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Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcome 7.1 Define air mass and list the three characteristics of an air mass. 176
Learning Outcome 7.2 Describe the origin of air masses in terms of source regions. 176
Learning Outcome 7.3 Explain how air masses are named. 176
Learning Outcome 7.4 Identify the names and properties of the six classes of air masses. 177
Learning Outcome 7.5 Identify the source regions and associated air masses that affect North
America. 177
Learning Outcome 7.6 Define front and identify the four types of front. 178
Learning Outcome 7.7 Describe the formation of a cold front and the weather patterns that occur
as a cold front passes a location. 179
Learning Outcome 7.8 Describe the formation of a warm front and the weather patterns that
occur as a warm front passes a location. 179
Learning Outcome 7.9 Describe the formation of a stationary front and the weather patterns on
either side of a front. 179
Learning Outcome 7.10 Describe the formation of an occluded cold front and the weather
patterns that occur as an occluded front passes a location. 182
Learning Outcome 7.11 Identify the general characteristics of atmospheric disturbances. 179
Learning Outcome 7.13 Identify the four kinds of movement that midlatitude cyclones undergo.
180
Learning Outcome 7.14 Explain the stages in the life cycle of a midlatitude cyclone. 183
Learning Outcome 7.15 Explain the typical weather pattern associated with the passage of a
midlatitude cyclone with the center to the north of a location. 184
Learning Outcome 7.16 Explain the typical weather pattern associated with the passage of a
midlatitude cyclone with the center to the south of a location. 184
Learning Outcome 7.17 Describe the occurrence and distribution of midlatitude cyclones. 184
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Learning Outcome 7.18 Define midlatitude anticyclone and explain the associated weather
patterns. 186
Learning Outcome 7.19 Define easterly wave and describe the associated weather characteristics.
187
Learning Outcome 7.20 Identify the three categories of tropical disturbances. 187
Learning Outcome 7.23 Describe the movement and lifespan of a hurricane. 188
Learning Outcome 7.24 Identify areas where hurricanes originate and their common tracks. 189
Learning Outcome 7.25 Explain hazards associated with hurricanes and the types of damage they
cause. 191
Learning Outcome 7.26 Describe the possible connections between hurricanes and climate
change. 193
Learning Outcome 7.27 Explain the three stages in the development of a thunderstorm. 194
Learning Outcome 7.30 Explain the ways storms can be monitored to enable informed decisions
about personal safety. 199
Teaching Tip
Have students choose a prominent hurricane from recent years. Have them plot its course and
show its development. Have them identify the pressure near the eye wall, its size, and its wind
speed every 200 miles along its course. Have them identify the wind patterns driving the storm.
TOPICS
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Origin
Source Regions
Classification
Movement and Modification
North American Air Masses
Fronts
Types of Fronts
Cold Fronts
Warm Fronts
Stationary Fronts
Occluded Fronts
Air Masses, Fronts, and Major Atmospheric Disturbances
Midlatitude Disturbances
Tropical Disturbances
Localized Severe Weather
Midlatitude Cyclones
Characteristics
Formation of Fronts
Sectors
Clouds and Precipitation
Movements
Life Cycle
Cyclogenesis
Occlusion
Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones
Weather Changes with the Passing of a Midlatitude Cyclone
Occurrence and Distribution
Midlatitude Anticyclones
Characteristics
Relationships of Cyclones and Anticyclones
Easterly Waves
Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes
Categories of Tropical Disturbances
Named Storms
Characteristics
Eye of a Hurricane
Origin
Movement
Hurricane Tracks
Life Span
Damage and Destruction
Hurricane Strength
Storm Surges
Heavy Rain and Flooding
Hurricane Katrina
“Super Storm” Sandy
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Hurricane Patricia
Hurricanes and Climate Change
Number of Hurricanes
Intensity of Hurricanes
Localized Severe Weather
Thunderstorms
Development
Downbursts
Lightning
Thunder
Tornadoes
Funnel Clouds
Tornado Formation
Strength
Waterspouts
Severe Storm Watches and Warnings
Focus: Conveyer Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones
Global Environmental Change: Are Tornado Patterns Changing?
Focus: Weather Radar
CHAPTER OUTLINE
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C. Origin
1. Formation occurs if air remains over a uniform land or sea surface long enough to
acquire uniform properties.
a) Source Regions—parts of Earth’s surface that are particularly suited to generate
air masses because they are:
(1) Extensive
(2) Physically uniform
(3) Associated with air that is stationary or anticyclonic
D. Classification
1. Because the source region determines the properties of air masses, it is the basis for
classifying them.
2. Use a one- or two-letter code.
3. Table 7-1 provides a simplified classification of air masses, along with the properties
associated with each.
E. Movement and Modification
1. Some air masses remain in the source region indefinitely.
2. Movement prompts structural change.
a) Thermal modification—heating or cooling from below
b) Dynamic modification—uplift, subsidence, convergence, turbulence
c) Moisture modification—addition or subtraction of moisture
3. Moving air mass modifies the weather of the region it moves through.
F. North American Air Masses
1. Physical geography of the U.S. landscape plays a critical role in air mass interactions.
a) No east–west mountains to block polar and tropical air flows, so they affect U.S.
weather/climate.
b) North–south mountain ranges in the west modify the movement, and therefore the
characteristics, of Pacific air masses.
2. Maritime tropical (mT) air from the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea/Gulf of
Mexico strongly influences the climate east of the Rockies in the United States,
southern Canada, and much of Mexico.
a) Primary source of precipitation; also brings periods of uncomfortable humid heat
in summer.
3. Continental tropical (cT) air has an insignificant influence on North America, except
for bringing occasional heat waves and drought conditions to the southern Great
Plains.
4. Equatorial (E) air affects North America only through hurricanes.
III. Fronts
A. Front—a zone of discontinuity between unlike air masses where properties of air change
rapidly.
1. Is narrow but three-dimensional.
2. Typically several kilometers wide (even tens of kilometers wide).
3. Functions as a barrier between two air masses, preventing their mingling except in
this narrow transition zone.
4. Though all primary physical properties are involved in a front, temperature provides
the most conspicuous difference.
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5. Fronts lean, which allows air masses to be uplifted and adiabatic cooling to take
place.
a) Some lean so much, they are closer to horizontal than vertical.
(1) Always slopes so that warmer air overlies cooler air.
6. Fronts move in association with the direction of the more active air mass, which
displaces the less active.
B. Cold Fronts
1. Cold front—the leading edge of a cool air mass actively displacing a warm air mass.
a) Brings cold air.
b) Leads to the rapid lifting of warm air, which makes it unstable and thus results in
blustery and violent weather along the front.
c) Weather maps show ground-level position of a cold front (usually has a
protruding “nose”); clouds and precipitation tend to be concentrated along and
immediately behind the ground-level position.
C. Warm Fronts
1. Warm front—the leading edge of an advancing warm air mass.
a) Brings warm air.
b) Results in clouds and precipitation, usually broad, protracted, and gentle, without
much convective activity.
c) Unstable rising air can result in showery and even violent precipitation.
d) Weather maps show the ground-level position of a warm front; precipitation
usually falls ahead of this position.
D. Stationary Fronts
1. Stationary front—the common boundary between two air masses in a situation in
which neither air mass displaces the other.
E. Occluded Fronts
1. Occluded front—a complex front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front.
F. Air Masses, Fronts, and Major Atmospheric Disturbances
G. Two types of disturbances: stormy and calm.
H. Both types have common characteristics.
1. Smaller than the components of general circulation, but extremely variable in size.
2. Migratory and transient.
3. Relatively brief in duration.
4. Produce characteristic and relatively predictable weather conditions.
5. Midlatitude Disturbances
a) Many kinds of atmospheric disturbances are associated with the midlatitudes,
which are the principal battleground for tropospheric phenomena.
b) Midlatitude cyclones and midlatitude anticyclones are more significant because of
size and prevalence.
6. Tropical Disturbances
a) Low latitudes are characterized by monotony, with the same consistent weather.
b) The only breaks in this pattern are provided by transient disturbances such as
hurricanes.
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D. Life Cycle
1. Cyclogenesis
a) Origin to maturity typically takes 3 to 6 days, then another 3 to 6 days to
dissipate.
b) Cyclogenesis—birth of cyclones.
c) Most common cause believed to be upper-air conditions in the vicinity of the
polar-front jet stream.
d) Most begin as waves along the polar front.
e) Cyclogenesis can also occur on the leeward side of mountains.
f) Often bring heavy rain or snowstorms to the northeastern United States and
southeastern Canada.
2. Occlusion
a) After cyclonic circulation is well developed, occlusion begins.
b) After an occluded front is fully developed, the cyclone dissipates.
3. Conveyer Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones
a) Model first presented by meteorologists in Norway in the 1920s.
b) Conveyer belt model offers a better explanation.
E. Weather Changes With the Passing of a Midlatitude Cyclone
1. Temperature
a) As a cold front passes, temperature drops abruptly.
2. Pressure
a) Pressure falls as the front approaches, and as the front passes the pressure rises
steadily.
3. Wind
a) Winds in the warm sector come from the south. Once the front passes, winds shift
and come from the west or northwest.
4. Clouds and Precipitation
a) As a cold front approaches, clear skies are replaced by cloudiness and
precipitation.
b) After the front passes, the conditions clear.
5. Occurrence and Distribution
a) Occur at scattered but irregular intervals throughout the zone of the westerlies.
b) Route of a cyclone is likely to be undulating and erratic, but it generally moves
west to east.
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(1) Can visualize an anticyclone as a polar air mass with the cold front of a
cyclone as its leading edge.
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2. Eye of a Hurricane
a) Eye—the nonstormy center of a tropical cyclone, which has a diameter of 16–40
kilometers (10–25 miles). In the eye there are no updrafts, but instead a downdraft
that inhibits cloud formation.
b) Eyewall—peripheral zone at the edge of the eye where winds reach their highest
speed and where updrafts are most prominent.
c) Weather pattern within a hurricane is symmetrical.
d) Comprised of bands of dense cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds called spiral
rain bands.
3. Eyewall replacement—the process in which a new wall of storms surrounds the wall
of storms circling the hurricane’s eye. When this occurs, the inner wall disintegrates
so the new wall replaces it. This process tends to weaken the storm.
C. Origin
1. Form only over warm oceans and where there is no significant wind shear.
2. The Coriolis effect plays key role: it’s at a minimum at the equator, and no hurricane
has been observed to form within 3° of the equator or cross over it.
a) Rare to have a hurricane closer than 8° to 10° from equator.
3. The exact mechanism of formation is not clear, but they always grow from some
preexisting disturbance.
4. Movement
a) Most common in the North Pacific basin (origination in the Philippines and west
of southern Mexico and Central America).
(1) West central portion of the North Atlantic basin, extending into the Caribbean,
and Gulf of Mexico is third in prevalence.
(2) Totally absent from the South Atlantic and from the southeastern part of the
Pacific.
(a) Absent apparently because the water is too cold and because high
pressure dominates.
b) General pattern of movement is highly predictable.
(1) About one-third travel east to west without much latitudinal change.
(2) About two-thirds start off on an east–west path and then curve poleward.
(a) Exception occurs in the southwestern Pacific Ocean north and northeast
of New Zealand, where the general circulation pattern steers hurricanes,
so they travel west to east.
(3) Average hurricane lasts a week; those that remain over tropical oceans can
live up to four weeks.
(a) Dies down over continents because energy source of warm, moist air is
cut off.
(b) Dies down in midlatitudes because of cooler environment.
(i) In midlatitudes, can diminish in intensity but grow in size and become
a midlatitude cyclone.
D. Damage and Destruction
1. High seas, or a storm surge, cause the most damage.
2. Storm size is key to how much damage is caused, then physical configuration of
landscape and population size and density of affected area.
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2. The number of recorded tornadoes has increased, but to see whether the actual
number of tornadoes has increased, researchers tend to analyze trends in larger
tornadoes.
3. The overall number of large tornadoes hasn’t changed significantly, but outbreaks
such as the one in 2011 are becoming more common.
a) Outbreaks don’t happen every year, but when they do, they’re deadly—by the end
of 2011 tornadoes had killed 551 people in the United States, the largest annual
total in 66 years of modern records.
C. Thunderstorms tend to be more frequent and powerful when the surface is hot and humid.
1. Global climate change is simultaneously increasing surface temperatures, increasing
evaporation rates, and decreasing the number of days with adequate wind shear for
tornadic formation.
2. Observed changes, which also fit global climate changes, in tornado patterns are
fewer days with tornadoes but on days when there is enough wind shear, increased
tendency for outbreaks.
How do air masses form? Why do air masses rarely originate in the midlatitudes?
The formation of air masses occurs if air remains over a uniform land or sea surface long enough
to acquire uniform properties. Air masses form in distinctive source regions. These regions are
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parts of Earth’s surface that are particularly suited to generate air masses because they are
extensive, physically uniform, and are associated with air that is stationary or anticyclonic.
In the band of the westerlies (the midlatitudes), the atmosphere is rarely quiet long enough for an
air mass to form.
Learning Check 7-2
What are the temperature and moisture characteristics of a maritime polar (mP) air mass? A
continental tropical (cT) air mass? Explain.
Maritime polar air masses are moist and cold because they originate over bodies of water at high
latitudes.
Continental tropic air masses are hot and dry, and originate over northern Mexico and the
southwestern United States.
The primary difference between a warm front and a cold front is the temperature of the air they
bring: warm fronts bring warm air, whereas cold fronts bring cold air. The average cold front is
twice as steep as the average warm front. Cold fronts normally move faster than warm fronts.
This combination of steeper slope and faster advance in cold fronts leads to a rapid lifting of any
warm air in front of a cold front. As such, cold fronts result in blustery and violent weather,
compared with the more gentle precipitation commonly associated with warm fronts (they have a
very gradual frontal uplift of warm air, so clouds form slowly without much turbulence). But
while precipitation with a cold front is usually of a higher intensity than that with a warm front, it
is also of a shorter duration than the precipitation in a warm front. Finally, precipitation usually
falls ahead of the ground-level position of the warm front, whereas it tends to concentrate along
and immediately behind the cold front’s ground-level position.
A typical mature midlatitude cycle is 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) in diameter and has an oval
shape.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the circulation pattern converges counterclockwise; the wind-flow
pattern attracts cool air from the north and warm air from the south, which creates two fronts.
These two fronts divide the cyclone into a cool sector north and west of center and a warm sector
south and east. The size of sectors varies with location: on the ground, the cool sector is larger,
but in the atmosphere, the warm sector is more extensive. Warm air rises along both fronts,
causing cloudiness and precipitation, which follows patterns of cold and warm fronts. Much of
the cool sector is typified by clear, cold, stable air, whereas air of the warm sector is often moist
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and tends toward instability, so may have sporadic thunderstorms and may have squall fronts of
intense thunderstorms.
Patterns of isobars, fronts, and wind flow in the Southern Hemisphere are mirror images of those
in the Northern Hemisphere.
Because cold fronts are denser, they travel at a higher velocity than warm fronts. Occlusion is the
process where a cold front overtakes a warm front and then displaces the warm air sector
between them. Nearly all midlatitude cyclones experience occlusion.
Why is pressure falling as a cold front approaches, and rising as a cold front moves away?
As a cold front approaches, the cold, dense air of the cold front displaces the relatively warm,
moist air of the warm-air sector. This causes the portion of the warm-air sector adjacent to the
cold front to be lifted, creating lower atmospheric pressure. As the cold front passes, cold dense
air dominates, causing the barometric pressure to rise again.
High atmospheric pressure predominates with midlatitude anticyclones. The overall weather
associated with a midlatitude cyclone is clear and dry, with little or no opportunity for cloud
formation because there is no rising air in a midlatitude cyclone and no adiabatic cooling.
An easterly wave is a long but weak migratory low-pressure system in the tropics between 5°
and 30° of latitude. They are usually several hundred kilometers long and nearly always oriented
north–south, and they tend to drift westward on the trade winds. Convergent conditions behind
the wave generate thunderstorms and cloudiness. These easterly waves sometimes intensify into
hurricanes. They also tend to bring characteristic weather of the trade winds with them.
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Hurricanes form only over warm oceans in the tropics. The ocean water temperature generally
needs to be at least 26.5°C to a depth of 50 meters. There also cannot be any significant wind
shear. The Coriolis effect plays a key role: it’s at a minimum at the equator, and no hurricane has
been observed to form within 3° of the equator or cross over it. It is rare to have a hurricane
closer than 8° to 10° from the equator. The exact mechanism of formation is not clear, but they
always grow from some preexisting disturbance.
Why can hurricanes move up into the midlatitudes along the East Coast of North America, but
not along the West Coast?
Hurricanes sometimes survive (with diminished intensity) off the east coast of continents in the
midlatitudes because the warm ocean currents there contribute energy to the cyclones; hurricanes
do not survive in the midlatitudes off the west coasts of continents because of the cool ocean
currents there.
Thunderstorms are associated with other mechanisms that can trigger unstable uplift. The
mechanism triggers uplift of warm, moist air.
During the cumulus stage, updrafts prevail and clouds grow. The clouds rise to above freezing
level, where supercooled water droplets and ice crystals coalesce, then fall. This then initiates a
downdraft.
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During the mature state, updrafts and downdrafts coexist as the cloud continues to enlarge (but
precipitation is leaving the bottom of the cloud). This is the most active time.
The exact mechanism of formation is unknown. They usually develop in the warm, moist,
unstable air associated with a midlatitude cyclone. High wind shear (horizontally rotating air)
may cause strong updrafts to form in a supercell thunderstorm. The rotating air may then be
tilted vertically, forming a mesocyclone. About 50 percent of all mesocyclones result in
tornadoes. These most often develop along a squall line that preceded a rapidly advancing cold
front, or along the cold front. Spring and early summer are favorable for development because
there’s considerable air-mass contrast present in the midlatitudes at that time. Likewise, most
occur in midafternoon, at the time of maximum heating. There is also a region bias in that more
than 90 percent of all reported tornadoes occur in the United States. The regionality of this
phenomenon is a result of optimum environmental conditions: The relatively flat terrain of
central and southeastern United States provides uninhibited interaction of Canadian cP and Gulf
mT air masses.
1. What is an air mass, and what conditions are necessary for one to form?
The formation of air masses occurs if air remains over a uniform land or sea surface long enough
to acquire uniform properties. Air masses form in distinctive source regions. These regions are
parts of Earth’s surface that are particularly suited to generate air masses because they are
extensive, physically uniform, and are associated with air that is stationary or anticyclonic.
2. What regions of Earth are least likely to produce air masses? Why?
Mountainous areas, areas that vary in altitude and/or covering, and areas where air above moves
or is cyclonic are least likely to produce air masses. To develop, air masses need an extensive
uniform land or sea surface that allows air to stagnate and develop homogeneous physical
characteristics. Ideal source regions are ocean surfaces and extensive flat land areas that have a
uniform covering of snow, forest, or desert.
3. Contrast and explain the moisture and temperature characteristics of a mT (maritime tropical)
air mass with that of a cP (continental polar) air mass.
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Maritime tropical air masses are warm and moist because they originate within tropical latitudes
and over bodies of water. Continental polar air masses are cold and dry because they originate
over high-latitude landmasses.
When unlike air masses meet, they do not mix readily; instead, a boundary zone (i.e., a front)
develops between them.
The primary difference between a warm front and a cold front is the temperature of the air they
bring: warm fronts bring warm air, whereas cold fronts bring cold air. The average cold front is
twice as steep as the average warm front. Cold fronts normally move faster than warm fronts.
This combination of steeper slope and faster advance in cold fronts leads to a rapid lifting of any
warm air in front of a cold front. As such, cold fronts result in blustery and violent weather,
compared with the more gentle precipitation commonly associated with warm fronts (they have a
very gradual frontal uplift of warm air, so clouds form slowly, without much turbulence). But
while precipitation with a cold front is usually of a higher intensity than that of a warm front, it is
also of a shorter duration than the precipitation in a warm front. Finally, precipitation usually
falls ahead of the ground-level position of the warm front, whereas it tends to concentrate along
and immediately behind the cold front’s ground-level position.
A stationary front is a common boundary that develops when two air masses meet but neither
displaces the other.
A typical mature midlatitude cycle is 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) in diameter and has an oval
shape.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the circulation pattern converges counterclockwise; the wind-flow
pattern attracts cool air from the north and warm air from the south, which creates two fronts.
These two fronts divide the cyclone into a cool sector north and west of center and a warm sector
south and east. The size of sectors varies with location: on the ground, the cool sector is larger,
but in the atmosphere, the warm sector is more extensive. Warm air rises along both fronts,
causing cloudiness and precipitation, which follows patterns of cold and warm fronts. Much of
the cool sector is typified by clear, cold, stable air, whereas air of the warm sector is often moist
and tends toward instability, so may have sporadic thunderstorms and may have squall fronts of
intense thunderstorms.
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8. Describe the locations of fronts and the surface “sectors” of a mature midlatitude cyclone.
See question 7.
9. Describe and explain the regions of cloud development and precipitation within a midlatitude
cyclone.
See question 7.
Occlusion is the process where a cold front overtakes a warm front and then displaces the warm
air sector between them.
12. Why does an occluded front usually indicate the “death” of a midlatitude cyclone?
Occluded fronts are caused by the more rapid movement of cold fronts compared with warm
fronts in a midlatitude cyclone. Since the typical pattern in a midlatitude cyclone is a cold front
preceded by a warm front, the cold front eventually overtakes the warm front and effectively zips
up the midlatitude cyclone. Once occlusion in a midlatitude cyclone begins, the warm air
separating the cold and warm fronts begins to become pinched away from the surface region of
the midlatitude cyclone and forced aloft. This creates a temperature inversion situation, where a
layer of warmer air overlies a layer of cold air. This temperature inversion impedes atmospheric
uplift and generates atmospheric stability. This then leads to the dissipation of the midlatitude
cyclone.
13. Discuss the cyclogenesis of midlatitude cyclones. What is the relationship between upper-
level airflow and the formation of surface disturbances in the midlatitudes?
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aloft. The divergence can be caused by changes in the speed or direction of wind flow, but it
usually involves north-to-south meanders in the Rossby waves and the jet stream.
14. Describe and explain the changes in wind direction, atmospheric pressure, sky conditions
(such as clouds and precipitation), and temperature with the passing of a cold front of a
midlatitude cyclone.
As a cold front approaches, large, vertically developed clouds (cumulonimbus) appear in the
direction the front is originating. As the surface portion of the front passes, there are vigorous
downpours and thunderstorms from cumulonimbus clouds. Because of higher pressure behind
the front and the steepness of the front, the precipitation is usually of a short but intense duration.
Clouds behind the front, if any, tend to be limited in vertical thickness and usually do not
produce precipitation.
As the surface portion of the cold front passes, there is a temperature drop. This is because the air
behind the cold front originated as a continental polar air mass.
As the front approaches and passes, barometric pressure rapidly rises, indicating that clearing
conditions should occur within 12 to 24 hours.
15. Describe the pressure pattern, wind direction, and general weather associated with a
midlatitude anticyclone.
High atmospheric pressure predominates with midlatitude anticyclones. The weather associated
with a midlatitude cyclone is clear and dry, with little or no opportunity for cloud formation. At
the center, wind movement is very limited, but it increases progressively outward, so that at the
margins, and particularly the eastern margin, there may be strong winds. Winter anticyclones
have very low temperatures.
16. How are midlatitude anticyclones often associated with midlatitude cyclones?
Midlatitude cyclones and anticyclones alternate with one another in an irregular sequence. There
is often a functional relationship between the two. This can be visualized with an anticyclone
being a polar air mass with the cold front of cyclone as its leading edge.
An easterly wave is a long but weak migratory low-pressure system in the tropics between 5°
and 30° of latitude. They are usually several hundred kilometers long and nearly always oriented
north–south, and they tend to drift westward on the trade winds. Convergent conditions behind
the wave generate thunderstorms and cloudiness. These easterly waves sometimes intensify into
hurricanes. They also tend to bring characteristic weather of the trade winds with them.
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A tropical depression has wind speeds less than 33 knots but develops a closed wind circulation
pattern.
19. Describe and explain the pressure and wind patterns of a tropical cyclone (hurricane).
Hurricanes are enormous cyclones that possess prominent low-pressure centers that are
essentially circular, with a steep pressure gradient outward from the center. As a result, strong
winds spiral inward and ascend in rapid updrafts. Near the hurricane’s center there is also a
downdraft that inhibits cloud formation (the hurricane’s eye). The weather pattern within the
hurricane is symmetrical around the eye, with winds and bands of dense cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds spiraling inward from the edge of the storm to the eye. These clouds
produce heavy rains that generally increase in intensity, until within the eye, where there is no
rain and no low clouds; in the eye, scattered high clouds may part to let in intermittent sunlight.
The eye of a hurricane is the nonstormy center of a tropical cyclone, which has a diameter of 16
to 40 kilometers (10 to 25 miles). In the eye, there are no updrafts, but instead a downdraft that
inhibits cloud formation. The eye wall is a peripheral zone at the edge of the eye where winds
reach their highest speed and where updrafts are most prominent.
Wind shear refers to the significant change in wind direction or wind speed with increasing
elevation.
Hurricanes form only over warm oceans and where there is no significant wind shear. The
Coriolis effect plays a key role: it’s at a minimum at the equator, and no hurricane has been
observed to form within 3° of the equator or cross over it. It is rare to have a hurricane closer
than 8° to 10° from the equator. The exact mechanism of formation is not clear, but they always
grow from some preexisting disturbance.
23. Describe and explain the typical paths taken by hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean basin.
Once formed, hurricanes follow irregular tracks with the general flow of the trade winds. The
general pattern of hurricane movement is highly predictable. About one-third travel east to west
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without much latitudinal change. About two-thirds start off on an east–west path and then curve
poleward. Here they either dissipate over the adjacent continent or become enmeshed in the
general flow of the midlatitude westerlies.
The average hurricane lasts a week; however, those that remain over tropical oceans can live up
to 4 weeks. Hurricanes die down over continents because the energy source of warm, moist air is
cut off. Hurricanes likewise die down in midlatitudes because of the cooler environment.
The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale ranks the relative intensity of hurricanes based on eye
pressure, wind speed, and storm-surge height. The scale ranges from 1 to 5, with 5 being the
most severe.
Several regions depend on hurricanes for much of their water supply: northwestern Mexico,
northern Australia, and southeastern Asia. Even in other areas, hurricane-induced rainfall is often
a critical source of moisture for agriculture: though a hurricane’s winds and flooding may
destroy crops within its immediate path, the hurricane’s rains nurture a much more extensive
area.
Thunderstorms are associated with other mechanisms that can trigger unstable uplift. The
mechanism triggers the uplift of warm, moist air.
During the cumulus stage, updrafts prevail and clouds grow. The clouds rise to above freezing
level, where supercooled water droplets and ice crystals coalesce, then fall. This then initiates a
downdraft.
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During the mature state, updrafts and downdrafts coexist as the cloud continues to enlarge (but
precipitation is leaving the bottom of the cloud). This is the most active time.
The abrupt heating of the localized atmosphere from a lightning bolt causes an instantaneous
expansion of the air, which causes a shock wave that we hear as thunder.
The rotating vortex of a tornado becomes visible when upswept water vapor condenses. This
phenomena is referred to as a funnel cloud.
32. Discuss the general formation of a tornado from a supercell thunderstorm and mesocyclone.
The exact mechanism of formation is unknown. They usually develop in the warm, moist,
unstable air associated with a midlatitude cyclone. High wind shear (horizontally rotating air)
may cause strong updrafts to form in a supercell thunderstorm. The rotating air may then be
tilted vertically, forming a mesocyclone. About 50 percent of all mesocyclones result in
tornadoes. These most often develop along a squall line that preceded a rapidly advancing cold
front, or along the cold front. Spring and early summer are favorable for development because
there’s considerable air-mass contrast present in the midlatitudes at that time. Likewise, most
occur in midafternoon, at the time of maximum heating. There is also a region bias in that more
than 90 percent of all reported tornadoes occur in the United States. The regionality of this
phenomenon is a result of optimum environmental conditions: The relatively flat terrain of
central and southeastern United States provides uninhibited interaction of Canadian cP and Gulf
mT air masses.
33. Briefly explain the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale for tornadoes.
This scale is used to describe the strength of a tornado. The EF scale is based on estimates of 3-
second gust wind speeds as determined by observed damage after a tornado. See Table 7-4 for
the full characteristics of the scale.
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True tornados form over land, whereas waterspouts form over water. Waterspouts likewise have
a lesser pressure gradient, gentler winds, and a reduced destructive capability compared with
tornados.
35. What is the difference between a storm watch and a storm warning?
Storm watch is an advisory issued for a region where over the next 4 to 6 hours the conditions
are favorable for the development of severe weather.
Storm warning is issued by a local weather forecasting office when a severe thunderstorm or
tornado has actually been observed.
Study Questions
1. Why is an air mass unlikely to form over the Rocky Mountains of North America?
Mountainous areas, areas that vary in altitude and/or covering, and areas where air above moves
or is cyclonic are least likely to produce air masses. To develop, air masses need an extensive
uniform land or sea surface that allows air to stagnate and develop homogeneous physical
characteristics. Ideal source regions are ocean surfaces and extensive flat land areas that have a
uniform covering of snow, forest, or desert.
2. Why are maritime polar (mP) air masses from the Atlantic Ocean less important to the United
States than mP air masses from the Pacific Ocean?
Air masses that develop over the North Atlantic rarely affect North America because the
prevailing circulation is westerly, that is, blowing east (away from the United States). The
exception is occasional incursions into the mid-Atlantic coast region. By contrast, mP air masses
from the Pacific Ocean affect U.S. weather, with their impact depending on the season. They
normally bring widespread cloudiness and heavy precipitation to the mountainous coastal
regions; by the time they reach the continent’s interior, they provide moderate temperatures and
clear skies. In summer, they produce fog and low stratus clouds along the coast but take no
distinctive weather conditions to the interior.
3. Explain why clouds develop along cold fronts and warm fronts.
Both cold fronts and warm fronts serve as atmospheric lifting mechanisms. As these fronts
advance, air is uplifted, and it cools adiabatically and eventually condenses. See question 5 for
the process.
4. Why do midlatitude cyclones develop in the midlatitudes but not in the tropics?
Midlatitude cyclones occur in equal numbers in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,
throughout the zone of the westerlies. Their occurrence and distribution are affected by the
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seasons, so they are more numerous, better developed, and faster moving in each hemisphere’s
winter. Because the tropics are a latitudinal region possessing no seasonality, midlatitude
cyclones do not develop there.
Fronts are the result of unlike air masses meeting. In a midlatitude anticyclone, no such air-mass
conflicts or convergences are involved. Instead, a midlatitude anticyclone is like any other high-
pressure center, in which air converges into it from above, subsides, and then diverges at the
surface. Fronts in the region of a midlatitude anticyclone are technically outside the system.
There are no fronts in a tropical cyclone because it is fairly homogenous in temperature. Being
made up of warm, moist tropical air that is condensed into a tight spiral, there is little
temperature contrast within it for it to possess distinct fronts.
7. Why are tropical cyclones common along the east coasts of continents in the midlatitudes but
not along the west coasts?
Hurricanes sometimes survive (with diminished intensity) off the east coast of continents in the
midlatitudes because the warm ocean currents there contribute energy to the cyclones; hurricanes
do not survive in the midlatitudes off the west coasts of continents because of the cool ocean
currents there.
Hurricanes follow the path of the trade winds, which do not cross the equator, then bend
poleward influenced by westerlies.
9. Why are thunderstorms more common over land than over water?
Thunderstorms occur much more frequently over land than water because summer temperatures
are higher over land; most thunderstorms occur in the summer.
Most thunderstorms are caused by localized convective heating; therefore, they are sometimes
referred to as convective storms.
Exercises
1. If you see a flash of lightning and you hear thunder 20 seconds later, how far away are you
from the lightning in the thunderstorm? _____ miles
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2. You see a flash of lightning, and you hear thunder 20 seconds later. Four minutes after the
first flash of lightning, you see another flash from the same storm, but the thunder arrives in only
15 seconds. How fast is the thunderstorm moving toward you? _____ miles per hour
3. Look at the map of thunderstorm activity in the United States (Figure 7-28). Explain why the
west coast of California has so little thunderstorm activity while Florida has so much.
Thunderstorms are caused by moist unstable air. In Florida and along the Gulf Coast, moist
unstable air prevails in the spring and summer; whereas along the Pacific coast, cool water and
subsidence from the subtropical high lead to stable conditions.
Questions:
This springtime tornado near Campo, Colorado, produced winds of 210 kilometers per hour (130
miles per hour). Describe the general topography of this region. Do the storm clouds appear to be
uniformly thick everywhere in the sky? How does the appearance of the tornado vary from the
base of the clouds to the ground?
Answers:
The area in which this tornado formed is flat with low-lying vegetation minimizing friction. The
tornado funnel narrows near the ground surface. Closer to the ground surface, debris and dust fill
the area surrounding the funnel, with the greatest concentration of debris nearest the ground
surface. The funnel appears darker toward the bottom, indicating higher density.
Questions:
Look again at the photograph of the tornado at the beginning of the chapter (p. 174). How might
the topography of this region influence the likelihood of the tornadoes? Why are the spring and
early summer the most common times for tornadoes? Why does the funnel cloud look different
near the cloud base than where it comes in contact with the ground?
Answers:
Tornado outbreaks are much more likely to occur in a flat humid area such as this portion of
Colorado. The topography of the Great Plains has few barriers that preclude the intrusion of the
warm moist mT air into the plains, nor does the flat topography prevent southern intrusions of
cold, dry cP air. The absence of topographic barriers allows both air masses to intrude and meet
“head on” in the Great Plains. Late spring and early summer are the most common times of year
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for their formation because during this time of year there is the greatest contrast between cold,
dry cP air to the north and moist, warm mT air clashing with it from the south.
Suggested Resources:
- Tornadoes: http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/
- Hail: http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/research/hail/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG_orGqMKV8
- Hurricanes: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/
The following media are available for this chapter in MasteringGeography for student self study
and for teachers to assign with assessments:
Geoscience Animations:
- Cold Fronts
- Warm Fronts
- Midlatitude Cyclones
- Hurricanes
- Hurricane Hot Towers
- Tornadoes
Videos:
- 2005 Hurricane Season
- Hurricane Sandy
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