CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General
In general, the structural system of a building is a three-dimensional complex
assemblage of various combinations of interconnected structural elements. These may
be discrete members or they may be continuous assemblages. The primary function of
the structural system is to carry effectively and safely all the loads acting on the
building, and eventually to transmit them into the foundation.
In any design, certain criteria must be established to evaluate whether or not
an optimum has been achieved. For a structure, typical criteria may be minimum cost,
minimum weight, minimum construction time, minimum labor, minimum cost of
manufacture of owner’s products and maximum efficiency of operation to owner.
From the structural engineer’s point of view, the determination of the
structural form of a high-rise building would ideally involve only the selection and
arrangement of the major structural elements to resist most efficiently the various
combinations of gravity and horizontal loading. In reality, however, the choice of
structural form is usually strongly influenced by other than structural considerations.
The range of factors that has to be taken into account in deciding the structural
form include the internal planning, the material and method of constructions, the
external architectural treatment, the planned location and routing of the service
systems, the nature and magnitude of the horizontal loading, and the height and
proportion of the building. The taller and more slender a building, the more important
the structural factors become, and the more necessary it is to choose an appropriate
structural form.
The most widely used design rules are those of the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC), given in Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification and
Allowable Stress Design Specification, referred to as (LRFD) Specification and
(ASD) Specification.
 5

2.2. Types of Structural Steels

Structural steels may be classified as (a) carbon steels (b) high-strength low
alloy steels and (c) alloy steels.

2.2.1. Carbon Steels

Carbon steels are divided into four categories based on the percentage of
carbon; low carbon (less than 0.15%), mild carbon (0.15-0.29%), medium carbon
(0.3-0.59%), and high carbon (0.6-1.7%). Structural carbon steels are in the mild
carbon category; steel such as A 36 has maximum carbon varying from 0.25 to 0.29%
depending on thickness. Increased carbon percentage raises the yield stress but
reduces ductility, making welding more difficult [1].

2.2.2. High-strength Low Alloy Steels

This category includes steels having yield stresses from 40 to 70 ksi (275 to
480 MPa). The addition of small amounts of alloy elements such as chromium,
columbium, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, vanadium, or
zirconium, to carbon steels improves some of the mechanical properties. Whereas
carbon steels gain their strength by increasing carbon content, the alloy elements
create increased strength from a fine rather than coarse microstructure obtained during
cooling of the steel. High-strength low-alloy steels are used in the as-rolled or
normalized condition; i.e., no heat treatment is used [1].

2.2.3. Alloy Steels

Low-alloy steels may be quenched and tempered to obtain yield strengths of
80 to 110 ksi (550 to 760 MPa). Yield strength is usually defined as the stress at 0.2%
offset strain, since these steels do not exhibit a well-defined yield point. These steels
are weld able with proper procedures, and ordinarily require no additional heat
treatment after they have been welded. For special uses, stress relieving may
occasionally be required. Some carbon steels, such as certain pressure vessel steels,
may be quenched and tempered to give yield strengths in the 80 ksi (550 MPa) range,
but most steels of this strength are low-alloy steels. These low-alloy steels generally
have a maximum carbon content of about 0.20% to limit the hardness of any coarse
grain microstructure (martensite) that may form during heat treating or welding, thus
reducing the danger of cracking [1].
 6

2.3. Steel Structures

Structures may be divided into three categories:
(a) Framed structures, where elements may consist of tension members,
columns, beams, and members under combined bending and axial load
(b) Shell-type structures, where axial forces predominate and
(c) Suspension-type structures, where axial tension predominates the
principal support system
Many unusual structures utilizing various combination of framed, shell-type,
and suspension-type structures have been built. However, the typical designer must
principally understand the design and behavior of framed structures [1].

2.3.1. Framed Structures

Most typical building construction is in this category. The multistorey building
usually consist of beams and columns, either rigidly connected or having simple end
connections along with diagonal bracing to provide stability. Even though a
multistorey building is three - dimensional, it is usually designed to be much stiffer in
one direction than the other; thus it may reasonably be treated as a series of plane
frames. However, if the framing is such that the behavior of the members in one plane
substantially influences the behavior in another plane, the frame must be treated as a
three - dimensional space frame [1].

2.3.2. Shell-Type Structures

In this type of structures, the shell serves as a useful function in addition to
participation in carrying loads. One common type is the containment vessel used to
store liquids, of which the elevated water tank is a notable example. Storage bins,
tanks, and the hulls of ships are other examples. On many shell-type structures, a
framed structure may be used in conjunction with the shell [1].

2.3.3. Suspension-Type Structures

In the suspension-type structure, tension cables are major supporting
elements. Probably the most common structure of this type is the suspension bridge.
Usually a subsystem of the structure consists of a framed structure, as in the stiffening
truss for the suspension bridge [1].
 7

2.4. Floor System

As in other structural systems, the floor system in a staggered truss scheme
needs to fulfill two primary requirements to: (1) collect and transmit the gravity loads
to the vertical elements; and (2) resist the lateral loads as a shear diaphragm and
provide a continuous path for transferring the lateral loads from the bottom chord of
one truss to the top chord of the adjacent truss down through the structure.
In addition to these structural requirements, the floor system must permit
flexibility for apartment size and location, must provide fireproofing and an
acceptable ceiling, and should be usable as temporary bracing during steel erection.
Although any floor system that is capable of carrying gravity loads and diaphragm
shear can be used in staggered truss systems, economic considerations generally favor
the use of either precast concrete planks or long span composite metal deck both with
a topping of concrete reinforced with welded-wire fabric [2].
For building design, it is necessary to reduce the weight of the floors so as to
reduce the size of columns and foundations and thus permit the use of larger space.
Floors are required to resist vertical loads and they are usually supported by
secondary beams. The spacing of the supporting beams must be compatible with the
resistance of the floor slabs.
The selection of appropriate flooring in a steel-framed building depends on
various factors like the loads to be supported, span length, fire resistance desired,
sound and heat transmission, the likely dead weight of the floor, the facilities needed
for locating the services, appearance, maintenance required, time required to
construct, available depth for the floor etc.
The different types of floors used in steel-framed buildings are as follows:
(a) Concrete slabs supported by open-web joists
(b) One-way and two way reinforced concrete slabs supported on steel beams
(c) Concrete slab and steel beam composite floors
(d) Steel-decking floors
(e) Precast concrete slab floors [3].

2.4.1. Steel-decking Floors

Today, formed steel decking with a concrete topping is by far the most
common type of floor system used for office and apartment buildings. It is also
popular for hotels and other buildings where the loads are not very large.
 8

A particular advantage of steel-decking floors is that the decking immediately

forms a working platform. The steel decking acts as a permanent formwork. The slabs
serve as a ceiling surface to provide easy attachment of a suspended ceiling. The cells
in the decking are convenient for conduits, pipes, and wiring.
A composite slab is usually designed as a simply supported reinforced
concrete slab with the steel deck action as positive reinforcement. The light steel
sheets are quite strong and can span up to 20 ft, or more. Due to the considerable
strength of the decking, the concrete does not have to be particularly strong, which
permits the use of lightweight concrete often as thin as 2 or 2.5 inches [3].
The steel is usually galvanized, and if exposed underneath, it can be left as it
comes from the manufacturer or painted as desired. In the case of a metal deck
system, generally adequate shear transfer is obtained by the connection of the steel
deck to the trusses. Planks used for erection purposes should have connection weld
plates, even when shear connectors are provided. The choice of the floor system
depends on the geographical location as well as local conditions. In earthquake zones,
the lighter floor produces smaller seismic forces.
The metal decking can be placed easily and used as the slab reinforcement.
Through-deck stud welding for composite action reduces beams weights and/or
depths. It also helps ensure that the floor slabs can be used as a diaphragm to transfer
lateral loads to the bracing frames or stiff cores. Composite action with the steel beam
is normally provided by shear connectors welded through the metal decking on to the
beam flange [2,3].

2.4.2. Shear Connectors

The horizontal shear that develops between the concrete slab and the steel
beam during loading must be resisted so that the slip will be restrained. A fully
composite section will have no slip at the concrete-steel interface. Although some
bond may develop between the steel and the concrete, it is not sufficient to provide
the required interface shear strength. Therefore, mechanical shear connectors are
required, except for the totally concrete-encased steel beam [1].
The shear connectors provide the interaction necessary for the concrete slab
and steel beam to act as a unit; i.e., no slip at the interface. Some of mechanical shear
connectors are headed stud connectors, hooked stud connectors, channel connectors,
spiral connectors and angle connectors.
 9

Currently, nearly all shear connectors are headed stud shear connectors. The
studs are normally welded to the beam with an automatic welding gun.
These studs are available in diameters from 0.5 inch to 1 inch and in lengths
from 2 inch to 8 inches, but their length may not be less than 4 stud diameters.
Typical studs are 0.5 to 0.75-inch diameter and 2 to 4 inches in length. The most
common diameters are 0.5 inch and 0.75 inch.
The length is dependent on the depth of metal deck and should extend at least
1.5 inch above top of the deck. Shear connectors must be capable of resisting both
horizontal and vertical movement because there is a tendency for the slab and beam to
separate vertically as well as to slip horizontally. The upset heads of stud shear
connectors help to prevent vertical separation.

Reinforced
Shear connector concrete slab
Reinforced
concrete slab

Formed steel
Ribs deck Rib Formed steel
(b) deck
(a)

Figure 2.1. Composite Section Using Formed Steel Deck (a) Ribs Parallel to Beam (b)
Ribs Perpendicular to Beam [1]

The advantages of stud connectors are that the welding process is rapid, they
provide little obstruction to reinforcement in the concrete slab, and they are equally
strong and stiff in shear in all directions normal to the axis of the stud. The most
widely used type of connector is the headed stud. The stud shear connector is a short
length of round steel bar welded to the steel beam at one end and having an anchorage
provided in the form of a round head at the other end [2,3].

2.4.3. Design of Composite Slabs

Steel-concrete composite slabs are widely used in steel frame building
construction. In general, the composite design in building construction provides the
following advantages:
(a) Reduction in weight of steel
(b) Shallower steel beams
(c) Increased floor stiffness
 10

(d) Increased span length for a given member [1].

In composite floor construction, the top flanges of steel beams are attached to
the concrete by the use of suitable connectors. The concrete slab becomes part of the
compression flange. The natural axis of section shifts upward, making the bottom
flange of the beam more effective in tension. The stud shear connector is a short
length of round steel bar welded to the steel beam at one end and having an anchorage
provided in the form of a round head at the other end.
The most common diameters are 1/2 in, 5/8 in and 3/4 in. The length is
dependent on the depth of metal deck and should extend at least 1.5 in above top of
the deck. The upset head thickness of the studs is usually 3/8 in or 1/2 in and the
diameter 1/2 in longer than the stud diameter. The studs normally welded to the beam
with an automatic welding gun. Metal decks for composite construction are available
in three depths, 3/2 in, 2 in and 3 in. The spans utilizing composite metal deck are
generally in the range of 80 ft to 50 ft [1].
In designing the composite slab, the following factors should be considered.
(a) The steel used for the fabrication of composite metal deck shall have a
minimum yield point of 33 ksi.
(b) Minimum compressive strength of concrete f'c shall be 3 ksi. The
compressive stress in concrete is limited to 0.4 f'c under the applied load.
(c) The use of admixtures containing chloride salts is prohibited because
salts can corrode the steel deck.
(d) The minimum cover above the steel deck shall be 2 in when additional
(negative bending reinforcement) is provided, the minimum cover of
concrete above the reinforcing bar shall be 3/4 inch.
(e) Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement shall have a minimum area of
0.00075x (the area of concrete above the deck per foot of width) but not
less than the area provided by welded wire-fabric.
(f) Bending stress is limited to 0.6 times the yield strength of steel. An upper
limit of 36 ksi is imposed on the allowable stress. In addition to the
weight of wet concrete and deck, allowance should be made for
construction live loads of 20 psf of uniform load.
(g) The calculated deflection based on the weight of concrete plus deck is
limited to the smaller value L/180 or 3/4 in, in which L is the clear span
of the deck.
 11

(h) For calculating deflections, it is not necessary to consider the

construction loads. The calculated deflection should be less than L/360.
(i) The lateral concrete cover provided for shear connectors must be at
least 1in.
(j) The minimum diameter of shear connector is 1/2 inch and maximum
diameter is 3/4 inch.
(k) The maximum spacing of shear connector shall not exceed 32 inches
along the beam length.
(l) After installation, the studs should extend a minimum of 1.5 inches above
the steel deck.
(m) The diameter of the studs may not be greater than 2.5 times the flange
thickness of beam to which they are welded unless they are located over
the web.
(n) The upset head thickness of the stud is usually 3/8 inch or 1/2 inch and its
diameter is 1/2 inch larger than the stud diameter.
(o) The average width of the deck shall not be less than 2 inches.
(p) The depth of the deck shall not be less than 3 inches.

2.5. Structural Framing Systems

The UBC-97 recognizes seven major types of structural system capable of
resisting lateral forces. These systems are;
(a) Bearing wall system
(b) Building frame system
(c) Moment- Resisting system
(d) Dual system
(e) Cantilever system
(f) Shear wall-frame interacting system
(g) Undefined system

2.5.1 Bearing Wall System

A bearing wall system is a structural system that relies on the same elements
to resist both gravity and lateral loads. There are two main types of structural wall.
Typical bearing wall systems are: light-framed walls with shear panels, concrete or
masonry shear walls: light steel-framed bearing walls with tension-only braces, and
 12

braced frames where the bracing carries vertical loads. Bearing wall system is shown
in Fig. 2.2 [4].

gravity force

lateral force

Figure 2.2. Bearing Wall System [4]

2.5.2. Building Frame System

A building frame is a complete, self-contained, three dimensional units
composed of interconnected members. Building frame system use a complete space
frame to carry the vertical load and a separate system of nonbearing shear walls or
braced frame to resist the lateral loads. Typical building frame systems are: steel
eccentrically braced frames: light frame wall with shear panels; concrete or masonry
shear walls; steel, concrete or heavy ordinary braced framed; and special steel
concentrically braced frames. Building frame system is shown in Fig. 2.3 [4].

gravity force

lateral force

Figure 2.3. Building Frame System [4]

2.5.3. Moment-Resisting Frames
Moment resisting frames resist forces in members and joints primarily by
flexure and rely on a frame to carry both vertical and lateral loads. Lateral loads are
 13

carried primarily by flexure in the members and joints. Theoretically, joints are
completely rigid. Moment resisting frames can be constructed of concrete, masonry or
steel. There are five types of moment resisting frames: steel and concrete special
moment resisting frame (SMRF), masonry moment-resisting wall frame (MMRWF),
concrete intermediate moment resisting frames (IMRF), steel or concrete ordinary
moment-resisting frames (OMRF) and special steel truss moment frames (STMF).
Moment-resisting frame system is shown in Fig. 2.4 [4].

gravity force

lateral force

Figure 2.4. Moment-Resisting Frame [4]

There are three kinds of moment-resisting frame, (a) intermediate moment

frame (IMF), (b) ordinary moment frame (OMF) and (c) special moment resisting
Frame (SMRF).

2.5.3.1. Intermediate moment frame (IMF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as along the axis of the members. IMRF is appropriate in minimal
seismic risk areas, especially in Seismic Zones 0 and 1.

2.5.3.2. Ordinary moment frame (OMF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as along the axis of the members. Ordinary moment frame is a moment
resisting frame not meeting special detailing requirements for ductile requirements for
ductile behavior. OMRF is appropriate in minimal seismic risk areas, especially in
seismic zone 0 and 1.
 14

2.5.3.3. Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as along the axis of the members. SMF is a moment-resisting frame
specially detailed to provide ductile behavior. SMRF is appropriate in high seismic
risk areas, especially in seismic zone 3 and 4.

2.5.4. Dual Systems

Dual systems have essentially complete space frames that provide support for
all vertical loads and combine two of the previously mentioned systems to resist
lateral loads. Moment resisting frames acting in conjunction with shear wall must be
able to resist at least 25% of the design base shear independently. The two systems are
designed to resist the total design based shear in proportion to their relative rigidities.
Dual system is shown in Fig. 2.5 [4].

gravity force

lateral force

Figure 2.5. Dual System [4]

2.5.5. Cantilevered Column Building Systems

Cantilevered column building systems have single cantilevered column
element supporting beams or framing at the top. These systems have a large portion of
their mass concentrated near or at the top and are fixed at their bases. Design base
shear is essentially applied at the top of the vertical base member. They are regarded
as inverted pendulum-type structures since they extend from a fixed base and have
zero moment restraint at the top. In seismic zone 3 and 4, the maximum height for
these structures is 35 ft [4].
 15

2.5.6. Shear Wall-frame Interaction Systems

To resist lateral forces, shear wall-frame interaction systems primarily use a
combination of shear walls and moment frames. Building frames that are part of the
lateral force resisting systems are required to be concrete frames. These systems are
restricted to seismic zone 0 and 1 [4].

2.5.7. Undefined Systems

Undefined structural systems do not fit into any of these categories. The
designer of such systems must submit a rational basis for the design force level used.

2.6. Methods of Connection

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members that must be
fastened together, usually at the member ends, by some methods. There are two
methods to connect structural members; bolted-connection and welded-connection
(welding). Rivets, while still available, are not currently used for new structures.

2.6.1. Bolted-connection
There are several types of bolts that can be used for connecting the members
of steel structures. These are high-strength structural bolts manufactured under ASTM
specifications A325, A490 and common bolts A307. The A325 and A490 bolts can be
used for any building application.
Bearing type connections rely on the bearing between the bolt shank and the
connecting parts to transmit forces. Some slippage between the connected parts is
expected to occur for this type of connection. Slip critical connections rely on the
frictional force developing between the connecting parts to transmit forces. No
slippage between connection elements is expected for this type of connection. Slip-
critical connections are used for structural design for vibratory and dynamic loads
such as bridges, industrial buildings and buildings in the regions of high seismicity.

2.6.2. Welding
Welding is the process of joining materials (usually metals) by heating them
suitable temperatures such that the materials coalesce into one material. There are
many welding processes such as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) processes that have special uses for particular metals
 16

and for various thicknesses. Shield metal arc welding is one of the oldest, simplest,
and perhaps most versatile types for welding structural steel. The shield metal arc
welding process is often referred to as manual stick electrode process. Shield metal
arc welding produces coalescence, or fusion, by the heat of an electric arc struck
between a coated metal electrode and the material being joined, or base metal. The
electrode supplies filler metal for making the weld, gas for shielding the molten metal,
and flux for refining this metal. Pressure is not used on the parts to be joined.
When an arc is struck between the electrode and the base metal, the intense
heat forms a small molten pool on the surface of the base metal. The arc also
decomposes the electrode coating and melts the metal at the tip of the electrode. The
electron stream carries this metal in the form of fine globules across the gap and
deposits and mixes it into the molten pool on the surface of the base metal. The
decomposed coating of the electrode forms a gas shield around the molten metal that
prevent contact with the air and absorption of impurities. In addition, the electrode
coating promotes electrical conduction across the arc, helps stabilize the arc, adds
flux, slag-forming material, to the molten to refine the metal, and provides materials
for controlling the shape of the weld [1].

2.6.3. Types of Bolts

There are three kinds of bolts used in steel construction. These bolts are
high-strength structural bolts, manufactured under the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) Specifications.
A 325, A 490 and common bolts manufactured under the ASTM A 307. A 325
and A 490 bolts are structural bolts and can be used for any building applications.
These bolts are heavy hexagon-head bolts used with heavy hexagon nuts. The
approximate yield strength of these bolts are 81 to 92 ksi and 115 to 130 ksi,
respectively, depending on the diameter of bolts. High-strength bolts range in
diameter from 1/2 to 1 1/2 in. The most common diameters used in building
construction are 1/4 in and 7/8 in whereas the most common sizes in bridge design are
7/8 in 1 in.
A 307 bolts which were referred to previously called machine bolts, ordinary
bolts and unfinished bolts. A325 and A490 bolts are available as Types 1, 2 or 3.
A325 Type 1 is the medium-carbon steel bolt that has been available for many years.
For A 490, Type 1 is the usual alloy steel bolt. Type 2 for both A 325 and A 490 is a
 17

low-carbon martensite steel alternative to Type 1 for atmospheric temperature

applications. Type 3 for both A325 and A490 is a weathering steel bolt having
corrosion resistance comparable to A588 weathering steel.
The actual transfer of service loads through a joint is due to the friction
developed in the pieces jointed. Joints containing high-strength bolts are designed
either as slip-critical (formerly called friction-type), where high slip resistance at
service load is desired or as bearing type, where high slip resistance at service load is
unnecessary [1].
Bearing type connections rely on the bearing between the bolt shank and the
connecting parts to transmit forces. Some slippage between the connected parts is
expected to occur for this type of connection.
Slip critical connections rely on the frictional force developing between the
connecting parts to transmit forces. No slippage between connection elements is
expected for this type of connection. Slip-critical connections are used for structural
design for vibratory and dynamic loads such as bridges, industrial buildings and
buildings in the regions of high seismicity [1].

2.6.4. Methods of Bolted Beam to Column Connection

Two common methods can be used to transfer shear force from beams to
columns. These methods are framed connections and seated connections.

2.6.4.1. Framed connections

Framed shear connections are designed to transfer shear force by connecting
the beam web to the column. Commonly used types are shown in Fig. 2.6, Fig. 2.7
and Fig. 2.8. It can be found in these figures that columns could be I shape or HSS.
These are the most commonly used column profiles. The beams are usually I shape.
Although HSS profiles may be used as beams, they are usually hard to be bolt-
connected to columns.
(a) Shear tab beam-column connection: Fig. 2.6 shows some typical shear
tab beam-column connections. These connections are widely used to
facilitate both fabrication and installation.
Fig. 2.6 (a) is the simplest one. The connection member is only a plate
with bolt holes shop welded to the column. The beam web is shop
prepared with bolt holes accordingly. With different column profiles and
 18

connecting location, the connection could be not exactly the same, as

other types shown in Fig. 2.6, but the main idea and the design procedure
remain similar. Fig. 2.6 (b) shows beam connecting to web of column.
Stiffeners may be required to stiffen the thin web of the column in order
to avoid local buckling caused by the eccentric moment.

flange coped

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 2.6. Shear Tab Connection

Fig. 2.6 (c) is different with Fig. 2.6 (a) only of an additional flange cope.
The cope is necessary when the beam web height is too tight to arrange a
certain number of bolts. With the cope existing, an additional item needs
to be checked which will be discussed later. Fig. 2.6 (d), (e) and (f) are
connections with HSS columns. The wall of HSS is usually thin, so the
tab plate is usually not welded directly to the wall surface to avoid local
buckling; the same reason of Fig. 2.6 (b). Fig. 2.6 (d) is Tee-type
connection. The connection member could be WT profile or built-up Tee.
The later is more commonly used because of the variety of size. In this
type of connection, the Tee is welded at the flange edge close to the
corner of the HSS column so that the eccentric moment can be resisted by
the walls on the other sides cross the corner. By doing this, the eccentric
moment is transferred from weak-axis bending part to strong-axis-
bending parts. Fig. 2.6 (e) and (f) are through-plate connections.
 19

(b) End plate beam-column connection: Fig. 2.7 shows typical end plate
connections at one side or two sides. An end plate with bolt holes is shop
welded to the web of the beam. The column is shop prepared with bolt
holes. It should be noted that if the beams are framed two sides to the
column web, and the two end plates are of the same size, at least one end
plate should be coped off one bolt to facilitate installation, as shown in
Fig. 2.7 (b).

plate coped for

safe connection

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7. End Plate Connection

For both shear tab plate and end plate length within the height of beam
web, double number of bolts can be used in end plate connection. That is
to say, end plate connection is capable of transferring as twice of shear
force as that of shear tab connection. It may not be that much because
other parameters may govern. When large shear force needs to be
transferred and one row of bolts cannot be arranged within the height of
the beam web, end plate connection is a good alternation. Eccentric
moment is not involved in end plate connections as that occurs in shear
tab connections. So the bolt shear resistance can be fully used to transfer
shear force. This is also an advantage for moment sensitive columns. The
disadvantage of end plate connection is its accuracy requirement. The
tolerance of bolt connections is only 2 mm. A lot of circumstances will
end up with not-matching bolt holes. i.e. the bolt connection cannot be
fulfilled on site. This may be caused by the mistake of detailer, or shop
worker, or site worker. Common reasons are mis-locating of bolt holes in
shop or mis-locating of columns on site. These mis locations are usually
 20

very small, but if it is bigger than 2mm or more, it is big enough to kill
the bolted connection. Slot holes can be used if applicable for shear tab
connections to allow bigger tolerance, while end plate connections do not
have this option. If the tiny mis-location happens to a shear tab
connection, it can be easily fixed by field welding beam web to the tab
plate. For the same problem happening to end plate connections, say, the
beam is a little too long or too short, costly modification has to be made.
(c) Bolted angle connection: Fig. 2.8 shows three types of double angle
connections. Single angle connections are commonly used to transfer less
shear force if applicable. Fig. 2.8. (a) is all bolted connection. The angles
are usually shop bolted to the beam and can be shipped along with the
beam to avoid small loosing members. The shop bolts are only finger
tight which can be easily taken off on site if necessary. If double angles
are used, the bolts on the beam web are double sheared (two shear planes
in a bolted joint) so that the bolt strength is most efficiently used. This
type of connections has the advantages of end plate connections and
avoids the disadvantage of them. The price of having these advantages is
consuming more material. Shop weld is usually more economical than
using bolts. That is the advantage of Fig. 2.8 (b) and (c) comparing with
Fig. 2.8 (a). Fig. 2.8 (b) is similar with end plate connections while the
weld is not so dense at the beam web edge to avoid high stress. The bolts
in Fig. 2.8 (c) are double sheared which is an economical way of using
bolts as mentioned before. However, the bottom flange of the beam has to
be coped as shown to allow the beam to drop in. This cope also reduces
the capacity of the beam in the vicinity of the connection. All these factor
may lead Fig. 2.8 (c) to an uneconomical connection.

coped

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.8. Bolt Angle Connection
 21

2.6.4.2. Seated connections

Seated connections consist of beam seated on top of column connections and

seat angle connection and built-up tee-stub seated connections. Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.10

show some typical beam-column seated connections.

(a) Beam seated on top of column: Fig. 2.9 shows connections of beams

seated on top of columns. If lateral force and uplift force are not

considered in these connections, bolt calculating is not required. The

bolts are selected to be compatible with the size of the beam and the

column. At the top of the column, the cap plate is provided simply as a

practical convenience to assist in the connection between the beam and

the column. The length of the cap plate is selected to provide sufficient

space for bolting to underside of the beam, and the plate is of nominal

thickness. If the bearing length is taken as the length of the cap plate

instead of the column width, the thickness of the cap plate has to be

checked to resist the bending moment.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.9 Column Top Seated Connections

(b) Seat angle connection and built-up tee-stub seated connection: Seat angle

connections and built-up tee-stub seated connection are usually used at

floor level to connecting beams to the column while the column continues

to upper floor as shown in Fig .2.10.

 22

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.10. Seat Angle Connection and Build-up Tee-stub Connection

Although seated beam shear connections are designed to support vertical

loads only, eccentricities produced by these connections may be greater
than by simple framed shear connections. The seat angle can be stiffened
as shown in Fig. 2.10 (a) or unstiffened as shown in Fig 2.10 (b). The
unstiffened angle seat consists of a relatively thick angle either shop-
welded or bolted to the column. When the supporting member is a
column web, access for welding may be restricted. Load capacity of an
unstiffened angle seat is limited by the angle thickness. This capacity can
be increased by stiffening the angle; however, stiffened angle seats are
more expensive to fabricate, and stiffened seats using tee-stubs built up
from plate as shown in Fig. 2.10 (c) are usually more economical. The
seated beam must be stabilized laterally with a flexible clip angle
attached either to the top flange of the beam as shown in Fig. 2.9 (a) and
Fig. 2.9 (b) or Fig. 2.9 (c).

2.6.5. Types of Welds

The main types of welds used structural steel are groove weld, fillet weld, plug

and slot welds as shown in Fig. 2.11 The most commonly used weld is the fillet weld.

Each type of weld has specific advantages that determine the extent of its use. For

light loads, groove welds are the most efficient, because the full strength of base metal

can be obtained easily. Use of plug and slot welds generally is limited to special

conditions where fillet or groove welds are not practical [1].

 23

2.6.5.1. Groove welds

Groove Welds are made in a groove between the edges of two parts to be
joined. The principal use of groove welds is to connect the structural members that are
aligned in the same plane but they also may be used for tee and corner joints.
Standard types of groove welds are named in accordance with the shape given the
edges to be welded; square, single vee, double vee single bevel, double bevel, single
U, double U, single J and double J. The groove welds require careful alignment with
specified gap between pieces [1].

2.6.5.2. Fillet welds

Fillet welds owing to their overall economy, ease of fabrication and
adaptability are the most widely used. Fillet welds have the general shape of an
isosceles right triangle. The size of the weld is given by the length of leg. Fillet welds
are used to join two surfaces approximately at right angles to each other. The joint
may be lap or tee or corner. They generally require the less precision in the filling up
because of the overlapping of pieces [1].

2.6.5.3. Plug and slot welds

Plug and Slot welds are used to transmit shear in lap joints and to prevent
buckling of lapped parts. Plug and slot welds may be used in combination with fillet
welds. They also may be used to join components of built-up members. The welds are
made, with lapped parts in contact, by depositing weld metal in circular or slotted
holes in one part. The openings may be partly or completely filled, depending in their
depth [1].

Groove Weld Fillet Weld

 24

ends shall be semicircular

A A A A

section A-A section A-A

Slot Weld Plug Weld

Figure 2.11. Types of Welds [1]

2.7. Loads and Resistance Factor Design of Bolts

The strength of a fastener may be based on shear, tension and bearing strength.
Loads and resistance factor design of bolts are as follows:

2.7.1. Shear Strength of Bolts

In accordance with the fracture limit state as the basic for bolt strength and the
failure made, the nominal strength Rn for one bolt will be the ultimate shear stress τ u
across the gross area Ab of the bolt times the number m of shear plane.
Rn = mAbτu = mAb(0.6Fub) (2.1) where
,

Fub = tensile strength of bolt material

Ab = cross-sectional area of one bolt
m = number of shear plane
For bolt subjected to shear forces, the design shear strength of the bolt depends
on whether or not the threads of the bolts are excluded from the shear plane.

Design Shear Strength – No Threads in Shear Plane

Rn = b
 mAb(0.6Fu ) (2.2)

Design Shear Strength – Thread in Shear Plane


Rn = mAb(0.45Fub) (2.3)

where,
 25

Fub = tensile strength of bolt material

 = 0.65
Ab = cross-sectional area across the unthreaded shank of the bolt
m = number of shear planes

where,

Fub = tensile strength of bolt material

 = 0.65
Ab = cross-sectional area across the unthreaded shank of the bolt
m = number of shear planes

2.7.2. Design Tension Strength

The design strength φ Rn based on the tension strength of the bolt, is

Rn = Ab(0.75Fub) (2.4)
where,

 = 0.75

Fub = tensile strength of bolt material

Ab = cross-sectional area across the unthreaded shank of the bolt

2.7.3. Design Bearing Strength

For usual conditions (standard holes or short-slotted holes, end distance not
less than 1.5d, bolt spacing center not less than 3d, and with two or more bolts in the
line of forces),

Rn = (2.4Fudt) (2.5)

where,

 = 0.75

d = nominal diameter of bolt at unthreaded area

t = thickness of connected part (plate)
Fu = tensile strength of steel comprising connected part
(Fu is 65 ksi for A325 steel)
 26

For long-slotted holes perpendicular to the direction of load transmission, end

distance not less than 1.5d, bolt center-to-center spacing not less than 3d, and with
two or more bolts in the line of forces,
Rn =  (2.0Fudt) (2.6)
where,

 = 0.75

For the bolt closest to the when conditions of Equ; 2.5 and 2.6 are not
satisfied, applies,

Rn = 
LtFu (2.7)

where,

 = 0.75

t = thickness of connected part (plate)

L = end distance in line of force, from the center of a standard hole of
oversized hole, or from the mid-width of a slotted hole to an edge of a
connected part
Fu = tensile strength of steel comprising connected part
(Fu is 65 ksi for A325 steel)

When hole elongation greater than 0.25 in, and hole "ovalization" can be tolerated,

Rn =
(3dtFu) (2.8)

2.7.4. Minimum Spacing of Bolts

Bolts should be placed in a sufficient distance apart to permit the efficient
installation and to prevent the bearing failures of the members between bolts. The
minimum spacing of bolts in a line is 3-bolt diameters and shall not be less than 2%
diameter of holes.

P dh
spacing≥ +
φF u t 2
(2.9) where,

 = 0.75
 27

P = factored load acting on one bolt

Fu = tensile strength of plate material
t = thickness of plate material
dh = diameter of bolt hole
2.7.5. Minimum End Distance
The requirement for end distance in the direction of the force on the bolt is to
1
1
prevent the rupture. The minimum end distance must be at least 2 diameter.
P
L ≥ φFu t

(2.10) where,

 = 0.7

P = factored load acting on one bolt

Fu = tensile strength of plate material

t = thickness of plate material

2.7.6. Maximum Edge Distance

The structural steel specifications provide the maximum edge distance for
bolted connection. The maximum distance from the center of a bolt to the nearest
edge is 12 t, where t is the thickness of the connected part, and this edge distance may
not exceeded part, and this edge distance may not exceed 6 in [1].

2.8. Load and Resistance Factor Design of Welds

Load and resistance factor design of welds consists of strength of groove weld
and fillet weld. Design strength per unit length of groove welds depends on the types
of stress that applied and design strength per unit length of fillet weld is based on the
shear resistance through the throat of the weld.

2.8.1. Strength of Groove Welds

The nominal shear strength of weld per inch of length is based on yielding of
the base metal.
 28

Rnw = te(0.6Fy) (2.11)

where,
Fy = yield stress of the base metal
For shear on effective area,
Rnw = 0.9 te τy
Rnw = 0.9te (0.6Fy) base metal (2.12)
Rnw = 0.8te (0.6FF) weld metal (2.13)
2.8.2. Strength of Fillet Welds
The nominal strength Rnw per inch of weld may be expressed,
Rnw = te(0.6FEXX) weld metal (2.14)
Rnw = te(0.6Fu) base metal (2.15)
Design strength per unit length of fillet weld can be described as follows:
Rnw =  te(0.6FEXX) fillet weld (2.16)
but not less than the shear rupture strength of the adjacent base metal.
Rnw =  te(0.6Fu) base metal (2.17)
where,
 = 0.75
te = effective throat dimension
FEXX = tensile strength of electrode metal
t = tensile of base metal along which weld is placed
Fu = tensile strength of base metal
Values of Rnw based on Equ; 2.16 for various electrode strengths are given in
Table 2.1 for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and in Table 2.2 for submerged arc
welding (SAW).
Table 2.1. Design Shear Strength of Fillet Weld, Rnw (kips/in) for SMAW process
Nominal Effective
Minimum tensile strength of weld (ksi)
size, throat
(in) (in) 60 70 80 90 100 110
1/8 0.088 2.38 2.77 3.17 3.56 3.96 4.36
3/16 0.133 3.58 4.18 4.77 5.37 5.97 6.56
1/4 0.177 4.77 5.57 6.36 7.16 7.95 8.75
5/16 0.221 5.97 6.96 7.95 8.95 9.94 10.94
3/8 0.265 7.16 8.35 9.54 10.74 11.93 13.12
 29

7/16 0.309 8.35 9.74 11.14 12.53 13.92 15.31

1/2 0.354 9.54 11.14 12.73 14.32 15.91 17.50
9/16 0.398 10.74 12.53 14.32 16.11 17.90 19.69
5/8 0.442 11.93 13.92 15.91 17.90 19.88 21.87
11/16 0.486 13.12 15.31 17.50 19.69 21.87 24.06
3/4 0.530 14.32 16.70 19.09 21.58 23.86 26.25
Source: [1]
Table 2.2. Design Shear Strength of Fillet Weld, Rnw (kips/in) for SAW process
Nominal Effective
Minimum tensile strength of weld (ksi)
size, throat
(in) (in) 60 70 80 90 100 110
1/8 0.088 2.38 2.77 3.17 3.56 3.96 4.36
3/16 0.133 3.58 4.18 4.77 5.37 5.97 6.56
1/4 0.177 4.77 5.57 6.36 7.16 7.95 8.75
5/16 0.221 5.97 6.96 7.95 8.95 9.94 10.94
3/8 0.265 7.16 8.35 9.54 10.74 11.93 13.12
7/16 0.309 8.35 9.74 11.14 12.53 13.92 15.31
1/2 0.354 9.54 11.14 12.73 14.32 15.91 17.50
9/16 0.398 10.74 12.53 14.32 16.11 17.90 19.69
5/8 0.442 11.93 13.92 15.91 17.90 19.88 21.87
11/16 0.486 13.12 15.31 17.50 19.69 21.87 24.06
3/4 0.530 14.32 16.70 19.09 21.58 23.86 26.25
Source: [1]

2.8.3. Effective Area of Welds

The strength of the various types of welds is based on the effective areas. The
effective area of a groove or fillet weld is the product of the effective throat
dimension te times the length of the weld. For fillet weld with the leg size equal to or
less than 3/8 in, the effective throat dimension shall be taken as equal to the leg size a.
For fillet weld with the leg size equal to or larger than 3/8 in, the effective throat
dimension shall be taken as 0.707a + 0.11 [1].

2.8.4. Minimum Fillet Weld Size

To help insure fusion and minimize distortion the AWS and AISC
Specification provide for a minimum size weld based on the thicker of the pieces
 30

being joined. Weld size is the leg dimension of fillet weld. The weld size need not
exceed the thickness of the thinner part joined. The minimum size of fillet welds is
shown in Table 2.3 [1].

Table 2.3 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds

Material thickness of thicker part joined (in) Minimum size of fillet weld (in)

1/8 ˂ T ≤ 3/16 1/8

3/16 ˂ T ≤ 1/4 1/8

1/4 ˂ T ≤ 1/2 3/16

1/2 ˂ T ≤ 3/4 1/4

3/4 ˂ T ≤ 6 5/16

Source: [1]

2.8.5. Maximum Fillet Weld Size along Edges

Along edges of material less than 1/4 in thick, the min; size may be equal to
the thickness of material. Along edges of material 1/4 in thickness, the maximum size
shall be 1/16 in less than the thickness of the material, unless the weld is especially
designated on the drawing to be built out to obtain the full throat thickness [1].

2.9. Design of Column Base Plates

As the allowable unit compressive strength of concrete is less than the actual

unit stress in the column, it is necessary to provide a column base plate to spread the

load over the required area of the foundation.

The design of base plates involves the following considerations:

(a) The area of the base plate will depend on the bearing strength of the

concrete under the steel plate.

(b) The thickness of the plate will be controlled by the bending strength of

the plate.
 31

(c) For plates not extending much beyond the profile limits of the steel

section, the lightly loaded plate may be treated as uniformly loaded over

an H-shaped area adjacent to the inside perimeter of the column [1].

The design bearing strength  cPp must at least equal the factored column load Pu,

P ≥ P (2.18)
c p u

There are two categories for nominal strength Pp in bearing :

(1) Bearing on the full area A1 of a concrete support,

Pp = 0.85fc'A1 (2.19)

(2) Bearing on area A1 which is less than full area A 2 of a concrete support,

Pp = 0.85fc'A1 A 2 A 1 ≤ 0.85fc'A1 (2.20)

where,

Pp = applied force

c = 0.60 for bearing on concrete

A1 = area (B x N in Fig. 2.12) of steel plate concentrically bearing on a

concrete support

A2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is

geometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area

fc' = specified 28-day compressive strength for concrete

For plate thickness (t);

Pu Nn 2
Mu = BN ( 2 ) (on section parallel to column web) (2.21)

Pu Bm 2
Mu = BN ( 2 ) (on section parallel to column flanges) (2.22)

Required t,

2Pu
t = n √ BN( 0.90)F y or
 32

2Pu
t = m √ BN( 0.90)F y (2.23)

The larger of m or n would be used to obtain the required thickness.

n
n
t
t
tp = bearing pressure
t p  bearing presure
b critical sections for bending
b
Critical sections for bending
(AISC method)
(AISC method)

m
m

d
d 0.95d
0.95d NN

m
m

n 0.80b
0.80b n
n B
n

Figure 2.12. Column Base Plate [1]

2.10. Types of Load

The applied loads are gravity loads (dead loads, superimposed dead loads, live
loads) and lateral loads (wind loads and earthquake loads).

2.10.1. Gravity Loads

All mass are attached toward the centre of the earth by the gravitational force.
Gravity loads consist of dead and live load [1].
 33

2.10.1.1. Dead load

Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location
throughout the lifetime of the structure. Dead load is a fixes position service load, so
called because it acts continuously toward the earth when the structure is in service.
The weight of the structure is considered dead load, as well as attachments to the
structure such as pipes, electrical conduit, air conditioning, and heating ducts, lighting
fixtures, floor covering, roof covering, and suspended ceiling; that is, all items that
remain throughout the life of the structure.
Usually the major part of the dead load is the weight of the structure itself. This
can be calculated with good accuracy from the design configuration, dimensions of the
structure and density of the material. For building, floor fill, finish floors and plastered
ceilings are usually included as dead loads, and an allowance is made for suspended
loads such as piping and lighting fixtures [1].

2.10.1.2. Live load

Gravity loads acting when the structure is in service, but varying in magnitude
and location, are termed live loads. Live load may be either static or they may have a
dynamic effect. Examples of live load are human occupants, furniture, movable
equipment, vehicles, and store goods. Some live loads may be practically permanent;
others may be highly transient. Because of the unknown nature of the magnitude,
location, and density of live load items, realistic magnitudes and the positions of such
loads are very difficult to determine. Live loading is specified as the intensity of a
uniformly distributed floor load, according for the occupancy or use of the space [1].

2.10.2. Lateral Loads

Lateral loads consist mainly of meteorological loads such as wind load, snow
load, and earthquake load.

2.10.2.1. Wind load

Every building or structure and every portion thereof shall be designed and
constructed to resist the wind effect. Wind can be assumed to come from any
horizontal direction. The force exerted by winds on buildings increase dramatically
 34

with the increase in building heights. On any typical building of rectangular plan and
elevation, wind exert pressure on the windward side and suction on the leeward side,
as well as either uplift or downward pressure on the roof.
Wind loading on a high rise building can have a dominant influence on its
structural arrangement and design. The wind pressure on a structure depends on the
wind velocity, and height, exposure, and dynamic response of the structure. The wind
pressure is obtained by the following formula;

P =
CeCq qs I w (2.24)
where,
P = wind pressure design
C e = combined height, exposure and gust factor coefficient from Table
A.1.
qs = wind stagnation pressure obtained from Table A.3 at
standard elevation of 33ft (depending on wind speed)
C q = pressure coefficient depending on the type of structure or portion of
a structure exposed to the wind from Table A.4.

Iw = important factor which obtained from Table A.2 for wind loading
the occupancy categories of the structure

The UBC-97 gives two methods for determining wind loads. They are normal
force method and project area method.
Normal-force Method shall be used for the design of gabled rigid frames and
may be used for any structure. The wind pressure shall be assumed to act
simultaneously normal to all exterior surfaces, that is, walls on the windward side,
leeward side, roof, projecting elements and so on. The UBC-97 establishes no height
or other limitations for its use and states that it may be used for any structure.
Project Area Method may be used for any structures less than 200 ft in height
except those using gabled rigid frames. In this method, horizontal pressures shall be
assumed to act upon the vertical projected area of the structures, and vertical pressures
shall be assumed to act simultaneously upon the full horizontal projected area.
According to UBC-97, the exposure type can be classified as follows:
 35

Exposure B has the terrain with buildings, forests of surface irregularities,

covering at least 20 percent of the ground level area extending 1 mile or more from
the site.
Exposure C has the terrain that is flat and generally open, extending 1/2 mile
or more from the site in any full quadrant.
Exposure D represents the most severe exposure in areas with the basic wind
speeds of 80 miles per hour or greater and has terrain that is flat and unobstructed
facing large bodies of water over 1 miles or more in width relative to any quadrant of
the building site. Exposure D extends the inland from the shore line 1/4 mile or 10
times the building height, whichever is greater [5].

2.10.2. 2. Effects of Wind on Building

The magnitude and distribution of wind velocity are the key elements in
determining wind design forces. Mountainous or highly developed urban areas
provide a rough surface, which slows wind velocity near the surface of the earth and
causes wind velocity to increase rapidly with height above the earth's surface. Large,
level open areas and bodies of water provide little resistance to the surface wind
speed, and wind velocity increases more slowly with height. Wind velocity increases
wind height in all cases but does not increase appreciably above the critical heights of
above 950 ft for open terrain to 1500 ft for rough terrain. Wind can be assumed as to
come from any horizontal direction [6].

2.10.2.3. Earthquake load

An earthquake consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions, with the

vertical motion usually having much the smaller magnitude. Since the horizontal
motion of the ground causes the most significant effect it is that effect which is
usually thought of as earthquake load. When the ground under an object (structure)
having mass suddenly moves, the inertia of the mass tends to resist the moment.
Earthquake resistant design concentrates particularly on the translational inertia
forces, whose affects on a building are more significant than the vertical or rotational
shaking components [1].

2.10.2.4. Effects of Earthquake on Building

 36

An ideal condition of earthquake resistance design is to construct all structures

strong enough to resist any earthquake. However, effective earthquake is not a very
frequent occurrence. It may very well happen that many structures erected and
seismic hazard regions will never be exposed to severe seismic effects during their
service lives. Although it may be possible to design a building to resist most severe
earthquake without significant damage, the unlikely need for such strength in lifetime
of the building would not justify the high additional cost. Consequently, the general
philosophy of earthquake resistance design for buildings is based in the principles that
they should:
(a) resist minor earthquake without damage
(b) resist moderate earthquake without structural damage but accepting the
probability of non-structural damage
(c) resist moderate earthquake without structural damage but accepting the
probability of non-structural damage.
In buildings, earthquake damage can be divided into two categories: structural
damage and non-structural damage, both of which can be hazardous to building
occupants. Structural damage means degradation of the building's structural support
systems such as the building frames and walls. Non-structural damage refers to any
damage that does not affect the integrity of the structural support system [6].

2.11. Seismic Design Criteria Selection

The base shear, V, is the total design seismic force imposed by an earthquake
on the structure at its base. The base shear is the sum of all the inertial storey shears.
The UBC-97 calculates the base shear from the total structure weight and then apportions
the base shear to the stories in accordance with dynamic theory.
The design seismic forces can be determined based on UBC-97 static lateral
force procedure or the dynamic lateral force procedure. The seismic design process
involves consideration of a number of structural and site characteristics, including
seismic importance factor, occupancy, seismic zoning, building fundamental period,
site geology and soil characteristics and soil profile types, seismic source types, near
source factors, seismic ground response coefficients, response modification factor,
configuration structural system, and height.
 37

The seismic design process involves consideration of a number of structural

and site characteristics. The followings involve the seismic design [5].
(a) Seismic zone factor, Z
(b) Soil zone factor, Z
(c) Seismic important factor, I
(d) Occupancy categories
(e) Near- source factors, Na and Nv
(f) Seismic source type
(g) Seismic response coefficients, Ca and Cv
(h) Response modification factor, R

2.11.1. Seismic Zone Factor, Z

The seismic zone represents the maximum ground motion acceleration values
on rocks associated with an earthquake. The seismic zone factor, Z, accounts for the
amount of seismic risk present in a building's seismic zone. The values of seismic
zone factors for each of the seismic zones are shown in Table A.5 [5].

2.11.2. Soil Profile Types, S

The ground vibration caused by an earthquake tends to be greater on soft soil

than on hard soil or rock. As the vibration propagates through the material underlying
the structure, it may be either amplified or attenuated depending on the fundamental
period of the material. Table A.7 ranging from hard rock to soft soil. The
classification may be made by determining on site the average shear wave velocity in
the top 100 feet of material [5].

2.11.3. Seismic Importance Factor, I

The seismic importance factor is either 1.0 or 1.25, depending on how critical
it is for the structure to survive a major earthquake with minimal damage. Table A.6
specifies an importance factor [5].

2.11.4. Occupancy Categories

The occupancy categories are listed in Table A.2. This table consists of five
occupancy categories with their functions defined [5].
 38

2.11.5. Near-source Factors, Na and Nv

The UBC-97 has adopted two near-source factors, N a and Nv, to minimize this
impact in seismic zone 4. These amplification factors are acceleration and velocity
controlled factors. Table A.11 lists the values of the near-source factors related to
both the seismic source type and the proximity of the building or structure located in
defined faults [5].
2.11.6. Seismic Source Type
In addition to the seismic zone, site soil profile classification, and the
importance factor for establishing site seismic hazard characteristics for each site, the
required proximity of each site to active seismic sources (i.e, faults) to be known.
Three seismic source types are identified in UBC-97 Table A.10 ranging from the
most active source (type A) to the least active source (type C). Faults are classified by
the maximum moment magnitude potential (M) and slip rate (SR) [5].

2.11.7. Seismic Response Coefficients, Ca and Cv

In the design of a structure, the UBC-97 required that each structure be
assigned seismic response coefficients Ca and Cv. These seismic response coefficients
account for the increased severity of the ground motion at a specific site and are
influenced by the seismic zone, proximity of the site to actives seismic sources and
site soil profile characteristics. Ca functions as acceleration-controlled coefficient for
the short-period portion of the spectrum, and C v serves as a velocity-controlled
coefficient for the long-period portion of the spectrum. Table A.8 shows the values of
these seismic response coefficients [5].
 39

(acceleration)
(velocity)
short period
long period controlled

Spectral acceleration g’s

controlled
2.5Ca

Cv/T

To = 0.2 Ts Ts = Cv/2.5Ca Period T (second)

Figure 2.14. Response Spectrum [5]

2.11.8. Response Modification Factor, R
Response modification factor, R, represents the inherent over strength and
global ductility capacity of structural components. Ductility can be defined as a
measure of the ability of a structural system to deform in the plastic range prior to
failure. The value of the response modification factor (R) always exceeds 1.0 for all
structures. The structure response modification factor is determined from the type of
structural system used in design of structures, as defined for buildings in Table A.9.

2.12. Regular and Irregular Structures

According to UBC -1997, regular structures are described as structure having
no significant physical discontinuities in plan or vertical configuration or in their
lateral-force-resisting system. Regular structures have a uniform and continuous
distribution of strength, stiffness mass and ductility with no significant torsional
forces or large changes in plan area from floor to floor or large height to width ratio.
They have shorter spans than irregular structures.
According to UBC-1997, irregular structures are described as structures
having significant physical discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral-force
resisting systems. Irregular structures have two types. They are vertical structural
irregularities and plan structural irregularities.
Five types of vertical structural irregularities are as follows:
(a) Stiffness irregularity-soft story
(b) Weight (mass) irregularity
 40

(c) Vertical geometric irregularity

(d) In plane discontinuity in vertical lateral-force-resisting element
(e) Discontinuity in capacity-weak story
Five types of plan structural irregularities are as follows:
(a) Torsional irregularity to be considered when diaphragm are not flexible
(b) Re- entrant corners
(c) Diaphragm discontinuity
(d) Out- of-plane offsets
(e) Nonparallel systems [5]

2.13. Structural Stability Consideration

For the structural stability, the following cases are needed to be checked.
(a) P-∆ effect
(b) Overturning effect
(c) Resistance to sliding
(d) Story drift
(f) Torsional irregularity
2.13.1. P-∆ Effect
When horizontal loading acts on a building and causes it to drift, the resulting
eccentricity of the gravity loading from the axes of the walls and column produces
additional external moments to which the structure responds by drift further. The
additional drift induces additional internal moments sufficient to equilibrate the
gravity load moments. This effect of the gravity loading P acting on the horizontal
displacement Δ is known as the P-Delta effect. P-Δ effect is shown in Fig. 2.15.
P-Δ effect shall be considered in the evaluation of overall structural frame
stability. In accordance with UBC-1997, P-Δ needs not to be considered when:
(a) The ratio of secondary moment (M S) to primary moment (MP) does not
exceed 0.1.
(b) In seismic zone 3 and 4, the ratio of storey drift to storey height does not
exceed 0.02/R.
(c) P-Δ effect must be considered wherever the ratio of secondary moments
to primary moments exceeds 10%.
The ratio of the secondary to primary moment is given by
 41

θ = Ms / Mp (2.25)

Px Level x + 1

Vx Level x

hSX

Level x –1

Figure 2.15. P- Δ Effects [5]

where,

Mp = primary moment = Px ΔSx

Ms = secondary moment = Vx hx
Px = total vertical load on all columns in storey x
ΔSx = storey drift due to design base shear
Vx = design shear in storey x
hx = height of storey

2.13.2. Overturning Moment

The distribution of earthquake forces over the height of a structure causes the
structure to experience overturning effects. According to UBC-1997, every structure
is designed to resist the overturning effects caused by seismic forces. The intent is to
transfer the overturning effects on all resisting elements to the foundation. The
summation of moment due to the distributed lateral forces is the overturning moment.
Overturning moment is shown in Fig. 2.16. Overturning moments should be
calculated for each building level. The first overturning moment is the sum of all
moments taken about the ground level. This moment should be used to size footings
and to design the primary outer columns. The overturning moment for each
subsequent floor considers only lateral-forces above that floor. This moment is used
to design the shear walls and other supporting structures at that floor [5].
 42

Fx Ft

hn

OTM

V
OTM at base =∑Fxhx+Fthn
Figure 2.16. Overturning Moment [5]

2.13.3. Resistance to Sliding

The resistance to sliding is checked by the following equation:
where,
FR =  × 0.9 × WD (2.26)
WD = Total dead weight
FR = Resistance due to friction
 = Friction coefficient
However, the ratio of resistance force to driving force must be greater than
1.5. In this building, the friction coefficient,  is taken as 0.25 for soil type SD.
2.13.4. Storey Drift

Storey drift is the lateral displacement of one level of a multistory structure

relative to the level above or below. In the UBC-97, drift requirement are based on the
strength design method to conform with newly developed seismic base shear forces.
Therefore, complete inelastic response drift rather than force level drifts are used.
Story drift should be determined using the maximum inelastic response displacement
M, which is defined as the maximum total drift or total storey drift caused by the
design-level earthquake. This should be computed from the following formula:
M = 0.7 R s (2.27)
Where,
Δs = design level, or strength level response displacement
R = ductility factor or response modification factor
Δs is a design level elastic response displacement found from the elastic static
analysis or the elastic dynamic analysis of UBC-97. The resulting deformation (Δs)
should be determined at all critical locations in the structure under consideration. In
 F4 Level 4
4
F3 43
3
Level 3

calculation F2
of Δs, translational Level
and 2torsional deflections should be included. For


building period greater than 0.7 seconds, limit = 0.02 times storey height and for
2
building period less than 0.7 second, limit = 0.025 times storey height. Storey drift
F1 Level 1

limitations are shown in Table A.12. 

Storey drift is1shown in Fig. 2.17.
Base

δ level=δ 3 −δ 1

Figure 2.17. Story Drift [5]

2.13.5. Torsional irregularity

A building’s center of mass, CM is a point through which the base shear (i.e.,
the total lateral seismic force) can be assumed to act. This base shear is resisted by the
vertical members at the ground level. Each such member may have a different rigidity
and thus provides a different lateral resisting force in the opposite direction of the
base shear. The building’s center of rigidity, CR, is a point through which the
resultant of all the resisting forces acts.
If the building’s center of mass does not coincide with its center of rigidity,
the building will tend to act as if it is “pinned” at its center of rigidity. It is said to be
acted upon by a torsional moment, M torisonal, calculated as the product of the shear, V,
and the eccentricity, e. This eccentricity is the distance between the centers of mass
and rigidity. The UBC-97 requires that an accidental eccentricity (ea) of ± 5% be add
to the actual eccentricity, in the design of all buildings, even those that are
symmetrical [5].

2.14. Overview of ETABS Software

ETABS means Extended Three-dimensional Analysis of Building Systems.

ETABS is a stand-alone finite-element-based structural analysis program with special
 44

purpose features for structural design and analysis of building systems. It is an

extremely versatile and powerful program with many features and function.
For steel design in ETABS, the user needs no preliminary structural sections.
There is an automated process for the members selection and drift optimization. The
following general steps are required to analyze and design a structure using ETABS:
(a) Create or modify a model that numerically defines the geometry,
properties, loading, and analysis parameters for the structure
(b) Perform an analysis of the model
(c) Review the results of the analysis
(d) Check and optimize the design of the structure
ETABS software can analyze Static, Dynamic, Static Nonlinear/pushover
Cases, P-Δ case, and add sequential construction case, Response Spectrum Case and
Time History Case. ETABS will give the designer a way to catch the mistakes early
and save the time in the final design.