift can cause an significant
increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain,
breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it.[34] Jet streams can both enhance and
inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as well as vertical wind shear.[35][36]

Formation

Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer,

but have been noted in nearly every month in most
tropical cyclone basins. Tropical cyclones on either side
of the Equator generally have their origins in the
Intertropical Convergence Zone, where winds blow
from either the northeast or southeast.[37] Within this
broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm Diagram of a tropical cyclone in the Northern
tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes Hemisphere
thundery showers to form.[37] These showers dissipate
quite quickly; however, they can group together into
large clusters of thunderstorms.[37] This creates a flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to
rotate cyclonically as it interacts with the rotation of the earth.[37]
Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures
of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding the system,[37][38] atmospheric instability,
high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low-
pressure center, a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance,[38]
There is a limit on tropical cyclone
intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path.[39] and upper-level
divergence.[40]
An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of
those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones (at least
Category 3 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale).[41]

Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of
tropical cyclone development.[42][43][44][45] Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical
cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm.[46][47] Kelvin waves can contribute to
tropical cyclone formation by regulating the development of the westerlies.[48] Cyclone formation is usually
reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after.[49]

Rapid intensification

On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo a process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the
maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24
hours.[50] Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure
decrease of 1.75  hPa (0.052  inHg) per hour or 42  hPa (1.2  inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive
deepening occurs when the surface pressure decreases by 2.5  hPa (0.074  inHg) per hour for at least 12
hours or 5  hPa (0.15  inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours.[51] For rapid intensification to occur, several
conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high (near or above 30 °C (86 °F)), and
water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to the
surface. On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface
oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity. Wind shear must be low; when wind shear is
high, the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an anticyclone in the upper
layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to
develop, air must be rising very rapidly in the eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps
channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently.[52] However, some cyclones such as Hurricane Epsilon
have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions.[53][54]

Dissipation

There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics.
These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other
weather systems; however, once a system has dissipated or lost its tropical characteristics, its remnants
could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable.[55][56]

A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5  °C (79.7  °F).
This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the
center, so that it becomes a remnant low-pressure area. Remnant systems may persist for several days
before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific.
Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the
convection and heat engine to move away from the center; this normally ceases the development of a
tropical cyclone.[57] In addition, its interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies, by means of merging
with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones. This transition
can take 1–3 days.[58]
Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its
circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters
mountainous terrain.[59] When a system makes landfall on a large
landmass, it is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air
and starts to draw in dry continental air.[59] This, combined with
the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and
dissipation of the tropical cyclone.[59] Over a mountainous terrain,
a system can quickly weaken; however, over flat areas, it may
endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and
dissipates.[59]

Over the years, there have been a number of techniques considered

to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones.[60] These techniques Hurricane Paulette, in 2020, is an
have included using nuclear weapons, cooling the ocean with example of a sheared tropical
icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and cyclone, with deep convection
seeding selected storms with dry ice or silver iodide.[60] These slightly removed from the center of
techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, the system.
power or size of tropical cyclones.[60]

Methods for assessing intensity

A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess the intensity of
a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with
specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the winds and pressure of a
system.[4] Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight
level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface.[61] Surface observations, such as ship reports,
land stations, mesonets, coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on a tropical cyclone's
intensity or the direction it is traveling.[4] Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to
determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have
been proposed to calculate WPRs.[62][63] Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR,
which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on the same system.[63] The
ASCAT is a scatterometer used by the MetOp satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical
cyclones.[4] The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical
cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy
rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments.[64]

The Dvorak technique plays a large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the
determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by Vernon Dvorak in the
1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity.
The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each
T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating a stronger system. Tropical
cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features,
shear, central dense overcast, and eye, in order to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of
the storm.[65] The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies works to develop and improve
automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT,
used by a large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm
based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones. The ADT has a number of
differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the
usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents the
intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery.[66] The SATCON weights estimates
from various satellite-based systems and microwave sounders, accounting for the strengths and flaws in
each individual estimate, to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone's intensity which can be
more reliable than the Dvorak technique at times.[67][68]

Intensity metrics

Multiple intensity metrics are used, including accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), the Hurricane Surge
Index, the Hurricane Severity Index, the Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and integrated kinetic energy
(IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by
summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or
above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical.[69] The calculation of the PDI is similar in
nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared.[70] The
Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is
calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 metres per
second (74 mph)), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds
and its climatological value (96.6 kilometres (60.0 mi)). This can be represented in equation form as:

where v is the storm's wind speed and r is the radius of hurricane-force winds.[71] The Hurricane Severity
Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the
other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field.[72] The IKE model measures the destructive
capability of a tropical cyclone via winds, waves, and surge. It is calculated as:

where p is the density of air, u is a sustained surface wind speed value, and dv is the volume
element.[72][73]

Classification and naming

Intensity classifications

Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location (tropical cyclone
basins), the structure of the system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern
Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65  kn (120  km/h; 75  mph) is called a
hurricane, while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North
Indian Oceans.[74][75][76] Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone
or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian
Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean.[77][78]

Naming

The practice of using names to identify tropical cyclones goes back many years, with systems named after
places or things they hit before the formal start of naming.[79][80] The system currently used provides
positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized
by the public.[79][80] The credit for the first usage of personal names
for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland
Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems
between 1887 and 1907.[79][80] This system of naming weather
systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge
retired, until it was revived in the latter part of World War II for the
Western Pacific.[79][80] Formal naming schemes have subsequently
been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central,
Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region
and Indian Ocean.[80]

At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve

meteorological services and retain their names throughout their
lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and
the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings.[79] Three tropical cyclones of the 2006
Since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can Pacific typhoon season at different
be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are stages of development. The
thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being weakest (left) demonstrates only
described. [79] Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists the most basic circular shape. A
with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than stronger storm (top right)
65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. [74][76][77] demonstrates spiral banding and
However, standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical increased centralization, while the
depressions named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones strongest (lower right) has
have to have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring developed an eye.
around the center before they are named within the Southern
Hemisphere.[77][78] The names of significant tropical cyclones in the
North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced
with another name.[74][75][78] Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an
identification code consisting of a two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor
them.[78][81]

Structure

Eye and center

At the center of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than

rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep
enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear "eye".
Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of convective clouds,
although the sea may be extremely violent.[82] The eye is normally
circular and is typically 30–65 km (19–40 mi) in diameter, though
eyes as small as 3  km (1.9  mi) and as large as 370  km (230  mi)
have been observed.[83][84] The eye and surrounding clouds of
2018 Hurricane Florence as seen
The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the "eyewall". The
from the International Space Station
eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an
arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as
the "stadium effect".[84] The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly,
clouds reach their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs
where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.[82]
In a weaker storm, the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast, which is the upper-level cirrus
shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical
cyclone.[85]

The eyewall may vary over time in the form of eyewall replacement cycles, particularly in intense tropical
cyclones. Outer rainbands can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward,
which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and angular momentum. When the primary
eyewall weakens, the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily. The outer eyewall eventually replaces the
primary one at the end of the cycle, at which time the storm may return to its original intensity.[86]

Size

There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size. The most common metrics include the
radius of maximum wind, the radius of 34-knot (17 m/s; 63 km/h; 39 mph) wind (i.e. gale force), the radius
of outermost closed isobar (ROCI), and the radius of vanishing wind.[87][88] An additional metric is the
radius at which the cyclone's relative vorticity field decreases to 1×10−5 s−1 .[84]

On Earth, tropical cyclones span a large

range of sizes, from 100–2,000  km (62– Size descriptions of tropical cyclones
1,243  mi) as measured by the radius of ROCI (Diameter) Type
vanishing wind. They are largest on
average in the northwest Pacific Ocean Less than 2 degrees latitude Very small/minor
basin and smallest in the northeastern 2 to 3 degrees of latitude Small
Pacific Ocean basin.[90] If the radius of
3 to 6 degrees of latitude Medium/Average/Normal
outermost closed isobar is less than two
degrees of latitude (222 km (138 mi)), then 6 to 8 degrees of latitude Large
the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget".
Over 8 degrees of latitude Very large[89]
A radius of 3–6 latitude degrees (333–
670  km (207–416  mi)) is considered
"average sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8  degrees (888  km
(552 mi)).[89] Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity
(i.e. maximum wind speed), radius of maximum wind, latitude, and maximum potential intensity.[88][90]
Typhoon Tip is the largest cyclone on record, with tropical storm-force winds 2,170  km (1,350  mi) in
diameter. The smallest storm on record is Tropical Storm Marco (2008), which generated tropical storm-
force winds only 37 km (23 mi) in diameter.[91]

Movement
The movement of a tropical cyclone (i.e. its "track") is typically approximated as the sum of two terms:
"steering" by the background environmental wind and "beta drift".[92] Some tropical cyclones can move
across large distances, such as Hurricane John, the longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record, which
traveled 13,280 km (8,250 mi), the longest track of any Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclone, over its 31-
day lifespan in 1994.[93][94]

Environmental steering

Environmental steering is the primary influence on the motion of tropical cyclones.[95] It represents the
movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions, similar to
"leaves carried along by a stream".[96]
Physically, the winds, or flow field, in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts:
the flow associated with the storm itself, and the large-scale background flow of the environment.[95]
Tropical cyclones can be treated as local maxima of vorticity suspended within the large-scale background
flow of the environment.[97] In this way, tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first-order as
advection of the storm by the local environmental flow.[98] This environmental flow is termed the "steering
flow" and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion.[95] The strength and direction of the
steering flow can be approximated as a vertical integration of the winds blowing horizontally in the
cyclone's vicinity, weighted by the altitude at which those winds are occurring. Because winds can vary
with height, determining the steering flow precisely can be difficult.

The pressure altitude at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone's motion is
known as the "steering level".[97] The motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the
background flow averaged across a thicker portion of troposphere compared to weaker tropical cyclones
whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower
troposphere.[99] When wind shear and latent heat release is present, tropical cyclones tend to move towards
regions where potential vorticity is increasing most quickly.[100]

Climatologically, tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east-to-west trade winds on the
equatorial side of the subtropical ridge—a persistent high-pressure area over the world's subtropical
oceans.[96] In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans, the trade winds steer tropical
easterly waves westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea, North America, and ultimately
into the central Pacific Ocean before the waves dampen out.[101] These waves are the precursors to many
tropical cyclones within this region.[102] In contrast, in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific in both
hemispheres, tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal
movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the monsoon trough.[103] Other weather systems
such as mid-latitude troughs and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by
modifying the steering flow.[99][104]

Beta drift

In addition to environmental steering, a tropical cyclone will tend to drift poleward and westward, a motion
known as "beta drift".[105] This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex, such as a tropical cyclone,
onto an environment in which the Coriolis force varies with latitude, such as on a sphere or beta plane.[106]
The magnitude of the component of tropical cyclone motion associated with the beta drift ranges between
1–3  m/s (3.6–10.8  km/h; 2.2–6.7  mph) and tends to be larger for more intense tropical cyclones and at
higher latitudes. It is induced indirectly by the storm itself as a result of feedback between the cyclonic flow
of the storm and its environment.[107][105]

Physically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and
equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its angular momentum, this flow configuration induces
a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and
eastward of the storm center. The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward
and westward. This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow.[108][109] Due to a direct
dependence of the beta drift on angular momentum, the size of a tropical cyclone can impact the influence
of beta drift on its motion; beta drift imparts a greater influence on the movement of larger tropical cyclones
than that of smaller ones.[110][111]

Multiple storm interaction

A third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical
cyclones. When two cyclones approach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a
point between the two systems. Depending on their separation distance and strength, the two vortices may
simply orbit around one another, or else may spiral into the center point and merge. When the two vortices
are of unequal size, the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction, and the smaller vortex will orbit
around it. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect, after Sakuhei Fujiwhara.[112]

Interaction with the mid-latitude westerlies

Though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the

tropics, its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves
west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid-
latitude flow, such as the jet stream or an extratropical cyclone. This
motion, termed "recurvature", commonly occurs near the western
edge of the major ocean basins, where the jet stream typically has a
poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common.[113]
An example of tropical cyclone recurvature was Typhoon Ioke in
2006.[114] Storm track of Typhoon Ioke,
showing recurvature off the

Formation regions and warning centers Japanese coast in 2006

 Tropical cyclone basins and official warning centers
Basin Warning center Area of responsibility Notes
Northern Hemisphere
Equator northward, African Coast – [74]
North Atlantic United States National Hurricane Center
140°W
United States Central Pacific Hurricane [74]
Eastern Pacific Equator northward, 140–180°W
Center

Western Pacific Japan Meteorological Agency Equator – 60°N, 180–100°E [75]

North Indian [76]

India Meteorological Department Equator northwards, 100–40°E
Ocean
Southern Hemisphere
South-West [77]
Météo-France Reunion Equator – 40°S, African Coast – 90°E
Indian Ocean
Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, [78]
Equator – 10°S, 90–141°E
and Geophysical Agency (BMKG)

Australian region Papua New Guinea National Weather [78]

Equator – 10°S, 141–160°E
Service

Australian Bureau of Meteorology 10–40°S, 90–160°E [78]

Fiji Meteorological Service Equator – 25°S, 160°E – 120°W [78]

Southern Pacific
Meteorological Service of New Zealand 25–40°S, 160°E – 120°W [78]

The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are
monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centres.[4] Ten of these warning centres
worldwide are designated as either a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre or a Tropical Cyclone
Warning Centre by the World Meteorological Organisation's (WMO) tropical cyclone programme.[4] These
warning centres issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast
position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility.[4] Meteorological services
around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country, however, there are
exceptions, as the United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts,
watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility.[4][78] The United States
Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings, about tropical
cyclones on behalf of the United States Government.[4] The Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center names
South Atlantic tropical cyclones, however the South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin
according to the WMO.[115]

Preparations
Ahead of the formal season starting, people are urged to prepare for the effects of a tropical cyclone by
politicians and weather forecasters, amongst others. They prepare by determining their risk to the different
types of weather, tropical cyclones cause, checking their insurance coverage and emergency supplies, as
well as determining where to evacuate to if needed.[116][117][118] When a tropical cyclone develops and is
forecast to impact land, each member nation of the World Meteorological Organization issues various
watches and warnings to cover the expected impacts.[119] However, there are some exceptions with the
United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service responsible for issuing or
recommending warnings for other nations in their area of responsibility.[120][121][122]: 2 –4 
Impacts

Natural phenomena caused or worsened by tropical cyclones

Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves, heavy rain, floods and high winds, disrupting international
shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks.[123] Tropical cyclones stir up water, leaving a cool wake
behind them, which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones.[18] On land,
strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, turning loose
debris into deadly flying projectiles. The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is
typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone
deaths.[124] Cyclone Mahina produced the highest storm surge on record, 13  m (43  ft), at Bathurst Bay,
Queensland, Australia, in March 1899.[125] Other ocean-based hazards that tropical cyclones produce are
rip currents and undertow. These hazards can occur hundreds of kilometers (hundreds of miles) away from
the center of a cyclone, even if other weather conditions are favorable.[126][127]
The broad rotation of a
landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns tornadoes. Tornadoes can also
be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[128] Hurricane Ivan produced
120 tornadoes, more than any other tropical cyclone.[129] Lightning activity is produced within tropical
cyclones; this activity is more intense within stronger storms and closer to and within the storm's
eyewall.[130][131] Tropical cyclones can increase the amount of snowfall a region experiences by delivering
additional moisture.[132] Wildfires can be worsened when a nearby storm fans their flames with its strong
winds.[133][134]

Impact on property and human life

Tropical cyclones regularly affect the coastlines of most of Earth's

major bodies of water along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian
oceans. Tropical cyclones have caused significant destruction and
loss of human life, resulting in about 2 million deaths since the 19th
century.[135] Large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead
to infection, as well as contributing to mosquito-borne illnesses. Aftermath of Hurricane Ike in Bolivar
Crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease Peninsula, Texas
propagation. [124] Tropical cyclones significantly interrupt
infrastructure, leading to power outages, bridge and road
destruction, and the hampering of reconstruction efforts.[124][136][137] Winds and water from storms can
damage or destroy homes, buildings, and other manmade structures.[138][139] Tropical cyclones destroy
agriculture, kill livestock, and prevent access to marketplaces for both buyers and sellers; both of these
result in financial losses.[140][141][142] Powerful cyclones that make landfall – moving from the ocean to
over land – are some of the most impactful, although that is not always the case. An average of 86 tropical
cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane or typhoon
strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones, super typhoons, or major hurricanes (at least of
Category 3 intensity).[143]

In Africa, tropical cyclones can originate from tropical waves generated over the Sahara Desert,[144] or
otherwise strike the Horn of Africa and Southern Africa.[145][146] Cyclone Idai in March 2019 hit central
Mozambique, becoming the deadliest tropical cyclone on record in Africa, with 1,302  fatalities, and
damage estimated at US$2.2 billion.[147][148] Réunion island, located east of Southern Africa, experiences
some of the wettest tropical cyclones on record. In January 1980, Cyclone Hyacinthe produced 6,083 mm
(239.5  in) of rain over 15  days, which was the largest rain total recorded from a tropical cyclone on
record.[149][150][151] In Asia, tropical cyclones from the Indian and Pacific oceans regularly affect some of
the most populated countries on Earth. In 1970, a cyclone struck Bangladesh, then known as East Pakistan,
producing a 6.1 m (20 ft) storm surge that killed at least 300,000 people; this made it the deadliest tropical
cyclone on record.[152] In October 2019, Typhoon Hagibis struck the Japanese island of Honshu and
inflicted US$15 billion in damage, making it the costliest storm on record in Japan.[153] The islands that
comprise Oceania, from Australia to French Polynesia, are routinely affected by tropical
cyclones.[154][155][156] In Indonesia, a cyclone struck the island of Flores in April 1973, killing
1,653 people, making it the deadliest tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Hemisphere.[157][158]

Atlantic and Pacific hurricanes regularly affect North America. In the United States, hurricanes Katrina in
2005 and Harvey in 2017 are the country's costliest ever natural disasters, with monetary damage estimated
at US$125 billion. Katrina struck Louisiana and largely destroyed the city of New Orleans,[159][160] while
Harvey caused significant flooding in southeastern Texas after it dropped 60.58 in (1,539 mm) of rainfall;
this was the highest rainfall total on record in the country.[160] Europe is rarely affected by tropical
cyclones; however, the continent regularly encounters storms after they transitioned into extratropical
cyclones. Only one tropical depression – Vince in 2005 – struck Spain,[161] and only one subtropical
cyclone – Subtropical Storm Alpha in 2020 – struck Portugal.[162] Occasionally, there are tropical-like
cyclones in the Mediterranean Sea.[163] The northern portion of South America experiences occasional
tropical cyclones, with 173 fatalities from Tropical Storm Bret in August 1993.[164][165] The South Atlantic
Ocean is generally inhospitable to the formation of a tropical storm.[166] However, in March 2004,
Hurricane Catarina struck southeastern Brazil as the first hurricane on record in the South Atlantic
Ocean.[167]

Environmental impact

Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in
the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise
dry regions.[168] Their precipitation may also alleviate drought conditions by restoring soil moisture, though
one study focused on the Southeastern United States suggested tropical cyclones did not offer significant
drought recovery.[169][170][171] Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving
warm, moist tropical air to the middle latitudes and polar regions,[172] and by regulating the thermohaline
circulation through upwelling.[173] The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-
made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish
breeding locales.[174] Ecosystems, such as saltmarshes and Mangrove forests, can be severely damaged or
destroyed by tropical cyclones, which erode land and destroy vegetation.[175][176] Tropical cyclones can
cause harmful algae blooms to form in bodies of water by increasing the amount of nutrients
available.[177][178][179] Insect populations can decrease in both quantity and diversity after the passage of
storms.[180] Strong winds associated with tropical cyclones and their remnants are capable of felling
thousands of trees, causing damage to forests.[181]

When hurricanes surge upon shore from the ocean, salt is introduced to many freshwater areas and raises
the salinity levels too high for some habitats to withstand. Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it
back into the ocean, but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a
large enough freshwater source to replace it. Because of this, some species of plants and vegetation die due
to the excess salt.[182] In addition, hurricanes can carry toxins and acids onshore when they make landfall.
The floodwater can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over.
These toxins are harmful to the people and animals in the area, as well as the environment around
them.[183] Tropical cyclones can cause oil spills by damaging or destroying pipelines and storage
facilities.[184][177][185] Similarly, chemical spills have been reported when chemical and processing
facilities were damaged.[185][186][187] Waterways have become contaminated with toxic levels of metals
such as nickel, chromium, and mercury during tropical cyclones.[188][189]
Tropical cyclones can have an extensive effect on geography, such as creating or destroying land.[190][191]
Cyclone Bebe increased the size of Tuvalu island, Funafuti Atoll, by nearly 20%.[190][192][193] Hurricane
Walaka destroyed the small East Island in 2018,[191][194] which destroyed the habitat for the endangered
Hawaiian monk seal, as well as, threatened sea turtles and seabirds.[195] Landslides frequently occur during
tropical cyclones and can vastly alter landscapes; some storms are capable of causing hundreds to tens of
thousands of landslides.[196][197][198][199] Storms can erode coastlines over an extensive area and transport
the sediment to other locations.[189][200][201]

Response
Hurricane response is the disaster response after a hurricane.
Activities performed by hurricane responders include assessment,
restoration, and demolition of buildings; removal of debris and
waste; repairs to land-based and maritime infrastructure; and public
health services including search and rescue operations.[202]
Hurricane response requires coordination between federal, tribal,
state, local, and private entities.[203] According to the National
Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster, potential response
Relief efforts for Hurricane Dorian in
volunteers should affiliate with established organizations and
the Bahamas
should not self-deploy, so that proper training and support can be
provided to mitigate the danger and stress of response work.[204]

Hurricane responders face many hazards. Hurricane responders may be exposed to chemical and biological
contaminants including stored chemicals, sewage, human remains, and mold growth encouraged by
flooding,[205][206][207] as well as asbestos and lead that may be present in older buildings.[206][208]
Common injuries arise from falls from heights, such as from a ladder or from level surfaces; from
electrocution in flooded areas, including from backfeed from portable generators; or from motor vehicle
accidents.[205][208][209] Long and irregular shifts may lead to sleep deprivation and fatigue, increasing the
risk of injuries, and workers may experience mental stress associated with a traumatic incident.
Additionally, heat stress is a concern as workers are often exposed to hot and humid temperatures, wear
protective clothing and equipment, and have physically difficult tasks.[205][208]

Climatology
Tropical cyclones have occurred around the world for millennia. Reanalyses and research are being
undertaken to extend the historical record, through the usage of proxy data such as overwash deposits,
beach ridges and historical documents such as diaries.[3] Major tropical cyclones leave traces in overwash
records and shell layers in some coastal areas, which have been used to gain insight into hurricane activity
over the past thousands of years.[210] Sediment records in Western Australia suggest an intense tropical
cyclone in the 4th millennium BC.[3] Proxy records based on paleotempestological research have revealed
that major hurricane activity along the Gulf of Mexico coast varies on timescales of centuries to
millennia.[211][212] In the year 957, a powerful typhoon struck southern China, killing around
10,000  people due to flooding.[213] The Spanish colonization of Mexico described "tempestades" in
1730,[214] although the official record for Pacific hurricanes only dates to 1949.[215] In the south-west
Indian Ocean, the tropical cyclone record goes back to 1848.[216] In 2003, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis
project examined and analyzed the historical record of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic back to 1851,
extending the existing database from 1886.[217]
Before satellite imagery became available during the 20th century, many of these systems went undetected
unless it impacted land or a ship encountered it by chance.[4] Often in part because of the threat of
hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile
tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in
some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of
intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite
meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense
hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect.[218] The ability of climatologists to make a
long-term analysis of tropical cyclones is limited by the amount of reliable historical data.[219] During the
1940s, routine aircraft reconnaissance started in both the Atlantic and Western Pacific basin during the mid-
1940s, which provided ground truth data, however, early flights were only made once or twice a day.[4]
Polar-orbiting weather satellites were first launched by the United States National Aeronautics and Space
Administration in 1960 but were not declared operational until 1965.[4] However, it took several years for
some of the warning centres to take advantage of this new viewing platform and develop the expertise to
associate satellite signatures with storm position and intensity.[4]

Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half
develop hurricane-force winds of 65  kn (120  km/h; 75  mph) or more.[4] Worldwide, tropical cyclone
activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures
is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is
the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all
the tropical cyclone basins are in season.[220] In the Northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct cyclone season
occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September.[220] The
statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader
period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic.[221] The Northwest Pacific sees tropical
cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September.[220] In the
North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and
November.[220] In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-
round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with
peaks in mid-February to early March.[220][78]

Of various modes of variability in the climate system, El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the largest impact
on tropical cyclone activity.[222] Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to
the equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the
Westerlies.[223] When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical
cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September–November
tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years.[224] During La Niña years, the formation of
tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific
Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines.[224] The
Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during
El Niño years.[225] Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the Atlantic Meridional Mode, the Quasi-
biennial oscillation and the Madden–Julian oscillation.[222][226]
 Season lengths and averages
Season
Season Tropical
Basin Refs
start end cyclones

North Atlantic June 1 November 30 14.4 [227]

Eastern Pacific May 15 November 30 16.6 [227]

Western Pacific January 1 December 31 26.0 [227]

North Indian January 1 December 31 12 [228]

South-West Indian July 1 June 30 9.3 [227][77]

Australian region November 1 April 30 11.0 [229]

Southern Pacific November 1 April 30 7.1 [230]

Total: 96.4

Influence of climate change

Climate change can affect tropical cyclones in a variety

of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a
decrease in overall frequency, an increase in the
frequency of very intense storms and a poleward
extension of where the cyclones reach maximum
intensity are among the possible consequences of
human-induced climate change.[232] Tropical cyclones
use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is
warming ocean temperatures, there is potentially more The 20-year average of the number of annual
of this fuel available.[233] Between 1979 and 2017, Category 4 and 5 hurricanes in the Atlantic region
there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical has approximately doubled since the year
cyclones of Category 3 and higher on the Saffir– 2000.[231]
Simpson scale. The trend was most clear in the North
Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North
Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in
intensity over this period.[234] With 2  °C (3.6  °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical
cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength.[232] A 2019 study indicates that climate change
has been driving the observed trend of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin.
Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal
communities.[235]

Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the
Clausius–Clapeyron relation, which yields ≈7% increase in water vapor in the atmosphere per 1 °C (1.8 °F)
warming.[236][237] All models that were assessed in a 2019 review paper show a future increase of rainfall
rates.[232] Additional sea level rise will increase storm surge levels.[238][239] It is plausible that extreme
wind waves see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm
surge dangers to coastal communities.[240] The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and
terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase due to global warming.[239]

There is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical
cyclones.[232] A majority of climate models show a decreased frequency in future projections.[240] For
instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency
in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for
Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones.[241] Observations have shown little change in the overall
frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide,[242] with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central
Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific.[243] There has
been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs,
which may be associated with climate change.[244] In the North Pacific, there may also have been an
eastward expansion.[238] Between 1949 and 2016, there was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation
speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all
show this feature.[240]

Observation and forecasting

Observation

Intense tropical cyclones pose a particular observation

challenge, as they are a dangerous oceanic phenomenon, and
weather stations, being relatively sparse, are rarely available on
the site of the storm itself. In general, surface observations are
available only if the storm is passing over an island or a coastal
area, or if there is a nearby ship. Real-time measurements are
usually taken in the periphery of the cyclone, where conditions
are less catastrophic and its true strength cannot be evaluated.
For this reason, there are teams of meteorologists that move
Sunset view of Hurricane Isidore's
into the path of tropical cyclones to help evaluate their strength
rainbands photographed at 2,100 m
at the point of landfall.[245] (7,000 ft)

Tropical cyclones are tracked by weather satellites capturing

visible and infrared images from space, usually at half-hour to
quarter-hour intervals. As a storm approaches land, it can be
observed by land-based Doppler weather radar. Radar plays a
crucial role around landfall by showing a storm's location and
intensity every several minutes.[246] Other satellites provide
information from the perturbations of GPS signals, providing
thousands of snapshots per day and capturing atmospheric "Hurricane Hunter" – WP-3D Orion is
temperature, pressure, and moisture content.[247] used to go into the eye of a hurricane
for data collection and
In situ measurements, in real-time, can be taken by sending measurements purposes.
specially equipped reconnaissance flights into the cyclone. In the
Atlantic basin, these flights are regularly flown by United States
government hurricane hunters.[248] These aircraft fly directly into the cyclone and take direct and remote-
sensing measurements. The aircraft also launch GPS dropsondes inside the cyclone. These sondes measure
temperature, humidity, pressure, and especially winds between flight level and the ocean's surface. A new
era in hurricane observation began when a remotely piloted Aerosonde, a small drone aircraft, was flown
through Tropical Storm Ophelia as it passed Virginia's eastern shore during the 2005 hurricane season. A
similar mission was also completed successfully in the western Pacific Ocean.[249]

Forecasting
High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software
allow forecasters to produce computer models that predict
tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and
strength of high- and low-pressure systems. Combining
forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that
act on tropical cyclones, as well as with a wealth of data from
Earth-orbiting satellites and other sensors, scientists have
increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent
decades.[250] However, scientists are not as skillful at
predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones.[251] The lack of
improvement in intensity forecasting is attributed to the A general decrease in error trends in
complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete tropical cyclone path prediction is evident
understanding of factors that affect their development. New since the 1970s
tropical cyclone position and forecast information is available
at least every six hours from the various warning
centers.[252][253][254][255][256]

Geopotential height

In meteorology, geopotential heights are used when creating forecasts and analyzing pressure systems.
Geopotential heights represent the estimate of the real height of a pressure system above the average sea
level.[257] Geopotential heights for weather are divided up into several levels. The lowest geopotential
height level is 850 hPa (25.10 inHg), which represents the lowest 1,500 m (5,000 ft) of the atmosphere.
The moisture content, gained by using either the relative humidity or the precipitable water value, is used in
creating forecasts for precipitation.[258] The next level, 700  hPa (20.67  inHg), is at a height of 2,300–
3,200 m (7,700–10,500 ft); 700 hPa is regarded as the highest point in the lower atmosphere. At this layer,
both vertical movement and moisture levels are used to locate and create forecasts for precipitation.[259]
The middle level of the atmosphere is at 500  hPa (14.76  inHg) or a height of 4,900–6,100  m (16,000–
20,000 ft). The 500 hPa level is used for measuring atmospheric vorticity, commonly known as the spin of
air. The relative humidity is also analyzed at this height in order to establish where precipitation is likely to
materialize.[260] The next level occurs at 300  hPa (8.859  inHg) or a height of 8,200–9,800  m (27,000–
32,000 ft).[261] The top-most level is located at 200 hPa (5.906 inHg), which corresponds to a height of
11,000–12,000  m (35,000–41,000  ft). Both the 200 and 300 hPa levels are mainly used to locate the jet
stream.[262]

Related cyclone types

In addition to tropical cyclones, there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone
types. These kinds of cyclones, known as extratropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones, can be stages a
tropical cyclone passes through during its formation or dissipation.[263] An extratropical cyclone is a storm
that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher latitudes. A tropical
cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat
released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses; although not as frequently, an
extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone.[264]
From space, extratropical storms have a characteristic "comma-shaped" cloud pattern.[265] Extratropical
cyclones can also be dangerous when their low-pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas.[266]

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some
characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide band of latitudes, from the equator to
50°. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as
their cores warm.[267]

See also
Tropical cyclones in 2022
2022 Atlantic hurricane season
2022 Pacific hurricane season
2022 Pacific typhoon season
2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
2022–23 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season
2022–23 Australian region cyclone season
2022–23 South Pacific cyclone season

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External links
United States National Hurricane Center (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/) – North Atlantic,
Eastern Pacific
United States Central Pacific Hurricane Center (https://web.archive.org/web/201109231442
45/http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/cphc/) – Central Pacific
Japan Meteorological Agency (http://www.jma.go.jp/en/typh/) – Western Pacific
India Meteorological Department (http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/index.php?lang=en) –
Indian Ocean
Météo-France – La Reunion (http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/) – South
Indian Ocean from 30°E to 90°E
 Indonesian Meteorological Department (http://meteo.bmkg.go.id/siklon) – South Indian
Ocean from 90°E to 125°E, north of 10°S
Australian Bureau of Meteorology (http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/) – South Indian Ocean
and South Pacific Ocean from 90°E to 160°E
Papua New Guinea National Weather Service (http://www.pngmet.gov.pg/) – South Pacific
east of 160°E, north of 10°S
Fiji Meteorological Service (http://www.met.gov.fj/) – South Pacific west of 160°E, north of
25° S
MetService New Zealand (http://metservice.com/) – South Pacific west of 160°E, south of
25°S

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